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<p>Mo Ling: /* Ding Daifeng 丁代凤 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> '''Zhu Ziqing'''<br /> <br /> A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay &quot;''Back View''&quot; (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription &quot;''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''&quot;, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence. <br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''&quot;Report On the Massacre of the Government''&quot;[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br /> <br /> ''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> ''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br /> <br /> ''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his &quot;''Ways to die''&quot;[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds &quot;to be shot&quot; the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br /> <br /> The essay &quot;''Facing the New China''&quot;[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> ''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br /> <br /> A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''&quot;Today's duty of the Intellectuals''&quot;[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br /> <br /> Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay. <br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br /> <br /> Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).]. <br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br /> <br /> The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> 1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br /> <br /> 2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br /> <br /> 3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br /> <br /> 1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br /> <br /> 如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br /> <br /> 1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文: <br /> <br /> 1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> 2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> 3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br /> <br /> Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be &quot;art pourt l'art&quot;.<br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (&quot;''On dreams''&quot;[ &quot;Shuo meng 說夢&quot; On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (&quot;''My own garden''&quot;[ 9.1923.], &quot;''The Fly''&quot;[ 1924.], &quot;''Reading on the Toilet''&quot;[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: &quot;readers&quot;). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in &quot;''Wild vegetables of my home region''&quot; by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's &quot;Moon traces&quot;, which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's &quot;''Paradise for Birds''&quot;, which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. <br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br /> <br /> '''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br /> <br /> Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, &quot;The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China&quot;, in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: &quot;Yi feng huixin 一封回信&quot; (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: &quot;Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文&quot; (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: &quot;Duli sikao 獨立思考&quot; (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1962, &quot;Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心&quot; (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: &quot;Wenxue tan 文學談&quot; (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, &quot;Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship),&quot; in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求&quot; (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br /> <br /> Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> '''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br /> <br /> 《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br /> <br /> ''吴漠汀''<br /> <br /> 在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br /> <br /> 吴漠汀<br /> <br /> 本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> '''1. The unknown genre'''<br /> <br /> The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br /> <br /> '''1.未知体裁'''<br /> <br /> 二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''1.未知体裁'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> '''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br /> <br /> Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term &quot;wu yunwen&quot; which corresponds to the term &quot;epic&quot; in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> &quot;Essay&quot;, Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it &quot;Chinese&quot;? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br /> <br /> 除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the &quot;unfinished diary&quot; or the &quot;unfinished letter&quot;. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: &quot;essay in diary form&quot; and &quot;essay in letter form&quot;), they are accepted as essays. <br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> '''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br /> <br /> This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' &quot;non-rhythmic prose&quot;, which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning &quot;short literary essay pieces&quot;. <br /> <br /> Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> '''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br /> <br /> Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br /> <br /> Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> '''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br /> <br /> Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br /> <br /> - The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection &quot;Modern Chinese Literary Thought&quot; 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br /> <br /> - The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed. <br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> - The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br /> <br /> - The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> - The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br /> <br /> “随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> '''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br /> The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br /> Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br /> <br /> Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> '''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br /> <br /> I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br /> <br /> We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br /> <br /> '''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br /> <br /> How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes. <br /> <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br /> <br /> From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> 詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br /> <br /> In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge. <br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br /> <br /> In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br /> <br /> During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br /> <br /> Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences. <br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br /> <br /> Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the &quot;Eight legged essay&quot; as as appealing and intoxicating as the &quot;pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br /> <br /> 目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br /> 现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 &quot;八股文 &quot;的语言节奏看作是 &quot;做鸦片的快感 &quot;一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br /> <br /> 前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br /> <br /> Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br /> <br /> <br /> 但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br /> <br /> 新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br /> <br /> '''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br /> <br /> To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911). <br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br /> <br /> This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br /> <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br /> <br /> 然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> for example, Lu Xun with his theory &quot;'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論&quot;&quot; (Theory of &quot;Starting&quot; and &quot;Blossoming&quot;) came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his &quot;Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論&quot; (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay). <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as &quot;paralyzing&quot; (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the &quot;Fly&quot;, he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins &quot;Thoughts&quot; (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br /> <br /> The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming &quot;needs&quot; of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is &quot;a genre of self-reflection&quot;. Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br /> <br /> I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br /> <br /> 除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be &quot;art pourt l'art&quot;.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (&quot;Shuo meng 說夢&quot; On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, &quot;The Fly&quot; 1924, &quot;Reading on the Toilet&quot; 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br /> <br /> Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br /> <br /> 考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br /> <br /> 一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> '''Zhou Zuoren'''<br /> <br /> I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius &quot;degenerated&quot; and later became a &quot;traitor&quot;. Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> ''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br /> <br /> ''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' &quot;The wolves are coming&quot; ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br /> <br /> In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> With these words from the essay &quot;''The aesthetic essay''&quot; this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the &quot;king of essays&quot;. <br /> <br /> In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to &quot;treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives&quot; and to &quot;make children the essence of children's literature&quot; (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br /> <br /> “美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br /> <br /> 为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea &quot;l'art pour l'art&quot; , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br /> <br /> &quot;I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless &quot;monsters&quot; and &quot;goblins&quot; are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown.&quot; <br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> Confronting tradition and progress in the essay &quot;''Ancestor Worship''&quot;, he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br /> <br /> Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br /> <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die &quot;Kunst um der Kunst willen&quot; propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept &quot;Kunst um der Kunst willen&quot; zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br /> <br /> Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: &quot;''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''&quot; 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had &quot;duoluo 墮落&quot; (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br /> <br /> On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br /> <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on &quot;''The Fly''&quot;, where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he &quot;saw only the fly and not the cosmos&quot; , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br /> <br /> His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br /> <br /> Siehe Zhou Zuoren: &quot;Cangying 蒼蠅&quot; (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br /> <br /> ''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay &quot;''Cangying'' 蒼蠅&quot; (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br /> <br /> '''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br /> <br /> ''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br /> <br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: &quot;''Anxiang'' 安详&quot; (Serene) 1992, &quot;''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事&quot; (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br /> <br /> Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (&quot;''Shanxi opera''&quot;, Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (&quot;''The nightmare''&quot;, Si Yu 1995).<br /> <br /> From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> - The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br /> <br /> - The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br /> <br /> - A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> - The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br /> <br /> - 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。&quot;[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代&quot;(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br /> <br /> - 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br /> <br /> - 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br /> <br /> - 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> -当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br /> <br /> -对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br /> <br /> -通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br /> <br /> -日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> - The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br /> <br /> - Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: &quot;readers&quot;). <br /> <br /> - The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay &quot;''The Back View''&quot;, filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous &quot;''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''&quot;, both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in &quot;''Wild vegetables of my home region''&quot; by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br /> <br /> - ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> ''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br /> <br /> - ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> ''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br /> <br /> - Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being &quot;''The Small Dog Baodi''&quot;, written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (&quot;''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''&quot;, Ba Jin 1984).<br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's &quot;''Rain in Kunming''&quot; as well as for Jia Pingwa's &quot;''Shanxi opera''&quot;. <br /> 类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br /> <br /> - The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br /> 施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br /> <br /> Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay &quot;The nightmare&quot;, where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong &quot;woman soldier&quot; .（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> '''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br /> <br /> Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br /> <br /> - People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> - If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br /> <br /> - Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> - The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br /> <br /> '''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br /> <br /> 吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br /> <br /> Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br /> <br /> 摘要<br /> <br /> 在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br /> <br /> 在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> ''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br /> <br /> 红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br /> <br /> 多元一体<br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> <br /> Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br /> <br /> “红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改&lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;）<br /> <br /> 多元一体<br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> <br /> Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br /> --[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> '''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br /> <br /> To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br /> <br /> However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> '''2. Compatibility<br /> '''<br /> Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br /> <br /> First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel. <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br /> <br /> '''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br /> <br /> There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br /> <br /> '''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br /> <br /> According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br /> <br /> The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music). <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br /> <br /> '''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br /> <br /> Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.<br /> <br /> 然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。 尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作 在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 &quot;时间精神&quot;(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802). <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br /> <br /> '''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br /> <br /> Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br /> <br /> 与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br /> “6.色情与真爱，女性对手&quot;<br /> 性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br /> “6。色情与真爱，女性对手&quot;<br /> 性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br /> <br /> According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br /> <br /> The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br /> <br /> In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br /> <br /> Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br /> <br /> While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> '''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br /> <br /> A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br /> <br /> 封建社会和奴隶<br /> 一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> 一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br /> <br /> 另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> 而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br /> <br /> 2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> 2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> '''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br /> <br /> Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as &quot;tragedy of all tragedies&quot;. To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> '''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br /> <br /> One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br /> According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically. <br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> '''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br /> <br /> Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br /> <br /> '''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br /> <br /> Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br /> <br /> Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br /> <br /> Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> '''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br /> '''<br /> <br /> A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br /> <br /> Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.<br /> <br /> 本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br /> <br /> 算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br /> <br /> <br /> 虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br /> <br /> 研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 &quot;Schufa&quot;，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br /> <br /> <br /> 但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br /> <br /> 引言<br /> <br /> 本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br /> --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br /> <br /> 引言<br /> <br /> 在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 &quot;牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上&quot;，到 &quot;老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧&quot;。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br /> 实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> “Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br /> <br /> The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br /> <br /> “让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br /> <br /> 当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。&quot;；甚至&quot;利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。&quot;<br /> 目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> “让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br /> <br /> 当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit. <br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> '''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br /> <br /> Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br /> <br /> This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br /> <br /> 虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br /> <br /> The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br /> <br /> 但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br /> <br /> 交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，我们因此成为算法分析的对象。<br /> <br /> 传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br /> <br /> '''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br /> <br /> 1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br /> <br /> 2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br /> <br /> 3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br /> <br /> 4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br /> <br /> 5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br /> <br /> 6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br /> 7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br /> <br /> 8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br /> <br /> 9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel  Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> '''3 Types of analysis'''<br /> <br /> 1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br /> <br /> 2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br /> <br /> 3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br /> <br /> 4.Mobility profile/pattern<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> 5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> 7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br /> <br /> 8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the &quot;clickworker&quot; company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br /> <br /> 9.Secrets (like adultery)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> '''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br /> <br /> 1.the human switches from active to passive<br /> <br /> 2.the human switches from subject to object<br /> <br /> 3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br /> <br /> 4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br /> <br /> 5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br /> <br /> 4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 &quot;媒介5.0时代&quot;和 &quot;虚拟通信 &quot;这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br /> <br /> 1.人从主动到被动的转换<br /> <br /> 2.人从主体到客体的转换<br /> <br /> 3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br /> <br /> 4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br /> <br /> 5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> 6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br /> <br /> 7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br /> <br /> 8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br /> <br /> 9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br /> <br /> '''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br /> <br /> 2.Filter bubbles =&gt; supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> 3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br /> <br /> 4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br /> <br /> 5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br /> <br /> 6.Identity theft <br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> '''6 Consequences'''<br /> <br /> 1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br /> <br /> 6.后果<br /> <br /> 1.虚拟通讯大多是 &quot;隐蔽 &quot;的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 &quot;危险 &quot;而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 6.后果<br /> <br /> 1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''6.后果<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> 2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br /> <br /> 3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br /> <br /> 4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br /> <br /> 5.Polarization of Society<br /> <br /> 6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br /> <br /> 7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> 8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br /> <br /> 9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br /> '''<br /> 7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br /> <br /> 1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br /> <br /> 2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted =&gt; simulation<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> '''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br /> <br /> Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br /> Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br /> <br /> '''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br /> '''<br /> '''<br /> The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br /> '''<br /> 我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br /> <br /> '''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br /> <br /> 所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> '''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br /> '''<br /> <br /> AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more? <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> '''9 Outlook'''<br /> <br /> We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br /> <br /> '''References<br /> '''<br /> （参考文献不用翻译）<br /> <br /> AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br /> <br /> Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br /> <br /> Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br /> <br /> Booth, T. &quot;Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics.&quot; ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br /> <br /> Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br /> <br /> Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br /> <br /> Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br /> <br /> Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br /> <br /> https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br /> <br /> Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). &quot;Predicting personality with social media.&quot; ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br /> <br /> Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). &quot;Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students.&quot; Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br /> <br /> Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br /> <br /> Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br /> <br /> https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br /> <br /> Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., &amp; Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br /> <br /> Ruan, Lotus, et al. &quot;One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally.&quot; (2016).<br /> Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). &quot;Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study.&quot; ''Social Science &amp; Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br /> <br /> Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br /> <br /> Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). &quot;The social media disorder scale.&quot; ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br /> <br /> Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. &quot;ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity.&quot; ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br /> <br /> Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> '''Bio'''<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br /> Woesler has co-edited the books &quot;China's Digital Dream&quot;, &quot;Ethics of Information Society&quot; and Springer has scheduled to publish the book &quot;Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation&quot; including his book chapter &quot;Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids&quot; in February 2021.<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College &quot;Media Cultures of Computer Simulations&quot; 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201228_trans&diff=119185 2020-12-26T12:34:12Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Mo Ling 莫玲 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> '''Zhu Ziqing'''<br /> <br /> A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay &quot;''Back View''&quot; (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription &quot;''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''&quot;, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence. <br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''&quot;Report On the Massacre of the Government''&quot;[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br /> <br /> ''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> ''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br /> <br /> ''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his &quot;''Ways to die''&quot;[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds &quot;to be shot&quot; the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br /> <br /> The essay &quot;''Facing the New China''&quot;[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> ''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br /> <br /> A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''&quot;Today's duty of the Intellectuals''&quot;[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br /> <br /> Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay. <br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br /> <br /> Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).]. <br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br /> <br /> The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> 1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br /> <br /> 2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br /> <br /> 3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br /> <br /> 1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br /> <br /> 如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br /> <br /> 1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> 2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> 3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br /> <br /> Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be &quot;art pourt l'art&quot;.<br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (&quot;''On dreams''&quot;[ &quot;Shuo meng 說夢&quot; On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (&quot;''My own garden''&quot;[ 9.1923.], &quot;''The Fly''&quot;[ 1924.], &quot;''Reading on the Toilet''&quot;[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: &quot;readers&quot;). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in &quot;''Wild vegetables of my home region''&quot; by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's &quot;Moon traces&quot;, which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's &quot;''Paradise for Birds''&quot;, which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. <br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br /> <br /> '''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br /> <br /> Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, &quot;The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China&quot;, in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: &quot;Yi feng huixin 一封回信&quot; (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: &quot;Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文&quot; (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: &quot;Duli sikao 獨立思考&quot; (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1962, &quot;Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心&quot; (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: &quot;Wenxue tan 文學談&quot; (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, &quot;Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship),&quot; in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求&quot; (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br /> <br /> Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> '''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br /> <br /> 《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br /> <br /> ''吴漠汀''<br /> <br /> 在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br /> <br /> 吴漠汀<br /> <br /> 本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> '''1. The unknown genre'''<br /> <br /> The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br /> <br /> '''1.未知体裁'''<br /> <br /> 二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''1.未知体裁'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> '''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br /> <br /> Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term &quot;wu yunwen&quot; which corresponds to the term &quot;epic&quot; in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> &quot;Essay&quot;, Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it &quot;Chinese&quot;? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br /> <br /> 除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the &quot;unfinished diary&quot; or the &quot;unfinished letter&quot;. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: &quot;essay in diary form&quot; and &quot;essay in letter form&quot;), they are accepted as essays. <br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> '''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br /> <br /> This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' &quot;non-rhythmic prose&quot;, which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning &quot;short literary essay pieces&quot;. <br /> <br /> Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> '''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br /> <br /> Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br /> <br /> Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> '''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br /> <br /> Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br /> <br /> - The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection &quot;Modern Chinese Literary Thought&quot; 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br /> <br /> - The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed. <br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> - The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br /> <br /> - The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> - The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br /> <br /> “随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> '''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br /> The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br /> Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br /> <br /> Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> '''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br /> <br /> I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br /> <br /> We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br /> <br /> '''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br /> <br /> How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes. <br /> <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br /> <br /> From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> 詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br /> <br /> In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge. <br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br /> <br /> In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br /> <br /> During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br /> <br /> Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences. <br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br /> <br /> Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the &quot;Eight legged essay&quot; as as appealing and intoxicating as the &quot;pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br /> <br /> 目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br /> 现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 &quot;八股文 &quot;的语言节奏看作是 &quot;做鸦片的快感 &quot;一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br /> <br /> 前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br /> <br /> Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br /> <br /> <br /> 但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br /> <br /> 新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br /> <br /> '''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br /> <br /> To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911). <br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br /> <br /> This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br /> <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br /> <br /> 然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> for example, Lu Xun with his theory &quot;'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論&quot;&quot; (Theory of &quot;Starting&quot; and &quot;Blossoming&quot;) came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his &quot;Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論&quot; (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay). <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as &quot;paralyzing&quot; (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the &quot;Fly&quot;, he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins &quot;Thoughts&quot; (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br /> <br /> The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming &quot;needs&quot; of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is &quot;a genre of self-reflection&quot;. Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br /> <br /> I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br /> <br /> 除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be &quot;art pourt l'art&quot;.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (&quot;Shuo meng 說夢&quot; On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, &quot;The Fly&quot; 1924, &quot;Reading on the Toilet&quot; 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br /> <br /> Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br /> <br /> 考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br /> <br /> 一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> '''Zhou Zuoren'''<br /> <br /> I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius &quot;degenerated&quot; and later became a &quot;traitor&quot;. Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> ''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br /> <br /> ''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' &quot;The wolves are coming&quot; ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br /> <br /> In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> With these words from the essay &quot;''The aesthetic essay''&quot; this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the &quot;king of essays&quot;. <br /> <br /> In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to &quot;treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives&quot; and to &quot;make children the essence of children's literature&quot; (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br /> <br /> “美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br /> <br /> 为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea &quot;l'art pour l'art&quot; , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br /> <br /> &quot;I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless &quot;monsters&quot; and &quot;goblins&quot; are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown.&quot; <br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> Confronting tradition and progress in the essay &quot;''Ancestor Worship''&quot;, he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br /> <br /> Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br /> <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die &quot;Kunst um der Kunst willen&quot; propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept &quot;Kunst um der Kunst willen&quot; zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br /> <br /> Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: &quot;''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''&quot; 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had &quot;duoluo 墮落&quot; (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br /> <br /> On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br /> <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on &quot;''The Fly''&quot;, where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he &quot;saw only the fly and not the cosmos&quot; , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br /> <br /> His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br /> <br /> Siehe Zhou Zuoren: &quot;Cangying 蒼蠅&quot; (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br /> <br /> ''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay &quot;''Cangying'' 蒼蠅&quot; (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br /> <br /> '''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br /> <br /> ''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br /> <br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: &quot;''Anxiang'' 安详&quot; (Serene) 1992, &quot;''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事&quot; (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br /> <br /> Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (&quot;''Shanxi opera''&quot;, Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (&quot;''The nightmare''&quot;, Si Yu 1995).<br /> <br /> From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> - The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br /> <br /> - The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br /> <br /> - A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> - The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br /> <br /> - 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。&quot;[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代&quot;(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br /> <br /> - 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br /> <br /> - 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br /> <br /> - 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> -当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br /> <br /> -对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br /> <br /> -通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br /> <br /> -日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> - The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br /> <br /> - Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: &quot;readers&quot;). <br /> <br /> - The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay &quot;''The Back View''&quot;, filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous &quot;''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''&quot;, both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in &quot;''Wild vegetables of my home region''&quot; by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br /> <br /> - ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> ''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br /> <br /> - ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> ''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br /> <br /> - Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being &quot;''The Small Dog Baodi''&quot;, written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (&quot;''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''&quot;, Ba Jin 1984).<br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's &quot;''Rain in Kunming''&quot; as well as for Jia Pingwa's &quot;''Shanxi opera''&quot;. <br /> 类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br /> <br /> - The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br /> 施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br /> <br /> Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay &quot;The nightmare&quot;, where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong &quot;woman soldier&quot; .（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> '''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br /> <br /> Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br /> <br /> - People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> - If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br /> <br /> - Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> - The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br /> <br /> '''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br /> <br /> 吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br /> <br /> Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br /> <br /> 摘要<br /> <br /> 在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br /> <br /> 在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> ''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br /> <br /> 红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br /> <br /> 多元一体<br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> <br /> Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br /> <br /> “红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改&lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;）<br /> <br /> 多元一体<br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> <br /> Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br /> --[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> '''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br /> <br /> To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br /> <br /> However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> '''2. Compatibility<br /> '''<br /> Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br /> <br /> First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel. <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br /> <br /> '''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br /> <br /> There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br /> <br /> '''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br /> <br /> According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br /> <br /> The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music). <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br /> <br /> '''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br /> <br /> Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged. <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 &quot;时间精神&quot;(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802). <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br /> <br /> '''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br /> <br /> Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br /> <br /> 与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br /> “6.色情与真爱，女性对手&quot;<br /> 性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br /> “6。色情与真爱，女性对手&quot;<br /> 性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br /> <br /> According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br /> <br /> The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br /> <br /> In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br /> <br /> Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br /> <br /> While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> '''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br /> <br /> A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br /> <br /> 封建社会和奴隶<br /> 一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> 一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br /> <br /> 另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> 而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br /> <br /> 2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> 2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> '''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br /> <br /> Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as &quot;tragedy of all tragedies&quot;. To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> '''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br /> <br /> One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br /> According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically. <br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> '''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br /> <br /> Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br /> <br /> '''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br /> <br /> Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br /> <br /> Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br /> <br /> Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> '''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br /> '''<br /> <br /> A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br /> <br /> Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations. <br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br /> <br /> <br /> 虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br /> <br /> 研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 &quot;Schufa&quot;，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br /> <br /> <br /> 但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br /> <br /> 引言<br /> <br /> 本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br /> --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br /> <br /> 引言<br /> <br /> 在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 &quot;牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上&quot;，到 &quot;老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧&quot;。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br /> 实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> “Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br /> <br /> The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br /> <br /> “让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br /> <br /> 当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。&quot;；甚至&quot;利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。&quot;<br /> 目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> “让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br /> <br /> 当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit. <br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> '''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br /> <br /> Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br /> <br /> This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br /> <br /> 虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br /> <br /> The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br /> <br /> 但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br /> <br /> 交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，我们因此成为算法分析的对象。<br /> <br /> 传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br /> <br /> '''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br /> <br /> 1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br /> <br /> 2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br /> <br /> 3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br /> <br /> 4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br /> <br /> 5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br /> <br /> 6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br /> 7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br /> <br /> 8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br /> <br /> 9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel  Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> '''3 Types of analysis'''<br /> <br /> 1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br /> <br /> 2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br /> <br /> 3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br /> <br /> 4.Mobility profile/pattern<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> 5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> 7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br /> <br /> 8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the &quot;clickworker&quot; company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br /> <br /> 9.Secrets (like adultery)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> '''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br /> <br /> 1.the human switches from active to passive<br /> <br /> 2.the human switches from subject to object<br /> <br /> 3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br /> <br /> 4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br /> <br /> 5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br /> <br /> 4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 &quot;媒介5.0时代&quot;和 &quot;虚拟通信 &quot;这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br /> <br /> 1.人从主动到被动的转换<br /> <br /> 2.人从主体到客体的转换<br /> <br /> 3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br /> <br /> 4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br /> <br /> 5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> 6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br /> <br /> 7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br /> <br /> 8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br /> <br /> 9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br /> <br /> '''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br /> <br /> 2.Filter bubbles =&gt; supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> 3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br /> <br /> 4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br /> <br /> 5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br /> <br /> 6.Identity theft <br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> '''6 Consequences'''<br /> <br /> 1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br /> <br /> 6.后果<br /> <br /> 1.虚拟通讯大多是 &quot;隐蔽 &quot;的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 &quot;危险 &quot;而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 6.后果<br /> <br /> 1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''6.后果<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> 2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br /> <br /> 3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br /> <br /> 4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br /> <br /> 5.Polarization of Society<br /> <br /> 6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br /> <br /> 7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> 8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br /> <br /> 9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br /> '''<br /> 7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br /> <br /> 1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br /> <br /> 2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted =&gt; simulation<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> '''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br /> <br /> Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br /> Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br /> <br /> '''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br /> '''<br /> '''<br /> The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br /> '''<br /> 我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br /> <br /> '''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br /> <br /> 所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> '''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br /> '''<br /> <br /> AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more? <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> '''9 Outlook'''<br /> <br /> We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br /> <br /> '''References<br /> '''<br /> （参考文献不用翻译）<br /> <br /> AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br /> <br /> Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br /> <br /> Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br /> <br /> Booth, T. &quot;Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics.&quot; ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br /> <br /> Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br /> <br /> Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br /> <br /> Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br /> <br /> Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br /> <br /> https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br /> <br /> Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). &quot;Predicting personality with social media.&quot; ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br /> <br /> Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). &quot;Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students.&quot; Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br /> <br /> Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br /> <br /> Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br /> <br /> https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br /> <br /> Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., &amp; Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br /> <br /> Ruan, Lotus, et al. &quot;One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally.&quot; (2016).<br /> Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). &quot;Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study.&quot; ''Social Science &amp; Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br /> <br /> Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br /> <br /> Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). &quot;The social media disorder scale.&quot; ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br /> <br /> Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. &quot;ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity.&quot; ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br /> <br /> Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> '''Bio'''<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br /> Woesler has co-edited the books &quot;China's Digital Dream&quot;, &quot;Ethics of Information Society&quot; and Springer has scheduled to publish the book &quot;Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation&quot; including his book chapter &quot;Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids&quot; in February 2021.<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College &quot;Media Cultures of Computer Simulations&quot; 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201228_cult&diff=119183 2020-12-26T12:20:56Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Hu Jin 胡瑾 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Alsied, Saffana==<br /> <br /> ==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> <br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> <br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> <br /> ==Dashkin, Gennadii==<br /> <br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> <br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> <br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> <br /> ==Grosheva, Anna==<br /> <br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> <br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> <br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> <br /> ==Guirou, Barthelemy==<br /> <br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> <br /> ==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==<br /> <br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> <br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> 1. 《道德经》简称老子，是中国的经典文本。根据传统，它是由公元前6世纪的圣人老子所写，老子是周朝的一位记录者，在中国广为人知。尽管最早出土的文字可以追溯到公元前4世纪晚期，但文字的真正作者和撰写或编纂日期仍有争议。<br /> <br /> 1. The Tao Te Ching simply referred to as the Laozi，is a Chinese classic text. According to tradition, it was written around 6th century BC by the sage Laozi, a record-keeper at the Zhou dynasty court, by whose name the text is known in China. The text's true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated, although the oldest excavated text dates back to the late 4th century BC.<br /> <br /> 2. 《论语》是儒家学派的经典著作之一，由孔子的弟子及其再传弟子编撰而成。它以语录体和对话文体为主，记录了孔子及其弟子言行，集中体现了孔子的政治主张、论理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。<br /> <br /> 2. The Analects is one of the classical works of Confucianism, compiled by the disciples of Confucius and his disciples. It is mainly in the style of discourses and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on Confucius' political ideas, theoretical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles.<br /> <br /> 3. 《慧能经》附有慧能对《金刚经》的逐条注释——这是它有史以来第一次出版的英文译本。他的谈话集也被称为《六祖坛经》，是唯一的禅宗记录，一般被尊称为经，或经文。<br /> <br /> 3. The Sutra of Hui-neng is here accompanied by Hui-neng's verse-by-verse commentary on the Diamond Sutra—in its very first published English translation ever.This collection of his talks, also known as the Platform or Altar Sutra, is the only Zen record of its kind to be generally honored with the appellation sutra, or scripture.<br /> <br /> 4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。<br /> <br /> 4. “The Art of Living” was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful work in English. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 07:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。<br /> <br /> ''The Art of Living'' was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful English work after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks at the following year. Besides, it was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:20, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> <br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> <br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> <br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> 1.1417年，永乐皇帝下令郑和将使节送回国内。郑和和他的舰队再次回到海上启航，进行他的第五次远征（1417-1419）。他在许多相同的地方停留，包括爪哇岛、苏门答腊岛，还为他遇到的不同的统治者带来了信件和财富。<br /> <br /> By 1417, the Yongle Emperor ordered Zheng He to return the envoys home. Once more back on the seas, Zheng He and his large fleet set sail for his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped in many of the same places, including Java, Sumatra, and also brought letters and riches to the different rulers Zheng He met. <br /> <br /> In 1417, Emperor Yongle ordered Zheng He to send the envoys back home. Zheng He and his fleet returned to sea again to set sail on his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped at many of the same places, including Java and Sumatra, and also brought letters and wealth to the different rulers he met. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.海上丝绸之路从福建泉州开始, 是秦汉时期形成、三国时期发展到隋朝、盛唐宋朝、明清衰落的最早航程航线。<br /> <br /> Starting from Quanzhou Fujian Province, the maritime Silk Road was the earliest voyage route that was formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties.<br /> <br /> The Maritime Silk Road began in Quanzhou, Fujian Province, and was the earliest voyage route formed during the Qin and Han dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.西学东渐不仅客观上促成了马克思主义哲学在中国的广泛传播, 构成了马克思主义哲学中国化的一个重要历史前提, 而且引发了中国哲学历史发展过程中的重大变革, 推动了中国哲学从古代传统向近代传统的转变。<br /> <br /> The spread of Western learning to the East objectively promoted the dissemination of Marxist philosophy, forming an important historical precondition for its Sinicization. Moreover, it triggered a great transformation in the historical development of Chinese philosophy and facilitated its transition from an ancient to an early modern tradition.<br /> <br /> The eastward spread of Western learning has not only objectively contributed to the widespread dissemination of Marxist philosophy in China, constituting an important historical premise for the Chineseization of Marxist philosophy, but also triggered a major change in the historical development of Chinese philosophy, promoting the transformation of Chinese philosophy from the ancient to the modern tradition. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.鸦片战争、不平等条约和19世纪中叶的大规模起义的残酷现实，使清朝朝臣和官员认识到壮大中国的必要性。自19世纪40年代以来，中国学者和官员一直在研究和翻译“西学”。<br /> <br /> The rude realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mid- 19th century mass uprisings caused Qing courtiers and officials to recognize the need to strengthen China. Chinese scholars and officials had been examining and translating &quot;Western Learning&quot; since the 1840s.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The harsh realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mass uprisings of the mid-19th century made courtiers and officials of the Qing Dynasty realize the need to strengthen China. Since the 1840s, Chinese scholars and officials had been studying and translating &quot;Western Learning&quot;. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> <br /> 1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。<br /> <br /> As one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, ''Tao Te Ching'' has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion.<br /> <br /> Tao Te Ching, as one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.孔子因材施教，对于不同的对象，考虑其不同的素质、优点和缺点、进德修业的具体情况，给予不同的教诲，表现了诲人不倦的可贵精神。<br /> <br /> Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. He gave different instructions to different students, taking into account their different qualities, strengths and weaknesses, and the specific circumstances of their advancement and cultivation, showing the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.<br /> <br /> Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. For different objects, he considered their different qualities, advantages and disadvantages, and the specific situation of moral education, and gave different instructions, which showed the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.近年来，中国大多数学者都认为《坛经》的基本内容代表了慧能思想，同时其中也有后人增益的成分。<br /> <br /> In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of the ''The Sutra of Huineng'' represents the thought of Huineng, while there are also some elements of later additions to it.<br /> <br /> In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of Tanjing represents Huineng's thought, and it also contains the later additions.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，被翻译为十余种文字全球发行。<br /> <br /> ''The Importance of Living'' was the first book after Lin Yutang had traveled to the United States and was another successful work in English after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was republished more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages for global distribution.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ''The Art of Life'' is the first book written by Lin Yutang after his trip to the United States. It is also another successful English work after ''My Country and My People''. The book was published in the United States in 1937. The following year, it ranked the top of the best seller list in the United States for 52 weeks. It has been reprinted for more than 40 times and has been translated into more than 10 languages for global distribution.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> 1、传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点，全长6440公里。这条路被认为是连结亚欧大陆的古代东西方文明的交汇之路，而丝绸则是最具代表性的货物。<br /> <br /> The traditional Silk Road, which started from Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reached the Mediterranean Sea via Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, and Syria, and ended in Rome, was 6,440 kilometers long. This road is considered to be the intersection of ancient eastern and western civilizations linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo. The road reached the Mediterranean Sea from Iraq, Syria, etc. and ended in Rome, with a total length of 6,440 kilometers. This road is considered to be the crossroads of ancient civilizations between East and West, linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2、东海航线，也叫“东方海上丝路”。春秋战国时期，齐国在胶东半岛开辟了“循海岸水行”直通辽东半岛、朝鲜半岛、日本列岛直至东南亚的黄金通道。唐代，山东半岛和江浙沿海的中韩日海上贸易逐渐兴起。宋代，宁波成为中韩日海上贸易的主要港口。<br /> <br /> The East Sea Route, also known as the &quot;Eastern Sea Silk Road&quot;. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the State of Qi opened up a golden route on the Jiaodong Peninsula, which led to the Liaodong Peninsula, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese islands and Southeast Asia. During the Tang Dynasty, the maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan on the Shandong Peninsula and the coast of Jiangsu and Zhejiang gradually emerged. During the Song Dynasty, Ningbo became the main port for maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3、东学西渐指的是一个和西学东渐互相补充的东西方文化交流过程。东学西渐有一千多年的历史，对世界文化的发展有十分深远的影响。<br /> <br /> Eastern learning and Western learning refers to a process of cultural exchange between East and West that complements Western learning and Eastern learning. With a history of over a thousand years, East to West has had a profound impact on the development of world culture.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4、洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。<br /> <br /> Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> <br /> ==Lo, Minh Thao==<br /> <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> <br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> <br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> <br /> 1.“道”作为《道德经》中最抽象的概念范畴，是天地万物生成的动力源。<br /> <br /> The way, as the most abstract concept in Tao Te Ching, is the power source for the creation of all things.<br /> <br /> 2.《论语》主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。<br /> <br /> The Analects of Confucius mainly records the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples in the form of quotations and dialogues, which embodies Confucius' political, aesthetic, moral and utilitarian values.<br /> <br /> 3.若欲修行，在家亦得，不由在寺。<br /> <br /> If people are sincerely keen on the practice,it is no need for them to practise in the temple and they can be successful even at home.<br /> <br /> 4.林语堂的翻译特点是通畅易懂，少用“行语”，中等文化的读者都能看懂。<br /> <br /> The translation works of Lin Yutang are characterized by fluency and transparency since he hardly adopt jargons,so that his works can be understood by less-educated readers.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br /> <br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> <br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> <br /> ==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br /> <br /> ==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br /> <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> <br /> ==Rajabov, Anushervon==<br /> <br /> ==Seydou, Sagara==<br /> <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> <br /> 1.汉武帝刘彻即位时，张骞已在朝廷担任名为“郎”的侍从官。据史书记载，他“为人强力，宽大信人”。即具有坚韧不拔、心胸开阔，并能以信义待人的优良品质。建元三年，即公元前138年，张骞“以郎应募，使月氏”。“郎”，是皇帝的侍从官，没有固定职务，又随时可能被选授重任。<br /> <br /> When Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty Liu Che assumed the throne, Zhang Qian was already working at the court as a retainer named &quot;Lang&quot;. According to historical records, he was &quot;a strong, generous and trustworthy&quot;. In other words, he was tough, open-minded, and could treat people with faith and justice. In the third year of Jian Yuan, that is, 138 B.C., Zhang Qian was recruited to make a mission to the Moon Dynasty. The &quot;Lang&quot;, the emperor's retainer, has no fixed position, and may be chosen at any time to reappoint.<br /> <br /> 2.有观点认为，明初时海外威胁受到重视，故有郑和下西洋之事。然而，或许郑和过于成功了，“他的海军满载荣誉胜利归来，并确认帝国没有来自海上的威胁”，因此“郑和与他的随从也可以说失去了继续远航的意义。”<br /> <br /> It has been argued that the overseas threat was taken seriously at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, hence Zheng He's voyage to the West. However, perhaps Zheng He was too successful, &quot;his navy returned triumphantly laden with glory and confirmed that there was no threat to the empire from the sea&quot;, so &quot;Zheng He and his entourage could be said to have lost the point of continuing their voyage&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。许多人以转译日本人所著的西学书籍来接受西学。进入民国时期，由于对政治的不满又进一步导致知识分子们提出全盘西化的主张，在五四时期这种思想造成了很大的影响。这一波的西学东渐，一直持续到当代而未止。<br /> <br /> After the First Sino-Japanese War, as China was facing the fate of national ruin, many learned people began to learn more actively and comprehensively from the West, and a group of thinkers emerged, such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong. They learned a lot of natural and social science knowledge from the West, and also demanded reforms in politics. A great deal of Western knowledge was introduced into China during this period, and its influence was very widespread. Many people embraced Western learning by translating Western books written by the Japanese. In the Republican period, dissatisfaction with politics further led intellectuals to advocate wholesale Westernization, which had a great impact in the May Fourth period. This wave of Western learning continued into contemporary times.<br /> <br /> 4.洋务派前期创办的军事工业，经费由清政府调拨，产品分配给军队使用，管理方式是封建衙门式的。虽然这些企业采用机器生产，但本质上属于带有资本主义因素的封建官办企业。<br /> <br /> The military industries founded by the foreign affairs faction in the early period were financed by the Qing government, and the products were allocated to the army for use, and managed in a feudal government office style. Although these enterprises adopted machine production, they were essentially feudal government-run enterprises with capitalist elements.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:23, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> <br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> <br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> <br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> 1.公元前123年，张骞随大将军卫青出使匈奴，在他的引导下，平息了多年来北方匈奴对汉王朝的骚扰，张骞因此被封为博望侯。<br /> <br /> In 123 B. C. , Zhang Qian followed General Wei Qing in a major military raid against the Xiongnu. His guidance led to a number of victories, which succeeded in ending the harassment by the Xiongnu of the Han Dynasty. Zhang Qian was therefore conferred the title of Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In 123 B.C., Zhang Qian accompanied the great general Wei Qing on a mission to the Xiongnu. Under his guidance, the Xiongnu harassment of the Han dynasty in the north for many years was quelled, and Zhang Qian was thus made the Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.郑和的船队由三百艘大船及三万多名水兵组成，船队中最大的一艘船被称为“宝船”，其船身长达133米，船桅多达九根，可搭载一千人。郑和和汉人与穆斯林船员一起打开了中国在非洲、印度及东南亚的贸易航线。<br /> <br /> Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels, 133-meter-long “treasure ships”, had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Zheng He's fleet consisted of 300 ships and more than 30,000 sailors, the largest ship in the fleet was called the &quot;treasure ship&quot;, with a hull length of 133 meters and as many as nine masts, which could carry 1,000 people. Zheng He and the Chinese and Muslim crews together opened up Chinese trade routes in Africa, India and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels(also called “treasure ships”),133-meter-long ,had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:26, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.清末时，在“西学东渐”浪潮的冲击下，传统儿童教育踏入近代的门槛。<br /> <br /> In late Qing dynasty, impacted by the wave of “ The Eastward Spread of Western Learning”, traditional children education stepped into the threshold of modern education. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, under the impact of the wave of &quot;Western learning&quot;, traditional children's education entered the threshold of modern times.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.西进运动促进了农业、工业、交通业的飞速发展，也促进了美国城市化的进程。<br /> <br /> The Westernization Movement promoted the rapid devepment of agrilucture, industry, transportation and the urbanization process of the United States as well. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The westward movement contributed to the rapid development of agriculture, industry, and transportation, as well as to the urbanization of the United States.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> <br /> 1.张骞出使西域,接触到西域各国的风土人情，是汉朝开始对西域各国有所了解，使汉朝与西域建立了友好关系，为后来西汉政府设置西域都护府，使西域正式归西汉政府管辖打下了基础。<br /> <br /> Zhang Qian’s mission to the Western Regions brought in contact with the customs of the Western Regions. It was the Han dynasty that began to understand the Western Regions countries, which enabled the Han dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions. Later, the Western Han government set up the Western Regions Protectorate and made the Western Regions officially returned to the Western Han government. Jurisdiction laid the foundation.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions brought him into contact with the customs and traditions of the countries in the Western Regions, and enabled the Han Dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions, which later laid the foundation for the Western Han government to set up the Western Regions Capital Protection Office, making the Western Regions officially under the jurisdiction of the Western Han government.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。<br /> <br /> Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han Dynasties, it has always been an important bridge for the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West. Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han dynasties, it has been an important bridge to bridge the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and the Southeast Asian region has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。<br /> <br /> Western learning has brought various new academic achievements in modern Western modern times into China, deeply affecting the development of various academics, and many disciplines that are not valued or even existed in traditional China have also been developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The gradual expansion of Western learning brought various new achievements in modern Western scholarship into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines, and many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。<br /> <br /> Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism, and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not make China embark on a path of prosperity.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> 1.除了朴素的唯物主义观点，《道德经》一书中还包括大量朴素辩证法观点，如一切事物均具有正反两面。<br /> <br /> In addition to the simple materialistic view, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, such as all things have positive and negative sides.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Apart from the simple materialistic views, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, for example, every coin has two sides.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.《论语》较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。<br /> <br /> ''The Analects'' embodies the political ideas, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a more concentrated manner.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ''The Analects'' embodies the political views, ethical thoughts, moral ideas and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a relatively concentrated manner.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。<br /> <br /> The Sutra mainly records the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The Sutra mainly recorded the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. The thought in ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.林语堂先生在《生活的艺术》中将中国人旷怀达观、陶情遣兴的生活方式和浪漫高雅的东方情调充分传达出来。<br /> <br /> In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese way of life of being open-minded and broad-minded, and the romantic and elegant oriental sentiment.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese lifestyle of open-mindedness and broad-mindedness, and the oriental sentiment of romance and elegance.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> <br /> 1.先秦时期，连接中国东西方交流的通道已经存在，丝绸正式西传始于西汉通西域，丝绸之路真正形成始于西汉张骞凿空。<br /> <br /> The pre-Qin period, connecting China's East and West exchange channel has existed, the official western transmission of silk began in the Western Han Dynasty through the Western Regions, the Silk Road really formed from the Western Han Dynasty Zhang Qian chiseling.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the pre-Qin period, a channel connecting China's east and west already existed. The official spread of silk to the west began in the Western Han Dynasty, and the real formation of the Silk Road began when Zhang Qian's hollowed out in the Western Han Dynasty.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称&quot;海上陶瓷之路&quot;和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。<br /> <br /> The Maritime Silk Road, also known as the &quot;Maritime Route of Ceramics&quot; and the &quot;Maritime Route of Spices&quot;, was first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavannes in 1913, and is a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The Maritime Silk Road was an ancient maritime channel for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. It was also called the &quot;Sea Ceramic Road&quot; and &quot;Sea Spice Road&quot;. It was first mentioned in 1913 by the French orientalist Shawan.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西书七千部传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。<br /> <br /> During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, the seven thousand missionaries of the Western Book, represented by Matteo Ricci, came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, 7,000 missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.洋务运动，又称自强运动，是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。<br /> <br /> The Foreign Affairs Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-help movement conducted by the Foreign Affairs faction of the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machinery production and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The Westernization Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-rescue movement carried out by the Westernization Movement from the 1860s to the late Qing Dynasty that introduced Western military equipment, machine production, and science and technology to save the Qing rule.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> ==Zubareva, Ekaterina==</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201228_cult&diff=119182 2020-12-26T12:11:20Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Mo Ling 莫玲 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Alsied, Saffana==<br /> <br /> ==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> <br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> <br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> <br /> ==Dashkin, Gennadii==<br /> <br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> <br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> <br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> <br /> ==Grosheva, Anna==<br /> <br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> <br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> <br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> <br /> ==Guirou, Barthelemy==<br /> <br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> <br /> ==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==<br /> <br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> <br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> 1. 《道德经》简称老子，是中国的经典文本。根据传统，它是由公元前6世纪的圣人老子所写，老子是周朝的一位记录者，在中国广为人知。尽管最早出土的文字可以追溯到公元前4世纪晚期，但文字的真正作者和撰写或编纂日期仍有争议。<br /> <br /> 1. The Tao Te Ching simply referred to as the Laozi，is a Chinese classic text. According to tradition, it was written around 6th century BC by the sage Laozi, a record-keeper at the Zhou dynasty court, by whose name the text is known in China. The text's true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated, although the oldest excavated text dates back to the late 4th century BC.<br /> <br /> 2. 《论语》是儒家学派的经典著作之一，由孔子的弟子及其再传弟子编撰而成。它以语录体和对话文体为主，记录了孔子及其弟子言行，集中体现了孔子的政治主张、论理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。<br /> <br /> 2. The Analects is one of the classical works of Confucianism, compiled by the disciples of Confucius and his disciples. It is mainly in the style of discourses and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on Confucius' political ideas, theoretical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles.<br /> <br /> 3. 《慧能经》附有慧能对《金刚经》的逐条注释——这是它有史以来第一次出版的英文译本。他的谈话集也被称为《六祖坛经》，是唯一的禅宗记录，一般被尊称为经，或经文。<br /> <br /> 3. The Sutra of Hui-neng is here accompanied by Hui-neng's verse-by-verse commentary on the Diamond Sutra—in its very first published English translation ever.This collection of his talks, also known as the Platform or Altar Sutra, is the only Zen record of its kind to be generally honored with the appellation sutra, or scripture.<br /> <br /> 4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。<br /> <br /> 4. “The Art of Living” was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful work in English. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 07:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> <br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> <br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> <br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> 1.1417年，永乐皇帝下令郑和将使节送回国内。郑和和他的舰队再次回到海上启航，进行他的第五次远征（1417-1419）。他在许多相同的地方停留，包括爪哇岛、苏门答腊岛，还为他遇到的不同的统治者带来了信件和财富。<br /> <br /> By 1417, the Yongle Emperor ordered Zheng He to return the envoys home. Once more back on the seas, Zheng He and his large fleet set sail for his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped in many of the same places, including Java, Sumatra, and also brought letters and riches to the different rulers Zheng He met. <br /> <br /> In 1417, Emperor Yongle ordered Zheng He to send the envoys back home. Zheng He and his fleet returned to sea again to set sail on his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped at many of the same places, including Java and Sumatra, and also brought letters and wealth to the different rulers he met. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.海上丝绸之路从福建泉州开始, 是秦汉时期形成、三国时期发展到隋朝、盛唐宋朝、明清衰落的最早航程航线。<br /> <br /> Starting from Quanzhou Fujian Province, the maritime Silk Road was the earliest voyage route that was formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties.<br /> <br /> The Maritime Silk Road began in Quanzhou, Fujian Province, and was the earliest voyage route formed during the Qin and Han dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.西学东渐不仅客观上促成了马克思主义哲学在中国的广泛传播, 构成了马克思主义哲学中国化的一个重要历史前提, 而且引发了中国哲学历史发展过程中的重大变革, 推动了中国哲学从古代传统向近代传统的转变。<br /> <br /> The spread of Western learning to the East objectively promoted the dissemination of Marxist philosophy, forming an important historical precondition for its Sinicization. Moreover, it triggered a great transformation in the historical development of Chinese philosophy and facilitated its transition from an ancient to an early modern tradition.<br /> <br /> The eastward spread of Western learning has not only objectively contributed to the widespread dissemination of Marxist philosophy in China, constituting an important historical premise for the Chineseization of Marxist philosophy, but also triggered a major change in the historical development of Chinese philosophy, promoting the transformation of Chinese philosophy from the ancient to the modern tradition. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.鸦片战争、不平等条约和19世纪中叶的大规模起义的残酷现实，使清朝朝臣和官员认识到壮大中国的必要性。自19世纪40年代以来，中国学者和官员一直在研究和翻译“西学”。<br /> <br /> The rude realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mid- 19th century mass uprisings caused Qing courtiers and officials to recognize the need to strengthen China. Chinese scholars and officials had been examining and translating &quot;Western Learning&quot; since the 1840s.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The harsh realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mass uprisings of the mid-19th century made courtiers and officials of the Qing Dynasty realize the need to strengthen China. Since the 1840s, Chinese scholars and officials had been studying and translating &quot;Western Learning&quot;. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> <br /> 1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。<br /> <br /> As one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, ''Tao Te Ching'' has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion.<br /> <br /> Tao Te Ching, as one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.孔子因材施教，对于不同的对象，考虑其不同的素质、优点和缺点、进德修业的具体情况，给予不同的教诲，表现了诲人不倦的可贵精神。<br /> <br /> Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. He gave different instructions to different students, taking into account their different qualities, strengths and weaknesses, and the specific circumstances of their advancement and cultivation, showing the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.<br /> <br /> Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. For different objects, he considered their different qualities, advantages and disadvantages, and the specific situation of moral education, and gave different instructions, which showed the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.近年来，中国大多数学者都认为《坛经》的基本内容代表了慧能思想，同时其中也有后人增益的成分。<br /> <br /> In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of the ''The Sutra of Huineng'' represents the thought of Huineng, while there are also some elements of later additions to it.<br /> <br /> In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of Tanjing represents Huineng's thought, and it also contains the later additions.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，被翻译为十余种文字全球发行。<br /> <br /> ''The Importance of Living'' was the first book after Lin Yutang had traveled to the United States and was another successful work in English after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was republished more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages for global distribution.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ''The Art of Life'' is the first book written by Lin Yutang after his trip to the United States. It is also another successful English work after ''My Country and My People''. The book was published in the United States in 1937. The following year, it ranked the top of the best seller list in the United States for 52 weeks. It has been reprinted for more than 40 times and has been translated into more than 10 languages for global distribution.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> 1、传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点，全长6440公里。这条路被认为是连结亚欧大陆的古代东西方文明的交汇之路，而丝绸则是最具代表性的货物。<br /> <br /> The traditional Silk Road, which started from Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reached the Mediterranean Sea via Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, and Syria, and ended in Rome, was 6,440 kilometers long. This road is considered to be the intersection of ancient eastern and western civilizations linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo. The road reached the Mediterranean Sea from Iraq, Syria, etc. and ended in Rome, with a total length of 6,440 kilometers. This road is considered to be the crossroads of ancient civilizations between East and West, linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2、东海航线，也叫“东方海上丝路”。春秋战国时期，齐国在胶东半岛开辟了“循海岸水行”直通辽东半岛、朝鲜半岛、日本列岛直至东南亚的黄金通道。唐代，山东半岛和江浙沿海的中韩日海上贸易逐渐兴起。宋代，宁波成为中韩日海上贸易的主要港口。<br /> <br /> The East Sea Route, also known as the &quot;Eastern Sea Silk Road&quot;. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the State of Qi opened up a golden route on the Jiaodong Peninsula, which led to the Liaodong Peninsula, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese islands and Southeast Asia. During the Tang Dynasty, the maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan on the Shandong Peninsula and the coast of Jiangsu and Zhejiang gradually emerged. During the Song Dynasty, Ningbo became the main port for maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3、东学西渐指的是一个和西学东渐互相补充的东西方文化交流过程。东学西渐有一千多年的历史，对世界文化的发展有十分深远的影响。<br /> <br /> Eastern learning and Western learning refers to a process of cultural exchange between East and West that complements Western learning and Eastern learning. With a history of over a thousand years, East to West has had a profound impact on the development of world culture.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4、洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。<br /> <br /> Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> <br /> ==Lo, Minh Thao==<br /> <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> <br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> <br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> <br /> 1.“道”作为《道德经》中最抽象的概念范畴，是天地万物生成的动力源。<br /> <br /> The way, as the most abstract concept in Tao Te Ching, is the power source for the creation of all things.<br /> <br /> 2.《论语》主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。<br /> <br /> The Analects of Confucius mainly records the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples in the form of quotations and dialogues, which embodies Confucius' political, aesthetic, moral and utilitarian values.<br /> <br /> 3.若欲修行，在家亦得，不由在寺。<br /> <br /> If people are sincerely keen on the practice,it is no need for them to practise in the temple and they can be successful even at home.<br /> <br /> 4.林语堂的翻译特点是通畅易懂，少用“行语”，中等文化的读者都能看懂。<br /> <br /> The translation works of Lin Yutang are characterized by fluency and transparency since he hardly adopt jargons,so that his works can be understood by less-educated readers.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br /> <br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> <br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> <br /> ==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br /> <br /> ==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br /> <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> <br /> ==Rajabov, Anushervon==<br /> <br /> ==Seydou, Sagara==<br /> <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> <br /> 1.汉武帝刘彻即位时，张骞已在朝廷担任名为“郎”的侍从官。据史书记载，他“为人强力，宽大信人”。即具有坚韧不拔、心胸开阔，并能以信义待人的优良品质。建元三年，即公元前138年，张骞“以郎应募，使月氏”。“郎”，是皇帝的侍从官，没有固定职务，又随时可能被选授重任。<br /> <br /> When Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty Liu Che assumed the throne, Zhang Qian was already working at the court as a retainer named &quot;Lang&quot;. According to historical records, he was &quot;a strong, generous and trustworthy&quot;. In other words, he was tough, open-minded, and could treat people with faith and justice. In the third year of Jian Yuan, that is, 138 B.C., Zhang Qian was recruited to make a mission to the Moon Dynasty. The &quot;Lang&quot;, the emperor's retainer, has no fixed position, and may be chosen at any time to reappoint.<br /> <br /> 2.有观点认为，明初时海外威胁受到重视，故有郑和下西洋之事。然而，或许郑和过于成功了，“他的海军满载荣誉胜利归来，并确认帝国没有来自海上的威胁”，因此“郑和与他的随从也可以说失去了继续远航的意义。”<br /> <br /> It has been argued that the overseas threat was taken seriously at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, hence Zheng He's voyage to the West. However, perhaps Zheng He was too successful, &quot;his navy returned triumphantly laden with glory and confirmed that there was no threat to the empire from the sea&quot;, so &quot;Zheng He and his entourage could be said to have lost the point of continuing their voyage&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。许多人以转译日本人所著的西学书籍来接受西学。进入民国时期，由于对政治的不满又进一步导致知识分子们提出全盘西化的主张，在五四时期这种思想造成了很大的影响。这一波的西学东渐，一直持续到当代而未止。<br /> <br /> After the First Sino-Japanese War, as China was facing the fate of national ruin, many learned people began to learn more actively and comprehensively from the West, and a group of thinkers emerged, such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong. They learned a lot of natural and social science knowledge from the West, and also demanded reforms in politics. A great deal of Western knowledge was introduced into China during this period, and its influence was very widespread. Many people embraced Western learning by translating Western books written by the Japanese. In the Republican period, dissatisfaction with politics further led intellectuals to advocate wholesale Westernization, which had a great impact in the May Fourth period. This wave of Western learning continued into contemporary times.<br /> <br /> 4.洋务派前期创办的军事工业，经费由清政府调拨，产品分配给军队使用，管理方式是封建衙门式的。虽然这些企业采用机器生产，但本质上属于带有资本主义因素的封建官办企业。<br /> <br /> The military industries founded by the foreign affairs faction in the early period were financed by the Qing government, and the products were allocated to the army for use, and managed in a feudal government office style. Although these enterprises adopted machine production, they were essentially feudal government-run enterprises with capitalist elements.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:23, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> <br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> <br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> <br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> 1.公元前123年，张骞随大将军卫青出使匈奴，在他的引导下，平息了多年来北方匈奴对汉王朝的骚扰，张骞因此被封为博望侯。<br /> <br /> In 123 B. C. , Zhang Qian followed General Wei Qing in a major military raid against the Xiongnu. His guidance led to a number of victories, which succeeded in ending the harassment by the Xiongnu of the Han Dynasty. Zhang Qian was therefore conferred the title of Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In 123 B.C., Zhang Qian accompanied the great general Wei Qing on a mission to the Xiongnu. Under his guidance, the Xiongnu harassment of the Han dynasty in the north for many years was quelled, and Zhang Qian was thus made the Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.郑和的船队由三百艘大船及三万多名水兵组成，船队中最大的一艘船被称为“宝船”，其船身长达133米，船桅多达九根，可搭载一千人。郑和和汉人与穆斯林船员一起打开了中国在非洲、印度及东南亚的贸易航线。<br /> <br /> Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels, 133-meter-long “treasure ships”, had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Zheng He's fleet consisted of 300 ships and more than 30,000 sailors, the largest ship in the fleet was called the &quot;treasure ship&quot;, with a hull length of 133 meters and as many as nine masts, which could carry 1,000 people. Zheng He and the Chinese and Muslim crews together opened up Chinese trade routes in Africa, India and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels(also called “treasure ships”),133-meter-long ,had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:26, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.清末时，在“西学东渐”浪潮的冲击下，传统儿童教育踏入近代的门槛。<br /> <br /> In late Qing dynasty, impacted by the wave of “ The Eastward Spread of Western Learning”, traditional children education stepped into the threshold of modern education. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, under the impact of the wave of &quot;Western learning&quot;, traditional children's education entered the threshold of modern times.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.西进运动促进了农业、工业、交通业的飞速发展，也促进了美国城市化的进程。<br /> <br /> The Westernization Movement promoted the rapid devepment of agrilucture, industry, transportation and the urbanization process of the United States as well. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The westward movement contributed to the rapid development of agriculture, industry, and transportation, as well as to the urbanization of the United States.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> <br /> 1.张骞出使西域,接触到西域各国的风土人情，是汉朝开始对西域各国有所了解，使汉朝与西域建立了友好关系，为后来西汉政府设置西域都护府，使西域正式归西汉政府管辖打下了基础。<br /> <br /> Zhang Qian’s mission to the Western Regions brought in contact with the customs of the Western Regions. It was the Han dynasty that began to understand the Western Regions countries, which enabled the Han dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions. Later, the Western Han government set up the Western Regions Protectorate and made the Western Regions officially returned to the Western Han government. Jurisdiction laid the foundation.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions brought him into contact with the customs and traditions of the countries in the Western Regions, and enabled the Han Dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions, which later laid the foundation for the Western Han government to set up the Western Regions Capital Protection Office, making the Western Regions officially under the jurisdiction of the Western Han government.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。<br /> <br /> Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han Dynasties, it has always been an important bridge for the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West. Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han dynasties, it has been an important bridge to bridge the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and the Southeast Asian region has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。<br /> <br /> Western learning has brought various new academic achievements in modern Western modern times into China, deeply affecting the development of various academics, and many disciplines that are not valued or even existed in traditional China have also been developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The gradual expansion of Western learning brought various new achievements in modern Western scholarship into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines, and many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。<br /> <br /> Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism, and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not make China embark on a path of prosperity.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> 1.除了朴素的唯物主义观点，《道德经》一书中还包括大量朴素辩证法观点，如一切事物均具有正反两面。<br /> <br /> In addition to the simple materialistic view, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, such as all things have positive and negative sides.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Apart from the simple materialistic views, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, for example, every coin has two sides.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.《论语》较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。<br /> <br /> ''The Analects'' embodies the political ideas, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a more concentrated manner.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ''The Analects'' embodies the political views, ethical thoughts, moral ideas and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a relatively concentrated manner.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。<br /> <br /> The Sutra mainly records the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The Sutra mainly recorded the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. The thought in ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.林语堂先生在《生活的艺术》中将中国人旷怀达观、陶情遣兴的生活方式和浪漫高雅的东方情调充分传达出来。<br /> <br /> In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese way of life of being open-minded and broad-minded, and the romantic and elegant oriental sentiment.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese lifestyle of open-mindedness and broad-mindedness, and the oriental sentiment of romance and elegance.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> <br /> 1.先秦时期，连接中国东西方交流的通道已经存在，丝绸正式西传始于西汉通西域，丝绸之路真正形成始于西汉张骞凿空。<br /> <br /> The pre-Qin period, connecting China's East and West exchange channel has existed, the official western transmission of silk began in the Western Han Dynasty through the Western Regions, the Silk Road really formed from the Western Han Dynasty Zhang Qian chiseling.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the pre-Qin period, a channel connecting China's east and west already existed. The official spread of silk to the west began in the Western Han Dynasty, and the real formation of the Silk Road began when Zhang Qian's hollowed out in the Western Han Dynasty.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称&quot;海上陶瓷之路&quot;和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。<br /> <br /> The Maritime Silk Road, also known as the &quot;Maritime Route of Ceramics&quot; and the &quot;Maritime Route of Spices&quot;, was first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavannes in 1913, and is a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The Maritime Silk Road was an ancient maritime channel for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. It was also called the &quot;Sea Ceramic Road&quot; and &quot;Sea Spice Road&quot;. It was first mentioned in 1913 by the French orientalist Shawan.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西书七千部传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。<br /> <br /> During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, the seven thousand missionaries of the Western Book, represented by Matteo Ricci, came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, 7,000 missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.洋务运动，又称自强运动，是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。<br /> <br /> The Foreign Affairs Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-help movement conducted by the Foreign Affairs faction of the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machinery production and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The Westernization Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-rescue movement carried out by the Westernization Movement from the 1860s to the late Qing Dynasty that introduced Western military equipment, machine production, and science and technology to save the Qing rule.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> ==Zubareva, Ekaterina==</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_cult&diff=119176 2020-12-26T11:40:19Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Alsied, Saffana */</p> <hr /> <div>==Alsied, Saffana==<br /> 1. Their king was killed and his skull turned into a drinking vessel. As a result, the Rouzhi fled and bore a constant grudge against the Xiongnu. At this time, the Han became increasingly strong, and Emperor Wu was determined to defeat the Xiongnu.--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。 结果，柔脂逃走了，对熊怒不断地怀恨在心。 这时，汉人变得越来越强大，吴皇帝决心打败匈奴。<br /> <br /> 2.They even carried on their ships many foreign heads of state and envoys to China. On the voyage of 1423 alone, they brought 1,200 envoys from 16 countries to China, some of whom even preferred not to go back. --[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 他们甚至还搭载了许多外国国家元首和特使前往中国。 仅在1423年的航行中，他们就将来自16个国家的1200名使节带到了中国，其中一些人甚至不愿回国。<br /> <br /> 3.In the second half of the 16th century, foreign missionaries from the Society of Jesus came to China. They spread religious doctrines on the one hand and introduced on the other hand works on astronomy, mathematics, physics, geography, paintings, and music to China. Meanwhile, they brought to the West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchanges between China and the West. <br /> <br /> 16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。 他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面向中国介绍天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作。 同时，他们把西方的儒道思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。<br /> <br /> 4.After the Second Opium War (1856-1860), Yi Xin (Prince Gong) and local officials realized that China had lagged far behind the West in weaponry and military technology, and advocated learning advanced production technology and troop training methods from the West so as to build a modern national defense. Known as the School of Westernization, these people launched a movement to learn from Western powers.<br /> <br /> 第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，巩义王子和当地官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，并主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，以便 建立现代国防。 这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了向西方列强学习的运动。<br /> <br /> 第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，奕䜣（恭亲王）和国内官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，因而他们主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，旨在建立一支现代化的国防军队。 这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了一场向西方列强学习的运动。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> <br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> <br /> 1.汉政府在西域设置常驻官员，派士卒屯田，设校尉统领保护，使汉族同新疆少数民族交往更加密切。汉朝在西域设立西域都护府为标志，丝绸之路进入繁荣时代。<br /> <br /> The government of the Han Dynasty set up permanent officials in the Western Regions, dispatched soldiers to garrison the fields, and assigned a captain to lead the protection, so that the Han people had closer exchanges with ethnic minorities in Xinjiang. Marked by the establishment of Protectorate of the Western Regions by the Han Dynasty, the Silk Road entered the era of prosperity. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.三国时代，魏、蜀、吴均有丝绸生产，而吴雄踞江东，汉末三国正处在海上丝绸之路从陆地转向海洋的承前启后与最终形成的关键时期。<br /> <br /> During the Three Kingdoms Period, the states of Wei, Shu and Wu all produced silk. And Wu stood firmly on the east bank of the Yangtze River. In the late Han Dynasty, the three states were at a crucial period when the Maritime Silk Road shifted from the land to the sea and eventually took shape. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.澳门由于在明嘉靖年间由朝廷让与葡萄牙人，因此在明末清初的西学东渐中，西方传教士常以澳门为中继站，而一些学术思想亦经由此逐渐传入中国内地，而许多与西人打交道的中国人亦在澳门及广州等地学习西方语言及文化。<br /> <br /> Since Macau was ceded to the Portuguese by the imperial court during the years of Jaijing in the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries often regarded it as a transition for eastward spreading of Western learning during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, and some academic ideas were gradually introduced to the Chinese mainland, while many Chinese who had dealings with Westerners also learned Western languages and cultures in Macau and Guangzhou. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.洋务派后期创办的民用工业，投资大多采取官督商办和官商合办形式，产品主要作为商品投放市场，管理上采取劳动雇佣制，所以其本质上属于带有封建因素的资本主义性质的企业。<br /> <br /> The civil industry founded by Westernization Group in the late period of the Movement was funded mostly by taking the government-supervised and merchant-managed form and the government-merchant cooperation. Its products were mainly put on the market as commodities and its management adopted the labor-employment system, so that it belongs to capitalist enterprises in essence featuring feudalism. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> <br /> ==Dashkin, Gennadii==<br /> <br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> <br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> <br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> <br /> ==Grosheva, Anna==<br /> <br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> <br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> <br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> <br /> ==Guirou, Barthelemy==<br /> <br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> <br /> 1. 丝绸之路是古代横贯亚欧的通道。其起点一般认为是长安（今西安），其实它随朝代更替政治中心转移而变化。长安（今西安）、洛阳、平城（今大同）、汴梁（今开封）、北京曾先后为丝路起点。<br /> <br /> The Silk Road is an ancient across of asia-europe. Its starting point is usually ascribed to Changan (now xian), actually the starting point is changed according to the changed political center. Changan (now Xian), Luoyang, Pingcheng (now Datong), Bianliang (today Kaifeng), and Beijing has been the starting point of the Silk Road.<br /> <br /> 2. 海上丝绸之路较之陆上，有共性，也有特性；有优势和潜力，也有难度和挑战。要推进21世纪海上丝绸之路建设，要在对接合作上下功夫。<br /> <br /> Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characters. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, I believe the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate our cooperation.<br /> <br /> Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characteristics. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate cooperation.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3. 在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。 <br /> <br /> The rising modern press during the period of the Eastward Spread of Western Learning deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.<br /> <br /> 4. 这场运动由士大夫们领导，比如李鸿章（1823——1901）和左宗棠（1812——1885），他们曾在太平起义中与政府军作战。1861到1894年间，现在成为大臣们的这些人负责建立了现代的机构，发展基础工业、通信和交通业并是军队现代化。<br /> <br /> The movement was championed by scholar-generals like Li Hongzhang (1823—1901) and Zuo Zongtang (1812—1885), who had fought with the government forces in the Taiping Rebellion. From 1861 to 1894, leaders such as these, now turned scholar-administrators, were responsible for establishing modem institutions, developing basic industries, communications, and transportation, and modernizing the military.<br /> --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:01, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==<br /> <br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> <br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> 1.张骞（前164年-前114年），字子文，西汉外交家、探险家，是“丝绸之路的开拓者”“东方的哥伦布”。 前139年，张骞奉汉武帝之命，出使西域，打通了汉朝通往西域的道路，即赫赫有名的丝绸之路，促进了东西方文明的交流。汉武帝以军功封其为博望侯。史学家司马迁高度称赞了其出使西域。<br /> <br /> Zhang Qian( B.C. 164- B.C. 114), whose style name is Ziwen, was the diplomat and explorer in Western Han dynasty. He was called as the pioneer of the Silk Road and the Columbus of the East. In B.C. 139, at the command of Emperor Wu of Western Han dynasty, Zhang Qian visited Western Regions and carved out a way, advancing the communication between the Eastern and Western civilization. Therefore, Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty granted him the title of Marquis Bowang with military merit. And Historian Sima Qian highly praised his work.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.海上丝绸之路是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，分为东海航线和南海航线两条线路，主要以南海为中心。海上丝路萌芽于商周，发展于春秋战国，形成于秦汉，兴于唐宋，转变于明清，是已知最为古老的海上航线。 海上丝绸之路途经100多个国家和地区，是中国与外国贸易往来和文化交流的海上大通道，推动了沿线各国的共同发展。<br /> <br /> The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. It was divided into two routes, the East China Sea route and the South China Sea route, with the South China Sea as the center. The Maritime Silk Road originated in the Shang and Zhou dynasties, developed in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and transformed in the Ming and Qing dynasties. And it is the oldest known maritime route. The Maritime Silk Road, passing through more than 100 countries and regions, is a major maritime corridor for trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries and has promoted the common development of countries along the route.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.西学东渐是指近代西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。<br /> <br /> The Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic ideas to China in modern times. Generally speaking, it is the introduction of academic ideas from Europe and America in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and the early Ming and Early Ming Dynasties.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 4.洋务运动是19世纪60到90年代晚清洋务派进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。 前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，创办了一批近代军事工业。后期，以“求富”为旗号，兴办了一批民用工业。甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，洋务运动宣告破产。洋务运动虽然没有使中国富强起来，但期间引进了西方先进的科学技术，客观上促进了民族资本主义的产生和发展。<br /> <br /> The Westernization Movement was a self-help movement carried out by the Westernization Group of the Qing Dynasty from the 1960s to the late 1990s, which introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty. In the early stage, the Westernization Movement established a number of modern military industries under the banner of &quot;self-improvement&quot;. In the later period, under the banner of &quot;seeking wealth&quot;, lots of civil industries were set up. In the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the entire Beiyang Navy was wiped out, and the Westernization Movement was bankrupt. Although Westernization Movement did not make China rich and powerful, it drew in advanced science and technology from the West, which objectively promoted the emergence and development of national capitalism.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> <br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> <br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> <br /> 1.张骞先后两次出使西域，打开了中国与中亚、西亚、南亚以至通往欧洲的陆路交通，从此中国人通过这条通道向西域和中亚等国出售丝绸、茶叶、漆器和其他产品，同时从欧洲、西亚和中亚引进宝石、玻璃器等产品。<br /> <br /> Zhang Qian has made two missions to the Western Regions, opening up the land transportation between China and Central Asia, West Asia, South Asia and even Europe. Since then, the Chinese have sold silk, tea, lacquerware and other products to the Western Regions and Central Asia and other countries through this road, while importing gems, glassware and other products from Europe, West Asia and Central Asia.<br /> <br /> 2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。<br /> <br /> The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, which was mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it was also known as the South China Sea Silk Road. The Maritime Silk Road was formed during the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished during the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, which is the oldest maritime route known to people.<br /> <br /> 3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术活动的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。<br /> <br /> The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought various new academic achievements in modern West into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic activities, and many academic disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.<br /> <br /> 4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激了中国资本主义发展，并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。<br /> <br /> Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism, it did not make China become prosperous and strong.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> <br /> ==Lo, Minh Thao==<br /> <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> <br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> <br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> <br /> 1.汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但丝绸之路开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。<br /> <br /> Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.<br /> <br /> 2.明初工商业的恢复和发展，宋、元以来中国海外贸易的发达，对外移民的增加，所有这一切，都为郑和下“西洋”准备了坚实的经济基础和物质条件。<br /> <br /> The recovery and development of industry and Commerce in the early Ming Dynasty, the development of China's overseas trade since the song and Yuan Dynasties, and the increase of foreign immigrants all prepared a solid economic foundation and material conditions for Zheng He's &quot;western&quot; voyage.<br /> <br /> 3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。<br /> <br /> Matteo Ricci spread the western knowledge of geometry, geography and humanism to the Chinese society, which initiated the practice for the literati to absorb western learnings in the late Ming Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 4.江南制造局虽是清末洋务派创办的规模最大的兵工厂，但是技术上仍是由外国技师垄断．<br /> <br /> Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arms factory founded by Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, it was still monopolized by foreign technicians in the aspect of technique.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:33, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br /> <br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> 1.建元二年（前139年），张骞率领100多名随行人员，由匈奴人堂邑父为向导从长安出发前往西域。西行进入河西走廊。这一地区自月氏人西迁后，已完全为匈奴人所控制。正当张骞一行匆匆穿过河西走廊时，不幸碰上匈奴的骑兵，他们全部被抓获。<br /> <br /> In the second year of Jianyuan(139 B.C.), Zhang Qian set off to the Western Regions leading an entourage of more than 100 men from Chang'an under the guidance of Tang Yifu who is a Hun. They travelled westward into the Hexi Corridor which had been completely controlled by the Huns since they moved westward. When they tried to hurry through this region, unfortunately they met the Hun cavalry, and they were all captured.<br /> <br /> 2.郑和下西洋所到之处主要是开展贸易活动，以“朝贡贸易”为基本形式，同时推行“官方贸易”、带动“民间互市”等。<br /> <br /> Zheng He's voyages are mainly to carry out trade activities, during which they took &quot;tribute trade&quot; as the basic activity, and at the same time promoted &quot;official trade&quot; and &quot;non-governmental trade&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们，在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。<br /> <br /> From the late Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, missionaries played an important role in the Eastward Spread of Western Learning. While trying to introduce Catholicism into China, the missionaries mainly composed of the Catholic Jesuits introduced western scientific and technological thoughts and translated a large number of western academic books.<br /> <br /> 4.在洋务运动存续的35年里，文化出版事业的发展达到了一个前所未有的水平。译书经历了由单纯的西方科技著作和书籍，向自然科学和社会科学，人文科学等著作并重，甚至后者略占上风的过程。<br /> <br /> During the 35 years of Westernization Movement, the development of cultural publishing reached an unprecedentedly high level. The translation of books experienced a process from the dominance of western scientific and technological works to the emphasis laid equally on works of natural and social sciences and humanities, and even the latter took the majority.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 12:15, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1. In the second year of Jian Yuan (139 BC), Zhang Qian led more than 100 serve men, with the Xiongnu man Tang Yi as the guide, to set off from Chang’ an to the West. This area has been completely controlled by the Xiongnu since the westward migration of the Ziyue people. Just as Zhang Qian passed through the Hexi Corridor, they unfortunately ran into the Xiongnu cavalry, who captured them all.<br /> <br /> 2. Zheng He mainly carried out trade activities in all the places he visited, taking “tribute trade” as the basic form. At the same time, he also promoted “official trade” and “private mutual market”.<br /> <br /> 3. In the wave of Western learning in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, missionaries played an important role, mainly the Jesuit missionaries, who tried to introduce Catholicism into China, introduced Western scientific and academic ideas, and translated a large number of Western academic books.<br /> <br /> 4. During the 35 years’ Westernization Movement, the development of publishing reached an unprecedented level. The translation of books went through a process from purely Western scientific and technological works and books to works on natural sciences and social sciences, humanities, etc., with the latter even slightly prevailing.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> <br /> ==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br /> 1-张谦出生于西汉（公元前206年至公元24年）的城固县（今陕西省城固县）。他是中国历史上杰出的使节和探险家，开辟了古老的丝绸之路，并带来了有关西部地区的可靠信息.<br /> <br /> Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-24 AD). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions.<br /> <br /> Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-24 A.D.). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions to China.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2-郑和（1371-1433）是一位伟大的中国探险家和舰队司令。他进行了七次主要探险，以探索中国皇帝的世界并在新地区建立中国贸易。<br /> <br /> Zheng He (1371 - 1433) was a great Chinese explorer and fleet commander. He went on seven major expeditions to explore the world for the Chinese emperor and to establish Chinese trade in new areas.<br /> <br /> Zheng He, a great Chinese explorer and fleet captain, has carrried out 7 major explorations to broaden Chinese emperor's world and establish Chinese trade in new regions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:02, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3-西方的儒道教说，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。<br /> <br /> The West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.<br /> <br /> The Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines in the West, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4-自强运动，又称为洋务运动（西洋运动或西洋运动）（约1861年至1895年），是鸦片战争的军事灾难后在清朝后期在中国发起的体制改革时期。<br /> <br /> The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 09:43, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization Movenment or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing Dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br /> <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> <br /> ==Rajabov, Anushervon==<br /> <br /> ==Seydou, Sagara==<br /> <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> <br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> <br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> 1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。<br /> <br /> The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (BC 202-AD 8 ) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty dispatched Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, with connection to Mediterranean countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.向西航行的郑和七下西洋：这是明朝政府组织的大规模航海活动，曾到达亚洲、非洲39个国家和地区，这对后来达·伽马开辟欧洲到印度的地方航线，以及对麦哲伦的环球航行，都具有先导作用。<br /> <br /> Westward sailing of Zheng He's seven voyages was a large-scale sailing activity organized by the Ming government, which travelled 39 countries and regions in Asia and Africa, which had a pioneering effect on the Da Gamma’s opening up the local route from Europe to India, as well as on Magellan's worldwide voyage.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。中国人经过西学的洗礼，对于世界、历史发展、政治、经济、社会、自然界万事的看法，都有了巨大的改变。<br /> <br /> The impact and the changes in Chinese thought and culture caused by Western learning can be rivaled only by the Hundred Schools of Thought in the history of China. After the baptism of Western learning, tremendous changes have been made on Chinese people's views on the world, historical development, politics, economy, society, and the whole nature.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.清政府统治集团内的一些开明人士为了维护清政府的封建统治，而采取了一系列“自强”“求富”的措施，虽然其目的是为了维护封建统治，但这一运动是符合历史潮流的。<br /> <br /> Some enlightened people in the Qing government adopted a series of measures for &quot;self-improvement&quot; and &quot;seeking wealth&quot; in order to maintain the feudal rule of the Qing government. Although they were aimed to maintain the feudal government, this movement was in line with the historical trend.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> 1. 张骞出使西域，既是一次极为艰险的外交旅行，同时也是一次卓有成效的科学考察。张骞对广阔的西域进行了实地的调查研究工作。<br /> Zhang Qian's mission to the western regions was not only an extremely difficult diplomatic trip, but also an effective scientific investigation. Zhang Qian made a field investigation on the vast western regions.<br /> <br /> 2. 十五世纪初期，郑和下西洋作为军事史上一项意义重大的事件，当前学术界从郑和下西洋的政治、经济及文化等角度对该事件的作用及影响进行了分析，鲜少从历史意义层面进行研究。郑和七次下西洋所到达的地区、实施的措施在人类航行史上占据至关重要的地位，了解郑和下西洋的历史意义非常必要。<br /> At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academic circles have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.<br /> <br /> 3. 明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西方传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。<br /> During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, bringing Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, Western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of science and technology in China was relatively slow, lagging behind Europe in the same period.<br /> <br /> 4. 随着经济全球化的发展，国与国之间的界限已经减少了。中国不断引进西方的文化，外国也不断引进中国的文化。在这个过程中，中国从最原始的封建社会，也逐步走向西化。<br /> With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China is constantly introducing western culture, and foreign countries are also constantly introducing Chinese culture. In this process, China gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.<br /> --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 10:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> 1.张骞第一次虽然没有完成出使目的，但是对西域诸国的山川地理、风土民情等重要信息，有了非常细致全面的掌握。<br /> <br /> Although Zhang Qian did not reach the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of the western countries.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Although Zhang Qian did not arrive at the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of many western countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举。郑和本人也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。<br /> <br /> Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He, showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event, and won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He himself showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event who has won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。<br /> <br /> After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the Western countries more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.戊戌变法是一次具有爱国救亡意义的变法维新运动，是中国近代史上一次重要的政治改革，也是一次思想启蒙运动。<br /> <br /> The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, an important political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, a significant political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> <br /> 1. 丝绸之路经济带，是在古丝绸之路概念基础上形成的一个新的经济发展区域。包括西北五省区陕西、甘肃、青海、宁夏、新疆。<br /> <br /> 1. Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region formed on the basis of the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. <br /> <br /> The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:03, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient one. It covers the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2. 海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称&quot;海上陶瓷之路&quot;和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。<br /> <br /> 2. Maritime Silk Road is a maritime route of trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, also known as “Maritime Ceramic Road” and “Maritime Spice Road”, first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavan in 1913.<br /> <br /> 3. 西学东渐是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，虽然也可以泛指自上古以来一直到到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思传入。<br /> <br /> 3. The Eastward Spread of Western Learning is a historical process of spreading Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to contemporary times, but usually refers to the introduction of academic thought from Europe and the United States in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.<br /> <br /> 4. 鸦片战争后，他们的基本思想就是了解夷情,“师夷长技以制夷”。这些卓识远见表明近代向西方学习的思潮的始初就和爱国精神交融在一起。<br /> <br /> 4. After the Opium War, their basic idea was to understand the situation of the barbarians and “learn from them in order to control them”. These insights show that the modern trend of learning from the West was intertwined with the spirit of patriotism from the very beginning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 02:34, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> <br /> 唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。<br /> <br /> The smooth and prosperous development of the Silk Road in the Tang Dynasty also further accelerated the ideological and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, causing a lot of positive and far-reaching influences on the development of mutual social and national ideologies in the future.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 宋代海上丝绸之路的持续发展，大大增加了朝廷和港市的财政深收入，一定程度上促进了经济发展和城市化生活，也为中外文化交流提供了便利条件。<br /> <br /> The continuous development of the Maritime Silk Road in the Song Dynasty greatly increased the deep financial income of the imperial court and the port city, promoted the economic development and urban life to a certain extent, and also provided convenient conditions for the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展，<br /> <br /> The eastward spread of Western learning brought various new academic achievements of modern Western learning into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines. Under such an influence, many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。<br /> <br /> The total annihilation of the Beiyang Navy in the Sino-Japanese War marked the complete loss of naval power in the Qing Dynasty and the bankruptcy of the 35-year-old Westernization Movement.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> 1.通过张骞的外交实践，构建了汉朝与西方国家友好交往的桥梁，促进了东西方文化、经济的交流和发展，为中国汉代昌盛和后世的对外开放奠定了坚实的基础。<br /> <br /> Through Zhang Qian's diplomatic practice, he built a bridge of friendly relations between the Han Dynasty and the West, promoting cultural and economic exchanges and development between the East and the West, and laying a solid foundation for the prosperity of the Han Dynasty and the opening up of China to the outside world in later generations.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.郑和下西洋折射出的中国先进航海科技光辉，表现了中国古代人的伟大智慧，从而创造了郑和下西洋的伟大航程。<br /> <br /> Zheng He's voyage to the West reflected the glory of China's advanced navigation technology and demonstrated the great wisdom of ancient Chinese people, thus creating the great voyage of Zheng He to the West.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br /> <br /> The Eastward Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thoughts to China from the end of the Ming Dynasty to modern times.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。<br /> <br /> In the Sino-Japanese War of the First Sino-Japanese War, the Beiyang Navy was wiped out, marking the complete loss of the Qing Dynasty's naval power and the bankruptcy of the 35-year Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> ==Zubareva, Ekaterina==</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_cult&diff=119175 2020-12-26T11:33:50Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Mo Ling 莫玲 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Alsied, Saffana==<br /> 1. Their king was killed and his skull turned into a drinking vessel. As a result, the Rouzhi fled and bore a constant grudge against the Xiongnu. At this time, the Han became increasingly strong, and Emperor Wu was determined to defeat the Xiongnu.--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。 结果，柔脂逃走了，对熊怒不断地怀恨在心。 这时，汉人变得越来越强大，吴皇帝决心打败匈奴。<br /> <br /> 2.They even carried on their ships many foreign heads of state and envoys to China. On the voyage of 1423 alone, they brought 1,200 envoys from 16 countries to China, some of whom even preferred not to go back. --[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 他们甚至还搭载了许多外国国家元首和特使前往中国。 仅在1423年的航行中，他们就将来自16个国家的1200名使节带到了中国，其中一些人甚至不愿回国。<br /> <br /> 3.In the second half of the 16th century, foreign missionaries from the Society of Jesus came to China. They spread religious doctrines on the one hand and introduced on the other hand works on astronomy, mathematics, physics, geography, paintings, and music to China. Meanwhile, they brought to the West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchanges between China and the West. <br /> <br /> 16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。 他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面向中国介绍天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作。 同时，他们把西方的儒道思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。<br /> <br /> 4.After the Second Opium War (1856-1860), Yi Xin (Prince Gong) and local officials realized that China had lagged far behind the West in weaponry and military technology, and advocated learning advanced production technology and troop training methods from the West so as to build a modern national defense. Known as the School of Westernization, these people launched a movement to learn from Western powers.<br /> <br /> 第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，巩义王子和当地官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，并主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，以便 建立现代国防。 这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了向西方列强学习的运动。<br /> <br /> ==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> <br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> <br /> 1.汉政府在西域设置常驻官员，派士卒屯田，设校尉统领保护，使汉族同新疆少数民族交往更加密切。汉朝在西域设立西域都护府为标志，丝绸之路进入繁荣时代。<br /> <br /> The government of the Han Dynasty set up permanent officials in the Western Regions, dispatched soldiers to garrison the fields, and assigned a captain to lead the protection, so that the Han people had closer exchanges with ethnic minorities in Xinjiang. Marked by the establishment of Protectorate of the Western Regions by the Han Dynasty, the Silk Road entered the era of prosperity. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.三国时代，魏、蜀、吴均有丝绸生产，而吴雄踞江东，汉末三国正处在海上丝绸之路从陆地转向海洋的承前启后与最终形成的关键时期。<br /> <br /> During the Three Kingdoms Period, the states of Wei, Shu and Wu all produced silk. And Wu stood firmly on the east bank of the Yangtze River. In the late Han Dynasty, the three states were at a crucial period when the Maritime Silk Road shifted from the land to the sea and eventually took shape. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.澳门由于在明嘉靖年间由朝廷让与葡萄牙人，因此在明末清初的西学东渐中，西方传教士常以澳门为中继站，而一些学术思想亦经由此逐渐传入中国内地，而许多与西人打交道的中国人亦在澳门及广州等地学习西方语言及文化。<br /> <br /> Since Macau was ceded to the Portuguese by the imperial court during the years of Jaijing in the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries often regarded it as a transition for eastward spreading of Western learning during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, and some academic ideas were gradually introduced to the Chinese mainland, while many Chinese who had dealings with Westerners also learned Western languages and cultures in Macau and Guangzhou. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.洋务派后期创办的民用工业，投资大多采取官督商办和官商合办形式，产品主要作为商品投放市场，管理上采取劳动雇佣制，所以其本质上属于带有封建因素的资本主义性质的企业。<br /> <br /> The civil industry founded by Westernization Group in the late period of the Movement was funded mostly by taking the government-supervised and merchant-managed form and the government-merchant cooperation. Its products were mainly put on the market as commodities and its management adopted the labor-employment system, so that it belongs to capitalist enterprises in essence featuring feudalism. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> <br /> ==Dashkin, Gennadii==<br /> <br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> <br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> <br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> <br /> ==Grosheva, Anna==<br /> <br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> <br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> <br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> <br /> ==Guirou, Barthelemy==<br /> <br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> <br /> 1. 丝绸之路是古代横贯亚欧的通道。其起点一般认为是长安（今西安），其实它随朝代更替政治中心转移而变化。长安（今西安）、洛阳、平城（今大同）、汴梁（今开封）、北京曾先后为丝路起点。<br /> <br /> The Silk Road is an ancient across of asia-europe. Its starting point is usually ascribed to Changan (now xian), actually the starting point is changed according to the changed political center. Changan (now Xian), Luoyang, Pingcheng (now Datong), Bianliang (today Kaifeng), and Beijing has been the starting point of the Silk Road.<br /> <br /> 2. 海上丝绸之路较之陆上，有共性，也有特性；有优势和潜力，也有难度和挑战。要推进21世纪海上丝绸之路建设，要在对接合作上下功夫。<br /> <br /> Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characters. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, I believe the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate our cooperation.<br /> <br /> Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characteristics. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate cooperation.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3. 在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。 <br /> <br /> The rising modern press during the period of the Eastward Spread of Western Learning deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.<br /> <br /> 4. 这场运动由士大夫们领导，比如李鸿章（1823——1901）和左宗棠（1812——1885），他们曾在太平起义中与政府军作战。1861到1894年间，现在成为大臣们的这些人负责建立了现代的机构，发展基础工业、通信和交通业并是军队现代化。<br /> <br /> The movement was championed by scholar-generals like Li Hongzhang (1823—1901) and Zuo Zongtang (1812—1885), who had fought with the government forces in the Taiping Rebellion. From 1861 to 1894, leaders such as these, now turned scholar-administrators, were responsible for establishing modem institutions, developing basic industries, communications, and transportation, and modernizing the military.<br /> --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:01, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==<br /> <br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> <br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> 1.张骞（前164年-前114年），字子文，西汉外交家、探险家，是“丝绸之路的开拓者”“东方的哥伦布”。 前139年，张骞奉汉武帝之命，出使西域，打通了汉朝通往西域的道路，即赫赫有名的丝绸之路，促进了东西方文明的交流。汉武帝以军功封其为博望侯。史学家司马迁高度称赞了其出使西域。<br /> <br /> Zhang Qian( B.C. 164- B.C. 114), whose style name is Ziwen, was the diplomat and explorer in Western Han dynasty. He was called as the pioneer of the Silk Road and the Columbus of the East. In B.C. 139, at the command of Emperor Wu of Western Han dynasty, Zhang Qian visited Western Regions and carved out a way, advancing the communication between the Eastern and Western civilization. Therefore, Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty granted him the title of Marquis Bowang with military merit. And Historian Sima Qian highly praised his work.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.海上丝绸之路是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，分为东海航线和南海航线两条线路，主要以南海为中心。海上丝路萌芽于商周，发展于春秋战国，形成于秦汉，兴于唐宋，转变于明清，是已知最为古老的海上航线。 海上丝绸之路途经100多个国家和地区，是中国与外国贸易往来和文化交流的海上大通道，推动了沿线各国的共同发展。<br /> <br /> The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. It was divided into two routes, the East China Sea route and the South China Sea route, with the South China Sea as the center. The Maritime Silk Road originated in the Shang and Zhou dynasties, developed in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and transformed in the Ming and Qing dynasties. And it is the oldest known maritime route. The Maritime Silk Road, passing through more than 100 countries and regions, is a major maritime corridor for trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries and has promoted the common development of countries along the route.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.西学东渐是指近代西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。<br /> <br /> The Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic ideas to China in modern times. Generally speaking, it is the introduction of academic ideas from Europe and America in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and the early Ming and Early Ming Dynasties.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 4.洋务运动是19世纪60到90年代晚清洋务派进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。 前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，创办了一批近代军事工业。后期，以“求富”为旗号，兴办了一批民用工业。甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，洋务运动宣告破产。洋务运动虽然没有使中国富强起来，但期间引进了西方先进的科学技术，客观上促进了民族资本主义的产生和发展。<br /> <br /> The Westernization Movement was a self-help movement carried out by the Westernization Group of the Qing Dynasty from the 1960s to the late 1990s, which introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty. In the early stage, the Westernization Movement established a number of modern military industries under the banner of &quot;self-improvement&quot;. In the later period, under the banner of &quot;seeking wealth&quot;, lots of civil industries were set up. In the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the entire Beiyang Navy was wiped out, and the Westernization Movement was bankrupt. Although Westernization Movement did not make China rich and powerful, it drew in advanced science and technology from the West, which objectively promoted the emergence and development of national capitalism.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> <br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> <br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> <br /> 1.张骞先后两次出使西域，打开了中国与中亚、西亚、南亚以至通往欧洲的陆路交通，从此中国人通过这条通道向西域和中亚等国出售丝绸、茶叶、漆器和其他产品，同时从欧洲、西亚和中亚引进宝石、玻璃器等产品。<br /> <br /> Zhang Qian has made two missions to the Western Regions, opening up the land transportation between China and Central Asia, West Asia, South Asia and even Europe. Since then, the Chinese have sold silk, tea, lacquerware and other products to the Western Regions and Central Asia and other countries through this road, while importing gems, glassware and other products from Europe, West Asia and Central Asia.<br /> <br /> 2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。<br /> <br /> The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, which was mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it was also known as the South China Sea Silk Road. The Maritime Silk Road was formed during the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished during the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, which is the oldest maritime route known to people.<br /> <br /> 3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术活动的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。<br /> <br /> The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought various new academic achievements in modern West into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic activities, and many academic disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.<br /> <br /> 4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激了中国资本主义发展，并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。<br /> <br /> Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism, it did not make China become prosperous and strong.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> <br /> ==Lo, Minh Thao==<br /> <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> <br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> <br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> <br /> 1.汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但丝绸之路开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。<br /> <br /> Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.<br /> <br /> 2.明初工商业的恢复和发展，宋、元以来中国海外贸易的发达，对外移民的增加，所有这一切，都为郑和下“西洋”准备了坚实的经济基础和物质条件。<br /> <br /> The recovery and development of industry and Commerce in the early Ming Dynasty, the development of China's overseas trade since the song and Yuan Dynasties, and the increase of foreign immigrants all prepared a solid economic foundation and material conditions for Zheng He's &quot;western&quot; voyage.<br /> <br /> 3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。<br /> <br /> Matteo Ricci spread the western knowledge of geometry, geography and humanism to the Chinese society, which initiated the practice for the literati to absorb western learnings in the late Ming Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 4.江南制造局虽是清末洋务派创办的规模最大的兵工厂，但是技术上仍是由外国技师垄断．<br /> <br /> Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arms factory founded by Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, it was still monopolized by foreign technicians in the aspect of technique.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:33, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br /> <br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> 1.建元二年（前139年），张骞率领100多名随行人员，由匈奴人堂邑父为向导从长安出发前往西域。西行进入河西走廊。这一地区自月氏人西迁后，已完全为匈奴人所控制。正当张骞一行匆匆穿过河西走廊时，不幸碰上匈奴的骑兵，他们全部被抓获。<br /> <br /> In the second year of Jianyuan(139 B.C.), Zhang Qian set off to the Western Regions leading an entourage of more than 100 men from Chang'an under the guidance of Tang Yifu who is a Hun. They travelled westward into the Hexi Corridor which had been completely controlled by the Huns since they moved westward. When they tried to hurry through this region, unfortunately they met the Hun cavalry, and they were all captured.<br /> <br /> 2.郑和下西洋所到之处主要是开展贸易活动，以“朝贡贸易”为基本形式，同时推行“官方贸易”、带动“民间互市”等。<br /> <br /> Zheng He's voyages are mainly to carry out trade activities, during which they took &quot;tribute trade&quot; as the basic activity, and at the same time promoted &quot;official trade&quot; and &quot;non-governmental trade&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们，在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。<br /> <br /> From the late Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, missionaries played an important role in the Eastward Spread of Western Learning. While trying to introduce Catholicism into China, the missionaries mainly composed of the Catholic Jesuits introduced western scientific and technological thoughts and translated a large number of western academic books.<br /> <br /> 4.在洋务运动存续的35年里，文化出版事业的发展达到了一个前所未有的水平。译书经历了由单纯的西方科技著作和书籍，向自然科学和社会科学，人文科学等著作并重，甚至后者略占上风的过程。<br /> <br /> During the 35 years of Westernization Movement, the development of cultural publishing reached an unprecedentedly high level. The translation of books experienced a process from the dominance of western scientific and technological works to the emphasis laid equally on works of natural and social sciences and humanities, and even the latter took the majority.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 12:15, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1. In the second year of Jian Yuan (139 BC), Zhang Qian led more than 100 serve men, with the Xiongnu man Tang Yi as the guide, to set off from Chang’ an to the West. This area has been completely controlled by the Xiongnu since the westward migration of the Ziyue people. Just as Zhang Qian passed through the Hexi Corridor, they unfortunately ran into the Xiongnu cavalry, who captured them all.<br /> <br /> 2. Zheng He mainly carried out trade activities in all the places he visited, taking “tribute trade” as the basic form. At the same time, he also promoted “official trade” and “private mutual market”.<br /> <br /> 3. In the wave of Western learning in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, missionaries played an important role, mainly the Jesuit missionaries, who tried to introduce Catholicism into China, introduced Western scientific and academic ideas, and translated a large number of Western academic books.<br /> <br /> 4. During the 35 years’ Westernization Movement, the development of publishing reached an unprecedented level. The translation of books went through a process from purely Western scientific and technological works and books to works on natural sciences and social sciences, humanities, etc., with the latter even slightly prevailing.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> <br /> ==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br /> 1-张谦出生于西汉（公元前206年至公元24年）的城固县（今陕西省城固县）。他是中国历史上杰出的使节和探险家，开辟了古老的丝绸之路，并带来了有关西部地区的可靠信息.<br /> <br /> Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-24 AD). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions.<br /> <br /> Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-24 A.D.). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions to China.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2-郑和（1371-1433）是一位伟大的中国探险家和舰队司令。他进行了七次主要探险，以探索中国皇帝的世界并在新地区建立中国贸易。<br /> <br /> Zheng He (1371 - 1433) was a great Chinese explorer and fleet commander. He went on seven major expeditions to explore the world for the Chinese emperor and to establish Chinese trade in new areas.<br /> <br /> Zheng He, a great Chinese explorer and fleet captain, has carrried out 7 major explorations to broaden Chinese emperor's world and establish Chinese trade in new regions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:02, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3-西方的儒道教说，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。<br /> <br /> The West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.<br /> <br /> The Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines in the West, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4-自强运动，又称为洋务运动（西洋运动或西洋运动）（约1861年至1895年），是鸦片战争的军事灾难后在清朝后期在中国发起的体制改革时期。<br /> <br /> The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 09:43, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization Movenment or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing Dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br /> <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> <br /> ==Rajabov, Anushervon==<br /> <br /> ==Seydou, Sagara==<br /> <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> <br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> <br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> 1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。<br /> <br /> The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (BC 202-AD 8 ) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty dispatched Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, with connection to Mediterranean countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.向西航行的郑和七下西洋：这是明朝政府组织的大规模航海活动，曾到达亚洲、非洲39个国家和地区，这对后来达·伽马开辟欧洲到印度的地方航线，以及对麦哲伦的环球航行，都具有先导作用。<br /> <br /> Westward sailing of Zheng He's seven voyages was a large-scale sailing activity organized by the Ming government, which travelled 39 countries and regions in Asia and Africa, which had a pioneering effect on the Da Gamma’s opening up the local route from Europe to India, as well as on Magellan's worldwide voyage.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。中国人经过西学的洗礼，对于世界、历史发展、政治、经济、社会、自然界万事的看法，都有了巨大的改变。<br /> <br /> The impact and the changes in Chinese thought and culture caused by Western learning can be rivaled only by the Hundred Schools of Thought in the history of China. After the baptism of Western learning, tremendous changes have been made on Chinese people's views on the world, historical development, politics, economy, society, and the whole nature.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.清政府统治集团内的一些开明人士为了维护清政府的封建统治，而采取了一系列“自强”“求富”的措施，虽然其目的是为了维护封建统治，但这一运动是符合历史潮流的。<br /> <br /> Some enlightened people in the Qing government adopted a series of measures for &quot;self-improvement&quot; and &quot;seeking wealth&quot; in order to maintain the feudal rule of the Qing government. Although they were aimed to maintain the feudal government, this movement was in line with the historical trend.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> 1. 张骞出使西域，既是一次极为艰险的外交旅行，同时也是一次卓有成效的科学考察。张骞对广阔的西域进行了实地的调查研究工作。<br /> Zhang Qian's mission to the western regions was not only an extremely difficult diplomatic trip, but also an effective scientific investigation. Zhang Qian made a field investigation on the vast western regions.<br /> <br /> 2. 十五世纪初期，郑和下西洋作为军事史上一项意义重大的事件，当前学术界从郑和下西洋的政治、经济及文化等角度对该事件的作用及影响进行了分析，鲜少从历史意义层面进行研究。郑和七次下西洋所到达的地区、实施的措施在人类航行史上占据至关重要的地位，了解郑和下西洋的历史意义非常必要。<br /> At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academic circles have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.<br /> <br /> 3. 明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西方传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。<br /> During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, bringing Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, Western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of science and technology in China was relatively slow, lagging behind Europe in the same period.<br /> <br /> 4. 随着经济全球化的发展，国与国之间的界限已经减少了。中国不断引进西方的文化，外国也不断引进中国的文化。在这个过程中，中国从最原始的封建社会，也逐步走向西化。<br /> With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China is constantly introducing western culture, and foreign countries are also constantly introducing Chinese culture. In this process, China gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.<br /> --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 10:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> 1.张骞第一次虽然没有完成出使目的，但是对西域诸国的山川地理、风土民情等重要信息，有了非常细致全面的掌握。<br /> <br /> Although Zhang Qian did not reach the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of the western countries.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Although Zhang Qian did not arrive at the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of many western countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举。郑和本人也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。<br /> <br /> Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He, showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event, and won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He himself showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event who has won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。<br /> <br /> After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the Western countries more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.戊戌变法是一次具有爱国救亡意义的变法维新运动，是中国近代史上一次重要的政治改革，也是一次思想启蒙运动。<br /> <br /> The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, an important political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, a significant political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> <br /> 1. 丝绸之路经济带，是在古丝绸之路概念基础上形成的一个新的经济发展区域。包括西北五省区陕西、甘肃、青海、宁夏、新疆。<br /> <br /> 1. Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region formed on the basis of the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. <br /> <br /> The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:03, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient one. It covers the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2. 海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称&quot;海上陶瓷之路&quot;和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。<br /> <br /> 2. Maritime Silk Road is a maritime route of trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, also known as “Maritime Ceramic Road” and “Maritime Spice Road”, first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavan in 1913.<br /> <br /> 3. 西学东渐是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，虽然也可以泛指自上古以来一直到到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思传入。<br /> <br /> 3. The Eastward Spread of Western Learning is a historical process of spreading Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to contemporary times, but usually refers to the introduction of academic thought from Europe and the United States in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.<br /> <br /> 4. 鸦片战争后，他们的基本思想就是了解夷情,“师夷长技以制夷”。这些卓识远见表明近代向西方学习的思潮的始初就和爱国精神交融在一起。<br /> <br /> 4. After the Opium War, their basic idea was to understand the situation of the barbarians and “learn from them in order to control them”. These insights show that the modern trend of learning from the West was intertwined with the spirit of patriotism from the very beginning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 02:34, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> <br /> 唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。<br /> <br /> The smooth and prosperous development of the Silk Road in the Tang Dynasty also further accelerated the ideological and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, causing a lot of positive and far-reaching influences on the development of mutual social and national ideologies in the future.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 宋代海上丝绸之路的持续发展，大大增加了朝廷和港市的财政深收入，一定程度上促进了经济发展和城市化生活，也为中外文化交流提供了便利条件。<br /> <br /> The continuous development of the Maritime Silk Road in the Song Dynasty greatly increased the deep financial income of the imperial court and the port city, promoted the economic development and urban life to a certain extent, and also provided convenient conditions for the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展，<br /> <br /> The eastward spread of Western learning brought various new academic achievements of modern Western learning into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines. Under such an influence, many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。<br /> <br /> The total annihilation of the Beiyang Navy in the Sino-Japanese War marked the complete loss of naval power in the Qing Dynasty and the bankruptcy of the 35-year-old Westernization Movement.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> 1.通过张骞的外交实践，构建了汉朝与西方国家友好交往的桥梁，促进了东西方文化、经济的交流和发展，为中国汉代昌盛和后世的对外开放奠定了坚实的基础。<br /> <br /> Through Zhang Qian's diplomatic practice, he built a bridge of friendly relations between the Han Dynasty and the West, promoting cultural and economic exchanges and development between the East and the West, and laying a solid foundation for the prosperity of the Han Dynasty and the opening up of China to the outside world in later generations.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.郑和下西洋折射出的中国先进航海科技光辉，表现了中国古代人的伟大智慧，从而创造了郑和下西洋的伟大航程。<br /> <br /> Zheng He's voyage to the West reflected the glory of China's advanced navigation technology and demonstrated the great wisdom of ancient Chinese people, thus creating the great voyage of Zheng He to the West.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br /> <br /> The Eastward Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thoughts to China from the end of the Ming Dynasty to modern times.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。<br /> <br /> In the Sino-Japanese War of the First Sino-Japanese War, the Beiyang Navy was wiped out, marking the complete loss of the Qing Dynasty's naval power and the bankruptcy of the 35-year Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> ==Zubareva, Ekaterina==</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_2&diff=118214 2020-12-21T11:33:08Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br /> *Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br /> <br /> '''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br /> *You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like &quot;Longevity Noodles&quot;) or Text B (&quot;Mooncakes&quot;), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title (&quot;Festival Meals&quot;) and arrange it accordingly.<br /> *In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br /> *For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br /> *Add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Please also add a list &quot;Terms and Expressions&quot;.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Questions&quot; section.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Answers&quot; section.<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Red Culture - Kang Haoyu 康浩宇, 202070080638 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康浩宇 Kang Haoyu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Red Culture===<br /> Chinese red culture is unique in the world. As a very important culture, it has both tangible cultural resources and intangible ones. Red culture in China refers to the advanced culture with Chinese characteristics created by the Communism Party of China and Chinese people in revolutionary years.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)<br /> <br /> ====1. Development====<br /> <br /> China has a brilliant history and splendid civilization in ancient times. However, after the Opium War of 1840, China was plunged into the darkness of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression. Despite of all efforts that countless dedicated patriots had made, they still failed to change the plight. The October Revolution in Russia brought Marxism-Leninism to China. With Communism as the the highest ideal and ultimate goal, the Communist Party of China shouldered the historical mission of national rejuvenation. With the firm leadership of the party, Chinese people embraced national independence, people's liberation, national reunification and social stability, and stepped into a new era of prosperity and happiness.(Xi Jinpin 2017)<br /> <br /> Red culture is condensed by the Communist Party of China in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. It is an advanced Marxism culture that was inherited and developed in the new period of socialist construction. It's a collectivism culture of bravery, sacrifice and devotion that seeks happiness for the Chinese people and rejuvenation for the Chinese nation.Red culture is embodied in the aspects of ideal belief, value pursuit and spiritual outlook, and is tightly related to material remains, mechanism behaviors and cultural and artistic forms.(Luo Liling, Pu Qingpin 2018, 45)<br /> <br /> First of all, red culture is a revolutionary culture, which was formed by the Chinese Communist Party in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. After the founding of People's Republic of China, the Communist Party of China led the Chinese people to inherit and carry forward the revolutionary culture. In the new period of socialist construction and reform and opening up, a vigorous and advanced socialist culture was formed, which enriched and developed the connotation of red culture. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture, and are the core value and spiritual subject of contemporary Chinese culture. As for Chinese red culture, Among them, Marxism is the soul, the common ideal of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the theme, the national spirit and the spirit of the times are the essence, and the socialist concept of honor and disgrace is the foundation. These four aspects influence, infiltrate and interact with each other, revealing the essential characteristics of red culture scientifically and completely.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)<br /> <br /> ====2. Symbols====<br /> <br /> The word “red” in “red culture” has many symbols. Chinese people have “red” complex since ancient time. Red represents authority. For, example, official documents are also called red heading documents. Red represents courage. Red is the color of Chinese national flag. Chinese military strategists and generals have a deep understanding of the role of red in war, so they use red flags to unite their morale, inspire their courage, and summon their spirit of going forward bravely and not fearing sacrifice. Red represents honor and auspiciousness. For instance, the places are always adorned with red for conference and ceremony. People are awarded with red flower and red certificates. Red represents revolution. When Marx was asked about &quot;favorite color&quot; in his early years, he clearly answered &quot;red&quot;. In 1864, First International was founded, and its logo was red. The first army of the Communist Party of China was named Red Army, and Ruijin, the first revolutionary base area, was called Red Capital. There were also red boats in South Lake and red flags in Jinggangshan.(Chen dongwang, Huang Weiliang 2006, 19)<br /> <br /> ====3. Values====<br /> <br /> Red culture has many values. Red culture has the value of history. It witnesses the early development history of the Communist Party of China. It shows the inevitability of the socialist road in China. And it is an important weapon to guide the success of Chinese revolution. Besides, red culture has the value of civilization. Carrying forward the red culture is an urgent need to cultivate a new national spirit. Red culture is important for the construction of socialism culture and ideology. Moreover, red culture has the value of economy. Red culture is a powerful driving force for the development of the socialist market economy. It is an important medium of economic development under the new historical conditions. The red cultural industry has become a new economic growth point.(Wang Yidi 2007, 149)<br /> <br /> ====4. Red Culture in Nanchang====<br /> <br /> Nanchang is the capital city of Jiangxi Province and it is where August 1st uprising took place. Nanchang is renowned as the cradle of Chinese revolution and the place where the military flag rose. Because in August 1st uprising,communist party of china formed its first army in Nanchang. There are lots of red culture resources in Nanchang. <br /> <br /> Bayi Square is at the center of Nanchang city. It was built to memorize August 1st uprising. Bayi Square highlights the theme of &quot;Bayi History and Culture&quot; in all directions. The memorial area, cultural area, reminiscence area and leisure area of Bayi Square show Bayi Uprising in different forms. The landmark in the square is Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower. Besides, Nanchang August 1st Memorial Hall is a special memorial hall established to commemorate Nanchang Uprising.（Peng Bo, Zhang Li, Li Jiangyuan 2006, 58）<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] 程东旺, 黄伟良. “红色文化”的价值形态与德育功能探析[J]. 现代教育科学, 2006: 19-21.<br /> <br /> [2] 罗丽琳,蒲清平. 红色文化的思想政治教育基因及其时代价值[J].新疆师范大学学报, 2018: 45-52<br /> <br /> [3] 彭波, 张丽, 李江源. 整合红色资源,提升江西文化力[J]. 江西崛起策论, 2006:58-60.<br /> <br /> [4] 王以第. “红色文化”的价值内涵[J]. 文化论苑, 2007:149-150.<br /> <br /> [5] 习近平, 决胜全面建成小康社会 夺取新时代中国特色社会主义伟大胜利——在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告,人民日报,2017.<br /> <br /> [6] 朱桂莲,李晶. 德育视角下的中国红色文化研究综述[J]. 研究综述, 2010:87-89.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> red culture 红色文化<br /> <br /> Opium War 鸦片战争<br /> <br /> red heading documents 红头文件<br /> <br /> red army 红军<br /> <br /> August 1st uprising 八一起义<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1. What is the historical background of the birth of red culture?<br /> <br /> 2. What are two major components of red culture?<br /> <br /> 3. How many symbols dose the word &quot;red&quot; in red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 4. How many values dose red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 5. What is the landmark in Bayi Square?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1. In modern China, Communist Party of China led the Chinese revolution and led people to fight against suppression.<br /> <br /> 2. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture<br /> <br /> 3. Four. Authority, courage, honor and revolution.<br /> <br /> 4. Three. History value, civilization value and economic value.<br /> <br /> 5. Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower<br /> <br /> ==The Ancient Tea Horse Road - Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆, 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===The Ancient Tea Horse Road===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. It originated from the ancient southwest frontier of the tea horse mutual market, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties and in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and prospered in the middle and late World War II. The Tea Horse Road was listed by the State Council as the seventh batch of national key cultural relics conservation units on March 5, 2013. (Zou Jingyi , Zhang Yimei 2018,131) --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 13:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Historical Routes====<br /> China’s ancient tea horse road is divided into:<br /> <br /> 1. Shanxi-Gansu tea horse road is the main route for tea to travel westward in mainland China and exchange for horses. It is one of the main routes of the ancient Silk Road.<br /> 2. Shanxi - Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road) began in the Han Dynasty, formed by the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse each other.During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government controlled tea trafficking, and the tea trafficking sub-regional, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road. (Kang Yuming, Li Jinfeng2020,281) <br /> <br /> 3. The ancient Yunnan-Tibet Tea Horse Road was formed in the late sixth century AD. It is in the south of Yunnan's main tea producing areas. It is an important trade channel between ancient China and South Asia.<br /> 4. Sichuan-Tibet Tea Horse Road is a part of the Shan-Kang-Tibet Tea Horse Road. It is an essential bridge and link between ancient Tibet and the interior. It is in the east of Yazhou edge, west to Lhasa, Tibet, and finally through to Bhutan, Nepal and India, a total length of nearly four thousand kilometers. (Kang Yuming, Li Jinfeng2020,282)<br /> <br /> There are three main routes of the ancient tea-horse road: The Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line. Among the three ancient tea-horse roads, the Qinghai-Tibet line was established in the Tang Dynasty and developed earlier, while the Sichuan-Tibet line was the most influential and well-known later. These three routes are closely related to Chengdu, and among them, the Yunnan-Tibet route and the Sichuan-Tibet route pass through Chengdu, and their development is closely related to the tea-horse trade. (Kang Yuming,Li Jinfeng2020,283) --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Historical Values===<br /> 1. The Golden Road of Tourism<br /> The ancient tea-horse road tour has unique scenery, profound cultural connotation, exclusive resources and is unparalleled in the world.<br /> <br /> 2. Ancient Roads for the Propagation of Civilization<br /> The ancient Tea Horse Road was not only an important migration corridor for the ancient ancestors between Wei-Tibet and present Sichuan and Yunnan, but also an important aperture for the spread and exchange of ancient civilizations between present Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet. (Ji Jing2016,354)<br /> <br /> 3. Migration Corridor of National Cultures<br /> On this ancient road, which stretches for more than 10,000 miles, Chinese, Tibetan, Yi, Naxi, Lisu, Hani, Kino, Qiang, Pumi, Bai, Nu, Jingpo, Achang and other ethnic groups have flourished here for thousands of years, highlighting the diversity and original form of ethnic culture in southwest China.<br /> <br /> 4. The Path of National Spirituality<br /> You can't talk about the ancient tea-horse road without mentioning the horse gangs. The horse gangs have formed a unique cultural carrier in the course of thousands of years. Their spirit is attached to this ancient road, and become part of the Chinese national spirit. (Ji Jing2016,355)<br /> <br /> 5. The Road of National Unity and Integration<br /> The ancient tea-horse road is like a huge net in southwest China, through which people of all nationalities strengthen their ties and communication, promote political, economic and cultural interaction, development and integration among all nationalities, and enhance the emotional ties between them.<br /> <br /> 6. The Road of Securing the Borders<br /> The expansion of the ancient tea-horse road and the flourishing of the tea-horse trade contributed to the stability and consolidation of China's southwest frontier.<br /> <br /> 7. The road to economic development<br /> The Thousand-Year Tea Horse Trail contributed to the formation of many towns in the region through the tea and horse trade, which greatly contributed to the economic development of the region. (Ji Jing2016,355)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road(茶马古道)<br /> <br /> 2.Sichuan-Tibet Line（川藏线）<br /> <br /> 3.Yunnan-Tibet line（滇藏线）<br /> <br /> 4.wade ancient road（蹚古道）<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What is the ancient tea horse road ?<br /> <br /> 2.How many main routes does the ancient tea-horse road conclude?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the historical value?--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. <br /> <br /> 2.There are three main routes, including the Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line.<br /> <br /> 3.The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Zou Jingyi, Zhang Yiqing邹怡情,张依玫. (2018). 作为文化线路的茶马古道遗产保护研究[ A Study on Heritage Conservation of Ancient Tea Horse Road as a Cultural Route].<br /> ''北京规划建设'' BeiJing Planning Review (04)131-140.<br /> <br /> Kang Yuming, Li Jinfeng康昱明,李金峰.(2020).甘肃茶马古道文化线路遗产探究[ A Study on Cultural Route Heritage of Ancient Tea Horse Road in Gansu Province].''农村经济与科技''Rural Economy and Science (11)281-283.<br /> <br /> Li Gang, Li Wei李刚,李薇. (2011). 论历史上三条茶马古道的联系及历史地位[ On the Connection and Historical Status of Three Ancient Tea Horse Roads in History]. ''西北大学学报''Journal of Northwestern University (04):113-117.<br /> <br /> Ji Ji纪静. (2016). 茶马古道的兴起及其价值研究 [ A Study on the Rise and Value of Ancient Tea Horse Road ]. ''福建茶叶'' Tea In Fujian (07):354-355.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Literature, Novels - Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪 学号202070080639 MTI 英语口译==<br /> <br /> ===Four satirical novels in ancient China===<br /> <br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> <br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.(https://baike.baidu.com/item/晚清四大谴责小说/702907?fromtitle=四大谴责小说&amp;fromid=10570148&amp;fr=aladdin)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> <br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> <br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.(wenku)<br /> <br /> ==== Nie Hai Hua====<br /> <br /> Nie Hai Hua was written by Zen Pu (1872-1935).A total of 35 chapters.it is a novel of condemnation, historical fiction and political fiction. In the novel, Jin yun (wen qing) is the main character.After won the scholarship, he took a famous courtesan, Fu Caiyun, as his concubine in Suzhou.He was then ordered to travel to Russia, Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands. After returning to China, Jin Wenqing died of illness in Beijing, and Fu Caiyun left the Jin family to resume her old profession in Shanghai, changing her name to Cao Menglan then went to Tianjin to work as a prostitute, calling herself Sai Jinhua.<br /> <br /> The novel takes the story of Jin Wenqing and Fu Caiyun as the main line, vividly describes the historical and cultural changes as well as political and social changes from Tongzhi to Guangxu more than 30 years, exposing the decay and decline of the rulers, criticizing the feudal system of imperial examination, satirizing the officials, truly reflecting their spiritual life and cultural mentality. at the same time also enthusiastically glorifies Feng Zicai, Liu Yongfu and other war heroes and Sun Yat-sen and so on. The revolutionary activities of the Democratic Revolutionaries express the author's patriotic thoughts against the feudal dictatorship and advocate national democratic revolution. In specific writing, the author adopts the modern popular block novel structure combined with the traditional mesh novel structure to unfold the plot, with ups and downs, twists and turns, touching and orderly, always around the main line.<br /> <br /> As a historical novel, Nie Hai Hua draws on the spirit of the ancient &quot;good history&quot; of China to portray its characters. At the same time, it draws on the satirical approach of &quot;The History of Confucianism&quot; in which &quot;the fair-minded accuse the evils of the times&quot;, commenting on events and weighing characters in a realistic manner. In terms of art, Nie Hai Hua also has many shortcomings.However, it is a skillful structure and outstanding novel at that time.(wenku)<br /> <br /> ==== the Travels of an Old Man====<br /> <br /> The Travels of an Old Man was written by Liu E (1857-1909) and a total of 20 chapters. Liu E was an entrepreneur and scholar, not a professional writer, but his reputation as a literary figure was far greater than that of an entrepreneur and scholar. This novel is an unfinished work of his that was written in his later years with an autobiographical nature.<br /> The novel takes a bell-ringing mountebank, Lao can (Tie Ying), as its main character, and narrates his experiences and activities during his travels in northern China, exposing the decadence and darkness of the Qing government, the brutality and lethargy of the officials, and the poverty and oppression of the people, especially attacking the abusive behavior of those &quot;Qing officials&quot; who are actually cruel officials, and expressing the author's strong views on the perilous reality of society and the country. <br /> <br /> The artistic achievement of the novel is very high. The first is the superb descriptive skills, whether it is a description, a landscape, or a narrative, can be vividly depicted, such as the scenery of Thousand Buddha Mountain, Daming Lake etc., which makes people have a sense of being in the real world. Secondly, its psychological description and psychological analysis, with appropriate language, can brilliantly show the inner world of the characters. Thirdly, the exquisite structural art. The novel is in the form of a Travel Journal, with travel as a clue,and organic combined of what he see, hear, think and do along the way forms a unique structural feature of the novel.(wenku)<br /> <br /> ==== The Records of Officialdom Exposure====<br /> <br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure by Li Baojia (1867-1906), five editions and a total of 60 chapters. This is the first long chapter novel in China's modern era that was published serially in newspapers and magazines and achieved a social sensation, creating a culture of critical reality in modern fiction.<br /> <br /> The novel consists of more than 30 relatively independent bureaucratic stories linked together, involving the Qing government from the emperor, down to the minor officials and so on,and these various bureaucrats of all kinds of evil behavior were exposed:They embezzled public funds, corrupt and pervert the law or the named &quot;expedition bandits&quot;, but is harmful to the people. The work is like a scroll of the officialdom at the end of the feudal society, touching on the main contradictions of that time.<br /> <br /> The novel's writing method is modelled on &quot;The Scholars&quot; and has been developed, making full use of exaggeration, comic style and satirical techniques. only a few strokes will outline the character's voice and physical appearance. And the author also good at describing the details, so that the characters are vivid and evocative, with a strong artistic impact. Therefore, the subsequent imitation of the work is quite a lot, it become a great view.(wenku)<br /> <br /> ==== 20 years witness strange present situation====<br /> <br /> The Strange Situation Witnessed in Twenty Years was written by Wu Woyao(1866-1910), A total of 60 chapters. This is a long novel with autobiographical flavor.it through nearly 200 short stories that the protagonist hears and witnesses from the death of his father to his failure in business. it outlines the strange realities of late Qing society during the 20 years from the Sino-French War to the beginning of the 20th century.<br /> <br /> The scope of social life is much broader than The Records of Officialdom Exposure. In addition to describing the officialdom, there are also involving the shopping malls, foreign markets, science fields, medical and astrological practices. It exposes the political situation, moral outlook, social customs, and human conditions of the increasingly colonized Chinese feudal society, and is of high cognitive value in helping readers to see the irreparable historical destiny of the late Qing society and feudal system.<br /> <br /> The novel adopts the first-person narrative story, structured in a way that makes the reader feel intimate and trustworthy, setting a precedent in the history of Chinese fiction. The structure is also very clever: &quot;nine deaths and a lifetime&quot; is not only the narrator of the book story, but also the backbone of the structure of the book, and at the same time uses flashbacks, interpolations and other methods, combining it organically together, making the whole book complex and simple appropriate, muddle together.(wenku)<br /> <br /> ==== Conclution====<br /> <br /> As a result of the bourgeois reformists and democratic revolutionaries strongly advocated, the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty got unprecedented development, and a large number of influential novels emerged, forming a prosperous situation of the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty.The emergence of the &quot;Four satirical novels&quot; in the late Qing Dynasty is an important sign that The creation of Chinese novels has entered another prosperous period.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> *[1]https://baike.baidu.com/item/晚清四大谴责小说/702907?fromtitle=四大谴责小说&amp;fromid=10570148&amp;fr=aladdin<br /> *[2]二十年目睹之怪现状[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 吴趼人, 2012<br /> *[3]老残游记[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 刘鹗, 2012<br /> *[4]官场现形记[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 李宝嘉, 2012<br /> *[5]孽海花[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 曾朴, 2012<br /> *[6]四大谴责小说政治批判手法研究[J].李辉东,2017<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure 《官场现形记》<br /> <br /> The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years 《二十年之目睹怪现象》<br /> <br /> the Travels of an Old Man 《老残游记》<br /> <br /> Nai Hai Hua 《孽海花》<br /> <br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty 晚清四大谴责小说<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1、what are The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty ?<br /> <br /> 2、which novel is modeled the &quot;The Scholars&quot;?<br /> <br /> 3、what’s the common characteristic of these four novels? <br /> <br /> 4、what other satirical novels do you know?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1、They are Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua.<br /> <br /> 2、The Records of Officialdom Exposure<br /> <br /> 3、The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time.<br /> <br /> 4、E.g.The Scholars<br /> <br /> ==Shadow Play - Li Lili 李丽丽 No.202070080594 MTI 英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> ====The Origin of Shadow Play====<br /> Shadow play has a long history according to the written records. Legend has it that Empress Xiaowu, the wife of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, died of illness. Emperor Wu missed her so strongly that he was in a trance and ignored the government's affairs all day. One day, Minister Li Shaoweng went out and came across a child playing with a doll in his hand. The shadow of the doll was so vivid that he came up with an idea to cut the Mrs. Li's image out of cotton and silk, painted it, and installed wooden poles on its hands and feet. When Emperor Wu looked at it, it was like a treasure that he was glued to it. This love story is considered to be the earliest origin of shadow play. (Wei Liqun 2018,13) <br /> <br /> There are also some views that shadow play originated in Xi'an of Tang Dynasty, however, it is worth discussing that although there were a variety of operas in the Tang Dynasty, yet there were no any records of shadow play mentioned in the Tang Dynasty. Up to now, the earliest shadow play was recorded in Song Dynasty. Its rise and development were closely related to Bianjing’s (the capital of Northern Song Dynasty) superior geographical environment, the development of commodity trade and good commercial transportation at that time. (Wei Liqun 2018,14-15)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> <br /> [[File:shadow play.jpg|200px|thumb|left|shadow play [https://image.baidu.com/search/detail?ct=503316480&amp;z=0&amp;ipn=d&amp;word=%E7%9A%AE%E5%BD%B1%E6%88%8F&amp;step_word=&amp;hs=0&amp;pn=52&amp;spn=0&amp;di=159940&amp;pi=0&amp;rn=1&amp;tn=baiduimagedetail&amp;is=0%2C0&amp;istype=2&amp;ie=utf-8&amp;oe=utf-8&amp;in=&amp;cl=2&amp;lm=-1&amp;st=-1&amp;cs=3259573009%2C2741597473&amp;os=1545447922%2C43065069&amp;simid=3408503629%2C426405487&amp;adpicid=0&amp;lpn=0&amp;ln=1690&amp;fr=&amp;fmq=1608548398687_R&amp;fm=result&amp;ic=0&amp;s=undefined&amp;hd=&amp;latest=&amp;copyright=&amp;se=&amp;sme=&amp;tab=0&amp;width=&amp;height=&amp;face=undefined&amp;ist=&amp;jit=&amp;cg=&amp;bdtype=0&amp;oriquery=&amp;objurl=https%3A%2F%2Ftimgsa.baidu.com%2Ftimg%3Fimage%26quality%3D80%26size%3Db9999_10000%26sec%3D1608558486081%26di%3Db48786725188bc991e17f2b578acece7%26imgtype%3D0%26src%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fimg2.jiemian.com%2Fjiemian%2Foriginal%2F20170817%2F150295685830448400_a580xH.jpg&amp;fromurl=ippr_z2C%24qAzdH3FAzdH3Fooo_z%26e3B3tj4twg_z%26e3Bv54AzdH3Fw6ptvsjAzdH3F8cc088c_z%26e3Bip4s&amp;gsm=35&amp;rpstart=0&amp;rpnum=0&amp;islist=&amp;querylist=&amp;force=undefined]]]<br /> <br /> In Chinese ancient society, Chinese began to give performances using puppets against an illuminated screen. This is “shadow puppets”, also known as “lamp and shadow play”. It is considered as “precursor of movie” because it was the earliest moving part of form dubbed with human voice in the world. During a play, puppeteers hide behind the white screen and move puppets, while narrating the story, usually through singing. Performances are accompanied by musicians playing percussion and stringed instruments. A shadow puppet can perform actions such as “serving drinks”, “waving a sword and a spear,” or even “smoking” by puppeteer holding and moving manipulating rods on its body. (Wang Yexia 2012,1-2)<br /> <br /> Typically, a shadow puppet has three rods and some may have five or seven rods. It can create rich designs such as shadow puppets, animals and stage props, for example, buildings, imperial palaces, chariots, tables and chairs as well as weapons. It is so rich that it includes almost everything under the sun. It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools. The well-known ones include Tangshan Shadow Play in Hebei Province, Beijing Shadow Play as well as Shaanxi, Shanxi and Hunan Shadow Play. etc. (Wang Yexia 2012,2-3)<br /> <br /> So how to make a puppet? First, draw pictures of the various parts of the shadow puppets; second, finish carving with a knife and a hard board underneath the design; third, color the puppet with watercolor pens; fourth, paint the body parts with a brush dipped in oil. This can make the puppet transparent and better reflect colors under the light.; fifth, connect joint sections with the cotton thread; sixth, make the manipulating rods; finally, attach the manipulating rods to the shadow puppet with cotton thread. Thanks to different manipulating rods moves, the shadow puppet has a life, and can show happiness, anger, sorrow and gladness. (Wang Yexia 2012,29-35)<br /> <br /> [[Media:making method]]<br /> <br /> The eyes and the eyebrows of a shadow puppet’s five facial features represent different personalities. The good and positive people are typical of a benevolent and kind countenance, with nice-looking eyebrows and eyes, while the villain or the general are ferocious look, with sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes. And the former are often concealed teeth and the latter are revealed teeth. The middle-aged people have short beard, but the elderly men have long beard. (Wang Yexia 2012,10-11)<br /> <br /> The decorative designs on the shadow puppets are so important that they must match the character’s social status. In a shadow play, female characters are usually decorated with patters such as flowers, grass, clouds and phoenix, while male characters are often decorated with dragons, tigers, water and clouds. Shadows puppets look colorful under the light. To achieve a better visual effect, the translucent puppets need to be painted on both sides. The different colors of heads can also represent different characters’ personalities. The red is a symbol of a heroic and upstanding character and the representative is Guan Yu. The black is a sign of a just, honest and selfless personality and the representative is Zhang Fei. The yellow shows a brave and irascible character and is often used in fantasy plays to represent people with magic power. (Wang Yexia 2012,13-16)<br /> <br /> ====The Present Situation of Contemporary Shadow Play====<br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, shadow play, as an art form, has undergone a series of reforms under the guidance of the Party's principles, including the organization of theatrical troupes, the compilation and creation of plays, the drawing and performing forms of shadow play. With the advent of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, the prosperity of shadow play came to an abrupt end. The troupe was disbanded, the repertoire was banned, and the artists were transferred to other fields. A large number of precious shadow puppet props and documents were damaged. This situation, except for some places, lasted until 1976. (Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）<br /> <br /> After the end of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, shadow puppet art rapidly revived, However, with the economic development being put in the first place of social activities and the popularity of television and the richness of artistic forms, shadow play is declining day by day with an irresistible trend, because shadow play arts are unable to keep pace with the times and get the appreciation from the audience. As a result, the prospect of shadow play art is becoming increasingly bleak. （Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）<br /> <br /> In order to inherit Chinese excellent culture and protect the ancient art forms such as shadow play. On May 20, 2006, it was approved by the State Council to be included in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage list. On November 27, 2011, UNESCO included Chinese shadow play in the &quot;Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity&quot;.（Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Wang Yexia 王业霞.(2012). 《皮影戏》 [Shadow Play] 北京：高等教育出版社 Beijing: [Higher Education Publishing House] <br /> *Wei Liqun 魏力群.(2018). 《小书大传承-皮影》[&quot;Small Book, Big Heritage - Shadow Play&quot;] 重庆：重庆出版社 Chongqing: [Chongqing Publishing House]<br /> *Zhu Hengfu 朱恒夫.(2020). 中国皮影戏的历史，现状与剧目特征[The History, Current Situation and Repertoire Characteristics of Chinese Shadow Theatre] 浙江艺术职业学院学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Arts Vocational College]<br /> <br /> ===Words and Expressions===<br /> *shadow puppet皮影戏 <br /> *paper cutting 剪纸<br /> *ventriloquism 口技<br /> *manipulating rod 操纵杆<br /> *five facial features 五官<br /> *sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes 尖眉杏眼<br /> *Cultural Revolution 文化大革命<br /> *intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> *1. When is the earliest shadow puppet’s record? <br /> *2. What art of forms do shadow play use?<br /> *3. What does a red head stand for in a play?<br /> *4. When is shadow play put in the &quot;Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> *1. Song dynasty.<br /> *2. It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools.<br /> *3. The red is a symbol of a heroic and upstanding character.<br /> *4. On November 27, 2011.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Confucian Culture - Li Liqin 李丽琴 Student No.202070080595 MTI 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Introduction ===<br /> <br /> Confucian school is an academic school founded by Confucius, developed by Mencius, and composed by Xunzi. Today, it still retains a certain vitality. Confucian school takes Confucianism as its guiding ideology whose central ideas are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 31)<br /> <br /> Confucian school was on an equal footing with the other hundred schools in the pre-Qin period. After the First Emperor of Qin, also called Qin Shihuang, burned books and buried scholars alive, the development of the Confucian school suffered a serious defeat. Then, in order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's advice of &quot;banishing other schools of thought and worshiping Confucianism only&quot; and imposed restrictions on thought, which led to the revival of Confucian school. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 20) The concepts of &quot;Confucian school&quot;, &quot;Confucianism&quot;, and &quot;Confucian Religion&quot; should be distinguished since Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism a social stratification, and Confucian religion belief. (Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 2017, 60-61)<br /> <br /> Laozi founded Chinese Taoist school; Confucius started Chinese Confucian school; Sun Tzu initiated Chinese military strategist school; Mozi was the founder of Mohism in the early Warring States. Confucianism contributes to guiding the code of conduct and constructing social order; Taoism focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalism serves the system construction of national political management; the concepts of Universal Love and utilitarianism are two cornerstones for the Mohism. The General Unity idea of Confucianism has played an important role in the unification of a nation, the enhancement of national cohesion and the integration of cultural values. (Tan Su 2012, 68) <br /> <br /> After more than two thousand years of development and evolution, Confucian culture has built up a complete ideological system, involving politics, education, morality, ethics, code of conduct, life skills and other aspects. It has cultivated the wisdom and soul of the Chinese people throughout the history, and formed deep-rooted set patterns of thinking, psychology and survival. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42-43)<br /> <br /> === Analysis of Confucian Culture ===<br /> <br /> ==== Intelligence Development ====<br /> <br /> Confucius is a great educator, as well as a pioneer and practitioner of mass education. After Confucianism was established as a dominant culture, both the rulers and the public respected the teachings of the sage and attached great importance to education. In this context, a basic requirement is to stay highly cultured and steeped in propriety. After the Emperor Wen initiated the imperial examination system in the Sui Dynasty, those who are good scholars could make an official, which inspired students of poor families to change their lives by studying hard and diligent. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 19) <br /> <br /> For generations, the Chinese people have attached great importance to the education of their children, which is conducive to the improvement of the thinking ability of the whole nation. However, the corrupt of bureaucracy and the darkness of officialdom in metaphase and anaphase made many literati feel despairing about official career and discredit about the concept. In addition, the Four Books and Five Classics were the main learning content of Confucianism. Apart from government-run schools, private schools and self-study can hardly meet the requirements of the Six Classical Arts. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 21) Therefore, the Four Books and Five Classics were the focus of students, while the Six Classical Arts were not highly valued.<br /> <br /> ====Spiritual Guidance ====<br /> <br /> In terms of spirit, Confucianism contends that &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.&quot; (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 86) Benevolent people love each other, which reflects the essence of “Unity of Man and Nature” and also the most brilliant connotation of Confucianism. This philosophy calls for people’s active contributions to the society. It is still alive in modern times, and is the fundamental requirement of people's spiritual orientation in the future. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32)<br /> <br /> ====Order Construction ====<br /> <br /> In the age of barbarism and backwardness, a common feature was that a small number of people used power and force to suppress and enslave the majority, thus resulting in labor division and unfair distribution of wealth and generating corresponding social hierarchy and concepts. Given the fact that Confucianism developed in the transitional period of feudal society, the thoughts of Confucius and Mencius were rooted in the idealist view of destiny and did not break the shackles of social hierarchy. In addition, they even advocated the distinguish between the noble and the humble and highlighted the importance of hierarchy division. (Li Fangping 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> In this context, the benevolence they advocated had great limitations in political management. The public could not be treated equally in terms of political status. Instead, the so-called benevolence calls for improvement of the living conditions of the public and more benefits from the ruling class. However, its purpose was to maintain social order and reconcile social contradictions. This is also the root cause of feudal rulers’ favoring of Confucianism. In essence, Confucianism did not promote social equality, instead, it worked to maintain the unequal feudal hierarchy that aggravated servitude. In fact, after a long history of feudal rule, the sense of hierarchy would be part of the national psyche. With the progress of times and civilization, the view of destiny and the thought of social order have become psychological shackles of the Chinese people. (Li Fangping 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> After eliminating the ideology of feudal hierarchy and formalism, some philosophies of Confucianism still generate positive effects on modern society. Specifically, the spirit of benevolence and universal love is conducive to cultivate people’s spirits; the concept of “the country belongs to the public” reflects a sense of social responsibility to make contributions for society, which can be expanded into a sharing social and political philosophy for different countries. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 33)<br /> <br /> Filial piety and brotherhood increase the harmony and stability of family; Loyalty, faithfulness, propriety and forgiveness are conducive to the relationship between different countries, societies and people. &quot;Loyalty&quot; means that people should stay loyal to the country and people; &quot;Friendliness&quot; and &quot;forgiveness&quot; play an important role in resolving various contradictions and animosities; when it comes to &quot;filial piety&quot; and &quot;propriety&quot;, many redundant forms inherited from feudal society should be eradicated and be more practical. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-41)<br /> <br /> ===The Contemporary Value of Confucian Culture ===<br /> <br /> Today, Confucian culture is still of great significance. We must explore the value of Confucian culture on the basis of the excellent tradition of the Chinese nation and by combining the characteristics of the times with and the actual situation. The Confucian culture has affected Chinese more than two thousand years and gone deep into each aspect of Chinese society. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39)<br /> <br /> ====Ideological and Political Education ====<br /> <br /> Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy, and it places a high priority on human value and dignity. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 51-57) Over the years, the Chinese nation has been influenced by this excellent philosophy. On this occasion, its behavioral pattern and psychological structure are endowed with uniqueness, which is mainly manifested in two aspects. One is to respect yourself, learn how to love and care yourself. Moreover, gain dignity and achieve the development of human value through the continuous improvement of moral cultivation. Second, respect others and show respect for others' personality by respecting, understanding and caring for others. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-40)<br /> <br /> ==== Modern Economic Construction====<br /> <br /> Under today’s circumstance, some ideological contents are still alive and produce positive effects on promoting the economic construction of modernization and fostering modern patriotism emotion of the Chinese people. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65)<br /> <br /> First of all, Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of &quot;benevolence&quot; and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65) <br /> <br /> Since Confucian culture reflects a collectivist view on life, individuals are full of sense of duty and responsibility towards others and groups. In this context, their self-cultivation targets at regulating the family, country and the world. Thus, the value of individual is closely linked with the rise and fall of the country, so they have a strong sense of responsibility. &quot;Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country&quot; has been a common belief for thousands of years. Such a social responsibility will give rise to a huge driving force for the development of the country and society. (Tan Su 2012, 68)<br /> <br /> Second, the consciousness of &quot;self-improvement&quot; and the proposition of &quot;seeking truth&quot; in the Confucian culture strengthen the national spirit and provide a source power for China’s economic modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 66) <br /> <br /> Yi Zhuan put forward: &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection.&quot; It means that continuous development is the law of nature and that a gentleman should pursue progress and be strong, unyielding resilient and positive. For thousands of years, the Chinese nation has formed a fine tradition of working hard and striving for strength under the influence of these thoughts. Today, we carry forward the spirits of “self-improvement” and &quot;seeking truth&quot; in ways that further enhance national spirits and provide a strong driving force for the socialist modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 67)<br /> <br /> Third, the &quot;reform and innovation&quot; concept in Confucian culture is conducive to the expansion of the reform and opening up and the acceleration of China's socialist modernization. On the basis of admitting the fact that the continuous development is the universal law of nature, Confucian culture puts forward the &quot;innovation idea&quot;. The Book of Rites said, &quot;If you can in one day renovate yourself; do so from day to day and let there be daily renovation.&quot; The Book of Changes said, &quot;Reform refers to destroy the old, while innovation means to establish the new.” (Li Chengzong 2002, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept not only serves as the theoretical basis for reform and innovation throughout the history, but also provides valuable lessons for the reform in socialist economic and political systems today. Domestically, promoting the innovative spirits can greatly enhance the reform consciousness of the Chinese people. Externally, it is conducive to advancing the opening up by leveraging the global influence of Confucian culture. (Li Chengzong 2002, 67)<br /> <br /> ==== Legal Construction ====<br /> <br /> Confucian culture places a high priority on personal cultivation, while a highly civilized society under the rule of law must be composed of highly educated citizens. Confucian school, a school with thousands of years of history in China, has become an integral part of the Chinese culture. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32-33) <br /> <br /> Nowadays, since China has called for the policy of combining the rule of virtue with the rule of law, it is the time for Confucian culture to find its historical position and fully play its role. Exploring the influence of Confucian culture on the construction of contemporary Chinese rule by law, not only can we help us more deeply understand the traditional culture, but also can promote the process of building the rule of law in contemporary China. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32-33)<br /> <br /> The rule by virtue thought is an important part of Confucian culture and it emphasizes the importance of moral education. It is a national strategy pursued by ancient Chinese rulers and a method of national governance embodying reference significance in today’s China. (Wei Na 2014, 1-2) <br /> <br /> In terms of national governance, Confucianism emphasizes the importance of morality, believing that national governance should not mainly rely on harsh punishment, instead, moral education should be applied to reform people. Confucius said, &quot;By governing with virtue, rulers will be loved by the public, just like stars surround the North Star.&quot; By comparing rulers to the North Star and people to the stars, Confucius emphasized the importance of moral governance. (Wang Jie 2004, 77)<br /> <br /> How to rule by virtue? First of all, rulers should pay attention to their personal cultivation and develop good moral characters, so that they can set a good example for the public. Only when officials and common people obey the ruler sincerely, can a good social atmosphere be formed. Secondly, since Confucianism takes &quot;benevolence&quot; as its core and calls for the rule of virtue, many people subconsciously believe that Confucianism denies the role of criminal law and that Confucian culture does not call for the rule of law. (Wang Jie 2004, 82-83) <br /> <br /> In fact, this is not the case. While Confucianism advocates the rule of virtue, it also emphasizes the supplementary role of rule of law. Confucius said, &quot;Sages believe that national governance must combine the rule of virtue and law.&quot; That is to say, if people are governed by systems and laws, they seek for impunity but lack of conscience; however, if they are guided by morality and etiquette, they will have a sense of right and wrong and will impose strict requirements on themselves. (Wang Jie 2004, 83)<br /> <br /> In a word, we should clearly realize that, although Confucian culture is an excellent traditional culture in China, it was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. Under this circumstance, we must analyse Confucian culture dialectically and explore the value of Confucian culture. At the same time, we should discard the bad habits and unfavorable factors left by it, so as to better carry forward our traditional culture and accelerate the construction of the rule of law in contemporary China. (Wang Jie 2004, 83)<br /> <br /> ===The Confucius Institute ===<br /> <br /> With the improvement of China's international status and the increasingly extensive international exchanges, Chinese culture has won wider foreign attention and the world is more eager to learn and understand the Chinese culture. The Confucius Institute project, founded in 2004, emerges in response to the call of the times. Today, Confucius Institutes have spread throughout Asia, Africa, The Americas, Europe and Oceania. (Wang Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 30) <br /> <br /> Fundamentally speaking, its is conducive to the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture since language is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is of positive significance to the construction of China's national image, the promotion of China's international influence, the realization of wider international communication. (Wang Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 30) <br /> <br /> The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Today, countries are committed to spreading their own language and culture, so there is a fierce competition in international cultural promotion. In addition, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 31)<br /> <br /> At present, Confucius Institutes are prevalent all over the world, but the promotion strategy seeking for quantity and speed results in a serious shortage of teachers capable of teaching Chinese as a foreign language. According to statistics, there is a global shortage of at least five million TCSL teachers. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 31) <br /> <br /> Secondly, the lack of high-quality and localized teaching materials for Chinese has also become a bottleneck for the development of Confucius Institutes. The shortage of Chinese textbooks affects the depth of cultural communication of Confucius Institutes directly. Thirdly, Confucius Institutes are not capable of spreading the ideological depth of the Chinese culture. Although the textbooks are rich in content, they mainly focus on promoting folk culture by introducing Chinese food, tea and wine, traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts. Meanwhile, they rarely involve the ideological essence of traditional Chinese culture and the modern value of Chinese culture. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 32)<br /> <br /> The Confucius Institutes should fully explore the modern significance of Confucianism and cast the quintessence of Chinese culture, and strengthen the spread of the core idea of Chinese culture and its modern cultural value. The connotation of Chinese culture is very rich. What Confucius Institutes should spread is not all the contents of Chinese culture, but the contents with universal value that are different from other countries and represent the essence of Chinese culture. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42)<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions ===<br /> <br /> 儒家 Confucian school<br /> <br /> 儒学 Confucianism<br /> <br /> 儒教 Confucian religion <br /> <br /> 兼爱 Universal love<br /> <br /> 恕、忠、孝、悌、勇 forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage<br /> <br /> 仁、义、礼、智、信 benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith<br /> <br /> 学而优则仕 A good scholar will make an official<br /> <br /> 四书五经 the Four Books and Five Classics<br /> <br /> 天行健，君子当自强不息；地势坤，君子以厚德载物。As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.<br /> <br /> 天下兴亡，匹夫有责 Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country<br /> <br /> ===Questions ===<br /> <br /> 1. What’s the central ideas of Confucian culture?<br /> <br /> 2. What’s the difference among Confucian school, Confucianism and Confucian religion?<br /> <br /> 3. What do you think of the relationship between Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school, Legalist school?<br /> <br /> 4. What’s the Six Classical Arts?<br /> <br /> 5. What you think of the ancient influence of Confucianism?<br /> <br /> 6. Do you think Confucian culture still has its contemporary values in China? And why?<br /> <br /> 7. What do you think of the current situation of the development of the Confucian institute?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1. The central ideas of Confucian culture are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith.<br /> <br /> 2. Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism is a social stratification, and Confucian is a religion belief.<br /> <br /> 3. Confucian school emphasizes the code of conduct and the social order construction; Taoist school focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalist school serves the system construction of national political management; Mohist school emphasizes Universal Love and utilitarianism. Although Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school and Legalist school are different schools with different theories, they are not completely antagonistic. <br /> <br /> 4. The Six Classical Arts refers to propriety(礼), music（乐）, archery（射）, riding（御）, writing（书） and arithematic（数）. <br /> <br /> 5. The ancient influence of Confucianism should be analysed from a historical perspective. It was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. While contributing to intelligence development, spiritual guidance and order construction to some extent, it has also led to some negative effects in the long run. For example, it called for rigid feudal hierarchy and resulted in spiritual constraints. <br /> <br /> 6. Yes. Although Confucian culture has a history of thousands of years, it still has contemporary values in today's society. For instance, Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy and places a high priority on human value and dignity, which is still of profound significance; Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of &quot;benevolence&quot; and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy.<br /> <br /> 7. The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Nowadays, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. Joint efforts of all social sectors should be made to achieve the sustainable development of it. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> *Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 陈智斌, 杜艾红. (2017). 儒学、儒家、儒教之异同 [The Differences and Similarities of Confucian School, Confucianism and Confucian Religion]. ''审计月刊'' Audit Monthly (03) 60-62.<br /> <br /> *Li Chenzong 李承宗. (2002). 论儒家文化对培养现代爱国主义情感的积极作用 [On the Positive Effects of Confucian Culture on Cultivating Patriotism]. ''廊坊师范学院学报'' Journal of Langfang Teachers College (02) 65-70.<br /> <br /> *Li Fangping 李芳萍. (2013). 儒家思想对中国文化的影响研究 [A Study on the Influence of Confucianism on Chinese Culture]. ''前沿'' Forward Position (10) 55-56. <br /> <br /> *Li Xiaoyu 李晓愚. (2010). 儒家仁爱思想的当代诠释 [Contemporary Interpretation of Benevolence]. ''郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Zhengzhou University (05) 31-33.<br /> <br /> *Tan Su 谭苏. (2012). 论春秋战国时期的百家争鸣 [On the Competition of Ideas in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period]. ''兰台世界'' Lantai World (10) 67-68. <br /> <br /> *Wang Jie 王杰. (2004). 为政以德: 孔子的德治主义治国模式 [Rule of Virtue: Confucian’s Model of Governance]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C. (02) 77-83. <br /> <br /> *Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 吴瑛, 提文静. (2009). 孔子学院的发展现状与问题分析 [The Development Status and Problems of Confucius Institute]. ''云南师范大学学报 (对外汉语教学与研究版)'' Journal of Yunnan Normal University (05) 28-33. <br /> <br /> *Xiang Chunling 向春玲. (2008). 儒家文化的现代意义 [On Modern Significance of Confucian Culture]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C. (06) 39-43. <br /> <br /> *Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (1990). ''中国儒学思想史'' [The History of Chinese Confucianism]. 陕西：陕西人民出版社 Shaanxi: Shaanxi People’s Publishing House. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ch'ien Chung-shu - Liu Liu刘柳， 202070080596 MTI==<br /> <br /> ====Ch'ien Chung-shu====<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu (1910-1998), a well-known scholar, writer, translator and literary researcher, was born into an education family in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province. In Chinese academic circles, Qian was ranked with Rao Zongyi, a master in academic circles, and both were called &quot;South Rao and North Qian&quot;. He was admitted to Tsinghua University in 1929 and got to know Yang Jiang in 1932. Qian became famous soon after the enrolment, not only for the 15 mark of his mathematics, but for his excellent Chinese and English, especially full marks in English.(360 Encyclopedia)<br /> <br /> Qian had an engagement with Yang the year after their acquaintance and went to study at Oxford University in England along with her. In 1937, he obtained the bachelor's degree from Oxford with the treatise ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries'', and his daughter Qian Yuan was born the same year. He wrote a great many profound literary works in his lifetime. When it comes to Ch'ien Chung-shu, people would think of his representative work ''Fortress Besieged'', which was published in 1947.(360 Encyclopedia)<br /> <br /> As a realistic satirical novel, ''Fortress Besieged'' is known as &quot;The New Scholars&quot; in the 1940s. The novel is centralized on Fang Hongjian,who returned from studying abroad at the beginning of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression. It depicts the struggles in love, marriage,career and life of a group of intellectuals who were far away from the times and the people during the War of Resistance against Japanese Agression. It reveals their inner poverty, emptiness and lowliness, criticizes the dark reality of the Kuomintang-controlled areas, and reveals the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life.(Qian Zhongshu 1947) <br /> <br /> In the preface of the book, Qian said that, &quot;In this book I intended to write about a certain segment of society and a certain kind of people in modern China. In writing about these people, I didn’t forget they are human beings, still human beings with the basic nature of hairless, two-legged animals. &quot;The novel is like an X-ray mirror that reveals the deformed characters and ugly souls of those &quot;hairless and two-legged animals&quot; and analyzes the cultural matrix which is responsible for the deformed characters and ugly souls of these &quot;latest style&quot; literati.(Qian Zhongshu 1947)<br /> <br /> Yang Jiang said, &quot;The main connotation of ''Fortress Besieged'' is that those who are besieged by the city want to escape, while those outside want to rush in. This is what most people wish for in life, whether in marriage or career. &quot;The meaning of &quot;fortress besieged&quot; is also stated several times in the novel. It tells people that life is a besieged city everywhere, people have marriage and divorce, divorce and marriage in endless succession,with everlasting confusion and dilemma. The questions that Qian raised in the novel refer to a question of universal significance, which is the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life as a whole. In December 1990, the television series ''Fortress Besieged'' was broadcast on China Central Television(CCTV) and enjoyed great popularity.quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu has made significant achievements in literary research and literary creation. In particular, it is of great significance to carry forward and deny traditional Chinese culture scientifically and learn from foreign culture selectively. He has wrote the collection of essays ''Written in the Margins of Life'' (1941), the collection of short stories ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts'' (1946), and the novel ''Fortress Besieged'' (1947). <br /> <br /> Both his essays and novels are wise and meaningful. Qian has read Chinese history, philosophy and literary classics in depth and has studied western old and new literature, philosophy and psychology. Many of his works, such as ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideaas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', have enjoyed high reputation in academic circles both at home and abroad.<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu viewd China and the world with a cultural criticism spirit. Based on his profound knowledge of Chinese and world culture, Qian has always shown a clear mind and a deep insight when observing Chinese and Western culture. He didn't reject any theories or doctrines, nor did he blindly follow any authorities. He devoted his life to promoting Chinese literature and art to the world. <br /> <br /> To this end, he not only explicated the profound meaning and unique value of Chinese culture in depth, but also pointed out its historical and regional limitations. He not only criticized the Chinese for their arrogance towards the local culture due to certain illusions, but also mercilessly eliminated the Westerners' prejudice centered on European and American culture due to ignorance. It is Ch'ien Chung-shu who has promoted cultural communication between China and other countries.<br /> <br /> November 21st,2020 is the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu. People often call him a well-informed scholar, but he is more of a down-to-earth writer and scholar. He was indifferent to fame and wealth and alaways took a rigorous and serious attitude towards academic research. We feel ourselves in an entirely new world when we read the subtle metaphors in ''Fortress Besieged'', while we read ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', we are amazed at Qian's erudition. People all over the world admire his talent, but in fact,it is his meticulous and diligent reading spirit that makes him a well-informed scholar.(Wang Shuizhao 2020) <br /> <br /> Many of his life experiences and the question of whether his scholarship was systematic or not have attracted much attention. Wang Shuizhao, professor of Chinese Department of Fudan University, who has studied and worked with Ch'ien Chung-shu for a long time, has recently published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'', in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements based on the first-hand historical data, his personal experiences and his own understanding of academia, and gives answers to the questions discueesed widely, such as Qian's experience of being falsely accused, whether there exists system in his scholarship and the collision of viewpoints between Qian and Chen Yinke.(Wang Shuizhao 2020)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries'' 《十七十八世纪英国文学中的中国》<br /> <br /> ''Fortress Besieged'' 《围城》<br /> <br /> Kuomintang-controlled areas 国统区<br /> <br /> ''Written in the Margins of Life'' 《写在人生边上》<br /> <br /> ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts'' 《人·兽·鬼》<br /> <br /> ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' 《管锥编》<br /> <br /> ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'' 《谈艺录》<br /> <br /> the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu 钱钟书诞辰110周年纪念日<br /> <br /> ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu '' 《钱锺书的学术人生》<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.What is Ch'ien Chung-shu's representative work? When was it published?<br /> <br /> 2.When was the TV series ''Fortress Besieged'' broadcast?<br /> <br /> 3.Do you know other works about Ch'ien Chung-shu? Can you list some of them?<br /> <br /> 4.Which book did Wang Shuizhao publish in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu? What does he talk about in this book?<br /> <br /> 5.Which sentence is your favoriate in ''Fortress Besieged''? <br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Ch'ien Chung-shu's representive work is ''Fortress Besieged''. It was published in 1947.<br /> <br /> 2.It was broadcast in December 1990.<br /> <br /> 3.''Patchwork:Seven Essays on Art and Literature''（《七缀集》） and ''Poetic Remains of an Ephemeral Life''（《槐聚诗存》）.<br /> <br /> 4.Wang Shuizhao published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'' in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu, in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements.<br /> <br /> 5.&quot;I want to be able to occupy the whole life of the man I love. Before meeting me, he would have had no past and would be waiting for me with a clean slate.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu.钱钟书.(1947).''围城''.[Fortress Besieged].上海晨光出版公司[Shanghai Chenguang Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Wang Shuizhao.王水照.(2020).''钱锺书的学术人生''.[Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu].中华书局[Zhonghua Book Company,Ltd.].<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> == ''' Crosstalk''' Liu Ou 刘欧， 202070080597，MTI==<br /> 大标题+小标题+名字拼音+汉字+学号+专业--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘欧 Liu Ou &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===The Development of Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> Crosstalk, in the ancient time was known as onomatopoeia, originally refers to imitate others’ voices. It was evolved and further developed from the folk opera in North China, and integrated with imitating oral skills and other folk art forms. It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty. It’s a folk vocal art that uses jokes or funny questioning and answering to make the audience laugh. In the early years of the Republic of China (1912-1949), crosstalk gradually developed from one-person ventriloquism to one person stand-up talk, and the name changed to cross talk. Later, it developed into stand-up crosstalk, dual crosstalk, and group crosstalk. And become a veritable form of art. After years of development, dual crosstalk has finally become the most popular form of crosstalk among audiences.In the late Qing Dynasty, crosstalk formed its modern features and styles. The language uses in crosstalk is mainly Beijing dialect, however, there are also “dialect crosstalk” in other regions of China. (360 Encyclopedia)<br /> <br /> Crosstalk, in the ancient time known as onomatopoeia, originally refers to imitate others’ voices. It was evolved and further developed from the folk opera in North China, and integrated with imitating oral skills and other folk art forms. It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty. It’s a folk vocal art that uses jokes or funny questioning and answering to make the audience laugh. In the early years of the Republic of China (1912-1949), crosstalk gradually developed from one-person ventriloquism to one person stand-up talk, and the name changed to cross talk. Later, it developed into stand-up crosstalk, dual crosstalk, and group crosstalk. And it becomes a veritable form of art. After years of development, dual crosstalk has finally become the most popular form of crosstalk among audiences. In the late Qing Dynasty, crosstalk formed its modern features and styles. The language uses in crosstalk is mainly Beijing dialect, however, there are also “dialect crosstalk” in other regions of China. (360 Encyclopedia)夹注应在句号前。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> <br /> Crosstalk is a original folk art in China, with a long historical tradition, deeply loved by the majority of the people. The once-dead crosstalk art has been reborn and developed very rapidly especially since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. It is no longer confined to several cities in the north, nor spread only within the citizens, but also spread from the north to the whole country, from the city to the countryside, and from the citizens to all strata. (Hou Baolin, 1982:01)<br /> <br /> Crosstalk is a original folk art in China, with a long historical tradition, deeply loved by the majority of the people 这句话语法错误--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC) . The once-dead crosstalk art has been reborn and developed very rapidly especially since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. It is no longer confined to several cities in the north, nor spread only within the citizens, but also spread from the north to the whole country, from the city to the countryside, and from the citizens to all strata 这句话关联词不完整， spread主谓注意一致，注意逗号的使用以及夹注在句号前。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Hou Baolin, 1982:01)<br /> <br /> ===Four Basic Skills in Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> Speaking, imitating, teasing and singing are the four basic artistic skills of crosstalk. “Speaking” means to tell jokes, stories, lantern riddles, drinking games, etc; “imitating” is to imitate all kinds of birds and animals, hawking, singing and the sound of different languages, etc; “teasing” is to gag and tease; “sing” means to sing Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity, so they are called Taiping) (1982:194), opera lyrics and songs. Crosstalk artists regard “speaking, imitating, teasing and singing” as their “four compulsory lessons”. For example, by saying “tongue twisters” or “reciting classical repertoires” to grasp the rhythm in language and correct the pronunciation. By learning all kinds of sounds to gain the ability to imitate. To practice singing skills by singing “Taiping lyrics” , opera lyrics and songs. (Hou Baolin, 1982:11)<br /> <br /> Speaking, imitating, teasing and singing are the four basic artistic skills of crosstalk. “Speaking” means to tell jokes, stories, lantern riddles, drinking games, etc; “imitating” is to imitate all kinds of birds and animals, hawking, singing and the sound of different languages, etc; “teasing” is to gag and tease; “sing” means to sing Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity, so they are called Taiping) (1982:194)作者？--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC), opera lyrics and songs. Crosstalk artists regard “speaking, imitating, teasing and singing” as their “four compulsory lessons”. For example, by saying “tongue twisters” or “reciting classical repertoires” to grasp the rhythm in language and correct the pronunciation 不是一个完整的句子。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). By learning all kinds of sounds to gain the ability to imitate不是一个完整的句子。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). To practice singing skills by singing “Taiping lyrics” , opera lyrics and songs不是一个完整的句子。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Hou Baolin, 1982:11)<br /> <br /> ===Characteristics of Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> First of all, crosstalk is the art of “speaking”, which belongs to the art of “performing with words”, it is different from drama that “performing with body movements” 出现了两个句子，无连接词。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). This kind of performance has a close relationship between the actors and the audience and shortened the distance between the stage and the audience. The actors directly communicate with the audience and perform with the audience's cooperation and tacit understanding to obtain artistic effect. In this sense, crosstalk is a collective performance of actors and audiences. From the perspective of the audience, they are not standing on the opposite side of the actors and appreciating the stage performance passively and objectively, but creating artistic images with the actors. (Hou Baolin. 1982:02)<br /> <br /> First of all, crosstalk is the art of “speaking”, which belongs to the art of “performing with words”, it is different from drama that “performing with body movements” 出现了两个句子，无连接词。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). This kind of performance has a close relationship between the actors and the audience and shortened the distance between the stage and the audience. The actors directly communicate with the audience and perform with the audience's cooperation and tacit understanding to obtain artistic effect. In this sense, crosstalk is a collective performance of actors and audiences. From the perspective of the audience, they are not standing on the opposite side of the actors and appreciating the stage performance passively and objectively, but creating artistic images with the actors. (Hou Baolin. 1982:02)参考格式(Liu Miqing 2010, 17) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, crosstalk is the art of laughter. Crosstalk uses laughter as a weapon to expose contradictions, shape characters and evaluate life. Without laughter, it can constitute any other arts, but not crosstalk and comedy. In other words, crosstalk has the characteristics of humor and satire. It reflects that life is not flat, but exaggerated and even deformed. China has a long tradition of satirizing emperors or high rank officials, its written record could be traced back to the Zhou (1046BC-256BC) and Qin (221BC-207BC) Dynasties. Satire is the product of class oppression. China has been in a feudalistic society for a long time, without political democracy and freedom of speech, the people often take circuitous methods to fight against the ruling class. Satirical art is like a weed under a boulder. Only through deformation and roundabout can this kind of art maintain to exist. (Hou Baolin. 1982:03)<br /> <br /> Secondly, crosstalk is the art of laughter. Crosstalk uses laughter as a weapon to expose contradictions, shape characters and evaluate life. Without laughter, it can constitute any other arts, but not crosstalk and comedy. In other words, crosstalk has the characteristics of humor and satire. It reflects that life is not flat, but exaggerated and even deformed. China has a long tradition of satirizing emperors or high rank officials, its written record could be traced back to the Zhou (1046BC-256BC) and Qin (221BC-207BC) Dynasties 没有连接词--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Satire is the product of class oppression. China has been in a feudalistic society for a long time, without political democracy and freedom of speech, the people often take circuitous methods to fight against the ruling class没有连接词--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Satirical art is like a weed under a boulder. Only through deformation and roundabout can this kind of art maintain to exist. (Hou Baolin. 1982:03)<br /> <br /> <br /> “Speaking” and “laughing” constitute the basic outline of cross talk art, which is a language performance art with comedy style. “Speaking”, as a kind of rap art, establishes the mode of crosstalk art, which is distinguished from drama art. “Laughing” is the artistic characteristics of crosstalk, which distinguishes it from other rap art forms. These two characteristics are interdependent and complementary. (Hou Baolin. 1982:04)<br /> <br /> Crosstalk belongs to the art of drama, but it is different from comedy. In comedy, the laughter of audience mainly comes from plot and comic characters, while in crosstalk it mainly comes from “baofu” (jokes). Sometimes it relies on the plot, sometimes it is not needed, but win the applaud of audience by the charm of language. “Baofu” must be expressed in the way of “dialogue” and “chatting” between the actors . (Hou Baolin. 1982:04)<br /> <br /> ===Famous Artists of CrossTalk===<br /> <br /> In Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) and Emperor Guangxu (1875—1908) periods, Zhu Shaowen (stage name “Qiong Bupa, which means not afraid of poverty”) was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art. Other famous crosstalk artists including Hou Baolin(1917-1993), a pioneering master of crosstalk. In his 60 years of art career, he has devoted himself to the research and development of crosstalk art and brought laughter to the audience. Under his leadership and promotion, crosstalk art has really entered thousands of households and reached a remarkable artistic peak. His crosstalk works including Drama Talks, Drunkenness and etc. Ma Sanli (1914-2003) is the son of the crosstalk actor Ma Delu. Ma Sanli devoted himself to the exploration of long-term artistic practice, and created the unique “Ma’s Style of Crosstalk”. He was the oldest, most experienced and most accomplished crosstalk leader in the cross-talk circle at that time. So was deeply loved and respected by all walks of life and the audience. Ma's cross talk enjoys wide popularity among the people. In Tianjin, it was a saying that “no branches of crosstalk did not learn from Ma”. His representative works including “Eating Yuanxiao(dumpling)”, “Selling Tickets” and “the Yellow Crane Tower” . Other famous crosstalk artists include Zhang Yongxi, Liu Baorui, Hou Yaowen, Jiang Kun, Feng Gong, Niu Qun and Guo Degang. (Baijiahao, 2018 )<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> speaking, imitating, teasing and singing 说学逗唱<br /> <br /> Taiping lyrics 太平歌词<br /> <br /> Baofu 包袱<br /> <br /> Drama Talks 《戏剧杂谈》<br /> <br /> Drunkenness 《醉酒》<br /> <br /> Selling Tickets 《卖挂票》<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.When did crosstalk form its format?<br /> <br /> 2.What is Taiping lyrics?<br /> <br /> 3.Who was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art ?<br /> <br /> 4.What are the four basic skills of crosstalk?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty.<br /> <br /> 2.Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity) is the content to be sang in the crosstalk.<br /> <br /> 3.Zhu Shaowen.<br /> <br /> 4.They are speaking, imitating, teasing and singing.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> 1.Hou Baolin,Xue Baokun,侯宝林,薛宝坤.(1982)，《相声溯源》，People's Education Press<br /> <br /> 2.https://cul.sohu.com/20090619/n264630449.shtml<br /> <br /> 3.https://baike.so.com/doc/1925383-2037001.html<br /> <br /> 4.https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1590742532351773378<br /> <br /> 注意参考文献格式：<br /> Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> Go 围棋--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:04, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===GO - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI===<br /> <br /> Go is an adversarial game with the objective of surrounding a larger total area of the board with one's stones than the opponent[1]. As the game progresses, the players position stones on the board to map out formations and potential territories. Contests between opposing formations are often extremely complex and may result in the expansion, reduction, or wholesale capture and loss of formation stones.[2](NRICH Team, Going First, 2007)<br /> <br /> A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board. One or more liberties enclosed within a group is called an eye, and a group with two or more eyes cannot be captured, even if surrounded.[3] (Iwamoto, Kaoru,1977)Such groups are said to be unconditionally alive.<br /> <br /> The general strategy is to expand one's territory, attack the opponent's weak groups (groups that can be killed), and always stay mindful of the &quot;life status&quot; of one's own groups. The liberties of groups are countable. Situations where mutually opposing groups must capture each other or die are called capturing races, or semeai. In a capturing race, the group with more liberties (and/or better &quot;shape&quot;) will ultimately be able to capture the opponent's stones. Capturing races and the elements of life or death are the primary challenges of Go.<br /> <br /> Players may pass rather than place a stone if they think there are no further opportunities for profitable play. The game ends when both players pass or when one player resigns. In general, to score the game, each player counts the number of unoccupied points surrounded by their stones and then subtracts the number of stones that were captured by the opponent. The player with the greater score (after adjusting for komi) wins the game.<br /> <br /> In the opening stages of the game, players typically establish positions (or &quot;bases&quot;) in the corners and around the sides of the board. These bases help to quickly develop strong shapes which have many options for life (self-viability for a group of stones that prevents capture) and establish formations for potential territory. Players usually start in the corners because establishing territory is easier with the aid of two edges of the board. Established corner opening sequences are called &quot;joseki&quot; and are often studied independently.<br /> <br /> &quot;Dame&quot; are points that lie in between the boundary walls of black and white, and as such are considered to be of no value to either side. &quot;Seki&quot; are mutually alive pairs of white and black groups where neither has two eyes. A &quot;ko&quot; (Chinese and Japanese: 劫) is a repeated-position shape that may be contested by making forcing moves elsewhere. After the forcing move is played, the ko may be &quot;taken back&quot; and returned to its original position. Some &quot;ko fights&quot; may be important and decide the life of a large group, while others may be worth just one or two points. Some ko fights are referred to as &quot;picnic kos&quot; when only one side has a lot to lose. The Japanese call it a hanami (flower-viewing) ko. <br /> <br /> Playing with others usually requires a knowledge of each player's strength, indicated by the player's rank (increasing from 30 kyu to 1 kyu, then 1 dan to 7 dan, then 1 dan pro to 9 dan pro). A difference in rank may be compensated by a handicap—Black is allowed to place two or more stones on the board to compensate for White's greater strength. There are different rule-sets (Korean, Japanese, Chinese, AGA, etc.), which are almost entirely equivalent, except for certain special-case positions.<br /> <br /> Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, there are essentially only two rules in Go:<br /> • Rule 1 (the rule of liberty) states that every stone remaining on the board must have at least one open &quot;point&quot; (an intersection, called a &quot;liberty&quot;) directly orthogonally adjacent (up, down, left, or right), or must be part of a connected group that has at least one such open point (&quot;liberty&quot;) next to it. Stones or groups of stones which lose their last liberty are removed from the board.<br /> • Rule 2 (the &quot;ko rule&quot;) states that the stones on the board must never repeat a previous position of stones. Moves which would do so are forbidden, and thus only moves elsewhere on the board are permitted that turn.<br /> <br /> Almost all other information about how the game is played is a heuristic, meaning it is learned information about how the game is played, rather than a rule. Other rules are specialized, as they come about through different rule-sets, but the above two rules cover almost all of any played game.[4](British Go Association,2007)<br /> <br /> Although there are some minor differences between rule-sets used in different countries, most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules, these differences do not greatly affect the tactics and strategy of the game.<br /> <br /> Except where noted, the basic rules presented here are valid independent of the scoring rules used. The scoring rules are explained separately. Go terms for which there is no ready English equivalent are commonly called by their Japanese names.<br /> <br /> The two players, Black and White, take turns placing stones of their colour on the intersections of the board, one stone at a time. The usual board size is a 19×19 grid but for beginners, or for playing quick games, the smaller board sizes of 13×13 and 9×9 are also popular.[5] The board is empty to begin with. Black plays first, unless black is given a handicap of two stones or more (in which case, white plays first). The players may choose any unoccupied intersection to play on, except for those forbidden by the ko and suicide rules (see below). Once played, a stone can never be moved and can be taken off the board only if it is captured. A player may also pass, declining to place a stone, though this is usually only done at the end of the game when both players believe nothing more can be accomplished with further play. When both players pass consecutively, the game ends and is then scored.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Go 围棋 heuristic 启发式的<br /> adversarial game 对抗性游戏 intersection 交叉点<br /> board 棋盘 black 黑棋<br /> formation 阵型 white 白棋<br /> move 走棋 scoring rule 计分规则<br /> liberty 自由度 player 棋手<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1, What’s the basic principle of Go?<br /> <br /> <br /> 2,Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, What are other two essential rules in Go？<br /> <br /> <br /> 3, What countries have the most notable scoring rules differences?--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1, A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board.<br /> <br /> 2,The rule of liberty and the &quot;ko rule&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3, Most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Matthews, Charles (2004). Teach Yourself Go. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-142977-1.<br /> <br /> [2]NRICH Team, Going First, University of Cambridge, retrieved 2007-06-16<br /> <br /> [3]Iwamoto, Kaoru (1977). Go for Beginners. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 978-0-394-73331-9.<br /> <br /> [4]British Go Association, Comparison of some go rules, retrieved 2007-12-20<br /> <br /> [5]Kim, Janice; Jeong, Soo-hyun (1997). Learn to Play Go. Five volumes (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Good Move Press. ISBN 978-0-9644796-1-6.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 07:36, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜,202070080598 MTI 标题 is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:21, 14 December 2020 (UTC)==<br /> <br /> ===The Four Most Handsome men in Ancient China===<br /> It is said that there were four most beautiful women in ancient times, and corresponding to that, it is worth mentioning that there were four most attractive men at that time.Despite that we consider these four men as attractive, this refers to more than just their appearance. They have a common feature: it proves that while their appearance is marvelous, they are also outstanding in literature. Namely, as a Chinese saying goes, they are endowed with both beauty and talent.<br /> <br /> These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> The allusion of “throwing fruit to fill a carriage” originates from Pan An, which resembles movie fans nowadays to see their idols. There is a comment on Pan An’s appearance: &quot;No more and no less.&quot; The history books also describe Pan An with three words “good-looking, well-mannered, and graceful”. Although these did not describe Pan An’s appearance in details, such as eyebrows and eyes or lips, from these side descriptions, we can know that Pan An’s appearance is far above ordinary people, and even his styles draw imitation from others. <br /> <br /> At the same time, Pan An is known as “the flower of a county in Heyang”, and he is also one of the few men who are compared with flowers to be praised for excellent appearance. The beauty of exterior only fails to last long in this world. Pan An's talent and temperament and the devotion to his wife are also often eulogized. Pan Yue showed his unusual talent since he was a child, and he was called a child prodigy by the villagers. In his early years, he was appreciated by an official and recommended as a scholar. <br /> <br /> Later, served as the magistrate of Heyang (now Meng County, Henan), he was diligent in political affairs, and advocated the people to plant more fruits and trees. The county was full of trees and peaches and plums everywhere, known as “Flower County”. During his administration, his political achievements were remarkable. Besides, Pan An holds a special place in the history of literature. <br /> <br /> He was good at composing verse and orders, expatiation, and skilled in the choice of words and building of sentences, which fully reflects the characteristics of Taikang literature that pays attention to the beauty of form. He was expert in composing Ci lyric of sorrow and admonishment, and his current works such as Widow's Fu, Mourning Poem and other famous works are all known for their narration and empathy. Pan An can be described as both internally and externally blessed.（Liu Xixue 2003,63-64）<br /> <br /> Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. There is a very popular legend about King Lanling. It's believed that King Lanling was a brave and supremely skilled general. However, because he looked very sweet and it seemed hard to frighten the enemy, he often wore a half-mask when fighting, which sounds very fairytale. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the beauty of King Lanling is beyond doubt and otherworldly. Book of Northern Qi Dynasty described that he was friendly looking and mentally strong, with beautiful voice and appearance.King Lanling spent half his life in military affairs, and made great achievements. While this gave him glory, it also brought bad luck. There is an old Chinese saying that the glow of a inferior from massive achievements will overshadow his superior. <br /> <br /> Although the King Lanling did not have the idea of usurping the throne, but the incumbent felt threatened because of his existence itself. In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> Song Yu (about 322 BC-298 BC), as it is widely rumored, a student of Qu Yuan, was born in the capital city of Song Dynasty during the Warring States Period (now Shangqiu, Henan). Song Yu was a writer of Ci lyric of State Chu in the late Warring States period, adept in Ci lyric and even acclaimed as a great poet after Qu Yuan' reputation. Later generations often referred to them as “Qu Song”. Rumors circulate that there are many Ci lyrics from him, and Book of Han records about 16 works, but many of them are lost today.<br /> <br /> His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on. He was the first to write about sadness from Autumn and to write about women. His description of women's nature exerts a great influence on later generations such as Cao Zhi. The goddess in Song Yu's The Fu poetry of Goddess embodies the essence of pre-Qin female beauty, recounting the beauty of the goddess of Wushan Mountain in details so much so that later generations have coveted for it for thousands of years.<br /> <br /> 16 works survived, among which Nine Discriminations is believed to be truly composed by him. It is equivalent to Qu Yuan's Li Sao or A lament in the history of Chinese literature. Both poets can be called the two shining pearls in Ci lyric at their times.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> <br /> Wei Jie (286-June 20, 312), a metaphysician and an official of the Jin Dynasty. Wei Jie was a noted talker and metaphysicist during the Wei and Jin Dynasties. He was appointed as an assistant of the prince in the matter of politics. In the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Yongjia(AD310), Wei Jie died at the age of 27. Both ancient books and ancients commented on Wei Jie's appearance. Wang Ji reckoned that, “A jade is on my side, and I feel like I am nobody”; “Wandering with Jiu is like sauntering with a pearl on the side, with him shining brightly.”<br /> <br /> History Retold as a Mirror for rulers authored by Sima Guang goes into detail: &quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot; Wei Jie not only have a mere marvelous exterior, but also he can discern metaphysics from his perspective. Wei Jie’s views always amaze the concerned parties. <br /> <br /> It is said that even three sons of the Wang family, are not as good as the first son of the Wei family, and the three sons of the Wang family were all well-known scholars at that time, and the Wei Jie could be regarded as unmatchable compared with the three in family background, appearance, and talents.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Pan An 潘安<br /> <br /> King Lanling 兰陵王<br /> <br /> Ji Kang 嵇康 <br /> <br /> Wei Jie 卫玠 <br /> <br /> throwing fruit to fill a carriage 掷果盈车<br /> <br /> scholar 秀才<br /> <br /> expatiation 铺陈<br /> <br /> Book of Northern Qi Dynasty 《北齐书》<br /> <br /> the Warring States Period 战国时期<br /> <br /> Book of Han 《汉书》<br /> <br /> Nine Discriminations 《九辨》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Wind 《风赋》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Goddess 《神女赋》<br /> <br /> the goddess of Wushan Mountain 巫山神女<br /> <br /> metaphysician 玄学家<br /> <br /> a noted talker 清谈名士<br /> <br /> History Retold as a Mirror for rulers 《资治通鉴》<br /> <br /> Widow's Fu 《寡妇赋》<br /> <br /> Mourning Poem 《悼亡诗》<br /> <br /> 英文书名要用斜体--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1.Who are the four most handsome men at ancient time in China?<br /> <br /> 2.Who is Gao Changgong?<br /> <br /> 3.How did Lanlin King die?<br /> <br /> 4.What works did Song Yu compose?<br /> <br /> 5.Who are the two shining pearls in Ci lyric according to the passage?<br /> <br /> 6.What History Retold as a Mirror for rulers comment on Wei Jie?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.<br /> <br /> 2.Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. <br /> <br /> 3.In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King. <br /> <br /> 4.His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on.<br /> <br /> 5.Qu Yuan and Song Yu<br /> <br /> 6.&quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]刘细学.古代四大美男[J].文史天地,2003(06):63-64.<br /> <br /> [2]王真波.四大美男都是怎么死的[J].青年文学家,2008(11):59-60.<br /> <br /> 参考文献格式错误--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lo, Minh Thao==<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Mogao Grottoes--Lou Cancan 娄灿灿 student no.202070080599 MTI 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Mogao Grottoes===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> [[File:Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes.jpg|150px|thumb|left|Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes]] <br /> The Mogao Grottoes, known as the Thousand Buddhas Caves, were built on the eastern cliff of Mingsha Mountain, 25 kilometers to the southeast of Dunhuang city. There are 492 caves (well preserved) today, containing over 2,400 painted clay statues and 45,000 square meters of murals and 5 timber structures on the cliff of the southern district. There are also more than 300 caves used as both living room and burying place for monks and painters on the cliff of the northern district. Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). (Fan Jinshi 2010，170) <br /> <br /> Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes,so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes. From the 4th until the 14th century, caves were constructed by monks to serve as shrines with funds from donors. The major caves were sponsored by patrons such as important asclergies, local ruling elites, foreign dignitaries, as well as Chinese emperors. Other caves may have been funded by merchants and other local people such as women's groups. (Sha Wutian 2020, 122)<br /> <br /> ===History===<br /> <br /> Mogao Grottoes were not built in one day. According to relevant records in the Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff. Later, monk Faliang（法良）came here and joined him cultivating in caves. Since then more and more caves have been excavated over a thousand year. (Whitfield 1990, 8)<br /> <br /> By the time of Northern Liang, small community of monks had formed at this site. The caves initially served only as a place of meditation for hermit monks. Later, they were developed to serve the monasteries that sprang up nearby. Members of the ruling families of Northern Wei and Northern Zhou constructed many caves here, and it flourished in the short-lived Sui Dynasty. By the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Mogao Caves had become a place of worship and pilgrimage for the public. In the Sui Dynasty, Hexi Corridor was controlled by central authority. The emperors were pious followers of Buddhism and they ordered to build stupas across the country. Therefore, more than 100 caves were excavated in Mogao Grottoes within 37 years. (Fan Jinshi 2010，175-178) <br /> [[File:Taoist Wang Yuanlu.jpg|100px|thumb|right|Taoist Wang Yuanlu]]<br /> By the Tang Dynasty, the number of caves had reached over a thousand. During this period, Dunhuang became the main hub of commerce of the Silk Road and a major religious center. A large number of the caves were constructed during this era, including the two large statues of Buddha at the site, the largest one constructed in 695 following an edict a year earlier by Tang Empress Wu Zitian to build giant statues across the country. The site escaped the persecution of Buddhists ordered by Emperor Wuzong in 845 as it was then under Tibetan control. As a frontier town, Dunhuang had been occupied at various times by other non-Han Chinese people. After the Tang Dynasty, the site went into a gradual decline, and construction of new caves ceased entirely after the Yuan Dynasty. In the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, Mogao Grottoes were preserved and kept by Cao Yijin（曹议金). (MA Shichang 2010, 303) After that, his later generations governed Dunhuang Prefecture and constructed multiple family caves such as Cave 55. (Gao Xiujun 2016, 9) <br /> <br /> During the Ming Dynasty, the Silk Road was finally abandoned and Dunhuang slowly became depolulated and was forgotten by the outside world. Most of the Mogao caves were abandoned. The site, however, went back to a place of pilgrimage and worship by local people at the beginning of the twentieth century. On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings. Since then, Dunhuang has become well known throughout the world. Both Chinese and foreign scholars have made extensive studies on the findings.(Stein 1912, volume 2)<br /> <br /> ===Art===<br /> [[File:A Chaitya with a Central Pillar.jpg|150px|thumb|right|A Chaitya with a Central Pillar]]<br /> The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture and they vary from dynasty to dynasty. There are mainly three types of structural forms of Mogao Grottoes: Vihara, Chaitya and Hall with inverted funnel shaped ceiling. A Chaitya with a central pillar is the main form of the caves in the early period of the Sixteen States, with Northern Wei, Western Wei and Northern Zhou Dynasties included. The murals may be divided into seven sorts:Buddhist figures, Sutra illustration, Buddhist stories, Buddhist historical pictures, Chinese mythologies, donors and decorative designs. Buddhist stories in the murals can be divided into three types: Jataka（佛本生), Buddha’s life and fate story. A Jataka is a narrative which tells of the good deeds performed by Sakyamuni during his perious existence such as prince Sudanda giving up his body to feed the hungry tigers. As to sculptures, they were constructed on a wooden frame, padded with reed, then modelled in clay stucco and finished with paint.（Duan Wenjie 1994, 163) <br /> <br /> ===[[File:A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body.jpg|150px|thumb|left|A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body]]===<br /> [[File:Cave 251 in Northern Wei.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Cave 251 in Northern Wei]]<br /> The artistic styles in the Sixteen States, which gradually turned away from being primitive and simple to an easy and graceful styles in the Northern Wei, manifested in figures with well-chiseled builds and emaciated looks. In the Northern Zhou, the styles of figures show that Chinese art combining the influence of foreign and native styles gradually became more nationalized. ( Fan Jinshi 2010, 174) <br /> <br /> The characteristics of the statues in the Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs. The caves become spacious and more suited for large paintings, such as the Sutra illustrations and huge pictures of Buddha expounding sermons. Bold and vigorous, brush work was painted with intricate and flowing lines. For example, Lotus Sutra on the ceiling of Cave 420 displays a lot of episodes of mountains, forests, rivers, buildings and so on in a limitated space. The theme and art in the Sui Dynasty show an important devdelopment in traditional art and indicate a comimg glorious new era. （Duan Wenjie 1994, 164)<br /> [[File:Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty]]<br /> In the Tang Dynasty, the caves are large with an inverted funnel shaped ceiling. The murals consist mostly of huge paintings of stories from Buddhist Sutras with well-regulated scenes and well-balanced composition. The figures at that time have round and plump faces and curved eyebrows which expresses the aesthetical taste of the people living in Tang. The mural in Cave 220 contains vivid portraits of the Emperor and his ministers listening to a sermon. The ministers attending to Emperor are each bestowed with differrent appearances and expressions. Some are natural and graceful and some cautious. The well-proportioned painted statues were made with more consummate care and attention to the detail, showing us the solemn Buddha. ( Fan Jinshi 2010, 174) <br /> <br /> In addition, very tall and colossal statues of Buddha began to be made. The outstanding one is an early Tang Dynasty statue 34 metres high in Cave 96. In 781-848A.D, Hexi region fell into the Tibetan. Hence, there was an interesting change: the king of the Tibetan took the place of central-plain emperors in the wall-painting.( Fan Jinshi 2010, 175)<br /> <br /> By the time of the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, the grottoes carved in this period are very large and different in form and layout. The subject and style of the statues and murals remain the influence from Tang Dynasty, but the use of colours and the drawing techniques show a simple folk style. From the 9th century to 12th, the Uygur had been in Dunhuang. The artistic styles bear the imprint of both Han and Uygur. The Uygur murals are generally characterized by the simplicity of the subject, the looseness of the arrangement, the direct and rough brush strokes. (Rong Xinjiang 1999, 248)<br /> <br /> The human figures have features of certain minority groups. In the Western Xia Dynasty(1036-1227), most of caves were repaired and renovated, and only 10 caves were built because of the limited cliffs. Compared to the Yulin Grottoes at the same time, painting of Dunhuang display the Pure-land Sutra, containing simpler content. Only 27 caves are extant in Yuan times(1227-1372). The murals in Cave 3, however, still remain the Tang and Song techniques, namely using different types of drawing to depict different parts of human figures such as iron-wire lines, orchid-leaf strokes and broken-reef strokes, etc. Since the 15th century, the Mogao Grottoes had gradually fallen into neglect in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. (Rong Xinjiang 1999, 248)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 08:44, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===[[File:Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty]]===<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> hermit 隐士<br /> <br /> stupas 舍利塔<br /> <br /> Emperor Wuzong ofTang Dynasty 唐武宗<br /> <br /> Vihara 精舍<br /> <br /> Chaitya 支提窟<br /> <br /> stucco 灰泥<br /> <br /> Sakyamuni 释迦牟尼<br /> <br /> Sutras 佛经<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What do Dunhuang Grottoes refer to?<br /> <br /> 2.Who built the first cave and when?<br /> <br /> 3.In 1900, who found the treasure-house in Mogao Grottoes and what were stored in it?<br /> <br /> 4.How many aspects does the art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of and what are they respectively?<br /> <br /> 5.What are the characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes, so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes.<br /> <br /> 2.According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff.<br /> <br /> 3.On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings.<br /> <br /> 4.The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture.<br /> <br /> 5.The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Fan Jinshi 樊锦诗.(2010). ''敦煌石窟'' [The Caves of Dunhuang]. Gansu: The Dunhuang Academy 敦煌研究院. <br /> <br /> Gao Xiujun 高秀军.(2016). ''敦煌莫高窟第55窟研究'' [Research on the 55th Grotto of Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang].Lanzhou University 兰州大学.<br /> <br /> MA Shichang.(2010). Buddhist Cave-temples and the Cao Family at Mogao Ku, Dunhuang. MA Shichang,27(2),303-317.<br /> <br /> Rong Xinjiang 荣新江. (2010).'' 敦煌藏经洞的性质及其封闭原因'' [The Nature of the Dunhuang Library Cave and the Reasons for Its Sealing]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Sha Wutian 沙武田. (2020). 佛教供养与政治宣传——敦煌莫高窟第156窟供养人画像研究 [Buddhist offerings and Political Propaganda -- A Study on the Portrait of the Patron of the 156th Grottoes in Dunhuang].''中原文物'' Cultural Relics in Central Plain, No.215,118-128.<br /> <br /> Stein, M. Aurel. Ruins of Desert Cathay.(1912). Personal Narrative of Explorations in Central Asia and Westernmost China, volume 2. London: Macmillan.<br /> <br /> Suemori Kaoru. (2020).&quot;Thousand-Buddha images in Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes: Religious spaces created by polychromatic patterns&quot;. Kyoto: Hozokan. <br /> <br /> Duan Wenjie. (1994). Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie. Abhinav Publications. p. 163.<br /> <br /> Whitfield, Roderick and Farrer, Anne, Caves of the Thousand Buddhas. (1990). Chinese Art from the Silk Route, British Museum Publications. P . 5-20.<br /> <br /> https://books.google.ru/books?hl=zh-CN&amp;lr=&amp;id=vYPNqlAMZWAC&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PP7&amp;dq=info:9v6pr21oST8J:scholar.google.com/&amp;ots=s-uXhnyDBp&amp;sig=u3H7MAh_OpGRS6Iwxoqx0rC5_fo&amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false<br /> <br /> https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogao_Caves<br /> <br /> https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=zh-CN&amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;q=mogao+grottoes&amp;oq=<br /> <br /> ==Four State-Level Cultural Relics Luo Weijia 罗维嘉 Student No.202070080600 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ===Four State-Level Cultural Relics===<br /> <br /> China, home to one of the world’s most ancient civilizations, abounds in cultural relics, from ancient tombs, architecture, instruments to handicrafts, historical books and so on. They embody rich information about history and culture and vividly display the process of Chinese cultural development. The astounding artistic and technological levels shown in those relics continue to impress people today. <br /> <br /> China, home to one of the world’s most ancient civilizations, abounds in cultural relics, from ancient tombs, architecture, instruments to handicrafts, historical books and so on. They embody rich information about history and culture and vividly display the process of Chinese cultural development. The astounding artistic and technological levels shown in those relics continue to impress people today.(Xu Ling,2019)<br /> <br /> ====Simuwu Ding====<br /> <br /> [[File:Simuwu Ding.png|200px|thumb|left|Simuwu Ding]] <br /> <br /> In ancient China, ding was a symbol of imperial power. Therefore, ding is often used in phrases and expressions in the Chinese language to imply authority (Anna, 2015). For instance, wending, literally “enquiring about ding”, means plotting to usurp political power, yiyan juiding, literally “One word of promise is equal to nine dings”, means a decisive comment(Lv Shuxiang, 2016).<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding was a very precious cultural relic, found in 1937 in Anyang of Henan Province. It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago. This square-shaped ding is the largest existing bronzeware in the ancient world. It is now housed in the National Museum of China in Beijing (Li Weiming, 2015). <br /> <br /> Ding was a cooking vessel probably used to boil or cook food in the primitive society. At that time, dings were made of clay. During the Shang and Zhou (1700 BC-256 BC) dynasties, bronze cast technology reached a very high level in China. Therefore, people used bronze to cast ding. However, dings were no longer cooking utensils in ordinary people’s life but an object for important ceremonies to offer sacrifices (Anna, 2015). <br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding was cast by Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty as a ritual object for a ceremony to offer sacrifices to his mother. The three characters simuwu form an inscription on the inside of the sidewall. According to archeologists, si means sacrificial ceremony and muwu is the name of the emperor’s mother. Later on, Simuwu became the name of this huge ding (Li Weiming, 2015).<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding is 1.33m high, 1.10m long and 0.78m wide, weighing 832.84kg. At that time, it needed 1000kg of metal and two to three hundred workers to produce it. This ding is solid in build, magnificent in appearance and was made with fine craftsmanship. The four pillar legs are thick and powerful. Each side has a blank space in the middle, surrounded by a band of decoration featuring taotie (animal faced creatures) and kuilong (one-legged dragons), symbolic of harvest and auspiciousness. Simuwu Ding represents the highest level of bronze cast technology in the Shang and Zhou dynasties (Li Weiming, 2015).<br /> <br /> ==== The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi ====<br /> <br /> [[File:The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi.png|200px|thumb|left|The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi]] <br /> <br /> The chime bells, or bianzhong, are a kind of percussion musical instrument made of bronze. China is the earliest country to manufacture and use such instrument. Chime bells were divided into groups according to their size, temperament, pitch and were hang on a rack. A small hammer or wooden club is used to hit the bell to make a resonant and agreeable sound (Hubei Museum, 2015).<br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are the largest and the most complete ancient chimes existing today in China. They were unearthed from the tomb of Yi, the Marquis of Zeng, a small state of the Warring States Period (475 BC- 221 BC), in 1978. When they were found, all bells were still hanging on their rack. They are now preserved in Hubei Museum (Hubei Museum, 2015). <br /> <br /> There are altogether 65 bells hung in eight groups on wooden or bronze bars. The rack, 10.79m long, 2.67m high, is made of three bars, namely, the upper, middle and lower bars, held up by six bronze warriors and a few round, wooden posts. The 65 bells weigh over 2500kg. The largest bell is 1.52m in height and weighs more than 203.6kg. The smallest bell is about 20cm in height and weighs 2.4kg. It is extremely rare to see a set with so many bells of such weight and size (Wan Quanwen, 2020). <br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are exquisitely cast and look very elegant. To help artists to perform music, there are instructions on each bell with 3700 characters in all (Wan Quanwen, 2020). There are also words about the hanging indication and musical temperament that are called the “valuable music theory work”. The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi show that, as early as the Warring States Period, China already had a very rich musical culture. The chime bells still could produce a pure and accurate note after unearthed. The tone is excellent and the timbre is pure. <br /> <br /> After excavation of the chime, Chinese musicians created a melody entitled Bianzhong Yuewu (music and dance accompanied by chime bells), to once again demonstrate the charm of ancient Chinese music (Zhou Yi, 2016). <br /> <br /> ==== Jade Suit with Gold Thread ====<br /> <br /> [[File:Jade Suit with Gold Thread.png|200px|thumb|left|Jade Suit with Gold Thread]] <br /> <br /> Ordinarily, the texture of clothes is cotton, flax or silk. However, there were suits made of gold and jade, that is “Jade Suit with Gold Thread”(Wang Jing, 2008).<br /> <br /> The emperors of the Han Dynasty believed that jade could prevent their corpses from decaying, and they regarded jade as full of dignity and nobility. Therefore, they used jade suits as their grave clothes. Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade separately that are called Jade Suit Sewn with Gold Thread, Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread and Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread (Wang Jing, 2008).<br /> <br /> The two sets of jade suits of the Han Dynasty tomb unearthed in Mancheng of Hebei Province in 1968 revealed to the world the real features of such grave clothes (Li Yawen,2019). Their owners were Liu Sheng, Prince Jing of Zhongshan, and his wife, Dou Wan, of the Western Han Dynasty(206 BC-25 AD). <br /> <br /> In appearance, a jade suit follows the shape of a human body. It consists of five parts, i.e., head mask, coat, trousers, gloves and shoes. Each part is made of pieces of jade. The size and shape of each jade piece was designed according to its position. Most jade pieces are shaped in square or rectangular form, but there are a few in trapezoid, triangle or multi sided shapes. Each jade piece is perforated at its corners, through which a gold thread goes through to sew the pieces together. Liu Sheng’s jade suit is rather large, 1.88m long and made up of 2498 pieces. The gold thread used for this suit is about 700g in weight (Li Yawen, 2019). <br /> <br /> Such refined suits made some 2000 years ago in the Han Dynasty indicate the high design level and excellent craftsmanship of that time. In fact, of course, the rulers’ dream of preventing their corpses from decaying could never be realized. The practice of wearing jade suits was banned during the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280) (Wang Jing, 2008).<br /> <br /> ==== Bronze Galloping Horse ====<br /> <br /> [[File: Bronze Galloping Horse.png|200px|thumb|left| Bronze Galloping Horse]] <br /> <br /> In 1969, a galloping horse in bronze was unearthed in an Eastern Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) tomb in Wuwei, Gansu Province in western China. The bronze statue is a famous representative sculpture of the Han Dynasty. Wuwei County leapt to fame with the discovery of this national treasure (Li Xiaohu &amp; Zhao Jing, 2019).<br /> <br /> The 34.5 cm-high bronze horse, covered with spots of verdigris, has a full and robust body. The prancing legs, flying tail, slightly dilated nostrils portray a galloping horse. What is ingenious about it is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow. That means the galloping horse is faster than a flying swallow (Wang Qian, 2020). The positioning of its four legs strictly conforms to that of a living horse and is highly praised by many local and foreign archeologists and artists. <br /> <br /> In this work, Chinese ancient artists combined realism and romanticism, and ingeniously integrated galloping horse and flying swallow through rich imagination, original conception and skillful craftsmanship (Wang Qian:10-11). The swift flying swallow sets off the amazingly fast speed of the galloping horse. According to analysis of its mechanics, Bronze Galloping Horse finds a center of gravity in the swallow to give the statue its stability. The romantic image of the swallow sets off the power and strength of the horse, providing a rich imaginative experience for viewers (Li Xiaohu &amp; Zhao Jing, 2019). <br /> <br /> Bronze Galloping Horse is believed to be a portrayal of the &quot;heavenly steed&quot; of Chinese legend. It is of high craftsmanship, fully expressive of the horse-breeding culture of China's western regions. It has become a symbol of Chinese tourism and a representative work that brings forth the time-honored cultural tradition of the Chinese nation and the oriental aesthetics to the world. The cultural relic is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum(Wang Qian, 2020).<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding 司母戊鼎<br /> <br /> Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty 商王武丁<br /> <br /> taotie 饕餮<br /> <br /> National Museum of China 中国国家博物馆<br /> <br /> chime bells/bian zhong 编钟<br /> <br /> Marquis Yi 曾侯乙<br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi 曾侯乙编钟<br /> <br /> Bianzhong Yuewu 《编钟乐舞》<br /> <br /> Hubei Museum 湖北省博物馆<br /> <br /> Jade Suit with Gold Thread 金缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread 银缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread 铜缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Bronze Galloping Horse 铜奔马/ 马踏飞燕<br /> <br /> Gansu Provincial Museum 甘肃省博物馆<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1. What does ding symbolize?<br /> <br /> 2. When was Houmuwu Ding produced?<br /> <br /> 3.How many bells do the chime bells of Marquis Yi contain?<br /> <br /> 4.What is the size of the largest bell?<br /> <br /> 5.What kind of thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade?<br /> <br /> 6.When did the Jade Suit with Gold Thread unearth?<br /> <br /> 7.What is ingenious about the Galloping Horse?<br /> <br /> 8.Where is Bronze Galloping Horse preserved now?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Ding was a symbol of imperial power. <br /> <br /> 2.It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago. <br /> <br /> 3.They contain 65 bells.<br /> <br /> 4.The largest bell exceeds 1.5m in height and weighs more than 200kg.<br /> <br /> 5.Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade.<br /> <br /> 6.It unearthed in 1968.<br /> <br /> 7.It is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow. <br /> <br /> 8.It is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Anna 安娜.(2015).中国人的鼎文化[The Ding Culture of the Chinese]. 科学大观园(15),72-73.<br /> <br /> Hubei Museum 湖北省博物馆.(2015).曾侯乙编钟[The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi ]. 中华文化论坛(11),2.<br /> <br /> Li Xiaohu &amp; Zhao Jing 李小虎 &amp; 赵静.(2019).青铜雕塑“马踏飞燕”的艺术解读[The Artistic Effect of the Bronze Galloping Horse]. 艺术教育(09),170-171.<br /> <br /> Li Weiming李维明.(2015-06-19).司母戊鼎研究历程初览(上)[A Brief Introduction to the Research Process of Simuwu Ding].中国文物报,006.<br /> <br /> Li Weiming李维明.(2015-07-03).司母戊鼎研究历程初览(中)[A Brief Introduction to the Research Process of Simuwu Ding].中国文物报,006.<br /> <br /> Li Weiming李维明.(2015-07-31).司母戊鼎研究历程初览(下)[A Brief Introduction to the Research Process of Simuwu Ding].中国文物报,006.<br /> <br /> Li Yawen 李雅雯.(2019)浅说满城汉墓中的金缕玉衣[On the Jade Suit with Gold Thread in Han Tombs in Mancheng] .文物鉴定与鉴赏 (03):38-39.<br /> <br /> Lv Shuxiang 吕叔湘.(2016)现代汉语词典 (第七版)[Modern Chinese Dictionary (the 7th edition)]. 北京:商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王静.(2008).汉代玉衣研究[A Study of Jade Clothes in Han Dynasty].(硕士学位论文,河北师范大学).<br /> <br /> Wang Qian 王倩.(2020).青铜雕塑“马踏飞燕”的研究[The Study of the Bronze Galloping Horse].艺术品鉴, (26):10-11.<br /> <br /> Wan Quanwen 万全文.(2020).曾侯乙编钟[The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi ].文史知识 (11):1-2.<br /> <br /> Xu Ling 徐玲.(2019).博物馆与近现代中国文物保护[Museums and the Protection of Cultural Relics in Modern China]. 中国博物馆(01),57-61. <br /> <br /> Zhou Yi 周仪.(2016).“八音合鸣 乐舞齐容”——大型乐舞作品《编钟乐舞》述评[The Comment on Bianzhong Yuewu]. 戏剧之家(19),66-67+79.<br /> <br /> == Architecture and Gardens, The Forbidden City Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴 Student No.202070080601 MTI英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> ====I.Introduction==== <br /> <br /> The Forbidden City (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng) is a palace complex in Dongcheng District, Beijing, China, and with a total area of 720,000 square meters (180 acres). It lies in the center of Beijing's central axis. Today, the Forbidden City houses the Palace Museum, and was the former Chinese imperial palace and residence of the Emperor of China from the Ming dynasty (since the Yong Le Emperor) to the end of the Qing dynasty, between 1420 and 1924. The Forbidden City served as the home of Chinese emperors and their households and was the ceremonial and political center of the Chinese government.(Barmé, Geremie R 2018,26)<br /> <br /> The Forbidden City is a national AAAAA tourist attraction and was listed as the first batch of key cultural relics under national protection in 1961. What’s more, it was declared a world cultural heritage in 1987, and listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.(UNESCO,2007)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Panorama view of the Forbidden City.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A Panorama view of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====II.The Name of the Forbidden City====<br /> <br /> The common English name &quot;Forbidden City&quot; is the translation of the Chinese name Zijin Cheng (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng; English: Purple Forbidden City). The name Zijin Cheng first formally appeared in the period of Jia Jing. In ancient China, the planning concept of &quot;harmony between man and nature&quot; was emphasized. The stars in the sky were used to correspond with the capital planning to highlight the legitimacy of the regime and the supremacy of imperial power. (Li Xieping1997, (04)29-31)<br /> <br /> “ Zi ”, or &quot;Purple&quot;, refers to the North Star, which was called the Ziwei Star in ancient China. The emperor of heaven lived in Ziwei palace, while the human emperor claimed to be the &quot;son of heaven&quot; who was ordered by heaven. His residence should be a symbol of Ziwei palace to correspond to the heaven emperor. “Jin” means that this splendid palace symbolizes supreme power and status of the royal family. In that case, this palace was forbidden, and no one could enter and leave the palace without the emperor’s permission. Cheng means city. (Li Xieping1997, (04)29-31)<br /> <br /> Today, the site is most commonly known in Chinese as Gùgōng (故宫), which means the &quot;Former Palace&quot;. The museum which is based in these buildings is known as the &quot;Palace Museum&quot; (Chinese: 故宫博物院; pinyin: Gùgōng Bówùyùan).<br /> <br /> <br /> ====III.The History of the Forbidden City====<br /> <br /> When Hongwu’s son Zhu Di became the Yong Le Emperor, he moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, and construction began in 1406 on what would become the Forbidden City. Construction lasted 14 years and cost more than a million workers. From 1420 to 1644, the Forbidden City was the seat of the Ming dynasty. (Yu Zhuoyun1984,18)<br /> <br /> In April 1644, it was captured by rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. He set fire to parts of the Forbidden City in the process of retreating to Shannxi. By October, the Manchus had achieved supremacy in northern China, and a ceremony was held at the Forbidden City to proclaim the Emperor Shunzhi as ruler of all China under the Qing dynasty. (Guo Moruo 1944,3.14) <br /> <br /> In the 22nd year of Kangxi's reign (1683), the reconstruction of the rest of the destroyed buildings of the Forbidden City was started, and it was basically completed in 1695. After being the home of 24 emperors – 14 of the Ming dynasty and 10 of the Qing dynasty – the Forbidden City ceased being the political centre of China in 1912 with the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor of China. (Yu Zhuoyun1984,30)<br /> <br /> In 1933, the Japanese invasion of China forced the evacuation of the national treasures in the Forbidden City. Part of the collection was returned at the end of World War II, but the other part was evacuated to Taiwan in 1948 under orders of Chiang Kai-shek. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, some damage was done to the Forbidden City as the country was swept up in revolutionary zeal. During the Cultural Revolution, however, further destruction was prevented when Premier Zhou Enlai sent an army battalion to guard the city.( Xie Mengyin &amp; Qu Wanlin 2006, 11.7)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====IV.The Structure of the Forbidden City==== <br /> <br /> Firstly, the Forbidden City is a rectangle and symmetric in its layout. Its palaces are arranged along a north-south axis, on which the three main halls, the rear three palaces and the imperial garden are all located. This central axis not only runs through the Forbidden City even the whole city, but also reaches Yongding Gate in the south, Drum Tower and bell tower in the north.(Xie Li 2005,(03)100-102)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Forbidden City is divided into two parts, the Outer Court and Inner Court. The Outer Court is the place where the emperor deals with political affairs. There are mainly three halls: the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony, and the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The Inner Court or Back Palace includes the northern sections, and was the residence of the Emperor and his family, and was used for day-to-day affairs of state. The inner court takes<br /> Palace of Heavenly Purity, Hall of Union and Palace of Earthly Tranquility as its center with six palaces in the east and six palaces in the west.(Xie Li 2005,(03)100-102)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:The layout of the Forbidden City.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The layout of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====VI The Collections of the Forbidden City==== <br /> <br /> The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925, whose extensive collection of artwork and artifacts were built upon the imperial collections of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Part of the museum's former collection is now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. Both museums were descended from the same institution but split after the Chinese Civil War.(Li Wei &amp; Wang Shuo 2005,6-22)<br /> <br /> The collections of the Palace Museum are based on the Qing imperial collections, including paintings, ceramics, seals, steles, sculptures, inscribed wares, bronze wares, enamel objects, etc. According to latest audit, it has 1,863,404 pieces of art. They are numbered by &quot;Gu&quot;, &quot;Xin&quot; and &quot;Shu&quot;. Except for the ancient books and documents, all the other collections are labeled with &quot;Gu&quot; and &quot;Xin&quot;. The number of ordinary cultural relics begins with the word &quot;Zi&quot;, and the ceramic specimens begin with the word &quot;Biao&quot;. The general catalogue is divided into 25 categories, and the numbers in each category are sorted from small to large. (Website:The Collection of the Palace Museum )<br /> <br /> Many collections once lost and was brought back to the Palace Museum later, for example, Han Banquet map. And there are some exquisite collections like Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer, Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems and Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.(Website:The Collection of the Palace Museum )In addition, The Palace Museum has one of the largest collections of mechanical timepieces of the 18th and 19th centuries in the world, with more than 1,000 pieces. (Meng Fuxia 2012, (21) 73-74)<br /> ====[[File:Han Banquet map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Han Banquet map]]====<br /> ====[[File:Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance]]====<br /> ====[[File:Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems]]====<br /> ====[[File:Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women]]====<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions==== <br /> palace complex 宫殿群<br /> <br /> central axis 中心轴<br /> <br /> the Palace Museum故宫博物院<br /> <br /> the Yong Le Emperor 永乐皇帝<br /> <br /> key cultural relics under national protection 国家重点文物保护单位<br /> <br /> world cultural heritage 世界文化遗产<br /> <br /> harmony between man and nature 天人合一<br /> <br /> the imperial garden 御花园<br /> <br /> the Hall of Supreme Harmony 太和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Central Harmony 中和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Preserving Harmony 保和殿<br /> <br /> Palace of Heavenly Purity (乾清宮)<br /> <br /> Hall of Union 交泰宫<br /> <br /> Palace of Earthly Tranquility 坤宁宫<br /> <br /> Han Banquet map 韩熙载夜宴图<br /> <br /> Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer陶彩绘女舞俑<br /> <br /> Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems十二生肖镜<br /> <br /> Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women画珐琅西洋人物鼻烟壶<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> 1. What’ s the meaning of “Zi” in the Chinese name Zijin Cheng?<br /> <br /> 2. When was the Forbidden City listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.<br /> <br /> 3.How many emperors have been lived in the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 4.How long did it take to build the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 5.Why some parts of national treasures are in the National Palace Museum in Taipei now.<br /> <br /> 6. What two parts can the Forbidden City be divided into?<br /> <br /> 7.When was the Palace Museum established?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.“Zi” refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star<br /> <br /> 2.In 1897.<br /> <br /> 3.24 emperors.<br /> <br /> 4.14 years.<br /> <br /> 5.Because both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.<br /> <br /> 6.They are the Outer Court and Inner Court.<br /> <br /> 7.The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Barmé, Geremie R(2008). The Forbidden City. Harvard University Press.26.<br /> <br /> UNESCO(2007). &quot;UNESCO World Heritage List: Imperial Palaces of the Ming and Qing Dynasties in Beijing and Shenyang&quot;.<br /> <br /> Li Xieping 李燮平. (1997) &quot;紫禁城&quot;名称始于何时[When did the name of the Forbidden City come into being?]. 紫禁城Forbidden City, (04) 29-31.<br /> <br /> Yu Zhuoyun(1984), Palaces of the Forbidden City, New York: Viking Press,p18.<br /> <br /> Guo Moruo 郭沫若.(1994) 甲申三百年祭[Commemorating 300th Anniversary of the Jia-Sheng Year]. 新华日报 New China Daily, 3.19.<br /> <br /> Xie Li 谢丽.(2005) 北京中轴线上的十七座门[Seventeen doors on the central axis of Beijing].紫禁城 Forbidden City, (03)100-102.<br /> <br /> Meng Fuxia 孟福霞. (2012)北京故宫空间布局构思探源——论中国古代宫殿建筑的美学精神[On the Origin of the Space Layout of the Palace Museum in Beijing--On the Aesthetic Spirit of Ancient Chinese Palace Architecture]大众文艺Popular Literature and Art, (21) 73-74. <br /> <br /> Li Wei&amp;Wang Shuo 刘薇,王硕.2005故宫文物南迁路线图揭秘[Unveiling the Route Map of the Cultural Relics of the Imperial Palace to the South] 华夏经纬网Jinwei Network, 6.22 http://www.huaxia.com/wh/gjzt/2005/00333230.html <br /> <br /> The Collection of the Palace Museum 故宫博物院馆藏https://www. dpm.org.cn /Home.html<br /> <br /> Xie Mengyin &amp; Qu Wanlin 谢荫明,瞿宛林. (2006) “文化大革命” 中谁保护了故宫 [Who protected the Forbidden City in the Cultural Revolution? ].人民网People’s Daily Online,11,7. http://history.people.com.cn/n/2014/0811/c372327-25441615.html<br /> <br /> --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Marriage Customs Mo Ling 莫玲 202070080602 MTI 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 莫玲 Mo Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Marriage Customs===<br /> <br /> China is an ancient country of rites. When it comes to the most important thing in one’s life---marriage, Chinese people have developed a set of unique and grand ceremonies. Generally speaking, weddings in ancient China needed to be approved by parents and arranged by parents.(Zhou Dandi,Yue Shufa 2012,12) <br /> <br /> ====Six Procedures====<br /> <br /> There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> Na Cai is the begining of all the marriage procedures. It refers to a practice that if a boy intends to marry a girl, firstly his family must invite a matchmaker to the girl's home to propose marriage. After obtaining the consent of the girl's family , the boy's family should entrust the matchmaker to make a proposal formally with some gifts. Usually, the most common gift is wild goose, which represents fidelity. Besides, mandarin ducks and sheep are also frequently-used gifts.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235) <br /> <br /> Wen Ming means that the boy's family asks the matchmaker to fetch the girl's name and date of birth. There are two purposes of this step: the one is to prevent the marriage of close relatives with the same surname; the other is to assure the compatibility of the prospective bride and bridegroom through their “eight characters” of the birth moment.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235) <br /> <br /> Naji happens after the matchmaker takes back the woman's name and eight characters. If divining an auspicious omen, the boy's family will inform the girl’s parents and decide to engage the marriage.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235) <br /> <br /> What is more, Na Zheng is an important step when the boy sends betrothal presents to the girl and for courtesy the girl will send back part of the presents such as food and some clothes.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235) <br /> <br /> Qing Qi means that the boy's family choose an auspicious day to hold the wedding ceremony and then dispatch the matchmaker to tell the girl’s family.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235) <br /> <br /> Qin Ying is the last procedure of the six etiquettes, that is, the groom goes to the bride's home to take the bride to his home.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ====Customs====<br /> <br /> In addition to the six steps mentioned above, there are many other customs in the traditional Chinese wedding ceremony. Generally speaking, ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker and many young people could not master their own marriage. Before wedding ceremony, men and women were not allowed to meet each other in that ancient people were very conservative and most girls were kept in boudoirs. If they met in private before marriage, it would be regarded as a kind of female infidelity and parents would also think it quite unlucky. Under this circumstance, newlyweds could only see each other until the day of marriage.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47-48)<br /> <br /> On the wedding day, the boy’s family will hold a big banquet at home. Before setting out to pick up bride, the bridegroom should first worship his ancestors for the sake of safety and auspice during the process of picking up the bride. (Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> After that, the following step is the most grand one among the whole ceremony --- at the dusk moment, the groom and the bride, his parents as well as all the guests will gather together at the central room to witness the kneeling etiquettes of the couple, which consists of 4 steps: (Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> The first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber : the bride will be sent into the bridal chamber and the groom will drink with guests until night.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> After wedding ceremony, the couple must return to the girl’s home together at the third day, which is called “Huimen” or “Guiling”. This etiquette is indispensable. The groom should take some gifts for respect and change the way that he addresses the bride’s parents, and the latter will also prepare a good meal for the couple’s coming.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ====Development====<br /> <br /> As time goes by, there are many reforms about marriage nowadays. Adults own the freedom to choose their spouse and they can meet each other every day if possible. Parents can’t master their “life event” any more.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47) In addition, many couples skip the cumbersome rites in the wedding ceremony. Some of them choose to hold the ceremony in the church with some close relatives and friends and some even finish it through travel.(Zhou Dandi,Yue Shufa 2012,15)<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, most young people still adopt the main procedures of the traditional Chinese customs, some of which are handed down until the present day. There still exist betrothal gifts and dowries, and many couples choose to wear red costumes. The bridegroom should go to the bride’s home to escort her to the wedding and so on. Thus it can be seen that most traditional Chinese marriage customs are deeply rooted in the hearts of Chinese people and show a unique Chinese characteristics.(Zhou Dandi,Yue Shufa 2012,15)--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ====References====<br /> <br /> Gao Xiaoqian. 高筱倩.(2017) 中国传统婚嫁习俗研究［The Research on Traditional Chinese Marriage Customs］戏剧之家[Drama House] 235.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yueyong. 张月莹.(2013) 中国近代婚嫁礼俗及婚姻观念转变的探索[A Study on the Change of Marriage Customs and Marriage Concepts in Modern China] 松州学刊［Songzhou Academic Journal］ 47-48.<br /> <br /> Zhou Dandi, Yue Shufa. 周丹迪, 岳书法.(2012) 浅析近代以来中国婚嫁民俗的演变[On the Evolution of Chinese Marriage Customs Since Modern Times] 文化学刊[Cultural Academic Journal] 15.<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> Na Cai 纳彩 <br /> <br /> Wen Ming 问名<br /> <br /> Na Ji 纳吉 <br /> <br /> Na Zheng 纳征<br /> <br /> Qing Qi 纳征 <br /> <br /> Qin Ying 亲迎<br /> <br /> Huimen 回门 <br /> <br /> Guiling 归宁 <br /> <br /> betrothal presents 彩礼<br /> <br /> the central room 堂屋<br /> <br /> bridal chamber 婚房<br /> <br /> “eight characters” of the birth moment 生辰八字<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.How many procedures are needed from the negotiation to the completion of marriage?<br /> <br /> 2.Did the ancient young people have the rights to decide their own marriage or not and why?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the kneeling etiquettes?<br /> <br /> 4.When the couple have to return to the girl’s home?<br /> <br /> 5.What changes have been made nowadays?<br /> <br /> 6.Please list some new wedding customs.<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying.<br /> <br /> 2.No, they didn’t have the right to decide their own marriage because ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker.<br /> <br /> 3.It consists of 4 steps: the first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber.<br /> <br /> 4.At the third day of the wedding ceremony.<br /> <br /> 5.Adults can choose their spouse by themselves and they can meet each other whenever they want; Some couples choose to hold the ceremony in the church some even finish it through travel, etc.<br /> <br /> 6.Examples:couple can choose to live in the either part of the two families; wedding ceremony can be hold in hotel; the bride can wear white wedding dress rather than the single red in the ancient time.<br /> <br /> ==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br /> <br /> ====Topic: Chinese cinema (dramas and movies) and its popularity and affection in Vietnam====<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac - Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt; Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac===<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:oyltacz.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]2020 is the year of rat according to the Chinese zodiac which consists of twelve animals used by people to name years. The traditional Chinese zodiac has been passed down for more than 2000 years since its origin(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). The twelve zodiac signs are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig, which are assigned in a repeating 12-year cycle(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). This traditional Chinese scheme was originated from China and then has enjoyed a popularity in many other Asian countries(The Editorial Board, 2010: 12-13). With its cultural connotation and time-honored impact, the Chinese zodiac has been engraved in every Chinese people. <br /> <br /> <br /> ====Origin====<br /> <br /> Regarding the origin of the Chinese zodiac, there are various opinions but many of them are presented without sufficient evidence. There are many myths explaining these animal signs and their arrangement. Among them the most time-honored one is the Great Race. In this story, the Jade Emperor, Ruler of the Heavens, wanted to devise a way to measure time, so he organized a race. At the end, the first twelve animals who made it across the river were the winners and so they earned themselves a spot on the zodiac calender in the order they arrived(The Editorial Board, 2010: 6). <br /> <br /> Besides this folk story, some scholars claim the zodiac scheme was indeed derived from the Twelve Earthly Branches but did not occur at the same time while the Earthly Branches appeared. Since the Han Dynasty, the Earthly Branches have been used to record the time of day. Therefore some hold until that time, the 12 zodiac came into being as a supplementary to refer to the 12 periods of 24 hours. Since the original meaning of the Earthly Branches at that time was obliterated due to the passage of time, the ancient Chinese attached the Earthly Branches and the Ten Heavenly Stems to the zodiac(The Editorial Board, 2010: 5-7). <br /> <br /> There also stands an opinion that the zodiac signs were originated from the totem worship in the primitive society. According to some researches on the origin of Chinese zodiac, there were only twelve earliest surnames in ancient China, which were derived from the names of the twelve animals in the Chinese zodiac scheme. Here the twelve animals refer to the totems at ancient times and different surname tribes use different animals as their totems. Therefore, the twelve animals of Chinese zodiac was developed from the totems of ancient tribes(The Editorial Board, 2010: 4-5).<br /> <br /> ====Folk Culture and Belief ====<br /> <br /> The zodiac sign can not only reveal one’s age, but also represent his or her personality, career prospects and way of life according to Chinese superstition(The Editorial Board, 2010: 40). <br /> <br /> The Chinese seem to believe that they have some affinity with the animals of the years in which they were born and that their personal traits and fortunes come under their mysterious influence. According to superstitious belief in China, Zodiac animals are combined with the Five Elements that consist of Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth, to tell one's destiny. Since people have their zodiac sign's fixed elment, there are many folk beliefs based on this. For example, people born in the years of Metal Rat are believed to have a promising future; people born in the years of Fire Rat are deemed to be clever and intelligent and Wood Rat independent and self-respected(The Editorial Board, 2010: 40). <br /> <br /> Besides, since the zodiac is determined by the year of birth, there are many implications of one’s birth year. For example, some zodiacal preferences prevail in Chinese population. Chinese have always had a strong affection for the Dragon, so married couples prefer to give births in the year of Dragon. Since dragon is regarded as the auspicious and divine creature, the children born in these years of dragon are believed to have fortune. These cultural preferences and folk beliefs have influenced prospective parents’ reproductive behavior in the Chinese society(Yip et al., 2002: 1804)<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese people believe certain animals get on better than the others, so the zodiac has had a great impact on marriage as well. Specifically, people who is born in the Year of Tiger would have perfect romance with Pigs, Rabbit with Dogs and Dragon with Roosters. On the contrary, some zodiac signs are believed to have misfortune if they are married with people of certain zodiac. As the Chinese idiom goes, if a dragon and a tiger fight against each other, there will be one injured. This old says reflects that dragon and tiger are natural enemies according to the belief(The Editorial Board, 2010: 34-35). <br /> <br /> And this is the reason why men and women would like to evaluate their Bazi, the Eight Characters, before they get married. However, in reality, personality is related to one’s experience through the life journey rather than the pre-written zodiac signs. People born in the same year would have very distinctive personalities. Similarly, the destiny is also a result of people’s character and most decisions they’ll be making along the way. Of course the marriage is a more complex thing that cannot be deemed to have a pre-given outcome brought by the zodiac(The Editorial Board, 2010: 34-35).<br /> <br /> ====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Chinese zodiac is a complex scheme which combines the traditional Chinese astrology in it. Based on the Five Elements theory, Yin and Yang system and Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches system, the traditional scheme has developed a profound connotation and implications through generations. Over thousands of years, this popular culture has affected people’s major decisions in naming, marriage, giving birth and attitude towards each other. But people have to consider zodiac in a rational and scientific way. Perhaps the zodiac may help us to understand what we’re given, but it cannot determine our destiny. We should treat it as the precious cultural heritage and explore the profound culture and historical traces embodied in it(The Editorial Board, 2010: 1-2).<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> 《大中国上下五千年》丛书编委会(2010) The Editorial Board of the ''Five Thousand Years of Great China''（''Dazhongguo Shangxia Wuqiannian''） ''Series'',《中国生肖文化》''The Culture of Chinese Zodiac'', 北京：外文出版社 Beijing: Foreign Languages Press.<br /> <br /> Yip, Paul S.F.伊普, Lee, Joseph 李 and Cheung, Y.B.张 (2002).The Influence of the Chinese Zodiac on Fertility in Hong Kong SAR 论生肖对香港生育率的影响. ''Social Science &amp; Medicine''《社会科学与医学》, Volume 55, Issue 10 第55卷第10期, 1803-1812.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions=== <br /> <br /> Jade Emperor 玉皇大帝<br /> <br /> Ten Heavenly Stems 十天干<br /> <br /> Twelve Earthly Branches 十二地支<br /> <br /> Five Elements 五行<br /> <br /> Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth 金木水火土<br /> <br /> Eight Characters 八字<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.How long is the history of Chinese zodiac?<br /> <br /> 2.What are the twelve zodiac signs in order? <br /> <br /> 3.From what time the Earthly Branches was used to record time?<br /> <br /> 4.According to Chinese folk belief, what kind of characteristics do people born in year of rat have?<br /> <br /> 5.Which zodiac animal is mostly praised in China?<br /> <br /> 6.Can you name some pairs of zodiac animal that get along well with each other according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> 7.Which pair of animals that are natural enemies according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.More than 2200 years.<br /> <br /> 2.Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig.<br /> <br /> 3.Han Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 4.They are smart, adaptable, and have the will to fight, but, on the other hand, they are so over-ambitious and easy to fail.<br /> <br /> 5.Dragon.<br /> <br /> 6.Tiger and pig, rabbit and dog and dragon and rooster. <br /> <br /> 7.Dragon and tiger.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lisu People and Daogan Festival of Lisu Ethnic Minority Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏 202070080641 英语口译==<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Lisu people and Daogan festival====<br /> <br /> The Lisu ethnic group are the Tibeto-Burman ethnic group living in mountainous areas such as Burma, southwest China, Thailand, and Arunachal Pradesh in India.<br /> <br /> [[File:Example1.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> There are about 730,000 Lisu people living in Lijiang, Baoshan, Nujiang, Diqing, Dehong and other counties in Yunnan province and Sichuan province in China. The Lisu nationality is one of the 56 official nationalities recognized by China. In Myanmar, the Lisu ethnic group is recognized as one of the 135 ethnic groups with an estimated population of 600,000. Approximately 55,000 Lisu people live in Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. They mainly inhabit remote mountainous areas. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans. Each clan has its own name or surname. The most famous family clans in the tribal clans are Laemae pha, Bya pha, Thorne pha, Ngwa Pha (Ngwazah), Naw pha, Seu pha, Khaw pha. Most of the surnames come from their own hunter work in primitive times. But later, they adopted many Chinese surnames. Their culture has the same characteristics as the Yi nationality or Nuosu (Lolo) culture. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> Daogan Festival (刀杆节) is a traditional festival of Lisu ethnic groups living in Lushui County(泸水县), Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture(怒江傈僳族自治州).Due to the death of the old artists, they were once lost in Nujiang Prefecture and recovered in recent years. They are mainly distributed in Luzhang Village(鲁掌镇), Luzu Village(鲁祖村) and Loma Village(洛玛村) of Lushui County(泸水县).(Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> [[File:Example2.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> ====Legend====<br /> <br /> During the Ming Dynasty, when people of different clans of feudal China invaded the borders of Yunnan, the emperor sent Wang Ji (王骥), the war department of the Chinese feudal ministry, to resist the enemy with troops. Wang Ji united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders. But later, Wang Ji was killed by traitors. To commemorate Wang Ji's great achievement and to pray for the brave soldiers who died bravely in defending the border, the Li tribe held the &quot;Going up to the mountain of swords and going down to the sea of ​​fire&quot; event. (上刀山，下火海), and designated the 15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year as the Knife Gan Festival.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Going up to the knife mountain and going down to the sea of ​​fire are the main custom performances of the Taozhen Festival, which reproduce the life experience of people living in mountainous areas as they climb the mountains and the hard spirit and skills of climbing.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> ====Performing====<br /> <br /> Pine trees were used as tool poles, iron knives as tool ladders, crinkled paper as flowers, and bamboo as flower sticks. When we go up the rice mountain and down the fire, we play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments under the knife pole. There are strict procedures and rituals from pointing flowers, pointing knives, playing knives, tying knives, tying flowers, welcoming flowers, and altars. Setting , knife pole , vertical pole , sacrificial dragon , knife stand and dismantling knife (in the sea of fire). Knife poles are usually called gold pillar, silver pillar or male pillar and female pillar respectively, representing the dead and the living. Thirty-six long sharp knives representing 365 days a year are tied to the sides of the ladder with paper flowers made of five-color paper. After the knife poles are tied, Heung Tong/Heung Tong (巫师) recites the words in his mouth and performs the knife dance with drum music. After the knife dance, to the sound of Suo na, gongs and drums, the knife bearer grasps the blade with both hands, steps on the blade with bare feet and then climbs up. When the knife-bearer reaches the top through the three scissors, the knife-bearer opens the lock of heaven, takes out the grains and flowers, spreads them out into the boiling crowd, and then places the red ribbon on the colored door, over which he sings the old prayer song, and then he comes down from the pole of the knife again. After that, he stepped barefoot into the burning charcoal fire, licking the burning plow with his tongue and biting the burning chains with his teeth, which showed the national spirit of the Li people and their superb performance skills.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> ====Development====<br /> <br /> According to legend, it commemorates an ancient Han Chinese hero who showed great kindness to the Lisu people. The Lisu people made the anniversary of the hero's death a traditional holiday for their own people, and used symbolic rituals such as going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire to express their feelings of willingness to go through fire in return. On the day of the Knife Festival, several able-bodied men first perform the &quot;firewalking&quot; ceremony. They jump into the red-hot coals with bare feet and perform various stunts. On the second day, they sharpen 36 long knives and tie them to two 20-meter-high wooden racks with rattan strips, forming a knife ladder. With bare hands and feet, the performers climb to the top from the edge of the knives and perform various difficult moves at the top of the pole. Today, this thrilling traditional sacrificial ritual has evolved into a sporting event for the good people of the Lisu people to perform their stunts.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> 1.Lisu people 傈僳族<br /> <br /> 2.&quot;Up and down the mountain&quot; event 上刀山，下火海<br /> <br /> 2.going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire上刀山，下火海--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.The Lisu tribe 傈僳族<br /> <br /> 4.clan 氏族<br /> <br /> 5.primitive times 原始时期<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.How many Lisu people live in Yunnan and Sichuan？<br /> <br /> 2.How many clans make up the Lisu people？<br /> <br /> 3.Who united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders？<br /> <br /> 4.Which day is the Daogan Festival？<br /> <br /> 5.What musical instruments do they play under the knife pole?<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.About 730,000 Lisu people. <br /> <br /> 2.The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans.<br /> <br /> 3.Wang Ji.<br /> <br /> 4.15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year.<br /> <br /> 5.They play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments.<br /> <br /> ====References====<br /> <br /> *Ernst, Gabriel (21 October 2019). &quot;'We try to not be Thai': the everyday resistance of ethnic minorities&quot;<br /> *&quot;Yunnan Province of China Government Web&quot;. Eng.yn.gov.cn.<br /> *李智环．Li Zhihuan. 傈僳族人口分布及形成原因分析 [Analysis of the Distribution and Causes of the Formation of the Lisu People] 《保山学院学报》， 2010 [Journal of Baoshan College], 2010<br /> <br /> ==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br /> Culture==Topic-Chinese Clothing== Phyo, Su Kyi, Student No-20191108000,Major: Comparative Literature and Cross-cultural Studies. <br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> <br /> Chinese Clothing has a long history while Han people dominate most periods in history. For thousands of years, generations of clothing designers have devoted themselves to building the Kingdom of Clothes, making the garments that cover the human body into an important component of Chinese culture. The progress can be seen through its changes in clothing styles.Clothing manufacture in China dates back to prehistoric times, at least 7,000years ago. Archaeological findings of 18,000 years-old artifacts such as bone sewing needles and stone beads and shells with holes bored in them attest to the existence of ornamentation and of sewing extremely early in Chinese civilization. (www.topchinatravel. com, 2004)<br /> <br /> Chinese clothing has undergone continuous transformations throughout history,providing a reflection of the culture in place at any given time. A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry, and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive Chinese fashions through the ages.(Mei Hua-2010-page-1)<br /> <br /> 1-Chinese traditional clothing<br /> <br /> Traditional clothing can reflect the traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics. Traditional clothing mutually integrates its unique style, comfortable fabric, bright colors,rich designs and exquisite craft elements to bring people impulsive feelings with visual communication. Traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics enjoys its unique artistic features in the style, color,fabrics,decoration and craft, ect. They are profoundly influenced by Chinese traditional culture ideas in the process of their formation and development and finally condensed into the national culture bearing Chinese culture features. These elements are the source of our inspiration in contemporary clothing design, and the use of these Chinese elements can help people to design out the clothing Chinese style.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional culture is an indispensable source of inspiration in fashion design. Putting the traditional elements into fashion design not only helps the native culture to extend itself, but also greatly promotes the culture exchanges in nationalities. Therefore, we should advocate the national advanced culture,make the Chinese traditional culture achieve the development in the clothing design, use the common language to express Chinese traditional culture essence, and integrate Chinese traditional element symbol into the spiritual elements of fashion design to make the national culture spirit and the language of the world integrate into the mainstream of modern clothing design.(Jiangsu,2016, page -3)<br /> <br /> 1:1.Traditional Han Chinese Clothing (Han Fu)<br /> <br /> It refers to the attire worn by the Han people from the enthronement of the Yellow Emperor(about 2698BC) till the late Ming Dynasty (1368-1644AD).It became known as the Han Fu(fu means 'clothes&quot; in Chinese)because the fashion was improved and popularized during the Han Dynasty. It is usually in the from of long gown,cross collar, wrapping the right lapel over the left, loose wide sleeves and no buttons but a sash. Although simple in design, it gives different feelings to different wearers.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019-Aug-2)<br /> <br /> 1:2.Chinese Suit(Tang Zhuang)<br /> <br /> It is a combination of the Manchu male jacket of the Qing Dynasty and the western style suit. It is usually straight collared,with coiled buttons down the front. Its color and design are in traditional Chinese style but tailoring is western.(www.topchinatravel. com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> 1:3.Cheongsam(Qi Pao)<br /> <br /> Originated from the Manchu female clothes, it evolved by merging with western patterns that show off the beauty of a female body. Its features are straight collar, strain on the waist,coiled buttons and slits on both sides ofvthe dress. Materials used are usually silk, cotton and linen.Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire in the world today.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> 1:4.Chinese Tunic Suit(Zhongshan Zhuang)<br /> <br /> Also called the Yat-sen Suit , it is designed by Dr.Sun Yat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire. It has a turn-down collar and four pockets with flaps. As Chairman Mao Zedong worn it quite frequently, it is also called the Mao Suit by westerners. It is the main attire from the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 till 1980,s. The country's leaders still wear it today when attending important occasions, such as military parades.(www.topchinatravel. com,2016,Auge-2.)<br /> <br /> 2.Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements<br /> <br /> There are many old stories in ancient Chinese civilization, and Chinese traditional elements come up with the tenacity of the Chinese nations long history. Different times has their unique cultural connotations and form elements,which include Chinese architecture, costumes, traditional Chinese painting and folk art etc., and those cultural connotations and form elements are precious heritage that the ancestors leave to their off-springs. The change of dynasties in the history of our country lead to changes of cultural centers, which finally lead to the appearance Chinese traditional elements with different representative features in each historical periods, nations and regions. These elements include: Chinese silk ,cloth of brocade, hemp,blue printed fabric; chirpaur, Chinese -style chest covering, Chinese tunic suit, collar,surplice, mandarin and split etc.; colorful ethnic colors: such as bright red,green,yellow and blueetc.;Neolithic patterns, bronze patterns in Shang and Chou dynasties, ancient lacquer were pattern in Qin and Han dynasties, Buddhism patterns in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties and traditional decorative patterns in Tang,Sing and Qing dynasties. The essence of Chinese traditional culture which bear the role of inheriting national culture, and is the unique and external characteristic of Chinese nation.(Jiangsu,2016, page-3)<br /> <br /> 2:1.The Aesthetic Performance of Design<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional clothing of each dynasty has its own unique clothing style and design, but no matter how the style changes,the mainstream concept of traditional Chinese clothing always emphasizes symmetry and balance, and the clothing symmetry can be seen in sleeve, placket, hem,pattern ect.Chinese traditional clothing design is particular about proportion,such as the ancient Chinese woman dresses, short jacket unlined uper garment (named Ru)marching long dress , and it emphasizes the perfect proportion which hold that&quot;the upper part should be short, the below part should be long&quot;; in Song and Ming dynasties people the collocation of long BeiZi(a kind of dress that girls dress in ancient times) and short skirt, the &quot;long upper part,short below part&quot;ratio perfectly reflects the proportions beauty of the clothing.(Jiangsu,2016, page-5.)<br /> <br /> 2:2.The Aesthetic Performance of colors<br /> <br /> Green, white, yellow, red, black ,the five colors, form the Chinese traditional color system. They have obvious implied meaning and identification.Black stands for that the dark heaven, and yellow stands for the earth at dusk, and black and yellow stand for the heaven and the earth ,and they are mostly used in the Kings' clothing, About the colorific choice of Chinese traditional clothing the yellow and red which the historical role is prominent perform particularly well. In the late period of the Warring States as a royal color yellow appeared and became the supreme ruler's senior clothing color.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-6)<br /> <br /> In Chinese traditional clothing colors red has evoluted from the original noble characteristic to the civilians characteristic. It evolution has experienced a certain period of time. The original red uses magenta, red ,cinnabar to represent. It is the noble officials' clothing color.<br /> Many designers combine Chinese red and modern clothing design to embody the application of Chinese traditional clothing elements in modern clothing design.(Jaingsu,2016-page-7)<br /> In Chinese traditional clothing colors, the red color has evoluted from the original noble characteristic to the civilians characteristic. It evolution has experienced a certain period of time. The original red uses magenta, red ,cinnabar to represent. It is the noble officials' clothing color.<br /> Many designers combine Chinese red and modern clothing design to embody the application of Chinese traditional clothing elements in modern clothing design.(Jaingsu,2016-page-7)--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 08:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)su kyi<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Chinese traditional culture is an indispensable source of inspiration in fashion design.Therefore, we should advocate the national advanced culture, make the Chinese traditional culture achieve the development in the clothing design.<br /> <br /> Trems and Expressions<br /> <br /> 历史-history, <br /> <br /> 期-period, <br /> <br /> 世代-generations, <br /> <br /> 服装-clothing, <br /> <br /> 设计师-designers , <br /> <br /> 装饰-ornamentation<br /> <br /> 中国服饰- Chinese clothing<br /> <br /> 服饰-Costumes <br /> <br /> 传统服装-Traditional clothing<br /> <br /> 服装设计-Clothing design<br /> <br /> 时尚设计-Fashion design <br /> <br /> 几代服装设计师-Generations of clothing designers <br /> <br /> 中国西装-Chinese Suit<br /> <br /> 旗袍-Cheongsam<br /> <br /> 中山装-Chinese Tunic Suit <br /> <br /> 中国传统元素-Chinese traditional elements <br /> <br /> ===Questions ===<br /> <br /> 1-What’s archaeological findings in Chinese fashions through the ages?<br /> <br /> 2-What's Traditional Clothing?<br /> <br /> 3-What's Traditional culture indispensable?<br /> <br /> 4-How is means Han Fu?<br /> <br /> 5-What's the popular Chinese attire?<br /> <br /> 6-How called was Chinese Tunic Suit?<br /> <br /> 7-What'are include Chinese traditional elements? <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 04:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Answers===<br /> 1- A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry,<br /> and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive chinese fanshions through the ages.<br /> <br /> 2-Traditional clothingis the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing<br /> culture with Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> 3-Chineset traditional culture is an indispensablevsource of inspirationin fashion<br /> design.<br /> <br /> 4-Han Fu is fu means clothes in Chinese. <br /> <br /> 5-Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire inthe world today.<br /> <br /> 6-It is also called the Yat-sen Suit,it is designed byDr.SunYat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire.<br /> <br /> 7-Chinese traditional elements include: Chinese silk,cloth of brocade, hemp, blue printed fabric.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 11:56, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> 1.Jiangsu.,(2016), “Influences of Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements on Modern Clothing Design”,<br /> <br /> Nanjing University of Finance and Economics,Soochow University,Published by Atlantic Press.<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.Mei Hua,(2010), `Chinese Clothing´, Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building,Cambridge CB28RU,UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press,NewYork<br /> www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title:www.cambridge.org/9780521186896<br /> Originally published byChina Intercontinental Press as Cinese Clothing(9787508516615)in2010©ChinaIntercontinentalPress.<br /> <br /> 3.https://www.topchinatravel.com/china-guide/history-of-chinese-clothing.htm<br /> <br /> 4.https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/clothing/--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 10:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br /> <br /> ===Chinese traditional dance===<br /> Culture=Topic Chinese Traditional Dance=Pingki Tanchangya, Student No:201921080004<br /> ,Major: Comparative Literature and cross culture studies.<br /> <br /> 1. Introduction<br /> <br /> There is a long recorded history in China for various kinds of dances. China is highly took position for art consisting for many modern and traditional dance genres. The dance covers a world a worldwide range, like folk dances, ballet, rituals and weeding ceremonies. We also know about that, there are also 56 officially recognized ethnic groups have their own folk dances and style of forms. The best known Chinese are the Dragon dance and Lion dances both dances were known in earlier dynasties in various forms. &quot; Lianxiang &quot; is a Chinese traditional dance , people usually plays it for entertainment and body building.The author presents the view that the dance can relax tendons and activate collaterals by striking shoulders, chest, waist, abdomen, buttocks, feet and acupuncture points of the four limbs, and slightly swaying knees together with shoulder, the set of movement can also exercise bones, muscles.--[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 05:14, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2. Characteristics of the Dance<br /> <br /> Characteristics of the movements <br /> <br /> There have 3 characteristic of the movements are: thrashing, quivering and lowering. The performer holds bamboo pole to play various dance movements by striking shoulders, chest, waist, abdomen, buttocks, feet and acupuncture points of the four limbs, and slightly swaying knees together with shoulder vibration. The traditional movements are modified and developed which is called single- thrashing and double-thrashing. Single-thrashing movements including crouch thrashing, jump thrashing, rolling thrashing and mixed thrashing with one bamboo pole. --[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 06:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3. The Dragon Dance<br /> <br /> The Dragon dance is a form of traditional dance and performance in Chinese culture. Like the lion dance it is most often seen in festive celebrations. Many Chinese people often use the term &quot;Descendants of the Dragon&quot; as a sign of ethnic identity, as part of a trend started in the 1970s. Chinese people who taught them agriculture, law and medicine, the foundations of civilization.<br /> Dragons are believed to bring good luck to Chinese people, which are reflected in their qualities that include great power, dignity, fertility and wisdom. The appearance of a dragon is both frightening and bold.The Dragon Dance originated during the Han Dynasty and was started by the Chinese who had shown great belief and respect towards the dragon. It is believed to have begun as part of the farming and harvest culture, also with origins as a method of healing and preventing sickness. It was also a popular event during the Song Dynasty and become a folk activity and like the lion dance, was most often seen in festive celebrations.<br /> As the dragon gives people a feeling of great respect, it is often called the Sacred Dragon. The emperors of ancient China considered themselves as the dragon. The Dragon is also the emblem of Imperial Authority. It symbolizes supernatural power, goodness, fertility, vigilance and dignity.<br /> <br /> 4. The lion Dance<br /> <br /> The lion dance is a traditional Chinese dance performed on big occasions, such as the Spring Festival (Chinese New Year) for good luck, as it is believed that the lion is an auspicious animal.<br /> In Chinese culture, the lion symbolizes power, wisdom, and superiority. People perform lion dances at Chinese festivals or big occasions to bring good fortune and chase away evil spirits.The lion dance is one of the most important traditions during Chinese New Year. It is performed to bring prosperity and good luck for the upcoming year. The lion dance is also a way to create a festive atmosphere and bring happiness. Performed in a lion costume, accompanied by the music of beating drums, clashing cymbals, and resounding gongs, lion dances imitate a lion's various movements or demonstrate martial arts, depending on the style. Though lion dances all use similar costumes, during its long development, the lion dance has divided into two styles: southern and northern.<br /> <br /> 4.1 The Southern Lion Dance<br /> <br /> The southern lion dance originated in Guangdong, and it is the style popular in Hong Kong, Macau, and the hometowns of overseas Chinese. The southern lion dance is a performance based on the study of a lion's behavior, with an emphasis on actions like scratching and shaking of the body. Performances are vivid and entertaining, even comical. There are also skillful performances, such as playing with a ball, which includes swallowing it.<br /> <br /> 4.2 The Northern Lion Dance<br /> <br /> The northern lion dance has close relations to kungfu Chinese martial arts. A young lion is performed by a single person and an adult lion is performed by a duo. Costumes are more robust, and less decorative, to allow for more movement. In the adult lion dance, the performer in front holding the lion's head is often lifted by the other to make the lion stand up. Northern lion dances are more gymnastic, involving rolling, wrestling, leaping, jumping, climbing, or kowtowing. The best places to see northern Chinese lion dances are China's martial arts theaters, like the Red Theater in Beijing, or even at the Shaolin Temple.--[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 14:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br />  5. Conclusion<br /> <br /> &quot;Lianxiang” is a remark traditional dance that popularized in lots of regions and nations. It’s a folk dance that combines entertainment and body-building. Dragons are believed to bring good luck to Chinese people, which are reflected in their qualities that include great power, dignity, fertility and wisdom.The lion dance is an excellent example of Chinese folk culture, which has spread across the world with Chinese immigration. Overseas Chinese in Europe, America, etc. have established many lion dance clubs, performing on Chinese festivals or big occasions, particularly Chinese New Year.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> 1.Han Dynasty 汉朝。<br /> <br /> 2.Traditional dance history 传统舞蹈史。<br /> <br /> 3.The lion Dance 舞狮。<br /> <br /> 4.The Dragon Dance 龙舞。<br /> <br /> 5.Lianxing 联兴。<br /> <br /> 6.Chinese Dance 中国舞。<br /> <br /> 7.Festivals 节庆。<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Questions:<br /> <br /> 1. What is lianxing?<br /> 2. What is the Dragon Dance? Have you seen it before? And Where?<br /> 3. The dragon Dance originated from where?<br /> 4. what Lion Dances Symbolized?<br /> 5. How many Chinese Traditional Dance names you know?<br /> <br /> Answers:<br /> <br /> 1.&quot;Lianxiang&quot; is generally a traditional dance that is quite popular in lots of regions.<br /> 2. The Dragon dance is a form of traditional dance and performance in Chinese culture. Yes, I have seen it before in China.<br /> 3. The Dragon Dance originated from the Han Dynasty. It was started by the Chinese people those had shown great belief and respect towards the dragon.<br /> 4 The lion dance performed at Chinese festivals and<br />  “Lion” symbolizes power, wisdom, and superiority.<br /> 5.<br /> 1.The folk dance.<br /> 2 The Duhuang Dance.<br /> 3.The Lion Dance.<br /> 4.The Dragon Dance.<br /> <br /> Reference: <br /> <br /> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Chinese_dance.<br /> <br /> http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTotal-JFYS201701031.htm.<br /> <br /> http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTotal-TIRE200403012.htm.<br /> <br /> https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/etmhs-16/25849367.<br /> <br /> Origin of lianxiang.http://www.google.cn.<br /> <br /> Classification of Lian Xiang. http://www.google.cn.--[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 15:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Liquor Culture of China 瞿淼 Student No.202070080604 ==<br /> ==The Liquor Culture of China 瞿淼 Student No.202070080604 英语笔译 ==--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 08:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.The Origin of liquor in China====<br /> <br /> With a long history of liquor-making, China boasts a variety of vintage liquor, which is renowned at home and abroad. Penetrating in China’s entire history of civilization, the liquor culture plays a significant role in many aspects, such as cuisine, literature, and health care, of Chinese people’s daily life.（后面好像缺了文献的引用，参考文献中的没有在正文体现）--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> As to the origin of Chinese liquor, opinions vary and no unanimous conclusion can be drawn, and the most widely accepted version is that Du Kang is the person who invented liquor. There are divergent views on Du Kang’s identity, so far, documents have been found which recorded his deeds in the Yellow Emperor era and Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties. And even his address is disputable. Some people think he lived in Baishui, Shaanxi province and was buried here, while others hold the opinion that he lived in Ruyang, Henan province. However, Du Kang is generally believed to be the Chinese Dionysus. According to the legend, one day it rained suddenly while Du Kang was herding the sheep. Hastily driving the sheep back to the sheepfold, he forgot some husked sorghum rice in a hollowed trunk by accident, and when he came back after a few days, the rice he left there became so fragrant that he couldn’t help tasting some. Surprisingly, it was palatable. This unexpected finding made Du Kang start to develop the liquor-brewing technique. Nowadays, Du kang has become the synonym of liquor in many places. Moreover, ancestral halls of Du Kang have been built in Baishui in Shaanxi province and Ruyang in Henan province to enshrine him. And the liquor produced in these places are called “Du Kang Liquor.”(Huang yixi, 2008, 12) <br /> <br /> With a long history of liquor-making, China boasts a variety of vintage liquor, which is renowned at home and abroad. Penetrating in China’s entire history of civilization, the liquor culture plays a significant role in many aspects, such as cuisine, literature, and health care, of Chinese people’s daily life.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As to the origin of Chinese liquor, opinions vary and no unanimous conclusion can be drawn, and the most widely accepted version is that Du Kang invented liquor. There are divergent views on Du Kang’s identity, so far, documents have been found which recorded his deeds in the Yellow Emperor era and Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties. And even his address is disputable. Some people think he lived in Baishui, Shaanxi province and was buried here, while others hold the opinion that he lived in Ruyang, Henan province. However, Du Kang is generally believed to be the Chinese Dionysus. According to the legend, one day it rained suddenly while Du Kang was herding the sheep. Hastily driving the sheep back to the sheepfold, he forgot some husked sorghum rice in a hollowed trunk by accident, and when he came back after a few days, the rice he left there became so fragrant that he couldn’t help tasting it. Surprisingly, it was palatable. This unexpected finding made Du Kang start to develop the liquor-brewing technique. Nowadays, Du kang has become the synonym of liquor in many places. Moreover, ancestral halls of Du Kang have been built in Baishui in Shaanxi province and Ruyang in Henan province to enshrine him. And the liquor produced in these places are called “Du Kang Liquor.”(Huang yixi, 2008, 12)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.The Types of liquor in Ancient China====<br /> With constant reform and innovation of the techniques of brewing liquor, thousands types of vintage liquor have been created in China. According to the different production techniques, Chinese liquor can be divided into fermented wine and distilled liquor.<br /> <br /> With constant reform and innovation of the techniques of brewing liquor, thousands of types of vintage liquor have been created in China. According to the different production techniques, Chinese liquor can be divided into fermented wine and distilled liquor.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Yellow rice wine is the oldest fermented wine around the world. Shaoxing Wine, a famous specialty of Shaoxing, Zhejiang province, is the representative of yellow rice wine. It has a very long history, and the wine industry in Shaoxing was prosperous early in the Warring States period. Shaoxing wine looks yellow and clear, hence sugar is added in its raw material. The most prominent of Shaoxing Wine is that it’s fragrance improves with age. In addition to Shaoxing Wine, there are other famous yellow rice wine like Jiujiang Old Seal Wine, Mellow Wine and Dongwu Rice Wine and so on. where is the source is coming from please?<br /> <br /> Yellow rice wine is the oldest fermented wine around the world. Shaoxing Wine, a famous specialty of Shaoxing, Zhejiang province, is the representative of yellow rice wine. It has a very long history, and the wine industry in Shaoxing was prosperous early in the Warring States Period. Shaoxing wine looks yellow and clear, because sugar is added in its raw material. (这句话的因果关系不知道是什么，改错了就删掉我的就好）The most prominent characteristic of Shaoxing Wine is that it’s fragrance improves with age. In addition to Shaoxing Wine, there are other famous yellow rice wine like Jiujiang Old Seal Wine, Mellow Wine and Dongwu Rice Wine and so on.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Liquor and Spirits(Baijiu), a kind of distilled liquor, is divided into the following flavor types: sauce-flavor type, light flavor type, strong flavor type and other flavour types. Kweichow Moutai is a traditional Chinese specialty liquor. It is one of the world's three major distilled liquors on par with Scotch whiskey and French cognac. It is also the originator of Daqu sauce-flavored liquor with a history of more than 800 years. The style and quality of Kweichow Moutai is characterized by &quot;prominent sauce, elegant and delicate flavour, full-bodied, long aftertaste, and lasting fragrance in an empty cup&quot;. Its special style comes from the unique traditional brewing techniques formed over the years and the brewing methods are combined with the agricultural production in the Chishui River Basin, which is affected by the environment and seasonal production, retaining some of the original traces of local life. In 1996, Moutai's craftsmanship was identified as a state secret to be protected. In 2001, the traditional craft of Moutai was included in the first batch of national material cultural heritage. In 2006, the State Council approved the inclusion of the &quot;Moutai traditional brewing process&quot; in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage lists, and declared the world intangible cultural heritage. where is source coming?<br /> <br /> Liquor and Spirits(Baijiu), a kind of distilled liquor, is divided into the following flavor types: sauce-flavor type, light flavor type, strong flavor type and other flavour types. Kweichow Moutai is a traditional Chinese specialty liquor. It is one of the world's three major distilled liquors on par with Scotch whiskey and French cognac. It is also the origin of Daqu sauce-flavored liquor with a history of more than 800 years. The style and quality of Kweichow Moutai is characterized by prominent sauce, elegant and delicate flavour, full-bodied, long aftertaste, and lasting fragrance in an empty cup&quot;. Its special style comes from the unique traditional brewing techniques formed over the years and the brewing methods are combined with the agricultural production in the Chishui River Basin, which is affected by the environment and seasonal production, retaining some of the original traces of local life. In 1996, Moutai's craftsmanship was identified as a state secret to be protected. In 2001, the traditional craft of Moutai was included in the first batch of national material cultural heritage. In 2006, the State Council included &quot;Moutai traditional brewing process&quot; in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage lists, and declared it as the world intangible cultural heritage.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.The Types of Drinking Vessel in Ancient China====<br /> Chinese people always pay attention to the beauty and delicacy of tableware, and we stress the exquisiteness and suitability of wine vessels when drinking. Therefore,as part of the liquor culture, drinking vessels also have a long history and varied appearances.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(sorry,又忘记复制粘贴，直接改动了）<br /> <br /> In different historical periods, due to the continuous development of society and economy, the production technology, materials, and appearance of wine vessels will naturally undergo corresponding changes; therefore, a wide variety of wine vessels have been produced. As early as the Neolithic culture period, pottery with shapes similar to later wine-ware, such as the pottery of the Peiligang culture period, appeared. The development of the liquor industry and the noble identity of the drinker have made it possible for liquor utensils to be differentiated from ordinary eating utensils. The quality of wine-ware often becomes one of the symbols of the status of drinkers. Bronze ware originated in Xia Dynasty, and the earliest bronze wine ware that has been discovered is from the Xia Erlitou culture period. Bronze ware reached its heyday in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and declined in the Spring and Autumn Period. The purpose of the Shang and Zhou drinking vessels was basically specific. <br /> In the Shang Dynasty, due to the development of the liquor industry and the improvement of bronze production technology, China's wine ware reached unprecedented prosperity. The bronze wine vessels of Shang and Zhou Dynasties were divided into liquor boiling vessels, liquor serving vessels, drinking vessels and liquor storaging vessels according to their purposes. Each vessel has many styles, some are in common styles, and some take animal shapes. Take Zun as an example, there are Elephant Zun, Rhino Zun, Niu Zun, Yang Zun, Tiger Zun, etc. <br /> <br /> In different historical periods, due to the continuous development of society and economy, the production technology, materials, and appearance of wine vessels naturally has undergone corresponding changes; therefore, a wide variety of wine vessels have been produced. As early as the Neolithic culture period, pottery with shapes similar to later wine-ware, such as the pottery of the Peiligang culture period, appeared. The development of the liquor industry and the noble identity of the drinker have made it possible for liquor utensils to be differentiated from ordinary eating utensils. The quality of wine-ware often becomes one of the symbols of the status of drinkers. Bronze ware originated in Xia Dynasty, and the earliest bronze wine ware that has been discovered is from the Xia Erlitou culture period. Bronze ware reached its heyday in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and declined in the Spring and Autumn Period. The purpose of the Shang and Zhou drinking vessels is basically specific. <br /> In the Shang Dynasty, due to the development of the liquor industry and the improvement of bronze production technology, China's wine ware reached unprecedented prosperity. The bronze wine vessels of Shang and Zhou Dynasties were divided into liquor boiling vessels, liquor serving vessels, drinking vessels and liquor storaging vessels according to their purposes. Each vessel has many styles, some are in common styles, and some take animal shapes. Take Zun as an example, there are Elephant Zun, Rhino Zun, Niu Zun, Yang Zun, Tiger Zun, etc. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:zun.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> During the Qin and Han Dynasties, lacquered wine utensils became popular in southern China. It became the main type in the Han Dynasty, Wei and Jin Dynasties, and its shape basically inherited the shape of bronze liquor vessels. Porcelain roughly appeared around the Eastern Han Dynasty. Compared with pottery, the performance of porcelain surpassed that of pottery. The shape of liquor glasses in the Tang Dynasty was much smaller than in the past, so some people think that distilled spirits appeared in the Tang Dynasty. The Song Dynasty was the heyday of ceramic production, and there were many exquisite wine vessels. People in Song Dynasty like to warm rice wine and drink it. So the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl were invented. People placed the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and poured hot water into the bowl to warm the wine. The representative porcelain wine-ware of the Ming and Qing Dynasty is the blue-and-white porcelain wine-ware.<br /> <br /> During the Qin and Han Dynasties, lacquered wine utensils became popular in Southern China. It became the main type in the Han Dynasty and Wei and Jin Dynasties, and its shape basically inherited the shape of bronze liquor vessels. Porcelain roughly appeared around the Eastern Han Dynasty. Compared with pottery, the performance of porcelain surpassed that of pottery. The shape of liquor glasses in the Tang Dynasty was much smaller than it in the past, so some people think that distilled spirits appeared in the Tang Dynasty. The Song Dynasty was the heyday of ceramic production, and there were many exquisite wine vessels. People in Song Dynasty like to warm rice wine and drink it. So the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl were invented. People placed the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and poured hot water into the bowl to warm the wine. The representative porcelain wine-ware of the Ming and Qing Dynasty is the blue-and-white porcelain wine-ware.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[File:Example3.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> ====4.Drinking Order====<br /> As early as the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, drinking orders appeared at banquets in the Yellow River Basin. There are many ways to make wine orders. The way the literati and the ordinary people make drinking orders are naturally very different. Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc., while ordinary people use simple ways to act without any preparation. It requires a quick, witty, artistic and talented person to do liquor orders. The drinking order is of great significance to the transformation, enrichment and development of drinking rituals. It is not only an important means to add wine to the fun and to invigorate the banquet, but also to make Chinese culture enter the wine and become the Liquor Culture&quot;.<br /> <br /> As early as the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, drinking games appeared at banquets in the Yellow River Basin. There are many ways to make wine games. The way the literati and the ordinary people make drinking games are naturally different. Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc., while ordinary people use simple ways to act without any preparation. It requires a quick, witty, artistic and talented person to do liquor orders. The drinking games is of great significance to the transformation, enrichment and development of drinking rituals. It is not only an important means to add wine to the fun and to invigorate the banquet, but also to make Chinese culture enter the wine and become the Liquor Culture&quot;.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> 1.Du Kang 杜康<br /> <br /> 2.Chinese Dionysus 中国酒神<br /> <br /> 3.husked sorghum rice 秫米饭<br /> <br /> 4.Baishui 白水县（陕西渭南市辖县）<br /> <br /> 5.Ruyang 汝阳县（河南省洛阳市下辖县）<br /> <br /> 6.fermented wine 发酵酒<br /> <br /> 7.Distilled liquor 蒸馏酒<br /> <br /> 8.Yellow rice wine 黄酒<br /> <br /> 9.Shaoxing Wine 绍兴酒 <br /> <br /> 10.Jiujiang Old Seal Wine 九江成年封缸酒<br /> <br /> 11.Mellow Wine 醇香酒 <br /> <br /> 12.Dongwu Rice Wine 东吴老酒<br /> <br /> 13.Liquor and Spirits 白酒 <br /> <br /> 14.Kweichow Moutai 贵州茅台<br /> <br /> 15.sauce-flavor type 酱香型 <br /> <br /> 16.light flavor type 清香型 <br /> <br /> 17.strong flavor type 浓香型 <br /> <br /> 18.Daqu sauce-flavored liquor 大曲酱香型白酒<br /> <br /> 19.the Peiligang culture period裴李岗文化时期 <br /> <br /> 20.the Xia Erlitou culture period 夏二里头文化时期<br /> <br /> 21.Zun 樽 <br /> <br /> 22.injection vessel and bowl 注子和注碗<br /> <br /> 23.drinking order 行酒令<br /> <br /> 23.drinking games 行酒令--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Questions==== （问题好像还要再加一两个 忘记标准了）--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.Who is generally believed to invent liquor in China? <br /> <br /> 2.What is the most prominent of Shaoxing Wine?<br /> 2.What is the most prominent characteristic of Shaoxing Wine?--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.How to use the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl in the Song dynasty?<br /> <br /> 4.How do literati often make drinking orders in China?<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.Du Kang<br /> <br /> 2.It’s fragrance improves with age.<br /> <br /> 3.Place the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and pour hot water into the bowl to warm the wine.<br /> <br /> 4.Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc.<br /> <br /> ====Bibliography====<br /> *Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br /> <br /> *Li Fangzhou 李方舟. (1998) 酒令——酒文化的珍品[Liquor-a treasure of wine culture]. 质量天地Production Room.<br /> <br /> *Du Jinpeng 杜金鹏. (1995) 中国古代酒具[Ancient Chinese Wine Set]. 上海文化出版社 Shanghai Culture Publishing House.<br /> <br /> *Yang Li 杨 利. (2005) 酒文化及酒的精神文化价值探微[A Probe into Wine Culture and Spiritual Cultural Value of Wine]. 邵阳学院学报Academic Journal of Shaoyang University, 2005(02):82-83.<br /> <br /> *Xu Shaohua 徐少华. (1999) 中国酒文化研究50年[Research on 50 years of Chinese wine culture]. 酿酒科技Brewing Technology, 1999(06):15-18.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Fengqi 赵凤琦. (2014) 我国白酒产业可持续发展研究[Research on Sustainable Development of Chinese Liquor Industry]. 中国社会科学院研究生院CASS Graduate School.<br /> <br /> *Wng Jianguo&amp;Xu Liang 汪建国,徐亮.(2005)我国黄酒的特征及展望[Characteristics and Prospects of Chinese Rice Wine] 江苏调味副食品Journal of Jiangsu Seasoning Food, 2005(06):8-12.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jihua 丁季华. (1991) 中国酒文化的结构与功能[The structure and function of Chinese wine culture]. 历史教学问题History Research and Teaching, 1991(2).<br /> <br /> == China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH) - Rajabov, Anushervon student NO. 201921080005 Major: Comparative literature and cross culture ==<br /> <br /> ===China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH)===<br /> <br /> Introduction <br /> <br /> High-speed railway (HSR) in China is the longest network of high-speed railways in the world and is used most widely. The network of UNCC includes the recently built railway at the estimated speed of 200-350 km / h (120-220 miles per hour). The Chinese VSM accounts for two thirds of world high-speed railways. Almost all trains, the path and services of the HSR belong to the Chinese railway corporation under the CHINA Railway High Speed brand (CRH). The high-speed railway has developed rapidly in China over the past 15 years. CRH was put into operation in April 2007, the Intercity Line Beijing-Tianjin, which opened in August 2008, became the first HSR allocated passenger line. HSR applies to all administrative provincial levels, except Macau and Tibet. The total length of the HSR network reached 36,000 km (22,000 miles) in August 2020. The HSR construction boom continues, and the HSR network should reach 70,000 km (43,000 miles) in 2035. China's first high-speed trains were imported or built in accordance with the Technology Transfer Agreement with foreign trains manufacturers, including Alstom, Siemens, Bombardier and Kawasaki Heavy Industry Since the initial technical support, Chinese engineers have overpower the internal components of the train and built local trains produced by the CRRC State Corporation. The appearance of a rapidly accelerated railway in China has decreased in the way and changed Chinese society and the economy. The World Bank study has shown that &quot;a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality.&quot;[http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/451551468241176543/pdf/932270BRI0Box30ffic020140final000EN.pdf]<br /> <br /> Definition and terminology <br /> <br /> High-speed trains in China are usually belonging to passenger trades of classes G, D and C. in class G trains (高 铁; Gāotiě; &quot;High-speed rail&quot;) are commonly used trains E In class D trains (动 车; Dòngchē; &quot;Electrical multiple unit&quot;) are presented by EMU trains operating at lower speeds, whether in high-speed or low-speed ways. The actual movement speed of class D trains can vary greatly. D211 Creament train from Guyang-east to Guangzhou-South along the High Speed Railway Guang-Guangzhou, a line with an estimated speed of 250 km / h, on average, 207 km / h per trip. The sleeping train D312 EMU between South Beijing and Shanghai at a low speed Beijing - Shanghai on average passing 121 km / h. Class C (c héngjì; “intercity”) trains that run on high-speed tracks at speeds above 250 km / h are also considered high-speed trains.[https://ru.qaz.wiki/wiki/China_Railway_High-speed]<br /> <br /> Influence on airlines<br /> <br /> The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights. The effect of high-speed railway on airfare is most acute when traveling for less than 500 km (310 miles). By the spring of 2011, commercial airlines were fully stopped at previously popular routes such as Wuhan Nanjing, Wuhan Nanchang, Xi'an-Zhengzhou and Chengdu Chongqing. Flights along the routes with a length of more than 1500 km (930 miles) usually do not suffer. As of October 2013, half a speed of passengers were transported monthly on high-speed rail than in the country's airlines. where the source a<br /> Technologies <br /> Chinese High Speed Railway Controls Various Electric Forms of Trains, Hexie HAO Title (Simplified Chinese: 和谐 号; Traditional Chinese: 和 諧 號; Pinyin: Héxié Hào; Harmony) is for designs which are imported from other nations and designated CRH-1 to CRH-5 and CRH380A (L), CRH380B (L) and CRH380C (L). CRH compositions are designed for fast and convenient movement between cities. The weakness of intellectual property Hexie HAO creates obstacles to China in the export of its products related to high-speed railways, which leads to the development of a fully recycled railway franchise called Fuxing Hao (Rejuvenation) that based on local technologies.[https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine ]<br /> <br /> 4 + 4 HSR network <br /> <br /> The network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km. Most of the lines follow existing routes and are for passenger traffic only. These are known as Passenger Lines (PDL). Several sections of the national network, especially along the southeastern coastal corridor, have been built to connect cities that previously had no rail links. These sections will carry both passenger and cargo. High-speed trains on HSR corridors can usually reach speeds of 300-350 km / h (190-220 mph). On mixed HSR lines, passenger trains can reach a maximum speed of 200–250 km / h (120–160 mph). This ambitious national grid project was slated to be built by 2020, but government incentives have significantly shortened the construction timeframe for many lines.[http://www.railjournal.com/A/xfeature2.html]<br /> <br /> Advantages <br /> <br /> HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances that: Increases economic productivity and long-term competitiveness by increasing rail capacity and unifying labor markets. Moving passengers onto high-speed lines frees up older railways to carry more cargo, which is more beneficial for railways than for passengers whose fares are subsidized. Boosts the economy in the short term as high-speed rail construction creates jobs and stimulates demand in the construction, steel and cement industries during the economic downturn. 110,000 workers were mobilized for the construction of the Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway. Facilitates economic integration between cities and promotes the growth of second-tier cities. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains. [https://ru.qaz.wiki/wiki/China_Railway_High-speed]<br /> <br /> Wenzhou accident <br /> <br /> On July 23, 2011, two high-speed trains collided on the Ningbo-Taizhou-Wenzhou railway in the Lucheng district of Wenzhou city, Zhejiang province. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped. Signals failed, causing another train to stop a stopped train. Several carriages derailed. State Chinese media confirmed 40 deaths and at least 192 people were hospitalized, including 12 seriously injured. The train accident in Wenzhou and the lack of accountability by rail officials have generated public outcry and heightened concerns about the safety and management of China's high-speed rail system. Concerns about quality and safety have also influenced plans to export cheaper high-speed train technology to other countries. In the aftermath of the deadly disaster, the Chinese government has suspended approval of new rail projects and began security checks on existing equipment.[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/23/china-train-crash-kills-32]<br /> <br /> Terms and expressions<br /> <br /> 高 铁 - High-speed rail<br /> 动 车 - Electrical multiple unit<br /> 和 諧 號 – Harmony<br /> 復興號 - Rejuvenation<br /> <br /> Questions <br /> <br /> 1. What does the World Bank research say?<br /> 2. What forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights?<br /> 3. How many high speed rail corridors are there in the 4 + 4 HSR network? What is their total length?<br /> 4. What caused the accident?<br /> 5. What are the benefits of HSR?<br /> <br /> Answers<br /> <br /> 1. The World Bank study has shown that &quot;a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality.&quot; <br /> 2. The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights.<br /> 3. The 4 + 4 HSR network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km. <br /> 4. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped.<br /> 5. HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains.<br /> <br /> References <br /> <br /> http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/451551468241176543/pdf/932270BRI0Box30ffic020140final000EN.pdf<br /> https://ru.qaz.wiki/wiki/China_Railway_High-speed<br /> https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine <br /> http://www.railjournal.com/A/xfeature2.html<br /> https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/23/china-train-crash-kills-32.<br /> <br /> ==Language, The Chinese Language - Seydou, Sagara, Student No:201911080004,Major:Translation Studies===<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> China is a very big country with a large population, multi-ethnic,and multi-lingual. Each etthnic groups may have its own lingo, or dialects and there are great differences between the dialects because of the speech impediment. For example, if people in different places use their dialects to talk, they may not be able to understand each other, and the situation may lead to embarrassment and understanding. Therefore, the Chinese people communicate with each other in a common language, called Putonghua and also known as Mandarin in Western countries. Government also has implemnted a strategy to promote Putonghua and to facilitate it learning with Pinyin . Cheng Aimin (2019,<br /> <br /> ==Putonghua and Dialects==<br /> <br /> Putonghua is the national language of China, and Chinese is the most widely spoken language in the world. More than one billion of the world's populations are Chinese speakers. The Chinese population is already one fifth of the population of the world and is rapidly expanding its presence everywhere and influence many people around the world. Cheng Aimin (2019, 25) <br /> It is the modern standard Chinese language with the Beijing pronunciation as its standard pronunciation, the northern dialect (also known as Mandarin, the official language in the past) as its basic dialect, and the modern vernacular as its grammatical norm. Therefore, the northern dialect sounds more like Putonghua than other dialects. Putonghua is a standardized language, which is legally used all over the country. In 2000, the law of the People’s Republic of China on common languages and characters established the legal status of Putonghua and standardized Chinese Characters as the national language and writing system. Putonghua is also one of the six working language of the United Nation and an important means of communication between China and foreign countries. According to statistics from ethnologist, in 2015, 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, but there were still about 400 million people who spoke dialects or minority languages. Article 19 of the constitution of the People’s Republic of China stipulates that ‘’ Putonghua is widely used by the state ‘’, and the third week of September is the national Putonghua Publicity week. We often hear some sayings like this: ‘’ Learn Putonghua well and you will have friend all over the world.’’ Chinese dialects are usually divided into seven groups: northern dialect Wu dialect, Hunan dialect, Jiangxi dialect, Hakka dialect, and Cantonese dialect and Fujian dialect. Most northern are close to Putonghua and easy to understand a non-native speaker. Cheng Aimin (2019, 126) <br /> <br /> The dialects in China differ greatly. Speaking Putonghua allows the Chinese people to communicate better with each other and promote the development of economy and culture everywhere. However, the promotion of Putonghua cannot be achieved in a short time. The Chinese government plans to enable more than 80% of Chinese people to speak Putonghua by 2020. (C.Gov art 10. 2017)<br /> Only by learning Putonghua can you communicate with people from all parts of China and event with Chinese –speaking people all over the world. While striving to promote Putonghua among the people of the whole country, China also pays special attention to the protection of dialects, which should not be lost after learning Putonghua. . Cheng Aimin (2019, 126)<br /> <br /> ==Ancient Chinese and Modern Chinese ==<br /> Over the past three thousand years, Chinese has undergone a long period of development and changes, and has been constantly interacting with the languages of other nations. Ancient Chinese and written Chinese characters are not exactly the same as they are now. When we visit Chinese historical sites, we often see couplets, poems, and inscriptions. Most of them are written in classical Chinese and traditional Chinese characters. Classical Chinese is a written language formed on the basis of the spoken language in the pre-Qin period. Cheng Aimin (2019, 127) <br /> <br /> By the time of the Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties (the 7th century to the 10th century), the spoken Chinese had changed greatly and had significant differences with the classical style of written Chinese. The pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar had changed greatly. But all the time, some people still insisted on writing in classical Chinese, while others wrote in the commonly used vernacular (spoken Chinese). The Four Classical Novels created in the Ming and Qing dynasties, The Dreams of the red Chambers, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, The Outlaws of the Marsh and the journey to the west, are all representative works of the ancient vernacular. After the May 4th movement in 1919, China launched a vernacular movement advocating ‘’my hand writes my speech’’. Since then, the vernacular has gradually been more widely used in the whole society, and modern Chinese has gradually developed and formed. Compared with ancient Chinese, modern Chinese absorbs a lot Western grammar and has added many disyllabic words. Cheng Aimin (2019 ,128)<br /> <br /> ==Idiomatic Phrases- Idioms, Proverbs, Common Sayings, and Allegorical Sayings.==<br /> Many phrases with fixed meanings in Chinese have been handed down from the ancient times. Mastering these phrases will make your language more authentic and vivid. For example, ‘’Lofty mountains and flowing rivers ‘’. Playing the lute to the cow’’ ‘’prescribing medicine according to symptoms’’, and ‘’ pleading guilty by carrying a rod on one’s back’ ’these phrases, often contain four Chinese characters each, are called idioms. They are quite formal and often originate from ancient historical stories, fables, myths and legends, or literary works. Sometimes we cannot guess the meaning of an idiom simply according to the meaning of the words. For example, 崇山峻岭，流淌的河流 ‘’lofty mountains and flowing rivers’’ means meeting someone who can really understand and appreciate them, while吹牛的长笛 ‘’ Playing the lute to the cow’’ means the casting pearls before swine. Wendy Abraham: (2018 ,115)<br /> There are also proverbs, common sayings, and allegorical sayings created and passed down by the common people in spoken language, which are quite colloquial and emotional, reflecting the unique culture of China.<br /> Proverbs are common and easy -to understand fixed phrases used orally, often explaining a truth. For example, ‘’ if you are not in charge of a home, you don’t know how expensive the firewood and rice, if you don’t have children, you don’t know kinds your parents are.’’ ‘’Seeing is better than hearing 100 times, and doing is better than seeing 100 times’’ Cheng Aimin (2019, 129)<br /> Common sayings mostly come in a three –character format, but there are also other formats. In addition to the literal meaning, there are deep metaphorical extensions. For example, 吹牛皮 ‘’blow cow skin’’ (meaning bragging or boating) ‘给某人. 穿紧身鞋 ‘’give SB . Tight shoes to wear ‘’ ( meaning making things hard for SB), ‘为外国人工作时的消磨时间‘’kill time when working for foreigners ‘’ ( loafing on the job) , 提一个黑锅 ‘’ carry a black pot’’ ( taking the blame for the fault of others ) , 钉在眼睛里 ‘’ nail in the eyes’’ ( thorn in the flesh ), 狗腿 ‘’ dog leg’’ ( hired thug) , 不管3x7 = 21 ‘’regardless of 3x7= 21’’( regardless of consequences, in the spite of anything ), 打不了八极 ‘’ can’t hit with eight poles’’ ( extremely distant or unrelated ). (Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002,232)<br /> An allegorical saying is divided into two parts. It is like a riddle: The first part is a metaphor, and the second part is an explanation. There are two types of allegorical sayings: homophonic and figurative. Example of the homophonic type ‘’ the nephew carries a lantern – to light up the uncle’’ (pronounced the same ‘’ as before ‘’ in Chinese); ‘’the monk opens an umbrella – no hair and no sky ‘’ (‘’ no hair ‘’ is pronounced similar to ‘’ lawless ‘’ in Chinese). Examples of the figurative type: ‘’ A mute person takes a dose of bitter medicine- they can’t say it is bitter ‘’; ‘’ Mice go to the street – everybody shouts and beats them.’’ Cheng Aimin (2019.130)<br /> <br /> ==Language policy==<br /> While vigorously promoting Putonghua, the Chinese government has also promulgated many policies to protect dialect and minority languages. In order to promote Putonghua, China promulgated the Chinese Pinyin Program in 1958. Pinyin (the standard Chinese sound- spelling system) is widely used in Putonghua promotion, international Chinese teaching, foreign exchange and other fields. It has become an important tool for reading Chinese characters, learning Putonghua, training and improving reading and writing ability. With the popularization of modern information technology, pinyin is widely used to input the Chinese characters on computers and mobile phones. Pinyin affects all aspects of social life. In translation, Chinese names of people, places, food, and even some cultural concept with Chinese characteristics (Such as Beijing, pingpang, Shaoling, Gongful) are directly spelled with Pinyin, which is therefore an important standard for translation and a bridge for international exchange. Minglang Zhou: (pp.71-95).<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion.== <br /> Today, an increasing number of people from other countries now want to learn Chinese language and culture and also many universities from different countries throughout the world offer Chinese language courses because Putonghua is also an open door to a huge job market in all of the countries where Putonghua is the language of commerce like Mainland China, Taiwan and Singapore. Learning Chinese can help to make a better future for everyone. Abundant opportunities for governments and business careers as well as scientific and cultural exchanges await the student of Chinese. The China market is blossoming after decades of global isolation. As China is rapidly becoming a world economic power as it opens its doors to foreign investment expands its infrastructure, those who know Chinese will be valuable to business.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> Cheng Aimin.(2019), ''中国概况'' [Understanding China]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> Minglang Zhou: Language Policy in the People’s Republic of China (p.71-95), Wendy Abraham: let’s talk Mandarin Chinese: 1,001 real-life phrases and Idioms. Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37) Article 10 Putonghua and the standardized Chinese characters shall be used as the basic language in education and teaching in schools and other institutions of education, except where otherwise provided for in laws.<br /> The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002)<br /> ===Terms and expressions===<br /> <br /> Lingo: 林戈<br /> <br /> Lingo: 行话，语言<br /> <br /> Putonghua: 普通话<br /> <br /> Await student:等待学生<br /> <br /> Pinyin: 等待学生<br /> <br /> Pinyin: 拼音<br /> <br /> Lofty: 崇高<br /> <br /> Vernacular: 白话<br /> <br /> Swine: 猪<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1. Why Putonghua is spoken in United Nations Organization?<br /> 2. How many people speak Putonghua in China and around the world?<br /> 3 .Why Chinese government is promoted Putonghua among many others languages?<br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1. Because it is an important means of communication between China and foreign countries.<br /> 2. According to ethnologist 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, and according to the10 most spoken languages in the world Chinese (and all of its varieties such as Mandarin) is by far the most spoken language across the world with 1.31 billion speakers.<br /> 3. Because Putonghua is become an international language and it also facilitate understanding between different ethnic groups in China.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_2&diff=116585 2020-12-20T12:54:01Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Chinese Marriage Customs Mo Ling 莫玲 202070080602 MTI 英语笔译 */</p> <hr /> <div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br /> *Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br /> <br /> '''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br /> *You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like &quot;Longevity Noodles&quot;) or Text B (&quot;Mooncakes&quot;), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title (&quot;Festival Meals&quot;) and arrange it accordingly.<br /> *In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br /> *For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br /> *Add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Please also add a list &quot;Terms and Expressions&quot;.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Questions&quot; section.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Answers&quot; section.<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Red Culture - Kang Haoyu 康浩宇, 202070080638 English Interpreting==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康浩宇 Kang Haoyu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Red Culture===<br /> Chinese red culture is unique in the world. As a very important cultural resource, it has both tangible and intangible culture. Red culture in China refers to the advance(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;advanced&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC) culture with Chinese characteristics created by party and people in revolutionary years.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)<br /> <br /> ====1. Development====<br /> <br /> China has brilliant history and splendid civilization in ancient times. However, with the Opium War of 1840, China was plunged into the darkness of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression. Despite of all efforts that countless dedicated patriots had made, they still failed to change the plight. The October Revolution in Russia brought Marxism-Leninism. With Communism as the the highest ideal and ultimate goal, the Communist Party of China shouldered the historic(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;historical&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC) mission of national rejuvenation. With the firm leadership of the party, Chinese people embraced national independence, people's liberation, national reunification and social stability, and stepped into a new era of prosperity and happiness.(Xi Jinpin 2017)<br /> <br /> Red culture is condensed by the Communist Party of China in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. It is an advanced Marxism culture that was inherited and developed in the new period of socialist construction. It's a collectivism culture of bravery, sacrifice and devotion that seeks happiness for the Chinese people and(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rejuvenation for the Chinese nation.Red culture is embodied in the aspects of ideal belief, value pursuit and spiritual outlook, and is integrated into material remains, mechanism behaviors and cultural and artistic forms.(Luo Liling, Pu Qingpin 2018, 45)<br /> <br /> First of all, red culture is a revolutionary culture, which was formed by the Chinese Communist Party in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. After the founding of(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC) People's Republic of China, the Communist Party of China led the Chinese people to inherit and carry forward the revolutionary culture. In the new period of socialist construction and reform and opening up, a vigorous and advanced socialist culture was formed, which enriched and developed the connotation of red culture. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture, and are the core value and spiritual subject of contemporary Chinese culture. As for Chinese red culture, Among them, Marxism is the soul, the common ideal of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the theme, the national spirit and the spirit of the times are the essence, and the socialist concept of honor and disgrace is the foundation. These four aspects influence, infiltrate and interact with each other, revealing the essential characteristics of red culture scientifically and completely.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)<br /> <br /> ====2. Symbols====<br /> <br /> The word “red” in “red culture” has many symbols. Chinese people have “red” complex since ancient time. Red represents authority. For, example, official documents are also called red heading documents. Red represents courage. Red is the color of Chinese national flag. Chinese military strategists and generals have a deep understanding of the role of red in war, so they use red flags to unite their morale, inspire their fighting and their courage, and summon the spirit of going forward bravely and not fearing sacrifice. Red represents honor and auspiciousness. For instance, the places are always adorned with red for conference and ceremony. People are awarded with red flower and red certificates. Red represents revolution. When Marx was asked about &quot;favorite color&quot; in his early years, he clearly answered &quot;red&quot;. In 1864, First International was founded, and its logo was red. The first army of (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Communist Party of China was named Red Army, and Ruijin, the first revolutionary base area, was called Red Capital. There were also red boats in South Lake and red flags in Jinggangshan.(Chen dongwang, Huang Weiliang 2006, 19)<br /> <br /> ====3. Values====<br /> <br /> Red culture has many values. Red culture has the value of history. It witnesses the early development history of the Communist Party of China. It shows the inevitability of the socialist road in China. And it is an important weapon to guide the success of Chinese revolution. Besides, red culture has the value of civilization. Carrying forward the red culture is an urgent need to cultivate a new national spirit. Red culture is important for the construction of socialism culture and ideology. Moreover, red culture has the value of economy. Red culture is a powerful driving force for the development of (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)socialist market economy. It is an important medium of economic development under the new historical conditions. The red cultural industry has become a new economic growth point.(Wang Yidi 2007, 149)<br /> <br /> ====4. Red Culture in Nanchang====<br /> <br /> Nanchang is the capital city of Jiangxi Province and it is where August 1st uprising took place. Nanchang is renowned as the cradle of Chinese revolution and the place where the military flag rose. Because in August 1st uprising, (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)communist party of china formed its first army in Nanchang. There are lots of red culture resources in Nanchang. <br /> <br /> Bayi Square is at the center of Nanchang city. It was built to memorize August 1st uprising. Bayi Square highlights the theme of &quot;Bayi History and Culture&quot; in all directions. The memorial area, cultural area, reminiscence area and leisure area of Bayi Square show Bayi Uprising in different forms. The landmark in the square is Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower. Besides, Nangchang August 1st Memorial Hall is a special memorial hall established to commemorate(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Nanchang Uprising.（Peng Bo, Zhang Li, Li Jiangyuan 2006, 58）<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] 程东旺, 黄伟良. “红色文化”的价值形态与德育功能探析[J]. 现代教育科学, 2006: 19-21.<br /> <br /> [2] 罗丽琳,蒲清平. 红色文化的思想政治教育基因及其时代价值[J].新疆师范大学学报, 2018: 45-52<br /> <br /> [3] 彭波, 张丽, 李江源. 整合红色资源,提升江西文化力[J]. 江西崛起策论, 2006:58-60.<br /> <br /> [4] 王以第. “红色文化”的价值内涵[J]. 文化论苑, 2007:149-150.<br /> <br /> [5] 习近平, 决胜全面建成小康社会 夺取新时代中国特色社会主义伟大胜利——在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告,人民日报,2017.<br /> <br /> [6] 朱桂莲,李晶. 德育视角下的中国红色文化研究综述[J]. 研究综述, 2010:87-89.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> red culture 红色文化<br /> <br /> Opium War 鸦片战争<br /> <br /> red heading documents 红头文件<br /> <br /> red army 红军<br /> <br /> August 1st uprising 八一起义<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1. What is the historical background of the birth of red culture?<br /> <br /> 2. What are two major components of red culture?<br /> <br /> 3. How many symbols dose the word &quot;red&quot; in red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 4. How many values dose red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 5. What is the landmark in Bayi Square?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1. In modern China, Communist Party of China led the Chinese revolution and led people to fight against suppression.<br /> <br /> 2. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture<br /> <br /> 3. Four. Authority, courage, honor and revolution.<br /> <br /> 4. Three. History value, civilization value and economic value.<br /> <br /> 5. Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower<br /> <br /> ==The Ancient Tea Horse Road - Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆, 202070080593 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===The Ancient Tea Horse Road===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. It originated from the ancient southwest frontier of the tea horse mutual market, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and most prosperous in the middle and late World War II. The Tea Horse Road was listed by the State Council as the seventh batch of national key cultural relics conservation units on March 5, 2013.(Zou Jingyi , Zhang Yimei 2018,131)<br /> <br /> The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. It originated from the ancient southwest frontier of the tea horse mutual market, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties and in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and prospered（改） in the middle and late World War II. The Tea Horse Road was listed by the State Council as the seventh batch of national key cultural relics conservation units on March 5, 2013. 空格 (Zou Jingyi , Zhang Yimei 2018,131) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Historical Routes====<br /> China’s ancient tea horse road is divided into:<br /> 1.Shanxi-Gansu tea horse road is the main route for tea to travel westward in mainland China and exchange for horses. It is one of the main routes of the ancient Silk Road.<br /> 2. Shanxi - Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road), began in the Han Dynasty, formed by the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse each other. Due to the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government control of tea trafficking, tea trafficking sub-regional, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road.(Kang Yuming, Li Jinfeng2020,281)<br /> <br /> 1.(点号后空格)Shanxi-Gansu tea horse road is the main route for tea to travel westward in mainland China and exchange for horses. It is one of the main routes of the ancient Silk Road.<br /> 2. Shanxi - Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road), began in the Han Dynasty, formed by the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse each other. 这句话意思不太理解。During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government controlled（改） tea trafficking, and the tea trafficking sub-regional, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road. 空格 (Kang Yuming, Li Jinfeng2020,281) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.The ancient Yunnan-Tibet Tea Horse Road was formed in the late sixth century AD .It is in the south of Yunnan's main tea producing areas. It is an important trade channel between ancient China and South Asia.<br /> 4. Sichuan-Tibet Tea Horse Road is a part of the Shan-Kang-Tibet Tea Horse Road. It is an essential bridge and link between ancient Tibet and the interior. It is in the east of Yazhou edge, west to Lhasa, Tibet, and finally through to Bhutan, Nepal and India, a total length of nearly four thousand kilometers, .(Kang Yuming, Li Jinfeng2020,282)<br /> <br /> 3. (点号后空格)The ancient Yunnan-Tibet Tea Horse Road was formed in the late sixth century AD. (句点空格) It is in the south of Yunnan's main tea producing area. It is an important trade channel between ancient China and South Asia.<br /> 4. Sichuan-Tibet Tea Horse Road is a part of the Shan-Kang-Tibet Tea Horse Road. It is an essential bridge and link between ancient Tibet and the interior. It is in the east of Yazhou edge, west to Lhasa, Tibet, and finally through to Bhutan, Nepal and India, a total length of nearly four thousand kilometers(逗号删掉).(Kang Yuming, Li Jinfeng2020,282) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> There are three main routes of the ancient tea-horse road: The Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line. Among the three ancient tea-horse roads, the Qinghai-Tibet line was established in the Tang Dynasty and developed earlier, while the Sichuan-Tibet line was the most influential and well-known later. These three routes are closely related to Chengdu, among them, the Yunnan-Tibet route and the Sichuan-Tibet route must pass through Chengdu, and their development is closely related to the tea-horse trade. (Kang Yuming,Li Jinfeng2020,283)<br /> <br /> There are three main routes of the ancient tea-horse road: The Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line. Among the three ancient tea-horse roads, the Qinghai-Tibet line was established in the Tang Dynasty and developed earlier, while the Sichuan-Tibet line was the most influential and well-known later. These three routes are closely related to Chengdu, and among them, the Yunnan-Tibet route and the Sichuan-Tibet route （改） pass through Chengdu, and their development is closely related to the tea-horse trade. (句点后空格) (Kang Yuming,Li Jinfeng2020,283) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Historical Values===<br /> 1.The Golden Road of Tourism<br /> The ancient tea-horse road tour has unique scenery, profound cultural connotation, exclusive resources and is unparalleled in the world.<br /> <br /> 1. 点号后空格 The Golden Road of Tourism<br /> The ancient tea-horse road tour has unique scenery, profound cultural connotation and exclusive resources and is unparalleled in the world. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2. Ancient Roads for the Propagation of Civilization<br /> The ancient Tea Horse Road was not only an important migration corridor for the ancient ancestors between Wei-Tibet and present Sichuan and Yunnan, but also an important aperture for the spread and exchange of ancient civilizations between present Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet.(Ji Jing2016,354)<br /> <br /> 2. Ancient Roads for the Propagation of Civilization<br /> The ancient Tea Horse Road was not only an important migration corridor for the ancient ancestors between Wei-Tibet and present Sichuan and Yunnan, but also an important aperture for the spread and exchange of ancient civilizations between present Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet. 句点后空格 (Ji Jing2016,354)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.Migration Corridor of National Cultures<br /> On this ancient road, which stretches for more than 10,000 miles, Chinese, Tibetan, Yi, Naxi, Lisu, Hani, Kino, Qiang, Pumi, Bai, Nu, Jingpo, Achang and other ethnic groups have flourished here for thousands of years, highlighting the diversity and original form of ethnic culture in southwest China.<br /> <br /> 3. 点号后空格 Migration Corridor of National Cultures<br /> On this ancient road, which stretches for more than 10,000 miles, Chinese, Tibetan, Yi, Naxi, Lisu, Hani, Kino, Qiang, Pumi, Bai, Nu, Jingpo, Achang and other ethnic groups have flourished here for thousands of years, highlighting the diversity and original form of ethnic culture in southwest China. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 4. The Path of National Spirituality<br /> You can't talk about the ancient tea-horse road without mentioning the horse gangs. The horse gangs have formed a unique cultural carrier in the course of thousands of years. Their spirit is attached to this ancient road, and become part of the Chinese national spirit.(Ji Jing2016,355)<br /> <br /> 4. The Path of National Spirituality<br /> We can't talk about the ancient tea-horse road without mentioning the horse gangs. The horse gangs have formed a unique cultural carrier in the course of thousands of years. Their spirit is attached to this ancient road, and becomes a part of the Chinese national spirit. 句点后空格 (Ji Jing2016,355)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 5.The Road of National Unity and Integration<br /> The ancient tea-horse road is like a huge net in southwest China, through which people of all nationalities strengthen their ties and communication, promote political, economic and cultural interaction, development and integration among all nationalities, and enhance the emotional ties between them.<br /> <br /> 5. 点号后空格 The Road of National Unity and Integration<br /> The ancient tea-horse road is like a huge net in southwest China, through which people of all nationalities strengthen their ties and communication, promote political, economic and cultural interaction, development and integration among all nationalities, and enhance the emotional ties between them. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 6.The Road of Securing the Borders<br /> The expansion of the ancient tea-horse road and the flourishing of the tea-horse trade contributed to the stability and consolidation of China's southwest frontier.<br /> <br /> 6. 空格 The Road of Securing the Borders<br /> The expansion of the ancient tea-horse road and the flourishing of the tea-horse trade contributes to the stability and consolidation of China's southwest frontier. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 7.The road to economic development<br /> The Thousand-Year Tea Horse Trail contributed to the formation of many towns in the region through the tea and horse trade, which greatly contributed to the economic development of the region.(Ji Jing2016,355)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 7. 空格 The road to economic development<br /> The Thousand-Year Tea Horse Trail contributed to the formation of many towns in the region through the tea and horse trade, which greatly contributed to the economic development of the region. 空格 (Ji Jing2016,355)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road(茶马古道)<br /> <br /> 2.Sichuan-Tibet Line（川藏线）<br /> <br /> 3.Yunnan-Tibet line（滇藏线）<br /> <br /> 4.wade ancient road（蹚古道）<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What is the ancient tea horse road ?<br /> <br /> 1.What is 多了个空格 the ancient tea horse road ? --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.How many main routes does the ancient tea-horse road conclude?<br /> <br /> 2.How many main routes 多了个空格 does the ancient tea-horse road include? --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.What is the historical value?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the historical value of the ancient tea-horse road? --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. <br /> <br /> 2.There are three main routes, including the Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line.<br /> <br /> 3.The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Zou Jingyi, Zhang Yiqing邹怡情,张依玫. (2018). 作为文化线路的茶马古道遗产保护研究[ A Study on Heritage Conservation of Ancient Tea Horse Road as a Cultural Route].<br /> ''北京规划建设 BeiJing Planning Review''(04)131-140.<br /> <br /> Kang Yuming, Li Jinfeng康昱明,李金峰.(2020).甘肃茶马古道文化线路遗产探究[ A Study on Cultural Route Heritage of Ancient Tea Horse Road in Gansu Province].''农村经济与科技Rural Economy and Science'' 31(11)281-283.<br /> <br /> Li Gang, Li Wei李刚,李薇.(2011).论历史上三条茶马古道的联系及历史地位[ On the Connection and Historical Status of Three Ancient Tea Horse Roads in History].''西北大学学报Journal of Northwestern University'' 41(04):113-117.<br /> <br /> Ji Ji纪静.(2016.)茶马古道的兴起及其价值研究 [ A Study on the Rise and Value of Ancient Tea Horse Road ].''福建茶叶 Tea In Fujian'' 38(07):354-355.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Literature, Novels - Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪 学号missing 英语口译==<br /> <br /> ===Four satirical novels in ancient China===<br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.<br /> <br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.[Please add your quotation]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 15:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ==== Nie Hai Hua====<br /> Nie Hai Hua was written by Zen Pu (1872-1935).A total of 35 chapters.it is a novel of condemnation, historical fiction and political fiction. In the novel, Jin yun (wen qing) is the main character.After won the scholarship, he took a famous courtesan, Fu Caiyun, as his concubine in Suzhou.He was then ordered to travel to Russia, Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands. After returning to China, Jin Wenqing died of illness in Beijing, and Fu Caiyun left the Jin family to resume her old profession in Shanghai, changing her name to Cao Menglan then went to Tianjin to work as a prostitute, calling herself Sai Jinhua.<br /> The novel takes the story of Jin Wenqing and Fu Caiyun as the main line, vividly describes the historical and cultural changes as well as political and social changes from Tongzhi to Guangxu more than 30 years, exposing the decay and decline of the rulers, criticizing the feudal system of imperial examination, satirizing the officials, truly reflecting their spiritual life and cultural mentality. at the same time also enthusiastically glorifies Feng Zicai, Liu Yongfu and other war heroes and Sun Yat-sen and so on. The revolutionary activities of the Democratic Revolutionaries express the author's patriotic thoughts against the feudal dictatorship and advocate national democratic revolution. In specific writing, the author adopts the modern popular block novel structure combined with the traditional mesh novel structure to unfold the plot, with ups and downs, twists and turns, touching and orderly, always around the main line.<br /> As a historical novel, Nie Hai Hua draws on the spirit of the ancient &quot;good history&quot; of China to portray its characters. At the same time, it draws on the satirical approach of &quot;The History of Confucianism&quot; in which &quot;the fair-minded accuse the evils of the times&quot;, commenting on events and weighing characters in a realistic manner. In terms of art, Nie Hai Hua also has many shortcomings.However, it is a skillful structure and outstanding novel at that time.<br /> <br /> Nie Hai Hua was written by Zen Pu (1872-1935).A total of 35 chapters.it is a novel of condemnation, historical fiction and political fiction. In the novel, Jin yun (wen qing) is the main character.After won the scholarship, he took a famous courtesan, Fu Caiyun, as his concubine in Suzhou.He was then ordered to travel to Russia, Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands. After returning to China, Jin Wenqing died of illness in Beijing, and Fu Caiyun left the Jin family to resume her old profession in Shanghai, changing her name to Cao Menglan then went to Tianjin to work as a prostitute, calling herself Sai Jinhua.<br /> The novel takes the story of Jin Wenqing and Fu Caiyun as the main line, vividly describes the historical and cultural changes as well as political and social changes from Tongzhi to Guangxu more than 30 years, exposing the decay and decline of the rulers, criticizing the feudal system of imperial examination, satirizing the officials, truly reflecting their spiritual life and cultural mentality. at the same time also enthusiastically glorifies Feng Zicai, Liu Yongfu and other war heroes and Sun Yat-sen and so on. The revolutionary activities of the Democratic Revolutionaries express the author's patriotic thoughts against the feudal dictatorship and advocate national democratic revolution. In specific writing, the author adopts the modern popular block novel structure combined with the traditional mesh novel structure to unfold the plot, with ups and downs, twists and turns, touching and orderly, always around the main line.<br /> As a historical novel, Nie Hai Hua draws on the spirit of the ancient &quot;good history&quot; of China to portray its characters. At the same time, it draws on the satirical approach of &quot;The History of Confucianism&quot; in which &quot;the fair-minded accuse the evils of the times&quot;, commenting on events and weighing characters in a realistic manner. In terms of art, Nie Hai Hua also has many shortcomings.However, it is a skillful structure and outstanding novel at that time.[Quotation missing]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 15:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ==== the Travels of an Old Man====<br /> The Travels of an Old Man was written by Liu E (1857-1909) and a total of 20 chapters. Liu E was an entrepreneur and scholar, not a professional writer, but his reputation as a literary figure was far greater than that of an entrepreneur and scholar. This novel is an unfinished work of his that was written in his later years with an autobiographical nature.<br /> The novel takes a bell-ringing mountebank, Lao can (Tie Ying), as its main character, and narrates his experiences and activities during his travels in northern China, exposing the decadence and darkness of the Qing government, the brutality and lethargy of the officials, and the poverty and oppression of the people, especially attacking the abusive behavior of those &quot;Qing officials&quot; who are actually cruel officials, and expressing the author's strong views on the perilous reality of society and the country. <br /> The artistic achievement of the novel is very high. The first is the superb descriptive skills, whether it is a description, a landscape, or a narrative, can be vividly depicted, such as the scenery of Thousand Buddha Mountain, Daming Lake etc., which makes people have a sense of being in the real world. Secondly, its psychological description and psychological analysis, with appropriate language, can brilliantly show the inner world of the characters. Thirdly, the exquisite structural art. The novel is in the form of a Travel Journal, with travel as a clue,and organic combined of what he see, hear, think and do along the way forms a unique structural feature of the novel.<br /> <br /> The Travels of an Old Man was written by Liu E (1857-1909) and a total of 20 chapters. Liu E was an entrepreneur and scholar, not a professional writer, but his reputation as a literary figure was far greater than that of an entrepreneur and scholar. This novel is an unfinished work of his that was written in his later years with an autobiographical nature.<br /> The novel takes a bell-ringing mountebank, Lao can (Tie Ying), as its main character, and narrates his experiences and activities during his travels in northern China, exposing the decadence and darkness of the Qing government, the brutality and lethargy of the officials, and the poverty and oppression of the people, especially attacking the abusive behavior of those &quot;Qing officials&quot; who are actually cruel officials, and expressing the author's strong views on the perilous reality of society and the country. <br /> The artistic achievement of the novel is very high. The first is the superb descriptive skills, whether it is a description, a landscape, or a narrative, can be vividly depicted, such as the scenery of Thousand Buddha Mountain, Daming Lake etc., which makes people have a sense of being in the real world. Secondly, its psychological description and psychological analysis, with appropriate language, can brilliantly show the inner world of the characters. Thirdly, the exquisite structural art. The novel is in the form of a Travel Journal, with travel as a clue,and organic combined of what he see, hear, think and do along the way forms a unique structural feature of the novel.[Quotation missing]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 15:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ==== The Records of Officialdom Exposure====<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure by Li Baojia (1867-1906), five editions and a total of 60 chapters. This is the first long chapter novel in China's modern era that was published serially in newspapers and magazines and achieved a social sensation, creating a culture of critical reality in modern fiction.<br /> The novel consists of more than 30 relatively independent bureaucratic stories linked together,involving the Qing government from the emperor, down to the minor officials and so on,and these various bureaucrats of all kinds of evil behavior were exposed:They embezzled public funds, corrupt and pervert the law or the named &quot;expedition bandits&quot;, but is harmful to the people. The work is like a scroll of the officialdom at the end of the feudal society, touching on the main contradictions of that time.<br /> The novel's writing method is modelled on &quot;The Scholars&quot; and has been developed, making full use of exaggeration, comic style and satirical techniques. only a few strokes will outline the character's voice and physical appearance. And the author also good at describing the details, so that the characters are vivid and evocative, with a strong artistic impact. Therefore, the subsequent imitation of the work is quite a lot, it become a great view.<br /> <br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure by Li Baojia (1867-1906), five editions and a total of 60 chapters. This is the first long chapter novel in China's modern era that was published serially in newspapers and magazines and achieved a social sensation, creating a culture of critical reality in modern fiction.<br /> The novel consists of more than 30 relatively independent bureaucratic stories linked together,involving the Qing government from the emperor, down to the minor officials and so on,and these various bureaucrats of all kinds of evil behavior were exposed:They embezzled public funds, corrupt and pervert the law or the named &quot;expedition bandits&quot;, but is harmful to the people. The work is like a scroll of the officialdom at the end of the feudal society, touching on the main contradictions of that time.<br /> The novel's writing method is modelled on &quot;The Scholars&quot; and has been developed, making full use of exaggeration, comic style and satirical techniques. only a few strokes will outline the character's voice and physical appearance. And the author also good at describing the details, so that the characters are vivid and evocative, with a strong artistic impact. Therefore, the subsequent imitation of the work is quite a lot, it become a great view.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 15:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ==== 20 years witness strange present situation====<br /> The Strange Situation Witnessed in Twenty Years was written by Wu Woyao(1866-1910), A total of 60 chapters. This is a long novel with autobiographical flavor.it through nearly 200 short stories that the protagonist hears and witnesses from the death of his father to his failure in business. it outlines the strange realities of late Qing society during the 20 years from the Sino-French War to the beginning of the 20th century.<br /> The scope of social life is much broader than The Records of Officialdom Exposure. In addition to describing the officialdom, there are also involving the shopping malls, foreign markets, science fields, medical and astrological practices. It exposes the political situation, moral outlook, social customs, and human conditions of the increasingly colonized Chinese feudal society, and is of high cognitive value in helping readers to see the irreparable historical destiny of the late Qing society and feudal system.<br /> The novel adopts the first-person narrative story, structured in a way that makes the reader feel intimate and trustworthy, setting a precedent in the history of Chinese fiction. The structure is also very clever: &quot;nine deaths and a lifetime&quot; is not only the narrator of the book story, but also the backbone of the structure of the book, and at the same time uses flashbacks, interpolations and other methods, combining it organically together, making the whole book complex and simple appropriate, muddle together.<br /> <br /> The Strange Situation Witnessed in Twenty Years was written by Wu Woyao(1866-1910), A total of 60 chapters. This is a long novel with autobiographical flavor.it through nearly 200 short stories that the protagonist hears and witnesses from the death of his father to his failure in business. it outlines the strange realities of late Qing society during the 20 years from the Sino-French War to the beginning of the 20th century.<br /> The scope of social life is much broader than The Records of Officialdom Exposure. In addition to describing the officialdom, there are also involving the shopping malls, foreign markets, science fields, medical and astrological practices. It exposes the political situation, moral outlook, social customs, and human conditions of the increasingly colonized Chinese feudal society, and is of high cognitive value in helping readers to see the irreparable historical destiny of the late Qing society and feudal system.<br /> The novel adopts the first-person narrative story, structured in a way that makes the reader feel intimate and trustworthy, setting a precedent in the history of Chinese fiction. The structure is also very clever: &quot;nine deaths and a lifetime&quot; is not only the narrator of the book story, but also the backbone of the structure of the book, and at the same time uses flashbacks, interpolations and other methods, combining it organically together, making the whole book complex and simple appropriate, muddle together.[Quotation missing]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 15:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ==== Conclution====<br /> As a result of the bourgeois reformists and democratic revolutionaries strongly advocated, the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty got unprecedented development, and a large number of influential novels emerged, forming a prosperous situation of the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty.The emergence of the &quot;Four satirical novels&quot; in the late Qing Dynasty is an important sign that The creation of Chinese novels has entered another prosperous period.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> *[1]https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E6%99%9A%E6%B8%85%E5%9B%9B%E5%A4%A7%E8%B0%B4%E8%B4%A3%E5%B0%8F%E8%AF%B4/702907?fr=aladdin<br /> *[2]二十年目睹之怪现状[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 吴趼人, 2012<br /> *[3]老残游记[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 刘鹗, 2012<br /> *[4]官场现形记[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 李宝嘉, 2012<br /> *[5]孽海花[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 曾朴, 2012<br /> *[6]四大谴责小说政治批判手法研究[J].李辉东,2017<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure 《官场现形记》<br /> <br /> The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years 《二十年之目睹怪现象》<br /> <br /> the Travels of an Old Man 《老残游记》<br /> <br /> Nai Hai Hua 《孽海花》<br /> <br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty 晚清四大谴责小说<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1、what are The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty ?<br /> <br /> 2、which novel is modeled the &quot;The Scholars&quot;?<br /> <br /> 3、what’s the common characteristic of these four novels? <br /> <br /> 4、what other satirical novels do you know?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1、They are Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua.<br /> <br /> 2、The Records of Officialdom Exposure<br /> <br /> 3、The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time.<br /> <br /> 4、E.g.The Scholars<br /> <br /> ==Shadow Play - Li Lili 李丽丽 No.202070080594 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ====The Origin of Shadow Play====<br /> Shadow play has a long history according to the written records. Legend has it that Empress Xiaowu, the wife of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, died of illness. Emperor Wu missed her so strongly that he was in a trance and ignored the government's affairs all day. One day, Minister Li Shaoweng went out and came across a child playing with a doll in his hand. The shadow of the doll was so vivid that he came up with an idea to cut the Mrs. Li's image out of cotton and silk, painted it, and installed wooden poles on its hands and feet. When Emperor Wu looked at it, it was like a treasure that he was glued to it. This love story is considered to be the earliest origin of shadow play. (Wei Liqun 2018,13) <br /> <br /> There are also some views that shadow play originated in Xi'an of Tang Dynasty, however, it is worth discussing that although there were a variety of operas in the Tang Dynasty, yet there were no any records of shadow play mentioned in the Tang Dynasty. Up to now, the earliest shadow play was recorded in Song Dynasty. Its rise and development were closely related to Bianjing’s (the capital of Northern Song Dynasty) superior geographical environment, the development of commodity trade and good commercial transportation at that time. (Wei Liqun 2018,14-15)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> <br /> [[File:shadow play.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> <br /> In Chinese ancient society, Chinese began to give performances using puppets against an illuminated screen. This is “shadow puppets”, also known as “lamp and shadow play”. It is considered as “precursor of movie” because it was the earliest moving part of form dubbed with human voice in the world. During a play, puppeteers hide behind the white screen and move puppets, while narrating the story, usually through singing. Performances are accompanied by musicians playing percussion and stringed instruments. A shadow puppet can perform actions such as “serving drinks”, “waving a sword and a spear,” or even “smoking” by puppeteer holding and moving manipulating rods on its body. (Wang Yexia 2012,1-2)<br /> <br /> Typically, a shadow puppet has three rods and some may have five or seven rods. It can create rich designs such as shadow puppets, animals and stage props, for example, buildings, imperial palaces, chariots, tables and chairs as well as weapons. It is so rich that it includes almost everything under the sun. It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools. The well-known ones include Tangshan Shadow Play in Hebei Province, Beijing Shadow Play as well as Shaanxi, Shanxi and Hunan Shadow Play. etc. (Wang Yexia 2012,2-3)<br /> <br /> So how to make a puppet? First, draw pictures of the various parts of the shadow puppets; second, finish carving with a knife and a hard board underneath the design; third, color the puppet with watercolor pens; fourth, paint the body parts with a brush dipped in oil. This can make the puppet transparent and better reflect colors under the light.; fifth, connect joint sections with the cotton thread; sixth, make the manipulating rods; finally, attach the manipulating rods to the shadow puppet with cotton thread. Thanks to different manipulating rods moves, the shadow puppet has a life, and can show happiness, anger, sorrow and gladness. (Wang Yexia 2012,29-35)<br /> <br /> The eyes and the eyebrows of a shadow puppet’s five facial features represent different personalities. The good and positive people are typical of a benevolent and kind countenance, with nice-looking eyebrows and eyes, while the villain or the general are ferocious look, with sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes. And the former are often concealed teeth and the latter are revealed teeth. The middle-aged people have short beard, but the elderly men have long beard. (Wang Yexia 2012,10-11)<br /> <br /> The decorative designs on the shadow puppets are so important that they must match the character’s social status. In a shadow play, female characters are usually decorated with patters such as flowers, grass, clouds and phoenix, while male characters are often decorated with dragons, tigers, water and clouds. Shadows puppets look colorful under the light. To achieve a better visual effect, the translucent puppets need to be painted on both sides. The different colors of heads can also represent different characters’ personalities. The red is a symbol of a heroic and upstanding character and the representative is Guan Yu. The black is a sign of a just, honest and selfless personality and the representative is Zhang Fei. The yellow shows a brave and irascible character and is often used in fantasy plays to represent people with magic power. (Wang Yexia 2012,13-16)<br /> <br /> ====The Present Situation of Contemporary Shadow Play====<br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, shadow play, as an art form, has undergone a series of reforms under the guidance of the Party's principles, including the organization of theatrical troupes, the compilation and creation of plays, the drawing and performing forms of shadow play. With the advent of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, the prosperity of shadow play came to an abrupt end. The troupe was disbanded, the repertoire was banned, and the artists were transferred to other fields. A large number of precious shadow puppet props and documents were damaged. This situation, except for some places, lasted until 1976. (Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）<br /> <br /> After the end of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, shadow puppet art rapidly revived, However, with the economic development being put in the first place of social activities and the popularity of television and the richness of artistic forms, shadow play is declining day by day with an irresistible trend, because shadow play arts are unable to keep pace with the times and get the appreciation from the audience. As a result, the prospect of shadow play art is becoming increasingly bleak. （Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）<br /> <br /> In order to inherit Chinese excellent culture and protect the ancient art forms such as shadow play. On May 20, 2006, it was approved by the State Council to be included in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage list. On November 27, 2011, UNESCO included Chinese shadow play in the &quot;Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity&quot;.（Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Wang Yexia 王业霞.(2012). 《皮影戏》 [Shadow Play] 北京：高等教育出版社 Beijing: [Higher Education Publishing House] <br /> *Wei Liqun 魏力群.(2018). 《小书大传承-皮影》[&quot;Small Book, Big Heritage - Shadow Play&quot;] 重庆：重庆出版社 Chongqing: [Chongqing Publishing House]<br /> *Zhu Hengfu 朱恒夫.(2020) 中国皮影戏的历史，现状与剧目特征[The History, Current Situation and Repertoire Characteristics of Chinese Shadow Theatre] 浙江艺术职业学院学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Arts Vocational College]<br /> <br /> ===Words and Expressions===<br /> *shadow puppet皮影戏 <br /> *paper cutting 剪纸<br /> *ventriloquism 口技<br /> *manipulating rod 操纵杆<br /> *five facial features 五官<br /> *sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes 尖眉杏眼<br /> *Cultural Revolution 文化大革命<br /> *intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> *1.When is the earliest shadow puppet’s record? <br /> *2.What art of forms do shadow play use?<br /> *3.What does a red head stand for in a play?<br /> *4.When is shadow play put in the &quot;Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> *1.Song dynasty.<br /> *2.It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools.<br /> *3.The red is a symbol of a heroic and upstanding character.<br /> *4.On November 27, 2011.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Confucian Culture - Li Liqin 李丽琴 Student No.202070080595 MTI ==<br /> <br /> === Confucian Culture ===<br /> <br /> <br /> ==== Introduction ====<br /> <br /> Confucian school is an academic school founded by Confucius, developed by Mencius, and composed by Xunzi. Today, it still retains a certain vitality. Confucian school takes Confucianism as its guiding ideology whose central ideas are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 31)<br /> <br /> Confucian school was on an equal footing with the other hundred schools in the pre-Qin period. After the First Emperor of Qin, also called Qin Shihuang, burned books and buried scholars alive, the development of the Confucian school suffered a serious defeat. Then, in order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's advice of &quot;banishing other schools of thought and worshiping Confucianism only&quot; and imposed restrictions on thought, which led to the revival of Confucian school. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 20) The concepts of &quot;Confucian school&quot;, &quot;Confucianism&quot;, and &quot;Confucian Religion&quot; should be distinguished since Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism a social stratification, and Confucian religion belief. (Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 2017, 60-61)<br /> <br /> Laozi founded Chinese Taoist school; Confucius started Chinese Confucian school; Sun Tzu initiated Chinese military strategist school; Mozi was the founder of Mohism in the early Warring States. Confucianism contributes to guiding the code of conduct and constructing social order; Taoism focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalism serves the system construction of national political management; the concepts of Universal Love and utilitarianism are two cornerstones for the Mohism. The General Unity idea of Confucianism has played an important role in the unification of a nation, the enhancement of national cohesion and the integration of cultural values. (Tan Su 2012, 68) <br /> <br /> After more than two thousand years of development and evolution, Confucian culture has built up a complete ideological system, involving politics, education, morality, ethics, code of conduct, life skills and other aspects. It has cultivated the wisdom and soul of the Chinese people throughout the history, and formed deep-rooted set patterns of thinking, psychology and survival. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42-43)<br /> <br /> After more than 2,000 years of development and evolution, Confucian culture has built up a complete ideological system, covering politics, education, morality and ethics, codes of conduct, life skills and many other aspects.It has long nurtured the wisdom and mind of the Chinese people and formed a fixed modes of thinking, psychology and survival, which are deeply rooted in the nation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Analysis of Confucian Culture ====<br /> <br /> ===== Intelligence Development =====<br /> <br /> Confucius is a great educator, as well as a pioneer and practitioner of mass education. After Confucianism was established as a dominant culture, both the rulers and the public respected the teachings of the sage and attached great importance to education. In this context, a basic requirement is to stay highly cultured and steeped in propriety. After the Emperor Wen initiated the imperial examination system in the Sui Dynasty, those who are good scholars could make an official, which inspired students of poor families to change their lives by studying hard and diligent. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 19) <br /> <br /> Confucius is a great educator, as well as a pioneer and practitioner of mass education. After Confucianism was established as the dominant culture, both the rulers and the public respected the teachings of the sage and attached great importance to education, and '''being educated and sensible''' became a basic requirement. After the Emperor Wen initiated the imperial examination system in the Sui Dynasty, those who are good scholars could make an official, which inspired students of poor families to change their lives by studying hard and diligent. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 19)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For generations, the Chinese people have attached great importance to the education of their children, which is conducive to the improvement of the thinking ability of the whole nation. However, the corrupt of bureaucracy and the darkness of officialdom in metaphase and anaphase made many literati feel despairing about official career and discredit about the concept. In addition, the Four Books and Five Classics were the main learning content of Confucianism. Apart from government-run schools, private schools and self-study can hardly meet the requirements of the Six Classical Arts. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 21) Therefore, the Four Books and Five Classics were the focus of students, while the Six Classical Arts were not highly valued.<br /> <br /> =====Spiritual Guidance =====<br /> <br /> In terms of spirit, Confucianism contends that &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.&quot; (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 86) Benevolent people love each other, which reflects the essence of “Unity of Man and Nature” and also the most brilliant connotation of Confucianism. This philosophy calls for people’s active contributions to the society. It is still alive in modern times, and is the fundamental requirement of people's spiritual orientation in the future. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32)<br /> <br /> =====Order Construction =====<br /> <br /> In the age of barbarism and backwardness, a common feature was that a small number of people used power and force to suppress and enslave the majority, thus resulting in labor division and unfair distribution of wealth and generating corresponding social hierarchy and concepts. Given the fact that Confucianism developed in the transitional period of feudal society, the thoughts of Confucius and Mencius were rooted in the idealist view of destiny and did not break the shackles of social hierarchy. In addition, they even advocated the distinguish between the noble and the humble and highlighted the importance of hierarchy division. (Li Fangping 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> In this context, the benevolence they advocated had great limitations in political management. The public could not be treated equally in terms of political status. Instead, the so-called benevolence calls for improvement of the living conditions of the public and more benefits from the ruling class. However, its purpose was to maintain social order and reconcile social contradictions. This is also the root cause of feudal rulers’ favoring of Confucianism. In essence, Confucianism did not promote social equality, instead, it worked to maintain the unequal feudal hierarchy that aggravated servitude. In fact, after a long history of feudal rule, the sense of hierarchy would be part of the national psyche. With the progress of times and civilization, the view of destiny and the thought of social order have become psychological shackles of the Chinese people. (Li Fangping 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> In this context, the benevolence they advocated had great limitations in political management. The public could not be treated equally in terms of political status. Instead, the so-called benevolence calls for improvement of the living conditions of the public and more benefits from the ruling class. However, its purpose was to maintain social order and reconcile social contradictions. This is the fundamental reason why Confucianism was so popular with the feudal rulers, <br /> Instead of promoting social equality, it worked to maintain an unequal and slavish feudal hierarchy. Indeed, after a long period of feudal rule, the sense of hierarchy would enslave the national psyche. With the progress of times and civilization, Confucianism's view of the Mandate of Heaven and the ruling ideology of social order have becme a psychological yoke that enslaved the people.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 04:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After eliminating the ideology of feudal hierarchy and formalism, some philosophies of Confucianism still generate positive effects on modern society. Specifically, the spirit of benevolence and universal love is conducive to cultivate people’s spirits; the concept of “the country belongs to the public” reflects a sense of social responsibility to make contributions for society, which can be expanded into a sharing social and political philosophy for different countries. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 33)<br /> <br /> Filial piety and brotherhood increase the harmony and stability of family; Loyalty, faithfulness, propriety and forgiveness are conducive to the relationship between different countries, societies and people. &quot;Loyalty&quot; means that people should stay loyal to the country and people; &quot;Friendliness&quot; and &quot;forgiveness&quot; play an important role in resolving various contradictions and animosities; when it comes to &quot;filial piety&quot; and &quot;propriety&quot;, many redundant forms inherited from feudal society should be eradicated and be more practical. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-41)<br /> <br /> ====The Contemporary Value of Confucian Culture ====<br /> <br /> Today, Confucian culture is still of great significance. We must explore the value of Confucian culture on the basis of the excellent tradition of the Chinese nation and by combining the characteristics of the times with and the actual situation. The Confucian culture has affected Chinese more than two thousand years and gone deep into each aspect of Chinese society. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39)<br /> <br /> =====Ideological and Political Education =====<br /> <br /> Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy, and it places a high priority on human value and dignity. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 51-57) Over the years, the Chinese nation has been influenced by this excellent philosophy. On this occasion, its behavioral pattern and psychological structure are endowed with uniqueness, which is mainly manifested in two aspects. One is to respect yourself, learn how to love and care yourself. Moreover, gain dignity and achieve the development of human value through the continuous improvement of moral cultivation. Second, respect others and show respect for others' personality by respecting, understanding and caring for others. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-40)<br /> <br /> ===== Modern Economic Construction=====<br /> <br /> Under today’s circumstance, some ideological contents are still alive and produce positive effects on promoting the economic construction of modernization and fostering modern patriotism emotion of the Chinese people. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65)<br /> <br /> First of all, Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of &quot;benevolence&quot; and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65) <br /> <br /> Since Confucian culture reflects a collectivist view on life, individuals are full of sense of duty and responsibility towards others and groups. In this context, their self-cultivation targets at regulating the family, country and the world. Thus, the value of individual is closely linked with the rise and fall of the country, so they have a strong sense of responsibility. &quot;Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country&quot; has been a common belief for thousands of years. Such a social responsibility will give rise to a huge driving force for the development of the country and society. (Tan Su 2012, 68)<br /> <br /> Second, the consciousness of &quot;self-improvement&quot; and the proposition of &quot;seeking truth&quot; in the Confucian culture strengthen the national spirit and provide a source power for China’s economic modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 66) <br /> <br /> Yi Zhuan put forward: &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection.’’ It means that continuous development is the law of nature and that a gentleman should pursue progress and be strong, unyielding resilient and positive. For thousands of years, the Chinese nation has formed a fine tradition of working hard and striving for strength under the influence of these thoughts. Today, we carry forward the spirits of “self-improvement” and &quot;seeking truth&quot; in ways that further enhance national spirits and provide a strong driving force for the socialist modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 67)<br /> <br /> Third, the &quot;reform and innovation&quot; concept in Confucian culture is conducive to the expansion of the reform and opening up and the acceleration of China's socialist modernization. On the basis of admitting the fact that the continuous development is the universal law of nature, Confucian culture puts forward the &quot;innovation idea&quot;. The Book of Rites said, &quot;If you can in one day renovate yourself; do so from day to day and let there be daily renovation.&quot; The Book of Changes said, &quot;Reform refers to destroy the old, while innovation means to establish the new.” (Li Chengzong 2002, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept is not only serves as the theoretical basis for reform and innovation throughout the history, but also provides valuable lessons for the reform in socialist economic and political systems today. Domestically, promoting the innovative spirits can greatly enhance the reform consciousness of the Chinese people. Externally, it is conducive to advancing the opening up by leveraging the global influence of Confucian culture. (Li Chengzong 2002, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept '''has not only served''' as theoretical basis for reformers in the past, but also provides valuable lessons for the reform in socialist economic and political systems today. Domestically, '''by promoting the &quot;innovative&quot; spirit of Confucianism''', we can greatly enhance the reform consciousness of the Chinese people; externally, by using the influence of Confucianism in the world, we can help promote opening up to the outside world.(Li Chengzong 2002, 67)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 06:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===== Legal Construction =====<br /> <br /> Confucian culture places a high priority on personal cultivation, while a highly civilized society under the rule of law must be composed of highly educated citizens. Confucian school, a school with thousands of years of history in China, has become an integral part of the Chinese culture. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32-33) <br /> <br /> Nowadays, since China has called for the policy of combining the rule of virtue with the rule of law, it is the time for Confucian culture to find its historical position and fully play its role. Exploring the influence of Confucian culture on the construction of contemporary Chinese rule by law, not only can we help us more deeply understand the traditional culture, but also can promote the process of building the rule of law in contemporary China. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32-33)<br /> <br /> The rule by virtue thought is an important part of Confucian culture and it emphasizes the importance of moral education. It is a national strategy pursued by ancient Chinese rulers and a method of national governance embodying reference significance in today’s China. (Wei Na 2014, 1-2) <br /> <br /> In terms of national governance, Confucianism emphasizes the importance of morality, believing that national governance should not mainly rely on harsh punishment, instead, moral education should be applied to reform people. Confucius said, &quot;By governing with virtue, rulers will be loved by the public, just like stars surround the North Star.&quot; By comparing rulers to the North Star and people to the stars, Confucius emphasized the importance of moral governance. (Wang Jie 2004, 77)<br /> <br /> How to rule by virtue? First of all, rulers should pay attention to their personal cultivation and develop good moral characters, so that they can set a good example for the public. Only when officials and common people obey the ruler sincerely, can a good social atmosphere be formed. Secondly, since Confucianism takes &quot;benevolence&quot; as its core and calls for the rule of virtue, many people subconsciously believe that Confucianism denies the role of criminal law and that Confucian culture does not call for the rule of law. (Wang Jie 2004, 82-83) <br /> <br /> How to rule by virtue? First of all, rulers should pay attention to their personal cultivation and develop good moral '''qualities in order to play an exemplary and leading role'''. Only when officials and common people obey the ruler sincerely, can a good social atmosphere be formed. Secondly, since Confucianism takes &quot;benevolence&quot; as its core and calls for the rule of virtue, many people subconsciously believe that Confucianism denies the role of criminal law and that Confucian culture does not call for the rule of law. (Wang Jie 2004, 82-83) --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 04:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, this is not the case. While Confucianism advocates the rule of virtue, it also emphasizes the supplementary role of rule of law. Confucius said, &quot;Sages believe that national governance must combine the rule of virtue and law.&quot; That is to say, if people are governed by systems and laws, they seek for impunity but lack of conscience; however, if they are guided by morality and etiquette, they will have a sense of right and wrong and will impose strict requirements on themselves. (Wang Jie 2004, 83)<br /> <br /> In a word, we should clearly realize that, although Confucian culture is an excellent traditional culture in China, it was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. Under this circumstance, we must analyse Confucian culture dialectically and explore the value of Confucian culture. At the same time, we should discard the bad habits and unfavorable factors left by it, so as to better carry forward our traditional culture and accelerate the construction of the rule of law in contemporary China. (Wang Jie 2004, 83)<br /> <br /> ====The Confucius Institute ====<br /> <br /> With the improvement of China's international status and the increasingly extensive international exchanges, Chinese culture has won wider foreign attention and the world is more eager to learn and understand the Chinese culture. The Confucius Institute project, founded in 2004, emerges in response to the call of the times. Today, Confucius Institutes have spread throughout Asia, Africa, The Americas, Europe and Oceania. (Wang Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 30) <br /> <br /> As China's international status continues to rise and international contacts become more widespread, Chinese culture is gaining more and more attention overseas. The demand for Chinese language learning and understanding of Chinese culture has grown dramatically around the world. The Confucius Institute project, founded in 2004, emerges in this context. Today, Confucius Institutes have spread throughout Asia, Africa, The Americas, Europe and Oceania. (Wang Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 30)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Fundamentally speaking, its is conducive to the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture since language is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is of positive significance to the construction of China's national image, the promotion of China's international influence, the realization of wider international communication. (Wang Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 30) <br /> <br /> The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Today, countries are committed to spreading their own language and culture, so there is a fierce competition in international cultural promotion. In addition, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 31)<br /> <br /> At present, Confucius Institutes are prevalent all over the world, but the promotion strategy seeking for quantity and speed results in a serious shortage of teachers capable of teaching Chinese as a foreign language. According to statistics, there is a global shortage of at least five million TCSL teachers. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 31) <br /> <br /> Secondly, the lack of high-quality and localized teaching materials for Chinese has also become a bottleneck for the development of Confucius Institutes. The shortage of Chinese textbooks affects the depth of cultural communication of Confucius Institutes directly. Thirdly, Confucius Institutes are not capable of spreading the ideological depth of the Chinese culture. Although the textbooks are rich in content, they mainly focus on promoting folk culture by introducing Chinese food, tea and wine, traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts. Meanwhile, they rarely involve the ideological essence of traditional Chinese culture and the modern value of Chinese culture. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 32)<br /> <br /> The Confucius Institutes should fully explore the modern significance of Confucianism and cast the quintessence of Chinese culture, and strengthen the spread of the core idea of Chinese culture and its modern cultural value. The connotation of Chinese culture is very rich. What Confucius Institutes should spread is not all the contents of Chinese culture, but the contents with universal value that are different from other countries and represent the essence of Chinese culture. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions ====<br /> <br /> 儒家 Confucian school<br /> <br /> 儒学 Confucianism<br /> <br /> 儒教 Confucian religion <br /> <br /> 兼爱 Universal love<br /> <br /> 恕、忠、孝、悌、勇 forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage<br /> <br /> 仁、义、礼、智、信 benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith<br /> <br /> 学而优则仕 A good scholar will make an official<br /> <br /> 四书五经 the Four Books and Five Classics<br /> <br /> 天行健，君子当自强不息；地势坤，君子以厚德载物。As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.<br /> <br /> 天下兴亡，匹夫有责 Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country<br /> <br /> ====Questions ====<br /> <br /> 1. What’s the central ideas of Confucian culture?<br /> <br /> 2. What’s the difference among Confucian school, Confucianism and Confucian religion?<br /> <br /> 3. What do you think of the relationship between Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school, Legalist school?<br /> <br /> 4. What’s the Six Classical Arts?<br /> <br /> 5. What you think of the ancient influence of Confucianism?<br /> <br /> 6. Do you think Confucian culture still has its contemporary values in China? And why?<br /> <br /> 7. What do you think of the current situation of the development of the Confucian institute?<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1. The central ideas of Confucian culture are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith.<br /> <br /> 2. Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism is a social stratification, and Confucian is a religion belief.<br /> <br /> 3. Confucian school emphasizes the code of conduct and the social order construction; Taoist school focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalist school serves the system construction of national political management; Mohist school emphasizes Universal Love and utilitarianism. Although Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school and Legalist school are different schools with different theories, they are not completely antagonistic. <br /> <br /> 4. The Six Classical Arts refers to propriety(礼), music（乐）, archery（射）, riding（御）, writing（书） and arithematic（数）. <br /> <br /> 5. The ancient influence of Confucianism should be analysed from a historical perspective. It was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. While contributing to intelligence development, spiritual guidance and order construction to some extent, it has also led to some negative effects in the long run. For example, it called for rigid feudal hierarchy and resulted in spiritual constraints. <br /> <br /> 6. Yes. Although Confucian culture has a history of thousands of years, it still has contemporary values in today's society. For instance, Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy and places a high priority on human value and dignity, which is still of profound significance; Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of &quot;benevolence&quot; and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy.<br /> <br /> 7. The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Nowadays, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. Joint efforts of all social sectors should be made to achieve the sustainable development of it. <br /> <br /> ====References====<br /> <br /> Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 陈智斌, 杜艾红. (2017). 儒学、儒家、儒教之异同 [The Differences and Similarities of Confucian School, Confucianism and Confucian Religion]. ''审计月刊'' Audit Monthly. '''[The pages are not given]'''<br /> <br /> Li Chenzong 李承宗. (2002). 论儒家文化对培养现代爱国主义情感的积极作用 [On the Positive Effects of Confucian Culture on Cultivating Patriotism]. ''廊坊师范学院学报'' Journal of Langfang Teachers College. '''[The pages are not given]'''<br /> <br /> Li Fangping 李芳萍. (2013). 儒家思想对中国文化的影响研究 [A Study on the Influence of Confucianism on Chinese Culture]. ''前沿'' Forward Position.'''[The pages are not given]'''<br /> <br /> Li Xiaoyu 李晓愚. (2010). 儒家仁爱思想的当代诠释 [Contemporary Interpretation of Benevolence]. ''郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Zhengzhou University. '''[The pages are not given]'''<br /> <br /> Tan Su 谭苏. (2012). 论春秋战国时期的百家争鸣 [On the Competition of Ideas in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period]. ''兰台世界'' Lantai World. '''[The pages are not given]'''<br /> <br /> Wang Jie 王杰. (2004). 为政以德: 孔子的德治主义治国模式 [Rule of Virtue: Confucian’s Model of Governance]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C. '''[The pages are not given]'''<br /> <br /> Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 吴瑛, 提文静. (2009). 孔子学院的发展现状与问题分析 [The Development Status and Problems of Confucius Institute]. ''云南师范大学学报 (对外汉语教学与研究版)'' Journal of Yunnan Normal University. '''[The pages are not given]'''<br /> <br /> Xiang Chunling 向春玲. (2008). 儒家文化的现代意义 [On Modern Significance of Confucian Culture]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C． '''[The pages are not given]'''<br /> <br /> Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (1990). ''中国儒学思想史'' [The History of Chinese Confucianism]. 陕西：陕西人民出版社 Shaanxi: Shaanxi People’s Publishing House. '''[The pages are not given]'''--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 04:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ch'ien Chung-shu - Liu Liu刘柳， 202070080596 MTI==<br /> <br /> ====Ch'ien Chung-shu====<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu (1910-1998), a well-known scholar, writer, translator and literary researcher, was born into an education family in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province. In Chinese academic circles, Qian was ranked with Rao Zongyi, a master in academic circles, and both were called &quot;South Rao and North Qian&quot;. He was admitted to Tsinghua University in 1929 and got to know Yang Jiang in 1932. Qian became famous soon after the enrolment, not only for the 15 mark of his mathematics, but for his excellent Chinese and English, especially full marks in English.(360 Encyclopedia)<br /> <br /> Qian had an engagement with Yang the year after their acquaintance and went to study at Oxford University in England along with her. In 1937, he obtained the bachelor's degree from Oxford with the treatise ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries'', and his daughter Qian Yuan was born the same year. He wrote a great many profound literary works in his lifetime. When it comes to Ch'ien Chung-shu, people would think of his representative work ''Fortress Besieged'', which was published in 1947.(360 Encyclopedia)<br /> <br /> As a realistic satirical novel, ''Fortress Besieged'' is known as &quot;The New Scholars&quot; in the 1940s. The novel is centralized on Fang Hongjian,who returned from studying abroad at the beginning of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression. It depicts the struggles in love, marriage,career and life of a group of intellectuals who were far away from the times and the people during the War of Resistance against Japanese Agression. It reveals their inner poverty, emptiness and lowliness, criticizes the dark reality of the Kuomintang-controlled areas, and reveals the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life.(Qian Zhongshu 1947) <br /> <br /> In the preface of the book, Qian said that, &quot;In this book I intended to write about a certain segment of society and a certain kind of people in modern China. In writing about these people, I didn’t forget they are human beings, still human beings with the basic nature of hairless, two-legged animals. &quot;The novel is like an X-ray mirror that reveals the deformed characters and ugly souls of those &quot;hairless and two-legged animals&quot; and analyzes the cultural matrix which is responsible for the deformed characters and ugly souls of these &quot;latest style&quot; literati.(Qian Zhongshu 1947)<br /> <br /> Yang Jiang said, &quot;The main connotation of ''Fortress Besieged'' is that those who are besieged by the city want to escape, while those outside want to rush in. This is what most people wish for in life, whether in marriage or career. &quot;The meaning of &quot;fortress besieged&quot; is also stated several times in the novel. It tells people that life is a besieged city everywhere, people have marriage and divorce, divorce and marriage in endless succession,with everlasting confusion and dilemma. The questions that Qian raised in the novel refer to a question of universal significance, which is the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life as a whole. In December 1990, the television series ''Fortress Besieged'' was broadcast on China Central Television(CCTV) and enjoyed great popularity.quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu has made significant achievements in literary research and literary creation. In particular, it is of great significance to carry forward and deny traditional Chinese culture scientifically and learn from foreign culture selectively. He has wrote the collection of essays ''Written in the Margins of Life'' (1941), the collection of short stories ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts'' (1946), and the novel ''Fortress Besieged'' (1947). <br /> <br /> Both his essays and novels are wise and meaningful. Qian has read Chinese history, philosophy and literary classics in depth and has studied western old and new literature, philosophy and psychology. Many of his works, such as ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideaas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', have enjoyed high reputation in academic circles both at home and abroad.<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu viewd China and the world with a cultural criticism spirit. Based on his profound knowledge of Chinese and world culture, Qian has always shown a clear mind and a deep insight when observing Chinese and Western culture. He didn't reject any theories or doctrines, nor did he blindly follow any authorities. He devoted his life to promoting Chinese literature and art to the world. <br /> <br /> To this end, he not only explicated the profound meaning and unique value of Chinese culture in depth, but also pointed out its historical and regional limitations. He not only criticized the Chinese for their arrogance towards the local culture due to certain illusions, but also mercilessly eliminated the Westerners' prejudice centered on European and American culture due to ignorance. It is Ch'ien Chung-shu who has promoted cultural communication between China and other countries.<br /> <br /> November 21st,2020 is the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu. People often call him a well-informed scholar, but he is more of a down-to-earth writer and scholar. He was indifferent to fame and wealth and alaways took a rigorous and serious attitude towards academic research. We feel ourselves in an entirely new world when we read the subtle metaphors in ''Fortress Besieged'', while we read ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', we are amazed at Qian's erudition. People all over the world admire his talent, but in fact,it is his meticulous and diligent reading spirit that makes him a well-informed scholar.(Wang Shuizhao 2020) <br /> <br /> Many of his life experiences and the question of whether his scholarship was systematic or not have attracted much attention. Wang Shuizhao, professor of Chinese Department of Fudan University, who has studied and worked with Ch'ien Chung-shu for a long time, has recently published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'', in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements based on the first-hand historical data, his personal experiences and his own understanding of academia, and gives answers to the questions discueesed widely, such as Qian's experience of being falsely accused, whether there exists system in his scholarship and the collision of viewpoints between Qian and Chen Yinke.(Wang Shuizhao 2020)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries'' 《十七十八世纪英国文学中的中国》<br /> <br /> ''Fortress Besieged'' 《围城》<br /> <br /> Kuomintang-controlled areas 国统区<br /> <br /> ''Written in the Margins of Life'' 《写在人生边上》<br /> <br /> ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts'' 《人·兽·鬼》<br /> <br /> ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' 《管锥编》<br /> <br /> ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'' 《谈艺录》<br /> <br /> the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu 钱钟书诞辰110周年纪念日<br /> <br /> ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu '' 《钱锺书的学术人生》<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.What is Ch'ien Chung-shu's representative work? When was it published?<br /> <br /> 2.When was the TV series ''Fortress Besieged'' broadcast?<br /> <br /> 3.Do you know other works about Ch'ien Chung-shu? Can you list some of them?<br /> <br /> 4.Which book did Wang Shuizhao publish in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu? What does he talk about in this book?<br /> <br /> 5.Which sentence is your favoriate in ''Fortress Besieged''? <br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Ch'ien Chung-shu's representive work is ''Fortress Besieged''. It was published in 1947.<br /> <br /> 2.It was broadcast in December 1990.<br /> <br /> 3.''Patchwork:Seven Essays on Art and Literature''（《七缀集》） and ''Poetic Remains of an Ephemeral Life''（《槐聚诗存》）.<br /> <br /> 4.Wang Shuizhao published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'' in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu, in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements.<br /> <br /> 5.&quot;I want to be able to occupy the whole life of the man I love. Before meeting me, he would have had no past and would be waiting for me with a clean slate.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu.钱钟书.(1947).''围城''.[Fortress Besieged].上海晨光出版公司[Shanghai Chenguang Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Wang Shuizhao.王水照.(2020).''钱锺书的学术人生''.[Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu].中华书局[Zhonghua Book Company,Ltd.].<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> == ''' Crosstalk''' Liu Ou 刘欧， 202070080597，MTI==<br /> 大标题+小标题+名字拼音+汉字+学号+专业--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘欧 Liu Ou &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===The Development of Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> Crosstalk, in the ancient time was known as onomatopoeia, originally refers to imitate others’ voices. It was evolved and further developed from the folk opera in North China, and integrated with imitating oral skills and other folk art forms. It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty. It’s a folk vocal art that uses jokes or funny questioning and answering to make the audience laugh. In the early years of the Republic of China (1912-1949), crosstalk gradually developed from one-person ventriloquism to one person stand-up talk, and the name changed to cross talk. Later, it developed into stand-up crosstalk, dual crosstalk, and group crosstalk. And become a veritable form of art. After years of development, dual crosstalk has finally become the most popular form of crosstalk among audiences.In the late Qing Dynasty, crosstalk formed its modern features and styles. The language uses in crosstalk is mainly Beijing dialect, however, there are also “dialect crosstalk” in other regions of China. (360 Encyclopedia)<br /> <br /> Crosstalk, in the ancient time known as onomatopoeia, originally refers to imitate others’ voices. It was evolved and further developed from the folk opera in North China, and integrated with imitating oral skills and other folk art forms. It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty. It’s a folk vocal art that uses jokes or funny questioning and answering to make the audience laugh. In the early years of the Republic of China (1912-1949), crosstalk gradually developed from one-person ventriloquism to one person stand-up talk, and the name changed to cross talk. Later, it developed into stand-up crosstalk, dual crosstalk, and group crosstalk. And it becomes a veritable form of art. After years of development, dual crosstalk has finally become the most popular form of crosstalk among audiences. In the late Qing Dynasty, crosstalk formed its modern features and styles. The language uses in crosstalk is mainly Beijing dialect, however, there are also “dialect crosstalk” in other regions of China. (360 Encyclopedia)夹注应在句号前。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> <br /> Crosstalk is a original folk art in China, with a long historical tradition, deeply loved by the majority of the people. The once-dead crosstalk art has been reborn and developed very rapidly especially since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. It is no longer confined to several cities in the north, nor spread only within the citizens, but also spread from the north to the whole country, from the city to the countryside, and from the citizens to all strata. (Hou Baolin, 1982:01)<br /> <br /> Crosstalk is a original folk art in China, with a long historical tradition, deeply loved by the majority of the people 这句话语法错误--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC) . The once-dead crosstalk art has been reborn and developed very rapidly especially since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. It is no longer confined to several cities in the north, nor spread only within the citizens, but also spread from the north to the whole country, from the city to the countryside, and from the citizens to all strata 这句话关联词不完整， spread主谓注意一致，注意逗号的使用以及夹注在句号前。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Hou Baolin, 1982:01)<br /> <br /> ===Four Basic Skills in Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> Speaking, imitating, teasing and singing are the four basic artistic skills of crosstalk. “Speaking” means to tell jokes, stories, lantern riddles, drinking games, etc; “imitating” is to imitate all kinds of birds and animals, hawking, singing and the sound of different languages, etc; “teasing” is to gag and tease; “sing” means to sing Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity, so they are called Taiping) (1982:194), opera lyrics and songs. Crosstalk artists regard “speaking, imitating, teasing and singing” as their “four compulsory lessons”. For example, by saying “tongue twisters” or “reciting classical repertoires” to grasp the rhythm in language and correct the pronunciation. By learning all kinds of sounds to gain the ability to imitate. To practice singing skills by singing “Taiping lyrics” , opera lyrics and songs. (Hou Baolin, 1982:11)<br /> <br /> Speaking, imitating, teasing and singing are the four basic artistic skills of crosstalk. “Speaking” means to tell jokes, stories, lantern riddles, drinking games, etc; “imitating” is to imitate all kinds of birds and animals, hawking, singing and the sound of different languages, etc; “teasing” is to gag and tease; “sing” means to sing Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity, so they are called Taiping) (1982:194)作者？--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC), opera lyrics and songs. Crosstalk artists regard “speaking, imitating, teasing and singing” as their “four compulsory lessons”. For example, by saying “tongue twisters” or “reciting classical repertoires” to grasp the rhythm in language and correct the pronunciation 不是一个完整的句子。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). By learning all kinds of sounds to gain the ability to imitate不是一个完整的句子。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). To practice singing skills by singing “Taiping lyrics” , opera lyrics and songs不是一个完整的句子。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Hou Baolin, 1982:11)<br /> <br /> ===Characteristics of Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> First of all, crosstalk is the art of “speaking”, which belongs to the art of “performing with words”, it is different from drama that “performing with body movements” 出现了两个句子，无连接词。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). This kind of performance has a close relationship between the actors and the audience and shortened the distance between the stage and the audience. The actors directly communicate with the audience and perform with the audience's cooperation and tacit understanding to obtain artistic effect. In this sense, crosstalk is a collective performance of actors and audiences. From the perspective of the audience, they are not standing on the opposite side of the actors and appreciating the stage performance passively and objectively, but creating artistic images with the actors. (Hou Baolin. 1982:02)<br /> <br /> First of all, crosstalk is the art of “speaking”, which belongs to the art of “performing with words”, it is different from drama that “performing with body movements” 出现了两个句子，无连接词。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). This kind of performance has a close relationship between the actors and the audience and shortened the distance between the stage and the audience. The actors directly communicate with the audience and perform with the audience's cooperation and tacit understanding to obtain artistic effect. In this sense, crosstalk is a collective performance of actors and audiences. From the perspective of the audience, they are not standing on the opposite side of the actors and appreciating the stage performance passively and objectively, but creating artistic images with the actors. (Hou Baolin. 1982:02)参考格式(Liu Miqing 2010, 17) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, crosstalk is the art of laughter. Crosstalk uses laughter as a weapon to expose contradictions, shape characters and evaluate life. Without laughter, it can constitute any other arts, but not crosstalk and comedy. In other words, crosstalk has the characteristics of humor and satire. It reflects that life is not flat, but exaggerated and even deformed. China has a long tradition of satirizing emperors or high rank officials, its written record could be traced back to the Zhou (1046BC-256BC) and Qin (221BC-207BC) Dynasties. Satire is the product of class oppression. China has been in a feudalistic society for a long time, without political democracy and freedom of speech, the people often take circuitous methods to fight against the ruling class. Satirical art is like a weed under a boulder. Only through deformation and roundabout can this kind of art maintain to exist. (Hou Baolin. 1982:03)<br /> <br /> Secondly, crosstalk is the art of laughter. Crosstalk uses laughter as a weapon to expose contradictions, shape characters and evaluate life. Without laughter, it can constitute any other arts, but not crosstalk and comedy. In other words, crosstalk has the characteristics of humor and satire. It reflects that life is not flat, but exaggerated and even deformed. China has a long tradition of satirizing emperors or high rank officials, its written record could be traced back to the Zhou (1046BC-256BC) and Qin (221BC-207BC) Dynasties 没有连接词--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Satire is the product of class oppression. China has been in a feudalistic society for a long time, without political democracy and freedom of speech, the people often take circuitous methods to fight against the ruling class没有连接词--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Satirical art is like a weed under a boulder. Only through deformation and roundabout can this kind of art maintain to exist. (Hou Baolin. 1982:03)<br /> <br /> <br /> “Speaking” and “laughing” constitute the basic outline of cross talk art, which is a language performance art with comedy style. “Speaking”, as a kind of rap art, establishes the mode of crosstalk art, which is distinguished from drama art. “Laughing” is the artistic characteristics of crosstalk, which distinguishes it from other rap art forms. These two characteristics are interdependent and complementary. (Hou Baolin. 1982:04)<br /> <br /> Crosstalk belongs to the art of drama, but it is different from comedy. In comedy, the laughter of audience mainly comes from plot and comic characters, while in crosstalk it mainly comes from “baofu” (jokes). Sometimes it relies on the plot, sometimes it is not needed, but win the applaud of audience by the charm of language. “Baofu” must be expressed in the way of “dialogue” and “chatting” between the actors . (Hou Baolin. 1982:04)<br /> <br /> ===Famous Artists of CrossTalk===<br /> <br /> In Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) and Emperor Guangxu (1875—1908) periods, Zhu Shaowen (stage name “Qiong Bupa, which means not afraid of poverty”) was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art. Other famous crosstalk artists including Hou Baolin(1917-1993), a pioneering master of crosstalk. In his 60 years of art career, he has devoted himself to the research and development of crosstalk art and brought laughter to the audience. Under his leadership and promotion, crosstalk art has really entered thousands of households and reached a remarkable artistic peak. His crosstalk works including Drama Talks, Drunkenness and etc. Ma Sanli (1914-2003) is the son of the crosstalk actor Ma Delu. Ma Sanli devoted himself to the exploration of long-term artistic practice, and created the unique “Ma’s Style of Crosstalk”. He was the oldest, most experienced and most accomplished crosstalk leader in the cross-talk circle at that time. So was deeply loved and respected by all walks of life and the audience. Ma's cross talk enjoys wide popularity among the people. In Tianjin, it was a saying that “no branches of crosstalk did not learn from Ma”. His representative works including “Eating Yuanxiao(dumpling)”, “Selling Tickets” and “the Yellow Crane Tower” . Other famous crosstalk artists include Zhang Yongxi, Liu Baorui, Hou Yaowen, Jiang Kun, Feng Gong, Niu Qun and Guo Degang. (Baijiahao, 2018 )<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> speaking, imitating, teasing and singing 说学逗唱<br /> <br /> Taiping lyrics 太平歌词<br /> <br /> Baofu 包袱<br /> <br /> Drama Talks 《戏剧杂谈》<br /> <br /> Drunkenness 《醉酒》<br /> <br /> Selling Tickets 《卖挂票》<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.When did crosstalk form its format?<br /> <br /> 2.What is Taiping lyrics?<br /> <br /> 3.Who was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art ?<br /> <br /> 4.What are the four basic skills of crosstalk?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty.<br /> <br /> 2.Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity) is the content to be sang in the crosstalk.<br /> <br /> 3.Zhu Shaowen.<br /> <br /> 4.They are speaking, imitating, teasing and singing.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> 1.Hou Baolin,Xue Baokun,侯宝林,薛宝坤.(1982)，《相声溯源》，People's Education Press<br /> <br /> 2.https://cul.sohu.com/20090619/n264630449.shtml<br /> <br /> 3.https://baike.so.com/doc/1925383-2037001.html<br /> <br /> 4.https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1590742532351773378<br /> <br /> 注意参考文献格式：<br /> Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> Go 围棋--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:04, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===GO - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI===<br /> Go is an adversarial game with the objective of surrounding a larger total area of the board with one's stones than the opponent[1]. As the game progresses, the players position stones on the board to map out formations and potential territories. Contests between opposing formations are often extremely complex and may result in the expansion, reduction, or wholesale capture and loss of formation stones.[2]<br /> <br /> Go is an adversarial game with the objective of surrounding a larger total area of the board with one's stones than the opponent[1]. As the game progresses, the players position stones on the board to map out formations and potential territories. Contests between opposing formations are often extremely complex and may result in the expansion, reduction, or wholesale capture and loss of formation stones.[2](NRICH Team, Going First, 2007)--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board. One or more liberties enclosed within a group is called an eye, and a group with two or more eyes cannot be captured, even if surrounded.[3] Such groups are said to be unconditionally alive.<br /> <br /> A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board. One or more liberties enclosed within a group is called an eye, and a group with two or more eyes cannot be captured, even if surrounded.[3] (Iwamoto, Kaoru,1977)Such groups are said to be unconditionally alive.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The general strategy is to expand one's territory, attack the opponent's weak groups (groups that can be killed), and always stay mindful of the &quot;life status&quot; of one's own groups. The liberties of groups are countable. Situations where mutually opposing groups must capture each other or die are called capturing races, or semeai. In a capturing race, the group with more liberties (and/or better &quot;shape&quot;) will ultimately be able to capture the opponent's stones. Capturing races and the elements of life or death are the primary challenges of Go.<br /> <br /> Players may pass rather than place a stone if they think there are no further opportunities for profitable play. The game ends when both players pass or when one player resigns. In general, to score the game, each player counts the number of unoccupied points surrounded by their stones and then subtracts the number of stones that were captured by the opponent. The player with the greater score (after adjusting for komi) wins the game.<br /> <br /> In the opening stages of the game, players typically establish positions (or &quot;bases&quot;) in the corners and around the sides of the board. These bases help to quickly develop strong shapes which have many options for life (self-viability for a group of stones that prevents capture) and establish formations for potential territory. Players usually start in the corners because establishing territory is easier with the aid of two edges of the board. Established corner opening sequences are called &quot;joseki&quot; and are often studied independently.<br /> <br /> &quot;Dame&quot; are points that lie in between the boundary walls of black and white, and as such are considered to be of no value to either side. &quot;Seki&quot; are mutually alive pairs of white and black groups where neither has two eyes. A &quot;ko&quot; (Chinese and Japanese: 劫) is a repeated-position shape that may be contested by making forcing moves elsewhere. After the forcing move is played, the ko may be &quot;taken back&quot; and returned to its original position. Some &quot;ko fights&quot; may be important and decide the life of a large group, while others may be worth just one or two points. Some ko fights are referred to as &quot;picnic kos&quot; when only one side has a lot to lose. The Japanese call it a hanami (flower-viewing) ko. <br /> <br /> Playing with others usually requires a knowledge of each player's strength, indicated by the player's rank (increasing from 30 kyu to 1 kyu, then 1 dan to 7 dan, then 1 dan pro to 9 dan pro). A difference in rank may be compensated by a handicap—Black is allowed to place two or more stones on the board to compensate for White's greater strength. There are different rule-sets (Korean, Japanese, Chinese, AGA, etc.), which are almost entirely equivalent, except for certain special-case positions.<br /> <br /> Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, there are essentially only two rules in Go:<br /> • Rule 1 (the rule of liberty) states that every stone remaining on the board must have at least one open &quot;point&quot; (an intersection, called a &quot;liberty&quot;) directly orthogonally adjacent (up, down, left, or right), or must be part of a connected group that has at least one such open point (&quot;liberty&quot;) next to it. Stones or groups of stones which lose their last liberty are removed from the board.<br /> • Rule 2 (the &quot;ko rule&quot;) states that the stones on the board must never repeat a previous position of stones. Moves which would do so are forbidden, and thus only moves elsewhere on the board are permitted that turn.<br /> Almost all other information about how the game is played is a heuristic, meaning it is learned information about how the game is played, rather than a rule. Other rules are specialized, as they come about through different rule-sets, but the above two rules cover almost all of any played game.[4]<br /> <br /> Almost all other information about how the game is played is a heuristic, meaning it is learned information about how the game is played, rather than a rule. Other rules are specialized, as they come about through different rule-sets, but the above two rules cover almost all of any played game.[4](British Go Association,2007)--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Although there are some minor differences between rule-sets used in different countries, most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules, these differences do not greatly affect the tactics and strategy of the game.<br /> <br /> Except where noted, the basic rules presented here are valid independent of the scoring rules used. The scoring rules are explained separately. Go terms for which there is no ready English equivalent are commonly called by their Japanese names.<br /> <br /> The two players, Black and White, take turns placing stones of their colour on the intersections of the board, one stone at a time. The usual board size is a 19×19 grid but for beginners, or for playing quick games, the smaller board sizes of 13×13 and 9×9 are also popular.[5] The board is empty to begin with. Black plays first, unless black is given a handicap of two stones or more (in which case, white plays first). The players may choose any unoccupied intersection to play on, except for those forbidden by the ko and suicide rules (see below). Once played, a stone can never be moved and can be taken off the board only if it is captured. A player may also pass, declining to place a stone, though this is usually only done at the end of the game when both players believe nothing more can be accomplished with further play. When both players pass consecutively, the game ends and is then scored.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Go 围棋 heuristic 启发式的<br /> adversarial game 对抗性游戏 intersection 交叉点<br /> board 棋盘 black 黑棋<br /> formation 阵型 white 白棋<br /> move 走棋 scoring rule 计分规则<br /> liberty 自由度 player 棋手<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1, What’s the basic principle of Go?<br /> <br /> <br /> 2,Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, What are other two essential rules in Go？<br /> <br /> <br /> 3, What countries have the most notable scoring rules differences?--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1, A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board.<br /> <br /> 2,The rule of liberty and the &quot;ko rule&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3, Most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Matthews, Charles (2004). Teach Yourself Go. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-142977-1.<br /> <br /> [2]NRICH Team, Going First, University of Cambridge, retrieved 2007-06-16<br /> <br /> [3]Iwamoto, Kaoru (1977). Go for Beginners. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 978-0-394-73331-9.<br /> <br /> [4]British Go Association, Comparison of some go rules, retrieved 2007-12-20<br /> <br /> [5]Kim, Janice; Jeong, Soo-hyun (1997). Learn to Play Go. Five volumes (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Good Move Press. ISBN 978-0-9644796-1-6.<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜,202070080598 MTI 标题 is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:21, 14 December 2020 (UTC)==<br /> <br /> ===The Four Most Handsome men in Ancient China===<br /> It is said that there were four most beautiful women in ancient times, and corresponding to that, it is worth mentioning that there were four most attractive men at that time.Despite that we consider these four men as attractive, this refers to more than just their appearance. They have a common feature: it proves that while their appearance is marvelous, they are also outstanding in literature. Namely, as a Chinese saying goes, they are endowed with both beauty and talent.<br /> <br /> These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> The allusion of “throwing fruit to fill a carriage” originates from Pan An, which resembles movie fans nowadays to see their idols. There is a comment on Pan An’s appearance: &quot;No more and no less.&quot; The history books also describe Pan An with three words “good-looking, well-mannered, and graceful”. Although these did not describe Pan An’s appearance in details, such as eyebrows and eyes or lips, from these side descriptions, we can know that Pan An’s appearance is far above ordinary people, and even his styles draw imitation from others. <br /> <br /> At the same time, Pan An is known as “the flower of a county in Heyang”, and he is also one of the few men who are compared with flowers to be praised for excellent appearance. The beauty of exterior only fails to last long in this world. Pan An's talent and temperament and the devotion to his wife are also often eulogized. Pan Yue showed his unusual talent since he was a child, and he was called a child prodigy by the villagers. In his early years, he was appreciated by an official and recommended as a scholar. <br /> <br /> Later, served as the magistrate of Heyang (now Meng County, Henan), he was diligent in political affairs, and advocated the people to plant more fruits and trees. The county was full of trees and peaches and plums everywhere, known as “Flower County”. During his administration, his political achievements were remarkable. Besides, Pan An holds a special place in the history of literature. <br /> <br /> He was good at composing verse and orders, expatiation, and skilled in the choice of words and building of sentences, which fully reflects the characteristics of Taikang literature that pays attention to the beauty of form. He was expert in composing Ci lyric of sorrow and admonishment, and his current works such as Widow's Fu, Mourning Poem and other famous works are all known for their narration and empathy. Pan An can be described as both internally and externally blessed.（Liu Xixue 2003,63-64）<br /> <br /> Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. There is a very popular legend about King Lanling. It's believed that King Lanling was a brave and supremely skilled general. However, because he looked very sweet and it seemed hard to frighten the enemy, he often wore a half-mask when fighting, which sounds very fairytale. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the beauty of King Lanling is beyond doubt and otherworldly. Book of Northern Qi Dynasty described that he was friendly looking and mentally strong, with beautiful voice and appearance.King Lanling spent half his life in military affairs, and made great achievements. While this gave him glory, it also brought bad luck. There is an old Chinese saying that the glow of a inferior from massive achievements will overshadow his superior. <br /> <br /> Although the King Lanling did not have the idea of usurping the throne, but the incumbent felt threatened because of his existence itself. In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> Song Yu (about 322 BC-298 BC), as it is widely rumored, a student of Qu Yuan, was born in the capital city of Song Dynasty during the Warring States Period (now Shangqiu, Henan). Song Yu was a writer of Ci lyric of State Chu in the late Warring States period, adept in Ci lyric and even acclaimed as a great poet after Qu Yuan' reputation. Later generations often referred to them as “Qu Song”. Rumors circulate that there are many Ci lyrics from him, and Book of Han records about 16 works, but many of them are lost today.<br /> <br /> His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on. He was the first to write about sadness from Autumn and to write about women. His description of women's nature exerts a great influence on later generations such as Cao Zhi. The goddess in Song Yu's The Fu poetry of Goddess embodies the essence of pre-Qin female beauty, recounting the beauty of the goddess of Wushan Mountain in details so much so that later generations have coveted for it for thousands of years.<br /> <br /> 16 works survived, among which Nine Discriminations is believed to be truly composed by him. It is equivalent to Qu Yuan's Li Sao or A lament in the history of Chinese literature. Both poets can be called the two shining pearls in Ci lyric at their times.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> <br /> Wei Jie (286-June 20, 312), a metaphysician and an official of the Jin Dynasty. Wei Jie was a noted talker and metaphysicist during the Wei and Jin Dynasties. He was appointed as an assistant of the prince in the matter of politics. In the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Yongjia(AD310), Wei Jie died at the age of 27. Both ancient books and ancients commented on Wei Jie's appearance. Wang Ji reckoned that, “A jade is on my side, and I feel like I am nobody”; “Wandering with Jiu is like sauntering with a pearl on the side, with him shining brightly.”<br /> <br /> History Retold as a Mirror for rulers authored by Sima Guang goes into detail: &quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot; Wei Jie not only have a mere marvelous exterior, but also he can discern metaphysics from his perspective. Wei Jie’s views always amaze the concerned parties. <br /> <br /> It is said that even three sons of the Wang family, are not as good as the first son of the Wei family, and the three sons of the Wang family were all well-known scholars at that time, and the Wei Jie could be regarded as unmatchable compared with the three in family background, appearance, and talents.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Pan An 潘安<br /> <br /> King Lanling 兰陵王<br /> <br /> Ji Kang 嵇康 <br /> <br /> Wei Jie 卫玠 <br /> <br /> throwing fruit to fill a carriage 掷果盈车<br /> <br /> scholar 秀才<br /> <br /> expatiation 铺陈<br /> <br /> Book of Northern Qi Dynasty 《北齐书》<br /> <br /> the Warring States Period 战国时期<br /> <br /> Book of Han 《汉书》<br /> <br /> Nine Discriminations 《九辨》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Wind 《风赋》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Goddess 《神女赋》<br /> <br /> the goddess of Wushan Mountain 巫山神女<br /> <br /> metaphysician 玄学家<br /> <br /> a noted talker 清谈名士<br /> <br /> History Retold as a Mirror for rulers 《资治通鉴》<br /> <br /> Widow's Fu 《寡妇赋》<br /> <br /> Mourning Poem 《悼亡诗》<br /> <br /> 英文书名要用斜体--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1.Who are the four most handsome men at ancient time in China?<br /> <br /> 2.Who is Gao Changgong?<br /> <br /> 3.How did Lanlin King die?<br /> <br /> 4.What works did Song Yu compose?<br /> <br /> 5.Who are the two shining pearls in Ci lyric according to the passage?<br /> <br /> 6.What History Retold as a Mirror for rulers comment on Wei Jie?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.<br /> <br /> 2.Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. <br /> <br /> 3.In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King. <br /> <br /> 4.His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on.<br /> <br /> 5.Qu Yuan and Song Yu<br /> <br /> 6.&quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]刘细学.古代四大美男[J].文史天地,2003(06):63-64.<br /> <br /> [2]王真波.四大美男都是怎么死的[J].青年文学家,2008(11):59-60.<br /> <br /> 参考文献格式错误--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lo, Minh Thao==<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Mogao Grottoes--Lou Cancan 娄灿灿 student no.202070080599 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Mogao Grottoes===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The Mogao Grottoes, known as the Thousand Buddhas Caves, were built on the eastern cliff of Mingsha Mountain, 25 kilometers to the southeast of Dunhuang city. There are 492 caves (well preserved) today, containing over 2,400 painted clay statues and 45,000 square meters of murals and 5 timber structures on the cliff of the southern district. There are also more than 300 caves used as both living room and burying place for monks and painters on the cliff of the northern district. Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). (Fan Jinshi 2010，170) <br /> <br /> Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes,so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes. From the 4th until the 14th century, caves were constructed by monks to serve as shrines with funds from donors. The major caves were sponsored by patrons such as important asclergies, local ruling elites, foreign dignitaries, as well as Chinese emperors. Other caves may have been funded by merchants and other local people such as women's groups. (Sha Wutian 2020, 122)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes]]====<br /> <br /> ===History===<br /> <br /> Mogao Grottoes were not built in one day. According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff. Later, monk Faliang（法良）came here and joined him cultivating in caves. Since then more and more caves have been excavated over a thousand year. (Whitfield 1990, 8) <br /> <br /> Mogao Grottoes were not built in one day. According to relevant records in the Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff. Later, monk Faliang（法良）came here and joined him cultivating in caves. Since then more and more caves have been excavated over a thousand year. (Whitfield 1990, 8) --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 16:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> By the time of Northern Liang, small community of monks had formed at this site. The caves initially served only as a place of meditation for hermit monks. Later, they were developed to serve the monasteries that sprang up nearby. Members of the ruling families of Northern Wei and Northern Zhou constructed many caves here, and it flourished in the short-lived Sui Dynasty. By the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Mogao Caves had become a place of worship and pilgrimage for the public. In the Sui Dynasty, Hexi Corridor was controlled by central authority. The emperors were pious followers of Buddhism and they ordered to build stupas across the country. Therefore, more than 100 caves were excavated in Mogao Grottoes within 37 years. (Fan Jinshi 2010，175-178) <br /> <br /> By the Tang Dynasty, the number of caves had reached over a thousand. During this period, Dunhuang became the main hub of commerce of the Silk Road and a major religious center. A large number of the caves were constructed during this era, including the two large statues of Buddha at the site, the largest one constructed in 695 following an edict a year earlier by Tang Empress Wu Zitian to build giant statues across the country. The site escaped the persecution of Buddhists ordered by Emperor Wuzong in 845 as it was then under Tibetan control. As a frontier town, Dunhuang had been occupied at various times by other non-Han Chinese people. After the Tang Dynasty, the site went into a gradual decline, and construction of new caves ceased entirely after the Yuan Dynasty. In the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, Mogao Grottoes were preserved and kept by Cao Yijin（曹议金). (MA Shichang 2010, 303) After that, his later generations governed Dunhuang Prefecture and constructed multiple family caves such as Cave 55. (Gao Xiujun 2016, 9) <br /> <br /> During the Ming Dynasty, the Silk Road was finally abandoned and Dunhuang slowly became depolulated and was forgotten by the outside world. Most of the Mogao caves were abandoned. The site, however, went back to a place of pilgrimage and worship by local people at the beginning of the twentieth century. On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings. Since then, Dunhuang has become well known throughout the world. Both Chinese and foreign scholars have made extensive studies on the findings.(Stein 1912, volume 2)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Taoist Wang Yuanlu.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Taoist Wang Yuanlu]]====<br /> <br /> ===Art===<br /> <br /> The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture and they vary from dynasty to dynasty. There are mainly three types of structural forms of Mogao Grottoes: Vihara, Chaitya and Hall with inverted funnel shaped ceiling. A Chaitya with a central pillar is the main form of the caves in the early period of the Sixteen States, with Northern Wei, Western Wei and Northern Zhou Dynasties included. The murals may be divided into seven sorts:Buddhist figures, Sutra illustration, Buddhist stories, Buddhist historical pictures, Chinese mythologies, donors and decorative designs. Buddhist stories in the murals can be divided into three types: Jataka（佛本生), Buddha’s life and fate story. A Jataka is a narrative which tells of the good deeds performed by Sakyamuni during his perious existence such as prince Sudanda giving up his body to feed the hungry tigers. As to sculptures, they were constructed on a wooden frame, padded with reed, then modelled in clay stucco and finished with paint.（Duan Wenjie 1994, 163) <br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Chaitya with a Central Pillar.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Chaitya with a Central Pillar]]==== <br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body]]====<br /> <br /> The artistic styles in the Sixteen States, which gradually turned away from being primitive and simple to an easy and graceful styles in the Northern Wei, manifested in figures with well-chiseled builds and emaciated looks. In Northern Zhou, the styles of figures show that Chinese art combining the influence of foreign and native styles gradually became more nationalized. ( Fan Jinshi 2010, 174) <br /> <br /> The artistic styles in the Sixteen States, which gradually turned away from being primitive and simple to an easy and graceful styles in the Northern Wei, manifested in figures with well-chiseled builds and emaciated looks. In the Northern Zhou, the styles of figures show that Chinese art combining the influence of foreign and native styles gradually became more nationalized. ( Fan Jinshi 2010, 174) --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 16:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs. The caves become spacious and more suited for large paintings, such as the Sutra illustrations and huge pictures of Buddha expounding sermons. Bold and vigorous, brush work was painted with intricate and flowing lines. For example, Lotus Sutra on the ceiling of Cave 420 displays a lot of episodes of mountains, forests, rivers, buildings and so on in a limitated space. The theme and art in the Sui Dynasty show an important devdelopment in traditional art and indicate a comimg glorious new era. （Duan Wenjie 1994, 164)<br /> <br /> The characteristics of the statues in the Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs. The caves become spacious and more suited for large paintings, such as the Sutra illustrations and huge pictures of Buddha expounding sermons. Bold and vigorous, brush work was painted with intricate and flowing lines. For example, Lotus Sutra on the ceiling of Cave 420 displays a lot of episodes of mountains, forests, rivers, buildings and so on in a limitated space. The theme and art in the Sui Dynasty show an important devdelopment in traditional art and indicate a comimg glorious new era. （Duan Wenjie 1994, 164)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 16:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In Tang Dynasty, the caves are large with an inverted funnel shaped ceiling. The murals consist mostly of huge paintings of stories from Buddhist Sutras with well-regulated scenes and well-balanced composition. The figures at that time have round and plump faces and curved eyebrows which expresses the aesthetical taste of the people living in Tang. The mural in Cave 220 contains vivid portraits of the Emperor and his ministers listening to a sermon. The ministers attending to Emperor are each bestowed with differrent appearances and expressions. Some are natural and graceful and some cautious. The well-proportioned painted statues were made with more consummate care and attention to the detail, showing us the solemn Buddha. ( Fan Jinshi 2010, 174) <br /> <br /> In the Tang Dynasty, the caves are large with an inverted funnel shaped ceiling. The murals consist mostly of huge paintings of stories from Buddhist Sutras with well-regulated scenes and well-balanced composition. The figures at that time have round and plump faces and curved eyebrows which expresses the aesthetical taste of the people living in Tang. The mural in Cave 220 contains vivid portraits of the Emperor and his ministers listening to a sermon. The ministers attending to Emperor are each bestowed with differrent appearances and expressions. Some are natural and graceful and some cautious. The well-proportioned painted statues were made with more consummate care and attention to the detail, showing us the solemn Buddha. ( Fan Jinshi 2010, 174) --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 16:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In addition, very tall and colossal statues of Buddha began to be made. The outstanding one is an early Tang Dynasty statue 34 metres high in Cave 96. In 781-848A.D, Hexi region fell into the Tibetan. Hence, there was an interesting changes: the king of the Tibetan took the place of central-plain emperors in the wall-painting.( Fan Jinshi 2010, 175) <br /> <br /> In addition, very tall and colossal statues of Buddha began to be made. The outstanding one is an early Tang Dynasty statue 34 metres high in Cave 96. In 781-848A.D, Hexi region fell into the Tibetan. Hence, there was an interesting change: the king of the Tibetan took the place of central-plain emperors in the wall-painting.( Fan Jinshi 2010, 175) --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 16:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 251 in Northern Wei.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 251 in Northern Wei]]====<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty]]====<br /> <br /> <br /> By the time of the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, the grottoes carved in this period are very large and different in form and layout. The subject and style of the statues and murals remain the influence from Tang Dynasty, but the use of colours and the drawing techniques show a simple folk style. From the 9th century to 12th, the Uygur had been in Dunhuang. The artistic styles bear the imprint of both Han and Uygur. The Uygur murals are generally characterized by the simplicity of the subject, the looseness of the arrangement, the direct and rough brush strokes. (Rong Xinjiang 1999, 248)<br /> <br /> The human figures have features of certain minority groups. In the Western Xia Dynasty(1036-1227), most of caves were repaired and renovated, and only 10 caves were built because of the limited cliffs. Compared to the Yulin Grottoes at the same time, painting of Dunhuang display the Pure-land Sutra, containing simpler content. Only 27 caves are extant in Yuan times(1227-1372). The murals in Cave 3, however, still remain the Tang and Song techniques, namely using different types of drawing to depict different parts of human figures such as iron-wire lines, orchid-leaf strokes and broken-reef strokes, etc. Since the 15th century, the Mogao Grottoes had gradually fallen into neglect in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. (Rong Xinjiang 1999, 248)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty]]====<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> hermit 隐士<br /> <br /> stupas 舍利塔<br /> <br /> Emperor Wuzong ofTang Dynasty 唐武宗<br /> <br /> Vihara 精舍<br /> <br /> Chaitya 支提窟<br /> <br /> stucco 灰泥<br /> <br /> Sakyamuni 释迦牟尼<br /> <br /> Sutras 佛经<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What do Dunhuang Grottoes refer to?<br /> <br /> 2.Who built the first cave and when?<br /> <br /> 3.In 1900, who found the treasure-house in Mogao Grottoes and what were stored in it?<br /> <br /> 4.How many aspects does the art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of and what are they respectively?<br /> <br /> 5.What are the characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes, so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes.<br /> <br /> 2.According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff.<br /> <br /> 3.On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings.<br /> <br /> 4.The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture.<br /> <br /> 5.The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Fan Jinshi 樊锦诗.(2010). ''敦煌石窟'' [The Caves of Dunhuang]. Gansu: The Dunhuang Academy 敦煌研究院. <br /> <br /> Gao Xiujun 高秀军.(2016). ''敦煌莫高窟第55窟研究'' [Research on the 55th Grotto of Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang].Lanzhou University 兰州大学.<br /> <br /> MA Shichang.(2010). Buddhist Cave-temples and the Cao Family at Mogao Ku, Dunhuang. MA Shichang,27(2),303-317.<br /> <br /> Rong Xinjiang 荣新江. (2010).'' 敦煌藏经洞的性质及其封闭原因'' [The Nature of the Dunhuang Library Cave and the Reasons for Its Sealing]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Sha Wutian 沙武田. (2020). 佛教供养与政治宣传——敦煌莫高窟第156窟供养人画像研究 [Buddhist offerings and Political Propaganda -- A Study on the Portrait of the Patron of the 156th Grottoes in Dunhuang].''中原文物'' Cultural Relics in Central Plain, No.215,118-128.<br /> <br /> Stein, M. Aurel. Ruins of Desert Cathay.(1912). Personal Narrative of Explorations in Central Asia and Westernmost China, volume 2. London: Macmillan.<br /> <br /> Suemori Kaoru. (2020).&quot;Thousand-Buddha images in Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes: Religious spaces created by polychromatic patterns&quot;. Kyoto: Hozokan. <br /> <br /> DuanWenjie. (1994). Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie. Abhinav Publications. p. 163.<br /> <br /> Whitfield, Roderick and Farrer, Anne, Caves of the Thousand Buddhas. (1990). Chinese Art from the Silk Route, British Museum Publications. P . 5-20.<br /> <br /> https://books.google.ru/books?hl=zh-CN&amp;lr=&amp;id=vYPNqlAMZWAC&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PP7&amp;dq=info:9v6pr21oST8J:scholar.google.com/&amp;ots=s-uXhnyDBp&amp;sig=u3H7MAh_OpGRS6Iwxoqx0rC5_fo&amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false<br /> <br /> https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogao_Caves<br /> <br /> https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=zh-CN&amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;q=mogao+grottoes&amp;oq=<br /> <br /> ==Four State-level Cultural Relics Luo Weijia 罗维嘉 Student No.202070080600 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ===Four State-level Cultural Relics===<br /> <br /> China, home to one of the world’s most ancient civilizations, abounds in cultural relics, from ancient tombs, architecture, instruments to handicrafts, historical books and so on. They embody rich information about history and culture and vividly display the process of Chinese cultural development. The astounding artistic and technological levels shown in those relics continue to impress people today.<br /> <br /> China, home to one of the world’s most ancient civilizations, abounds in cultural relics, from ancient tombs, architecture, instruments to handicrafts, historical books and so on. They embody rich information about history and culture and vividly display the process of Chinese cultural development. The astounding artistic and technological levels shown in those relics continue to impress people today.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Simuwu Ding====<br /> <br /> [[File:Simuwu Ding.png|200px|thumb|left|Simuwu Ding]] <br /> <br /> In ancient China, ding was a symbol of imperial power. Therefore, ding is often used in phrases and expressions in the Chinese language to imply authority (Anna, 2015). For instance, wending, literally “enquiring about ding”, means plotting to usurp political power, yiyan juiding, literally “One word of promise is equal to nine dings”, means a decisive comment(Lv Shuxiang, 2016).<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding was a very precious cultural relic, found in 1937 in Anyang of Henan Province. It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago. This square-shaped ding is the largest existing bronzeware in the ancient world. It is now housed in the National Museum of China in Beijing (Li Weiming, 2015). <br /> <br /> Ding was a cooking vessel probably used to boil or cook food in the primitive society. At that time, dings were made of clay. During the Shang and Zhou (11th century-771 BC) dynasties, bronze cast technology reached a very high level in China. Therefore, people used bronze to cast ding. However, dings were no longer cooking utensils in ordinary people’s life but an object for important ceremonies to offer sacrifices (Anna, 2015). <br /> <br /> Ding was a cooking vessel probably used to boil or cook food in the primitive society. At that time, dings were made of clay. During the Shang and Zhou (11th century-771 BC)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Is this time correct? 11th century? '''&lt;/span&gt; dynasties, bronze cast technology reached a very high level in China. Therefore, people used bronze to cast ding. However, dings were no longer cooking utensils in ordinary people’s life but an object for important ceremonies to offer sacrifices (Anna, 2015).--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding was cast by Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty as a ritual object for a ceremony to offer sacrifices to his mother. The three characters simuwu form an inscription on the inside of the sidewall. According to archeologists, si means sacrificial ceremony and muwu is the name of the emperor’s mother. Later on, Simuwu became the name of this huge ding (Li Weiming, 2015).<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding is 1.33m high, 1.10m long and 0.78m wide, weighing 832.84kg. At that time, it needed 1000kg of metal and two to three hundred workers to produce it. This ding is solid in build, magnificent in appearance and was made with fine craftsmanship. The four pillar legs are thick and powerful. Each side has a blank space in the middle, surrounded by a band of decoration featuring taotie (animal faced creatures) and kuilong (one-legged dragons), symbolic of harvest and auspiciousness. Simuwu Ding represents the highest level of bronze cast technology in the Shang and Zhou dynasties (Li Weiming, 2015).<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding is 1.33m high, 1.10m long and 0.78m wide, weighing 832.84kg. At that time, it needed 1000kg of metal and two to three hundred workers to produce it. This ding is solid in build, magnificent in appearance and was made with fine craftsmanship. The four pillar legs are thick and powerful. Each side has a blank space in the middle, surrounded by a band of decoration featuring taotie&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''(animal faced creatures) 饕餮：其状如羊面人身，眼在腋下，虎齿人手，最大特点是能吃。 '''&lt;/span&gt; and kuilong (one-legged dragons), symbolic of harvest and auspiciousness. Simuwu Ding represents the highest level of bronze cast technology in the Shang and Zhou dynasties (Li Weiming, 2015).<br /> <br /> ==== The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi ====<br /> <br /> [[File:The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi.png|200px|thumb|left|The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi]] <br /> <br /> The chime bells, or bianzhong, are a kind of percussion musical instrument made of bronze. China is the earliest country to manufacture and use such instrument. Chime bells were divided into groups according to their size, temperament, pitch and were hang on a rack. A small hammer or wooden club is used to hit the bell to make a resonant and agreeable sound (Hubei Museum, 2015).<br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are the largest and the most complete ancient chimes existing today in China. They were unearthed from the tomb of Yi, the Marquis of Zeng, a small state of the Warring States Period (475 BC- 221 BC), in 1978. When they were found, all bells were still hanging on their rack. They are now preserved in Hubei Museum (Hubei Museum, 2015). <br /> <br /> There are altogether 65 bells hung in eight groups on wooden or bronze bars. The rack, 10.79m long, 2.67m high, is made of three bars, namely, the upper, middle and lower bars, held up by six bronze warriors and a few round, wooden posts. The 65 bells weigh over 2500kg. The largest bell is 1.52m in height and weighs more than 203.6kg. The smallest bell is about 20cm in height and weighs 2.4kg. It is extremely rare to see a set with so many bells of such weight and size (Wan Quanwen, 2020). <br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are exquisitely cast and look very elegant. To help artists to perform music, there are instructions on each bell with 3700 characters in all (Wan Quanwen, 2020). There are also words about the hanging indication and musical temperament that are called the “valuable music theory work”. The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi show that, as early as the Warring States Period, China already had a very rich musical culture. The chime bells still could produce a pure and accurate note after unearthed. The tone is excellent and the timbre is pure. <br /> <br /> After excavation of the chime, Chinese musicians created a melody entitled Bianzhong Yuewu (music and dance accompanied by chime bells), to once again demonstrate the charm of ancient Chinese music (Zhou Yi, 2016). <br /> <br /> ==== Jade Suit with Gold Thread ====<br /> <br /> [[File:Jade Suit with Gold Thread.png|200px|thumb|left|Jade Suit with Gold Thread]] <br /> <br /> Ordinarily, the texture of clothes is cotton, flax or silk. However, there were suits made of gold and jade, that is “Jade Suit with Gold Thread”(Wang Jing, 2008).<br /> <br /> The emperors of the Han Dynasty believed that jade could prevent their corpses from decaying, and they regarded jade as full of dignity and nobility. Therefore, they used jade suits as their grave clothes. Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade separately that are called Jade Suit Sewn with Gold Thread, Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread and Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread (Wang Jing, 2008).<br /> <br /> The two sets of jade suits of the Han Dynasty tomb unearthed in Mancheng of Hebei Province in 1968 revealed to the world the real features of such grave clothes (Li Yawen,2019). Their owners were Liu Sheng, Prince Jing of Zhongshan, and his wife, Dou Wan, of the Western Han Dynasty(206 BC-25 AD). <br /> <br /> In appearance, a jade suit follows the shape of a human body. It consists of five parts, i.e., head mask, coat, trousers, gloves and shoes. Each part is made of pieces of jade. The size and shape of each jade piece was designed according to its position. Most jade pieces are shaped in square or rectangular form, but there are a few in trapezoid, triangle or multi sided shapes. Each jade piece is perforated at its corners, through which a gold thread goes through to sew the pieces together. Liu Sheng’s jade suit is rather large, 1.88m long and made up of 2498 pieces. The gold thread used for this suit is about 700g in weight (Li Yawen, 2019). <br /> <br /> Such refined suits made some 2000 years ago in the Han Dynasty indicate the high design level and excellent craftsmanship of that time. In fact, of course, the rulers’ dream of preventing their corpses from decaying could never be realized. The practice of wearing jade suits was banned during the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280) (Wang Jing, 2008).<br /> <br /> ==== Bronze Galloping Horse ====<br /> <br /> [[File: Bronze Galloping Horse.png|200px|thumb|left| Bronze Galloping Horse]] <br /> <br /> In 1969, a galloping horse in bronze was unearthed in an Eastern Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) tomb in Wuwei, Gansu Province in western China. The bronze statue is a famous representative sculpture of the Han Dynasty. Wuwei County leapt to fame with the discovery of this national treasure (Li Xiaohu &amp; Zhao Jing, 2019).<br /> <br /> The 34.5 cm-high bronze horse, covered with spots of verdigris, has a full and robust body. The prancing legs, flying tail, slightly dilated nostrils portray a galloping horse. What is ingenious about it is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow. That means the galloping horse is faster than a flying swallow (Wang Qian, 2020). The positioning of its four legs strictly conforms to that of a living horse and is highly praised by many local and foreign archeologists and artists. <br /> <br /> In this work, Chinese ancient artists combined realism and romanticism, and ingeniously integrated galloping horse and flying swallow through rich imagination, original conception and skillful craftsmanship (Wang Qian:10-11). The swift flying swallow sets off the amazingly fast speed of the galloping horse. According to analysis of its mechanics, Bronze Galloping Horse finds a center of gravity in the swallow to give the statue its stability. The romantic image of the swallow sets off the power and strength of the horse, providing a rich imaginative experience for viewers (Li Xiaohu &amp; Zhao Jing, 2019). <br /> <br /> Bronze Galloping Horse is believed to be a portrayal of the &quot;heavenly steed&quot; of Chinese legend. It is of high craftsmanship, fully expressive of the horse-breeding culture of China's western regions. It has become a symbol of Chinese tourism and a representative work that brings forth the time-honored cultural tradition of the Chinese nation and the oriental aesthetics to the world. The cultural relic is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum(Wang Qian, 2020).<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding 司母戊鼎<br /> <br /> Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty 商王武丁<br /> <br /> taotie 饕餮<br /> <br /> National Museum of China 中国国家博物馆<br /> <br /> chime bells/bian zhong 编钟<br /> <br /> Marquis Yi 曾侯乙<br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi 曾侯乙编钟<br /> <br /> Bianzhong Yuewu 《编钟乐舞》<br /> <br /> Hubei Museum 湖北省博物馆<br /> <br /> Jade Suit with Gold Thread 金缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread 银缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread 铜缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Bronze Galloping Horse 铜奔马/ 马踏飞燕<br /> <br /> Gansu Provincial Museum 甘肃省博物馆<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1. What does ding symbolize?<br /> <br /> 2. When was Houmuwu Ding produced?<br /> <br /> 3.How many bells do the chime bells of Marquis Yi contain?<br /> <br /> 4.What is the size of the largest bell?<br /> <br /> 5.What kind of thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade?<br /> <br /> 6.When did the Jade Suit with Gold Thread unearth?<br /> <br /> 7.What is ingenious about the Galloping Horse?<br /> <br /> 8.Where is Bronze Galloping Horse preserved now?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Ding was a symbol of imperial power. <br /> <br /> 2.It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago. <br /> <br /> 3.They contain 65 bells.<br /> <br /> 4.The largest bell exceeds 1.5m in height and weighs more than 200kg.<br /> <br /> 5.Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade.<br /> <br /> 6.It unearthed in 1968.<br /> <br /> 7.It is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow. <br /> <br /> 8.It is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Anna 安娜.(2015).中国人的鼎文化. 科学大观园(15),72-73.<br /> <br /> Hubei Museum 湖北省博物馆.(2015).曾侯乙编钟. 中华文化论坛(11),2.<br /> <br /> Li Xiaohu &amp; Zhao Jing 李小虎 &amp; 赵静.(2019).青铜雕塑“马踏飞燕”的艺术解读. 艺术教育(09),170-171.<br /> <br /> Li Weiming李维明.(2015-06-19).司母戊鼎研究历程初览(上).中国文物报,006.<br /> <br /> Li Weiming李维明.(2015-07-03).司母戊鼎研究历程初览(中).中国文物报,006.<br /> <br /> Li Weiming李维明.(2015-07-31).司母戊鼎研究历程初览(下).中国文物报,006.<br /> <br /> Li Yawen 李雅雯.(2019)浅说满城汉墓中的金缕玉衣 .文物鉴定与鉴赏 (03):38-39.<br /> <br /> Lv Shuxiang 吕叔湘.(2016)现代汉语词典 (第七版)[M]. 北京:商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王静.(2008).汉代玉衣研究(硕士学位论文,河北师范大学).<br /> <br /> Wang Qian 王倩.(2020).青铜雕塑“马踏飞燕”的研究.艺术品鉴, (26):10-11.<br /> <br /> Wan Quanwen 万全文.(2020).曾侯乙编钟.文史知识 (11):1-2.<br /> <br /> Zhou Yi 周仪.(2016).“八音合鸣 乐舞齐容”——大型乐舞作品《编钟乐舞》述评. 戏剧之家(19),66-67+79.<br /> <br /> == Architecture and Gardens, The Forbidden City Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴 Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> ===The Forbidden City===--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 08:30, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====I.Introduction==== <br /> The Forbidden City (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng) is a palace complex in Dongcheng District, Beijing, China, and with a total area of 720,000 square meters (180 acres). It lies in the center of Beijing's central axis. Today, the Forbidden City houses the Palace Museum, and was the former Chinese imperial palace and residence of the Emperor of China from the Ming dynasty (since the Yong Le Emperor) to the end of the Qing dynasty, between 1420 and 1924. The Forbidden City served as the home of Chinese emperors and their households and was the ceremonial and political center of the Chinese government.(Barmé, Geremie R 2018,26)<br /> The Forbidden City is a national AAAAA tourist attraction and was listed as the first batch of key cultural relics under national protection in 1961. What’s more, it was declared a world cultural heritage in 1987, and listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.(UNESCO,2007)<br /> ====[[File:A Panorama view of the Forbidden City.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A Panorama view of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====II.The Name of the Forbidden City====<br /> The common English name &quot;Forbidden City&quot; is a translation of the Chinese name Zijin Cheng (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng; English: Purple Forbidden City). The name Zijin Cheng first formally appeared in the period of Jia Jing. (Li Xieping1997, (04)29-31) In ancient China, the planning concept of &quot;harmony between man and nature&quot; was emphasized. The stars in the sky were used to correspond with the capital planning to highlight the legitimacy of the regime and the supremacy of imperial power. “ Zi ”, or &quot;Purple&quot;, refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star, The emperor of heaven lived in Ziwei palace, while the human emperor claimed to be the &quot;son of heaven&quot; who was ordered by heaven. His residence should be a symbol of Ziwei palace to correspond to the heaven emperor. “Jin” means that this splendid palace symbolizes supreme power and status of the royal family. In that case, this palace was forbidden, no one could enter and leave the palace without the emperor’s permission. Cheng means a city. Today, the site is most commonly known in Chinese as Gùgōng (故宫), which means the &quot;Former Palace&quot;. The museum which is based in these buildings is known as the &quot;Palace Museum&quot; (Chinese: 故宫博物院; pinyin: Gùgōng Bówùyùan).<br /> <br /> The common English name &quot;Forbidden City&quot; is the translation of the Chinese name Zijin Cheng (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng; English: Purple Forbidden City). The name Zijin Cheng first formally appeared in the period of Jia Jing. (Li Xieping1997, (04)29-31) In ancient China, the planning concept of &quot;harmony between man and nature&quot; was emphasized. The stars in the sky were used to correspond with the capital planning to highlight the legitimacy of the regime and the supremacy of imperial power. “ Zi ”, or &quot;Purple&quot;, refers to the North Star, which was called the Ziwei Star in ancient China. The emperor of heaven lived in Ziwei palace, while the human emperor claimed to be the &quot;son of heaven&quot; who was ordered by heaven. His residence should be a symbol of Ziwei palace to correspond to the heaven emperor. “Jin” means that this splendid palace symbolizes supreme power and status of the royal family. In that case, this palace was forbidden, and no one could enter and leave the palace without the emperor’s permission. Cheng means city. Today, the site is most commonly known in Chinese as Gùgōng (故宫), which means the &quot;Former Palace&quot;. The museum which is based in these buildings is known as the &quot;Palace Museum&quot; (Chinese: 故宫博物院; pinyin: Gùgōng Bówùyùan).--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====III.The History of the Forbidden City====<br /> <br /> When Hongwu’s son Zhu Di became the Yong Le Emperor, he moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, and construction began in 1406 on what would become the Forbidden City. Construction lasted 14 years and required more than a million workers. From 1420 to 1644, the Forbidden City was the seat of the Ming dynasty. (Yu Zhuoyun1984,18)In April 1644, it was captured by rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. He set fire to parts of the Forbidden City in the process of retreating to Shannxi. By October, the Manchus had achieved supremacy in northern China, and a ceremony was held at the Forbidden City to proclaim the Emperor Shunzhi as ruler of all China under the Qing dynasty. (Guo Moruo 1944,3.14) In the 22nd year of Kangxi's reign (1683), the reconstruction of the rest of the destroyed buildings of the Forbidden City was started, and it was basically completed in 1695.After being the home of 24 emperors – 14 of the Ming dynasty and 10 of the Qing dynasty – the Forbidden City ceased being the political centre of China in 1912 with the abdication of Puyi, the last Emperor of China. In 1933, the Japanese invasion of China forced the evacuation of the national treasures in the Forbidden City. Part of the collection was returned at the end of World War II, but the other part was evacuated to Taiwan in 1948 under orders of Chiang Kai-shek.After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, some damage was done to the Forbidden City as the country was swept up in revolutionary zeal. During the Cultural Revolution, however, further destruction was prevented when Premier Zhou Enlai sent an army battalion to guard the city.( Xie Mengyin&amp;Qu Wanlin2006, 11.7)<br /> <br /> When Hongwu’s son Zhu Di became the Yong Le Emperor, he moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, and construction began in 1406 on what would become the Forbidden City. Construction lasted 14 years and cost more than a million workers. From 1420 to 1644, the Forbidden City was the seat of the Ming dynasty. (Yu Zhuoyun1984,18)In April 1644, it was captured by rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. He set fire to parts of the Forbidden City in the process of retreating to Shannxi. By October, the Manchus had achieved supremacy in northern China, and a ceremony was held at the Forbidden City to proclaim the Emperor Shunzhi as ruler of all China under the Qing dynasty. (Guo Moruo 1944,3.14) In the 22nd year of Kangxi's reign (1683), the reconstruction of the rest of the destroyed buildings of the Forbidden City was started, and it was basically completed in 1695. After being the home of 24 emperors – 14 of the Ming dynasty and 10 of the Qing dynasty – the Forbidden City ceased being the political centre of China in 1912 with the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor of China. In 1933, the Japanese invasion of China forced the evacuation of the national treasures in the Forbidden City. Part of the collection was returned at the end of World War II, but the other part was evacuated to Taiwan in 1948 under orders of Chiang Kai-shek. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, some damage was done to the Forbidden City as the country was swept up in revolutionary zeal. During the Cultural Revolution, however, further destruction was prevented when Premier Zhou Enlai sent an army battalion to guard the city.( Xie Mengyin&amp;Qu Wanlin2006, 11.7)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====IV.The Structure of the Forbidden City==== <br /> Firstly, The Forbidden City is a rectangle and symmetric in its layout. Its palaces are arranged along a north-south axis, on which the three main halls, the rear three palaces and the imperial garden are all located. This central axis not only runs through the Forbidden City, but also reaches Yongding Gate in the south, Drum Tower and bell tower in the north, and runs through the whole city.(Xie Li 2005,(03)100-102)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Forbidden City is divided into two parts, the Outer Court and Inner Court. The Outer Court is the place where the emperor deals with political affairs. There are mainly three halls: the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony, and the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The Inner Court or Back Palace includes the northern sections, and was the residence of the Emperor and his family, and was used for day-to-day affairs of state. The inner court takes Palace of Heavenly Purity, Hall of Union and Palace of Earthly Tranquility as its center with six palaces in the east and six palaces in the west.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Forbidden City is a rectangle and symmetric in its layout. Its palaces are arranged along a north-south axis, on which the three main halls, the rear three palaces and the imperial garden are all located. This central axis not only runs through the Forbidden City even the whole city, but also reaches Yongding Gate in the south, Drum Tower and bell tower in the north.(Xie Li 2005,(03)100-102)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Forbidden City is divided into two parts, the Outer Court and Inner Court. The Outer Court is the place where the emperor deals with political affairs. There are mainly three halls: the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony, and the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The Inner Court or Back Palace includes the northern sections, and was the residence of the Emperor and his family, and was used for day-to-day affairs of state. The inner court takes Palace of Heavenly Purity, Hall of Union and Palace of Earthly Tranquility as its center with six palaces in the east and six palaces in the west.(????????quotation)<br /> --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====[[File:The layout of the Forbidden City.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The layout of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====VI The Collections of the Forbidden City==== <br /> The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925, whose extensive collection of artwork and artifacts were built upon the imperial collections of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Part of the museum's former collection is now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. Both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.(Li Wei &amp; Wang Shuo 2005,6-22) <br /> <br /> The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925, whose extensive collection of artwork and artifacts were built upon the imperial collections of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Part of the museum's former collection is now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. Both museums were descended from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.(Li Wei &amp; Wang Shuo 2005,6-22)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The collections of the Palace Museum are based on the Qing imperial collection, including paintings, ceramics, seals, steles, sculptures, inscribed wares, bronze wares, enamel objects, etc. According to latest audit, it has 1,863,404 pieces of art. They are numbered by &quot;Gu&quot;, &quot;Xin&quot; and &quot;Shu&quot;. Except for the ancient books and documents, all the other collections are labeled with &quot;Gu&quot; and &quot;Xin&quot;. The number of ordinary cultural relics begins with the word &quot;Zi&quot;, and the ceramic specimens begin with the word &quot;Biao&quot;. The general catalogue is divided into 25 categories, and the numbers in each category are sorted from small to large. Many collections once lost and was brought to the Palace Museum, For example, Han Banquet map. And there are some exquisite collections like Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer, Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems and Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.(Website:The Collection of the Palace Museum )In addition, The Palace Museum has one of the largest collections of mechanical timepieces of the 18th and 19th centuries in the world, with more than 1,000 pieces. (Meng Fuxia 2012, (21) 73-74)<br /> <br /> The collections of the Palace Museum are based on the Qing imperial collections, including paintings, ceramics, seals, steles, sculptures, inscribed wares, bronze wares, enamel objects, etc. According to latest audit, it has 1,863,404 pieces of art. They are numbered by &quot;Gu&quot;, &quot;Xin&quot; and &quot;Shu&quot;. Except for the ancient books and documents, all the other collections are labeled with &quot;Gu&quot; and &quot;Xin&quot;. The number of ordinary cultural relics begins with the word &quot;Zi&quot;, and the ceramic specimens begin with the word &quot;Biao&quot;. The general catalogue is divided into 25 categories, and the numbers in each category are sorted from small to large. Many collections once lost and was brought back to the Palace Museum later, for example, Han Banquet map. And there are some exquisite collections like Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer, Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems and Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.(Website:The Collection of the Palace Museum )In addition, The Palace Museum has one of the largest collections of mechanical timepieces of the 18th and 19th centuries in the world, with more than 1,000 pieces. (Meng Fuxia 2012, (21) 73-74)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====[[File:Han Banquet map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Han Banquet map]]====<br /> ====[[File:Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance]]====<br /> ====[[File:Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems]]====<br /> ====[[File:Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women]]====<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions==== <br /> palace complex 宫殿群<br /> <br /> central axis 中心轴<br /> <br /> the Palace Museum故宫博物院<br /> <br /> the Yong Le Emperor 永乐皇帝<br /> <br /> key cultural relics under national protection 国家重点文物保护单位<br /> <br /> world cultural heritage 世界文化遗产<br /> <br /> harmony between man and nature 天人合一<br /> <br /> the imperial garden 御花园<br /> <br /> the Hall of Supreme Harmony 太和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Central Harmony 中和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Preserving Harmony 保和殿<br /> <br /> Palace of Heavenly Purity (乾清宮)<br /> <br /> Hall of Union 交泰宫<br /> <br /> Palace of Earthly Tranquility 坤宁宫<br /> <br /> Han Banquet map 韩熙载夜宴图<br /> <br /> Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer陶彩绘女舞俑<br /> <br /> Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems十二生肖镜<br /> <br /> Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women画珐琅西洋人物鼻烟壶<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> 1. What’ s the meaning of “Zi” in the Chinese name Zijin Cheng?<br /> <br /> 2. When was the Forbidden City listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.<br /> <br /> 3.How many emperors have been lived in the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 4.How long did it take to build the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 5.Why some parts of national treasures are in the National Palace Museum in Taipei now.<br /> <br /> 6. What two parts can the Forbidden City be divided into?<br /> <br /> 7.When was the Palace Museum established?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.“Zi” refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star<br /> <br /> 2.In 1897.<br /> <br /> 3.24 emperors.<br /> <br /> 4.14 years.<br /> <br /> 5.Because both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.<br /> <br /> 6.They are the Outer Court and Inner Court.<br /> <br /> 7.The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Barmé, Geremie R(2008). The Forbidden City. Harvard University Press.26.<br /> <br /> UNESCO(2007). &quot;UNESCO World Heritage List: Imperial Palaces of the Ming and Qing Dynasties in Beijing and Shenyang&quot;.<br /> <br /> Li Xieping 李燮平. (1997) &quot;紫禁城&quot;名称始于何时[When did the name of the Forbidden City come into being?]. 紫禁城Forbidden City, (04) 29-31.<br /> <br /> Yu Zhuoyun(1984), Palaces of the Forbidden City, New York: Viking Press,p18.<br /> <br /> Guo Moruo 郭沫若.(1994) 甲申三百年祭[Commemorating 300th Anniversary of the Jia-Sheng Year]. 新华日报 New China Daily, 3.19.<br /> <br /> Xie Li 谢丽.(2005) 北京中轴线上的十七座门[Seventeen doors on the central axis of Beijing].紫禁城 Forbidden City, (03)100-102.<br /> <br /> Meng Fuxia 孟福霞. (2012)北京故宫空间布局构思探源——论中国古代宫殿建筑的美学精神[On the Origin of the Space Layout of the Palace Museum in Beijing--On the Aesthetic Spirit of Ancient Chinese Palace Architecture]大众文艺Popular Literature and Art, (21) 73-74. <br /> <br /> Li Wei&amp;Wang Shuo 刘薇,王硕.2005故宫文物南迁路线图揭秘[Unveiling the Route Map of the Cultural Relics of the Imperial Palace to the South] 华夏经纬网Jinwei Network, 6.22 http://www.huaxia.com/wh/gjzt/2005/00333230.html <br /> <br /> The Collection of the Palace Museum 故宫博物院馆藏https://www. dpm.org.cn /Home.html<br /> <br /> Xie Mengyin &amp; Qu Wanlin 谢荫明,瞿宛林. (2006) “文化大革命” 中谁保护了故宫 [Who protected the Forbidden City in the Cultural Revolution? ].人民网People’s Daily Online,11,7. http://history.people.com.cn/n/2014/0811/c372327-25441615.html<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Marriage Customs Mo Ling 莫玲 202070080602 MTI 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 莫玲 Mo Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Marriage Customs===<br /> <br /> China is an ancient country of rites. When it comes to the most important thing in one’s life---marriage, Chinese people have developed a set of unique and grand ceremonies. Generally speaking, weddings in ancient China needed to be approved by parents and arranged by parents.(Zhou Dandi,Yue Shufa 2012,12) <br /> <br /> ====Six Procedures====<br /> <br /> There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> Na Cai is the begining of all the marriage procedures. It refers to a practice that if a boy intends to marry a girl, firstly his family must invite a matchmaker to the girl's home to propose marriage. After obtaining the consent of the girl's family , the boy's family should entrust the matchmaker to make a proposal formally with some gifts. Usually, the most common gift is wild goose, which represents fidelity. Besides, mandarin ducks and sheep are also frequently-used gifts.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235) <br /> <br /> Wen Ming means that the boy's family asks the matchmaker to fetch the girl's name and date of birth. There are two purposes of this step: the one is to prevent the marriage of close relatives with the same surname; the other is to assure the compatibility of the prospective bride and bridegroom through their “eight characters” of the birth moment.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235) <br /> <br /> Naji happens after the matchmaker takes back the woman's name and eight characters. If divining an auspicious omen, the boy's family will inform the girl’s parents and decide to engage the marriage.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235) <br /> <br /> What is more, Na Zheng is an important step when the boy sends betrothal presents to the girl and for courtesy the girl will send back part of the presents such as food and some clothes.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235) <br /> <br /> Qing Qi means that the boy's family choose an auspicious day to hold the wedding ceremony and then dispatch the matchmaker to tell the girl’s family.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235) <br /> <br /> Qin Ying is the last procedure of the six etiquettes, that is, the groom goes to the bride's home to take the bride to his home.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ====Customs====<br /> <br /> In addition to the six steps mentioned above, there are many other customs in the traditional Chinese wedding ceremony. Generally speaking, ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker and many young people could not master their own marriage. Before wedding ceremony, men and women were not allowed to meet each other in that ancient people were very conservative and most girls were kept in boudoirs. If they met in private before marriage, it would be regarded as a kind of female infidelity and parents would also think it quite unlucky. Under this circumstance, newlyweds could only see each other until the day of marriage.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47-48)<br /> <br /> On the wedding day, the boy’s family will hold a big banquet at home. Before setting out to pick up bride, the bridegroom should first worship his ancestors for the sake of safety and auspice during the process of picking up the bride. (Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> After that, the following step is the most grand one among the whole ceremony --- at the dusk moment, the groom and the bride, his parents as well as all the guests will gather together at the central room to witness the kneeling etiquettes of the couple, which consists of 4 steps: (Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> The first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber : the bride will be sent into the bridal chamber and the groom will drink with guests until night.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> After wedding ceremony, the couple must return to the girl’s home together at the third day, which is called “Huimen” or “Guiling”. This etiquette is indispensable. The groom should take some gifts for respect and change the way that he addresses the bride’s parents, and the latter will also prepare a good meal for the couple’s coming.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ====Development====<br /> <br /> As time goes by, there are many reforms about marriage nowadays. Adults own the freedom to choose their spouse and they can meet each other every day if possible. Parents can’t master their “life event” any more.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47) In addition, many couples skip the cumbersome rites in the wedding ceremony. Some of them choose to hold the ceremony in the church with some close relatives and friends and some even finish it through travel.(Zhou Dandi,Yue Shufa 2012,15)<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, most young people still adopt the main procedures of the traditional Chinese customs, some of which are handed down until the present day. There still exist betrothal gifts and dowries, and many couples choose to wear red costumes. The bridegroom should go to the bride’s home to escort her to the wedding and so on. Thus it can be seen that most traditional Chinese marriage customs are deeply rooted in the hearts of Chinese people and show a unique Chinese characteristics.(Zhou Dandi,Yue Shufa 2012,15)--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ====References====<br /> <br /> Gao Xiaoqian. 高筱倩.(2017) 中国传统婚嫁习俗研究［The Research on Traditional Chinese Marriage Customs］戏剧之家[Drama House] 235.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yueyong. 张月莹.(2013) 中国近代婚嫁礼俗及婚姻观念转变的探索[A Study on the Change of Marriage customs and Marriage Concepts in Modern China] 松州学刊［Songzhou Academic Journal］ 47-48.<br /> <br /> Zhou Dandi, Yue Shufa. 周丹迪, 岳书法.(2012) 浅析近代以来中国婚嫁民俗的演变[On the evolution of Chinese marriage customs since modern times] 文化学刊[Cultural Academic Journal] 15.<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> Na Cai 纳彩 <br /> <br /> Wen Ming 问名<br /> <br /> Na Ji 纳吉 <br /> <br /> Na Zheng 纳征<br /> <br /> Qing Qi 纳征 <br /> <br /> Qin Ying 亲迎<br /> <br /> Huimen 回门 <br /> <br /> Guiling 归宁 <br /> <br /> betrothal presents 彩礼<br /> <br /> the central room 堂屋<br /> <br /> bridal chamber 婚房<br /> <br /> “eight characters” of the birth moment 生辰八字<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.How many procedures are needed from the negotiation to the completion of marriage?<br /> <br /> 2.Did the ancient young people have the rights to decide their own marriage or not and why?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the kneeling etiquettes?<br /> <br /> 4.When the couple have to return to the girl’s home?<br /> <br /> 5.What changes have been made nowadays?<br /> <br /> 6.Please list some new wedding customs.<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying.<br /> <br /> 2.No, they didn’t have the right to decide their own marriage because ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker.<br /> <br /> 3.It consists of 4 steps: the first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber.<br /> <br /> 4.At the third day of the wedding ceremony.<br /> <br /> 5.Adults can choose their spouse by themselves and they can meet each other whenever they want; Some couples choose to hold the ceremony in the church some even finish it through travel, etc.<br /> <br /> 6.Examples:couple can choose to live in the either part of the two families; wedding ceremony can be hold in hotel; the bride can wear white wedding dress rather than the single red in the ancient time.<br /> <br /> ==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br /> <br /> ====Topic: Chinese cinema (dramas and movies) and its popularity and affection in Vietnam====<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac - Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 202070080603专业 is missing--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:16, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br /> <br /> ===Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac===<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:oyltacz.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]2020 is the year of rat according to the Chinese zodiac which consists of twelve animals used by people to name years. The traditional Chinese zodiac has been passed down for more than 2000 years since its origin(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). The twelve zodiac signs are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig, which are assigned in a repeating 12-year cycle(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). This traditional Chinese scheme was originated from China and then has enjoyed a popularity in many other Asian countries(The Editorial Board, 2010: 12-13). With its cultural connotation and time-honored impact, the Chinese zodiac have been engraved in every Chinese people. <br /> <br /> 2020 is the year of rat according to the Chinese zodiac which consists of twelve animals used by people to name years. The traditional Chinese zodiac has been passed down for more than 2000 years since its origin(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). The twelve zodiac signs are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig, which are assigned in a repeating 12-year cycle(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). This traditional Chinese scheme was originated from China and then has enjoyed a popularity in many other Asian countries(The Editorial Board, 2010: 12-13). With its cultural connotation and time-honored impact, the Chinese zodiac have(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;) been engraved in every Chinese people. --[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ====Origin====<br /> <br /> Regarding the origin of the Chinese zodiac, there are various opinions but many of them are presented with no sufficient evidence. There are many myths explaining these animal signs and their arrangement. Among them the most enduring one is the Great Race. In this story, the Jade Emperor, Ruler of the Heavens, wanted to devise a way to measure time, so he organized a race. At the end, the first twelve animals who made it across the river were the winners and so they earned themselves a spot on the zodiac calender in the order they arrived(The Editorial Board, 2010: 6). Besides this folk story, some scholars claim the zodiac scheme was indeed derived from the Twelve Earthly Branches but did not occur at the same time while the Earthly Branches appeared. Since the Han Dynasty, the Earthly Branches have been used to record the time of day. Therefore some hold until that time, the 12 zodiac came into being as a supplementary to refer to the 12 periods of 24 hours. Since the original meaning of the Earthly Branches at that time was obliterated due to the passage of time, the ancient Chinese attached the Earthly Branches and the Ten Heavenly Stems to the zodiac(The Editorial Board, 2010: 5-7). There also stands an opinion that the zodiac signs were originated from the totem worship in the primitive society. According to some research on the origin of Chinese zodiac, there were only twelve earliest surnames in ancient China, which were derived from the names of the twelve animals in the Chinese zodiac scheme. Here the twelve animals refer to the totems at ancient times and different surname tribes use different animals as their totems. Therefore, the twelve animals of Chinese zodiac was developed from the totems of ancient tribes(The Editorial Board, 2010: 4-5).<br /> <br /> Regarding the origin of the Chinese zodiac, there are various opinions but many of them are presented with no sufficient evidence.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;there are various opinions,however,many of them are presented without sufficient evidences&lt;/span&gt;) There are many myths explaining these animal signs and their arrangement. Among them the most enduring(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;time-honored&lt;/span&gt;) one is the Great Race. In this story, the Jade Emperor, Ruler of the Heavens, wanted to devise a way to measure time, so he organized a race. At the end, the first twelve animals who (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;that&lt;/span&gt;)made it across the river were the winners and so they earned themselves a spot on the zodiac calender in the order they arrived(The Editorial Board, 2010: 6). Besides this folk story, some scholars claim the zodiac scheme was indeed derived from the Twelve Earthly Branches but did not occur at the same time while the Earthly Branches appeared. Since the Han Dynasty, the Earthly Branches have been used to record the time of day. Therefore some hold until that time, the 12 zodiac came into being as a supplementary to refer to the 12 periods of 24 hours. Since the original meaning of the Earthly Branches at that time was obliterated due to the passage of time, the ancient Chinese attached the Earthly Branches and the Ten Heavenly Stems to the zodiac(The Editorial Board, 2010: 5-7). There also stands an opinion that the zodiac signs were originated from the totem worship in the primitive society. According to some research(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;researches&lt;/span&gt;) on the origin of Chinese zodiac, there were only twelve earliest surnames in ancient China, which were derived from the names of the twelve animals in the Chinese zodiac scheme. Here the twelve animals refer to the totems at ancient times and different surname tribes use different animals as their totems. Therefore, the twelve animals of Chinese zodiac was developed from the totems of ancient tribes(The Editorial Board, 2010: 4-5).--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Folk Culture and Belief ====<br /> <br /> The zodiac sign not only can reveal one’s age, but also represents his or her personality, career prospects and way of life according to Chinese superstition. <br /> <br /> The zodiac sign not only can (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;can not only&lt;/span&gt;)reveal one’s age, but also represents his or her personality, career prospects and way of life according to Chinese superstition. (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;quotation is missing&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> The Chinese seem to believe that they have some affinity with the animals of the years in which they were born and that their personal traits and fortunes come under their mysterious influence. According to superstitious belief in China, Zodiac animals are combined with the Five Elements that consist of Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth, to tell one's destiny. Since people have their zodic sign's fixed elment, there are many folk beliefs based on this. For example, people born in the years of Metal Rat are believed to have a promising future; people born in the years of Fire Rat are deemed to be clever and intelligent and Wood Rat independent and self-respected(The Editorial Board, 2010: 40). <br /> <br /> The Chinese seem to believe that they have some affinity with the animals of the years in which they were born and that their personal traits and fortunes come under their mysterious influence. According to superstitious belief in China, Zodiac animals are combined with the Five Elements that consist of Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth, to tell one's destiny. Since people have their zodic(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;zodiac&lt;/span&gt;) sign's fixed elment, there are many folk beliefs based on this. For example, people born in the years of Metal Rat are believed to have a promising future; people born in the years of Fire Rat are deemed to be clever and intelligent and Wood Rat independent and self-respected(The Editorial Board, 2010: 40). <br /> <br /> Besides, since the zodiac is determined by the year of birth, there are many implications of one’s birth year. For example, some zodiacal preferences prevail in Chinese population. Chinese have always had a strong affection for the Dragon, so married couples prefer to give births in the year of Dragon. Since dragon is regarded as the auspicious and divine creatures, the children born in these years of dragon are believed to have fortune. These cultural preferences and folk beliefs have influenced prospective parents’ reproductive behavior in the Chinese society(Yip et al., 2002: 1804).<br /> <br /> Besides, since the zodiac is determined by the year of birth, there are many implications of one’s birth year. For example, some zodiacal preferences prevail in Chinese population. Chinese have always had a strong affection for the Dragon, so married couples prefer to give births in the year of Dragon. Since dragon is regarded as the auspicious and divine creatures(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;creature&lt;/span&gt;) , the children born in these years of dragon are believed to have fortune. These cultural preferences and folk beliefs have influenced prospective parents’ reproductive behavior in the Chinese society(Yip et al., 2002: 1804).<br /> <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese people believe certain animals get on better than the others, so the zodiac has had a great impact on marriage as well. Specifically, people who is born in the Year of Tiger would have perfect romance with Pigs, Rabbit with Dogs and Dragon with Roosters. On the contrary, some zodiac signs are believed to have misfortune if they are married with people of certain zodiac. As the Chinese idiom goes, if a dragon and a tiger fight each other, there will be one injured. This old says reflects that dragon and tiger are natural enemies according to the belief(The Editorial Board, 2010: 34-35). And this is the reason why men and women would like to evaluate their Bazi, the Eight Characters, before they get married. However, in reality, personality is related to one’s experience through the life journey rather than the pre-written zodiac signs. People born in the same year would have very distinctive personalities. Similarly, the destiny is also a result of people’s character and most decisions they’ll be making along the way. Of course the marriage is a more complex thing that cannot be deemed to have a pre-given outcome brought by the zodiac.<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese people believe certain animals get on better than the others, so the zodiac has had a great impact on marriage as well. Specifically, people who is(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;are&lt;/span&gt;) born in the Year of Tiger would have perfect romance with Pigs, Rabbit with Dogs and Dragon with Roosters. On the contrary, some zodiac signs are believed to have misfortune if they are married with people of certain zodiac. As the Chinese idiom goes, if a dragon and a tiger fight(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;fight against&lt;/span&gt;) each other, there will be one injured. This old says reflects that dragon and tiger are natural enemies according to the belief(The Editorial Board, 2010: 34-35). And this is the reason why men and women would like to evaluate their Bazi, the Eight Characters, before they get married. However, in reality, personality is related to one’s experience through the life journey rather than the pre-written zodiac signs. People born in the same year would have very distinctive personalities. Similarly, the destiny is also a result of people’s character and most decisions they’ll be making along the way. Of course the marriage is a more complex thing that cannot be deemed to have a pre-given outcome brought by the zodiac.<br /> <br /> ====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Chinese zodiac is a complex scheme which combines the traditional Chinese astrology in it. Based on the Five Elements theory, Yin and Yang system and Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches system, the traditional scheme have developed a profound connotation and implications through generation. Over thousands of years, this popular culture has affected people’s major decisions in naming, marriage, giving birth and attitude towards each other. But people have to consider zodiac in a rational and scientific way. Perhaps the zodiac may help us to understand what we’re given, but it cannot determine our destiny. We should treat it as the precious cultural heritage and explore the profound culture and historical traces embodied in it(The Editorial Board, 2010: 1-2).<br /> <br /> Chinese zodiac is a complex scheme which combines the traditional Chinese astrology in it. Based on the Five Elements theory, Yin and Yang system and Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches system, the traditional scheme have(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;) developed a profound connotation and implications through generation(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;generations&lt;/span&gt;). Over thousands of years, this popular culture has affected people’s major decisions in naming, marriage, giving birth and attitude towards each other. But people have to consider zodiac in a rational and scientific way. Perhaps the zodiac may help us to understand what we’re given, but it cannot determine our destiny. We should treat it as the precious cultural heritage and explore the profound culture and historical traces embodied in it(The Editorial Board, 2010: 1-2).--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 06:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> 《大中国上下五千年》丛书编委会(2010) The Editorial Board of the ''Five Thousand Years of Great China''（''Dazhongguo Shangxia Wuqiannian''） ''Series'',《中国生肖文化》''The Culture of Chinese Zodiac'', 北京：外文出版社 Beijing: Foreign Languages Press.<br /> <br /> Yip, Paul S.F.伊普, Lee, Joseph 李 and Cheung, Y.B.张 (2002).The Influence of the Chinese Zodiac on Fertility in Hong Kong SAR 论生肖对香港生育率的影响. ''Social Science &amp; Medicine''《社会科学与医学》, Volume 55, Issue 10 第55卷第10期, 1803-1812.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions=== <br /> <br /> Jade Emperor 玉皇大帝<br /> <br /> Ten Heavenly Stems 十天干<br /> <br /> Twelve Earthly Branches 十二地支<br /> <br /> Five Elements 五行<br /> <br /> Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth 金木水火土<br /> <br /> Eight Characters 八字<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.How long is the history of Chinese zodiac?<br /> <br /> 2.What are the twelve zodiac signs in order? <br /> <br /> 3.From what time the Earthly Branches was used to record time?<br /> <br /> 4.According to Chinese folk belief, what kind of characteristics do people born in year of rat have?<br /> <br /> 5.Which zodiac animal is mostly praised in China?<br /> <br /> 6.Can you name some pairs of zodiac animal that get along well with each other according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> 7.Which pair of animals that are natural enemies according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.More than 2200 years.<br /> <br /> 2.Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig.<br /> <br /> 3.Han Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 4.They are smart, adaptable, and have the will to fight, but, on the other hand, they are so over-ambitious and easy to fail.<br /> <br /> 5.Dragon.<br /> <br /> 6.Tiger and pig, rabbit and dog and dragon and rooster. <br /> <br /> 7.Dragon and tiger.<br /> <br /> ==Lisu People and Daogan Festival of Lisu Ethnic Minority Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏 202070080641==<br /> --[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 08:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Lisu people and Daogan festival====<br /> <br /> The Lisu ethnic group are the Tibeto-Burman ethnic group living in mountainous areas such as Burma, southwest China, Thailand, and Arunachal Pradesh in India.<br /> <br /> The Lisu ethnic group is the Tibeto-Burman ethnic group whose people live in mountainous areas such as Burma, southwest China, Thailand, and Arunachal Pradesh in India.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[File:Example1.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> There are about 730,000 Lisu people living in Lijiang, Baoshan, Nujiang, Diqing, Dehong and other counties in Yunnan and Sichuan provinces in China. The Lisu nationality is one of the 56 nationalities officially recognized by China. In Myanmar, the Lisu ethnic group is recognized as one of 135 ethnic groups with an estimated population of 600,000. Approximately 55,000 live in Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. They mainly inhabit remote mountainous areas. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> There are about 730,000 Lisu people living in Lijiang, Baoshan, Nujiang, Diqing, Dehong and other counties in Yunnan province and Sichuan province in China. The Lisu nationality is one of the 56 official nationalities recognized by China. In Myanmar, the Lisu ethnic group is recognized as one of the 135 ethnic groups with an estimated population of 600,000. Approximately 55,000 Lisu people live in Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. They mainly inhabit remote mountainous areas. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans. Each clan has its own name or surname. The most famous family clans in the tribal clans are Laemae pha, Bya pha, Thorne pha, Ngwa Pha (Ngwazah), Naw pha, Seu pha, Khaw pha. Most of the surnames come from their own hunter work in primitive times. But later, they adopted many Chinese surnames. Their culture has the same characteristics as the Yi nationality or Nuosu (Lolo) culture. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans. Each clan has its own name or surname. The most famous family clans are Laemae pha, Bya pha, Thorne pha, Ngwa Pha (Ngwazah), Naw pha, Seu pha, Khaw pha. Most of the surnames came from their own hunter work in primitive times. And later, they adopted many Chinese surnames. Their culture has the same characteristics as the Yi nationality or Nuosu (Lolo) culture does. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Daogan Festival (刀杆节) is a traditional festival of Lisu ethnic groups living in Lushui County(泸水县), Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture(怒江傈僳族自治州).Due to the death of the old artists, they were once lost in Nujiang Prefecture and recovered in recent years. They are mainly distributed in Luzhang Village(鲁掌镇), Luzu Village(鲁祖村) and Loma Village(洛玛村) of Lushui County(泸水县).(Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> Daogan Festival (刀杆节) is a traditional festival of Lisu ethnic group in Lushui County(泸水县), Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture(怒江傈僳族自治州).Due to the death of the old artists, the traditions were once lost in Nujiang Prefecture and were recovered in recent years. They are mainly distributed in Luzhang Village(鲁掌镇), Luzu Village(鲁祖村) and Loma Village(洛玛村) of Lushui County(泸水县).(Ernst, Gabriel 2019)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[File:Example2.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> ====Legend====<br /> <br /> During the Ming Dynasty, when people not belonging to the same clan of feudal China invaded the borders of Yunnan, the king sent Wang Ji (王骥), the ministry of war, to resist the enemy with troops. Wang Ji united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders. Later, Wang Ji was killed by traitors. To commemorate Wang Ji's great achievement and to pray for the souls of the brave soldiers who died bravely defending the border, the Li tribe held the &quot;Up and down the mountain&quot; event. (上刀山，下火海), and designated the 15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year as the Knife Gan Festival.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> During the Ming Dynasty, when people of different clans of feudal China invaded the borders of Yunnan, the emperor sent Wang Ji (王骥), the war department of the Chinese feudal ministry, to resist the enemy with troops. Wang Ji united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders. But later, Wang Ji was killed by traitors. To commemorate Wang Ji's great achievement and to pray for the brave soldiers who died bravely in defending the border, the Li tribe held the &quot;Going up to the mountain of swords and going down to the sea of ​​fire&quot; event. (上刀山，下火海), and designated the 15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year as the Knife Gan Festival.(Li Zhihuan,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Going up to the knife mountain and going down to the sea of ​​fire are the main custom performances of the Taozhen Festival, which reproduce the life experience of people living in mountainous areas as they climb the mountains and the hard spirit and skills of climbing.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> Going up to the mountain of swords and going down to the sea of ​​fire is one of the the main custom performances of the Taozhen Festival, which came from the life experience of people living in mountainous areas as they climb the mountains with the hard spirit and skills of climbing.(Li Zhihuan,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Performing====<br /> <br /> Pine trees were used as tool poles, iron knives as tool ladders, crinkled paper as flowers, and bamboo as flower sticks. When we go up the rice mountain and down the fire, we play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments under the knife pole. There are strict procedures and rituals from pointing flowers, pointing knives, playing knives, tying knives, tying flowers, welcoming flowers, and altars. Setting , knife pole , vertical pole , sacrificial dragon , knife stand and dismantling knife (in the sea of fire). Knife poles are usually called gold pillar, silver pillar or male pillar and female pillar respectively, representing the dead and the living. Thirty-six long sharp knives representing 365 days a year are tied to the sides of the ladder with paper flowers made of five-color paper. After the knife poles are tied, Heung Tong/Heung Tong (巫师) recites the words in his mouth and performs the knife dance with drum music. After the knife dance, to the sound of Suo na, gongs and drums, the knife bearer grasps the blade with both hands, steps on the blade with bare feet and then climbs up. When the knife-bearer reaches the top through the three scissors, the knife-bearer opens the lock of heaven, takes out the grains and flowers, spreads them out into the boiling crowd, and then places the red ribbon on the colored door, over which he sings the old prayer song, and then he comes down from the pole of the knife again. After that, he stepped barefoot into the burning charcoal fire, licking the burning plow with his tongue and biting the burning chains with his teeth, which showed the national spirit of the Li people and their superb performance skills.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> Pine trees were used as tool poles, with iron knives as tool ladders, crinkled paper as flowers, and bamboo as flower sticks. Before people going up the mountain and down the fire, they play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , Suo na (唢呐) and other musical instruments under the knife pole. There are strict procedures and rituals of pointing flowers, pointing knives, playing knives, tying knives, tying flowers, welcoming flowers, and altars. Settings, knife pole, vertical pole, sacrificial dragon , knife stand and dismantling knife (in the sea of fire). Knife poles are usually called gold pillar, silver pillar or male pillar and female pillar respectively, representing the dead and the living. Thirty-six long sharp knives representing 365 days a year are tied to the sides of the ladder with paper flowers made of five-color paper. After the knife poles are tied, Heung Tong/Heung Tong (巫师) recites the words in his mouth and performs the knife dance with drum music. After the knife dance, to the sound of Suo na, gongs and drums, the player grasps the blade with both hands, steps on the blade with bare feet and then climbs up. When he reaches the top through the three scissors, he opens the lock of heaven, takes out the grains and flowers, spreads them out into the lively crowd, and then places the red ribbon on the colored door, sings the old prayer song, and then he comes down from the pole of the knife again. After that, he stepped barefoot into the burning charcoal fire, licking the burning plow with his tongue and biting the burning chains with his teeth. All of these show the national spirit of the Li people and their superb performance skills.(Li Zhihuan,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Development====<br /> <br /> According to legend, it commemorates an ancient Han Chinese hero who showed great kindness to the Lisu people. The Lisu people made the anniversary of the hero's death a traditional holiday for their own people, and used symbolic rituals such as going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire to express their feelings of willingness to go through fire in return. On the day of the Knife Festival, several able-bodied men first perform the &quot;firewalking&quot; ceremony. They jump into the red-hot coals with bare feet and perform various stunts. On the second day, they sharpen 36 long knives and tie them to two 20-meter-high wooden racks with rattan strips, forming a knife ladder. With bare hands and feet, the performers climb to the top from the edge of the knives and perform various difficult moves at the top of the pole. Today, this thrilling traditional sacrificial ritual has evolved into a sporting event for the good people of the Lisu people to perform their stunts.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> According to legend, it commemorates an ancient Han Chinese hero who showed great kindness to the Lisu people. The Lisu people made the anniversary of the hero's death a traditional holiday for their own people, and used symbolic rituals such as going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire to express their feelings of willingness to go through fire in return. On the day of the Knife Festival, several able-bodied men first perform the &quot;firewalking&quot; ceremony. They jump into the red-hot coals with bare feet and perform various stunts. On the second day, they sharpen 36 long knives and tie them to two 20-meter-high wooden racks with rattan strips, forming a knife ladder. With bare hands and feet, the performers climb to the top from the edge of the knives and make various difficult performances at the top of the pole. Today, this thrilling traditional sacrificial ritual has evolved into a sporting event for the Lisu people to perform their stunts.(Li Zhihuan,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> 1.Lisu people 傈僳族<br /> <br /> 2.&quot;Up and down the mountain&quot; event 上刀山，下火海<br /> <br /> 2.going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire上刀山，下火海--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.The Lisu tribe 傈僳族<br /> <br /> 4.clan 氏族<br /> <br /> 5.primitive times 原始时期<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.How many Lisu people live in Yunnan and Sichuan？<br /> <br /> 2.How many clans make up the Lisu people？<br /> <br /> 3.Who united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders？<br /> <br /> 4.Which day is the Daogan Festival？<br /> <br /> 5.What musical instruments do they play under the knife pole?<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.About 730,000 Lisu people. <br /> <br /> 2.The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans.<br /> <br /> 3.Wang Ji.<br /> <br /> 4.15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year.<br /> <br /> 5.They play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments.<br /> <br /> ====References====<br /> <br /> *Ernst, Gabriel (21 October 2019). &quot;'We try to not be Thai': the everyday resistance of ethnic minorities&quot;<br /> *&quot;Yunnan Province of China Government Web&quot;. Eng.yn.gov.cn.<br /> *李智环．Li Zhihuan. 傈僳族人口分布及形成原因分析 [Analysis of the Distribution and Causes of the Formation of the Lisu People] 《保山学院学报》， 2010 [Journal of Baoshan College], 2010<br /> <br /> ==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br /> Culture==Topic-Chinese Clothing== Phyo, Su Kyi, Student No-20191108000,Major: Comparative Literature and Cross-cultural Studies. <br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> <br /> Chinese Clothing has many ethnic groups with a long history while Han people dominate most periods in history. For thousands of years, generations of clothing designers have devoted themselves to building the Kingdom of Clothes, making the garments that cover the human body into an important component of Chinese culture. The progress of nation can be seen through its changes in clothing styles.Clothing manufacture in China dates back to prehistoric times, at least 7,000years ago. Archaeological findings of 18,000 years-old artifacts such as bone sewing needles and stone beads and shells with holes bored in them attest to the existence of ornamentation and of sewing extremely early in Chinese civilization. (www.topchinatravel. com, 2004)<br /> <br /> Chinese clothing has undergone continuous transformations throughout history,providing a reflection of the culture in place at any given time. A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry, and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive Chinese fashions through the ages. This illustrated introductory survey takes the reader through traditional Chinese clothing,ornamentation,and ceremonial wear, and discusses the importance of silk and the diverse costumes of China's ethnic groups before considering modern trends and China's place in the fashion world today.(Mei Hua-2010-page-1)<br /> <br /> 1-Chinese traditional clothing<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional clothing contains rich cultural connotations.Today, after the reform and opening up, the clothing industry has developed vigorously. People gradually start to pay attention to the local clothing culture, and pursue cultural connotation contained in clothing. For modern designers, the traditional clothing and its cultural background are their creation inspirations during creation phases,and they are also one of the expressive elements preferred by designers at home and abroad. Inheriting traditional clothing culture not only means that it needs us to turn the traditional clothing elements into a symbol, but also needs us to further understand the background and connotations of traditional clothing culture. The work of design without culture is like a gorgeous shell that can't stand the test of history. Only by grasping the inner spirit of traditional clothing culture, abandoning simple piled up work and patch-up work without connotation and learning the modern expressive methods of traditional clothing elements, one can design out the works which can touch people's heartstrings. (Jiangsu,2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional clothing contains rich cultural connotations.Today, after the reform and opening up, the clothing industry has developed vigorously. People gradually start paying or to pay attention to the local clothing culture, and pursue cultural connotation contained in clothing. For modern designers, the traditional clothing and its cultural background are their creation inspirations during creation phases,and they are also one of the expressive elements preferred by designers at home and abroad. Inheriting traditional clothing culture not only means that it needs us to turn the traditional clothing elements into a symbol, but also needs us to further understand the background and connotations of traditional clothing culture. The work of design without culture is like a gorgeous shell that can't stand the test of history. Only by grasping the inner spirit of traditional clothing culture, abandoning simple piled up work and patch-up work without connotation and learning the modern expressive methods of traditional clothing elements, one can design out the works which can touch people's heartstrings. (Jiangsu,2016,page-2).<br /> <br /> Traditional clothing is the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics. Traditional clothing mutually integrates its unique style, comfortable fabric, bright colors,rich designs and exquisite craft elements to bring people impulsive feelings with visual communication. Traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics enjoys its unique artistic features in the style, color,fabrics,decoration and craft, ect. They are profoundly influenced by Chinese traditional culture ideas in the process of their formation and development and finally condensed into the national culture bearing Chinese culture features. These elements are the source of our inspiration in contemporary clothing design, and the use of these Chinese elements can help people to design out the clothing Chinese style.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional culture is an indispensable source of inspiration in fashion design. Putting the traditional elements into fashion design not only helps the native culture to extend itself, but also greatly promotes the culture exchanges in nationalities. Therefore, we should advocate the national advanced culture,make the Chinese traditional culture achieve the development in the clothing design, use the common language to express Chinese traditional culture essence, and integrate Chinese traditional element symbol into the spiritual elements of fashion design to make the national culture spirit and the language of the world integrate into the mainstream of modern clothing design.(Jiangsu,2016, page -3)<br /> <br /> 1:1.Traditional Han Chinese Clothing (Han Fu)<br /> <br /> It refers to the attire worn byvthe Han people from the enthronement of the Yellow Emperor(about 2698BC) till the late Ming Dynasty (1368-1644AD).It became known as the Han Fu(fu means 'clothes&quot; in Chinese)because the fashion was improved and popularized during the Han Dynasty. It is usually in the from of long gown,cross collar, wrapping the right lapel over the left, loose wide sleeves and no buttons but a sash. Although simple in design, it gives different feelings to different wearers.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019-Aug-2)<br /> <br /> 1:2.Chinese Suit(Tang Zhuang)<br /> <br /> It is a combination of the Manchu male jacket ofvthe Qing Dynasty and the western style suit. It is usually straight collared,with coiled buttons down the front. Its color and design are in traditional Chinese style but tailoring is western.(www.topchinatravel. com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> 1:3.Cheongsam(Qi Pao)<br /> <br /> Originated from the Manchu female clothes, it evolved by merging with western patterns that show off the beauty of a female body. Its features are straight collar, strain on the waist,coiled buttons and slits on both sides ofvthe dress. Materials used are usually silk, cotton and linen.Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire in the world today.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> 1:4.Chinese Tunic Suit(Zhongshan Zhuang)<br /> <br /> Also called the Yat-sen Suit , it is designed by Dr.Sun Yat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire. It has a turn-down collar and four pockets with flaps. As Chairman Mao Zedong worn it quite frequently, it is also called the Mao Suit by westerners. It is the main attire from the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 till 1980,s. The country's leaders still wear it today when attending important occasions, such as military parades.(www.topchinatravel. com,2016,Auge-2.)<br /> <br /> 2.Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements<br /> <br /> There are many old stories in ancient Chinese civilization, and Chinese traditional elements come up with the tenacity of the Chinese nations long history. Different times has their unique cultural connotations and form elements,which include Chinese architecture, costumes, traditional Chinese painting and folk art etc., and those cultural connotations and form elements are precious heritage that the ancestors leave to their off-springs. The change of dynasties in the history of our country lead to changes of cultural centers, which finally lead to the appearance Chinese traditional elements with different representative features in each historical periods, nations and regions. These elements include: Chinese silk ,cloth of brocade, hemp,blue printed fabric; chirpaur, Chinese -style chest covering, Chinese tunic suit, collar,surplice, mandarin and split etc.; colorful ethnic colors: such as bright red,green,yellow and blueetc.;Neolithic patterns, bronze patterns in Shang and Chou dynasties, ancient lacquer were pattern in Qin and Han dynasties, Buddhism patterns in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties and traditional decorative patterns in Tang,Sing and Qing dynasties. The essence of Chinese traditional culture which bear the role of inheriting national culture, and is the unique and external characteristic of Chinese nation.(Jiangsu,2016, page-3)<br /> <br /> 2:1.The Aesthetic Performance of Design<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional clothing of each dynasty has its own unique clothing style and design, but no matter how the style changes,the mainstream concept of traditional Chinese clothing always emphasizes symmetry and balance, and the clothing symmetry can be seen in sleeve, placket, hem,pattern ect.Chinese traditional clothing design is particular about proportion,such as the ancient Chinese woman dresses, short jacket unlined uper garment (named Ru)marching long dress , and it emphasizes the perfect proportion which hold that&quot;the upper part should be short, the below part should be long&quot;; in Song and Ming dynasties people the collocation of long BeiZi(a kind of dress that girls dress in ancient times) and short skirt, the &quot;long upper part,short below part&quot;ratio perfectly reflects the proportions beauty of the clothing.(Jiangsu,2016, page-5.)<br /> <br /> 2:2.The Aesthetic Performance of colors<br /> <br /> Green, white, yellow, red, black ,the five colors, form the Chinese traditional color system. They have obvious implied meaning and identification.Black stands for that the dark heaven, and yellow stands for the earth at dusj, and black and yellow stand for the heaven and the earth ,and they are mostly used in the Kings' clothing, About the colorific choice of Chinese traditional clothing the yellow and red which the historical role is prominent perform particularly well. In the late period of the Warring States as a royal color yellow appeared and became the supreme ruler's senior clothing color .People advocate yellow but don't prohibit yellow.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-6)<br /> <br /> In Chinese traditional clothing colors red has evoluted from the original noble characteristic tovthe civilians characteristic. It evolution has experienced a certain period of time. The original red uses magenta, red ,cinnabar to represent. It is the noble officials' clothing color.<br /> Many designers combine Chinese red and modern clothing design to embody the application of Chinese traditional clothing elements in modern clothing design.(Jaingsu,2016-page-7)<br /> In Chinese traditional clothing colors, the red color has evoluted from the original noble characteristic tovthe civilians characteristic. It evolution has experienced a certain period of time. The original red uses magenta, red ,cinnabar to represent. It is the noble officials' clothing color.<br /> Many designers combine Chinese red and modern clothing design to embody the application of Chinese traditional clothing elements in modern clothing design.(Jaingsu,2016-page-7)--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 08:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)su kyi<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Chinese traditional culture is an indispensable source of inspiration in fashion design.Therefore, we should advocate the national advanced culture, make the Chinese traditional culture achieve the development in the clothing design.<br /> <br /> Trems and Expressions<br /> <br /> 历史-history, <br /> <br /> 期-period, <br /> <br /> 世代-generations, <br /> <br /> 服装-clothing, <br /> <br /> 设计师-designers , <br /> <br /> 装饰-ornamentation<br /> <br /> 中国服饰- Chinese clothing<br /> <br /> 服饰-Costumes <br /> <br /> 传统服装-Traditional clothing<br /> <br /> 服装设计-Clothing design<br /> <br /> 时尚设计-Fashion design <br /> <br /> 几代服装设计师-Generations of clothing designers <br /> <br /> 中国西装-Chinese Suit<br /> <br /> 旗袍-Cheongsam<br /> <br /> 中山装-Chinese Tunic Suit <br /> <br /> 中国传统元素-Chinese traditional elements <br /> <br /> ===Questions ===<br /> <br /> 1-What’s archaeological findings in Chinese fashions through the ages?<br /> <br /> 2-What's Traditional Clothing?<br /> <br /> 3-What's Traditional culture indispensable?<br /> <br /> 4-How is means Han Fu?<br /> <br /> 5-What's the popular Chinese attire?<br /> <br /> 6-How called was Chinese Tunic Suit?<br /> <br /> 7-What'are include Chinese traditional elements? <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 04:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Answers===<br /> 1- A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry,<br /> and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive chinese fanshions through the ages.<br /> <br /> 2-Traditional clothingis the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing<br /> culture with Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> 3-Chineset traditional culture is an indispensablevsource of inspirationin fashion<br /> design.<br /> <br /> 4-Han Fu is fu means clothes in Chinese. <br /> <br /> 5-Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire inthe world today.<br /> <br /> 6-It is also called the Yat-sen Suit,it is designed byDr.SunYat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire.<br /> <br /> 7-Chinese traditional elements include: Chinese silk,cloth of brocade, hemp, blue printed fabric.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 11:56, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> 1.Jiangsu.,(2016), “Influences of Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements on Modern Clothing Design”,<br /> <br /> Nanjing University of Finance and Economics,Soochow University,Published by Atlantic Press.<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.Mei Hua,(2010), `Chinese Clothing´, Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building,Cambridge CB28RU,UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press,NewYork<br /> www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title:www.cambridge.org/9780521186896<br /> Originally published byChina Intercontinental Press as Cinese Clothing(9787508516615)in2010©ChinaIntercontinentalPress.<br /> <br /> 3.https://www.topchinatravel.com/china-guide/history-of-chinese-clothing.htm<br /> <br /> 4.https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/clothing/--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 10:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br /> <br /> ===Chinese traditional dance===<br /> <br /> 1. INTRODUCTION<br /> <br /> There is a long recorded history in China for various kinds of dances. China is highly took position for art consisting for many modern and traditional dance genres. The dance covers a world a worldwide range, like folk dances, ballet, rituals and weeding ceremonies. We also know about that, there are also 56 officially recognized ethnic groups have their own folk dances and style of forms. The best known Chinese are the Dragon dance and Lion dances both dances were known in earlier dynasties in various forms. &quot; Lianxiang &quot; is a Chinese traditional dance , people usually plays it for entertainment and body building.The author presents the view that the dance can relax tendons and activate collaterals by striking shoulders, chest, waist, abdomen, buttocks, feet and acupuncture points of the four limbs, and slightly swaying knees together with shoulder, the set of movement can also exercise bones, muscles.--[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 05:14, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2. Characteristics of the Dance<br /> <br /> Characteristics of the movements <br /> <br /> There have 3 characteristic of the movements are: thrashing, quivering and lowering. The performer holds bamboo pole to play various dance movements by striking shoulders, chest, waist, abdomen, buttocks, feet and acupuncture points of the four limbs, and slightly swaying knees together with shoulder vibration. The traditional movements are modified and developed which is called single- thrashing and double-thrashing. Single-thrashing movements including crouch thrashing, jump thrashing, rolling thrashing and mixed thrashing with one bamboo pole. --[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 06:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Liquor Culture of China 瞿淼 Student No.202070080604 ==<br /> ==The Liquor Culture of China 瞿淼 Student No.202070080604 英语笔译 ==--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 08:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.The Origin of liquor in China====<br /> <br /> With a long history of liquor-making, China boasts a variety of vintage liquor, which is renowned at home and abroad. Penetrating in China’s entire history of civilization, the liquor culture plays a significant role in many aspects, such as cuisine, literature, and health care, of Chinese people’s daily life.（后面好像缺了文献的引用，参考文献中的没有在正文体现）--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> As to the origin of Chinese liquor, opinions vary and no unanimous conclusion can be drawn, and the most widely accepted version is that Du Kang is the person who invented liquor. There are divergent views on Du Kang’s identity, so far, documents have been found which recorded his deeds in the Yellow Emperor era and Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties. And even his address is disputable. Some people think he lived in Baishui, Shaanxi province and was buried here, while others hold the opinion that he lived in Ruyang, Henan province. However, Du Kang is generally believed to be the Chinese Dionysus. According to the legend, one day it rained suddenly while Du Kang was herding the sheep. Hastily driving the sheep back to the sheepfold, he forgot some husked sorghum rice in a hollowed trunk by accident, and when he came back after a few days, the rice he left there became so fragrant that he couldn’t help tasting some. Surprisingly, it was palatable. This unexpected finding made Du Kang start to develop the liquor-brewing technique. Nowadays, Du kang has become the synonym of liquor in many places. Moreover, ancestral halls of Du Kang have been built in Baishui in Shaanxi province and Ruyang in Henan province to enshrine him. And the liquor produced in these places are called “Du Kang Liquor.”(Huang yixi, 2008, 12) <br /> <br /> With a long history of liquor-making, China boasts a variety of vintage liquor, which is renowned at home and abroad. Penetrating in China’s entire history of civilization, the liquor culture plays a significant role in many aspects, such as cuisine, literature, and health care, of Chinese people’s daily life.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As to the origin of Chinese liquor, opinions vary and no unanimous conclusion can be drawn, and the most widely accepted version is that Du Kang invented liquor. There are divergent views on Du Kang’s identity, so far, documents have been found which recorded his deeds in the Yellow Emperor era and Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties. And even his address is disputable. Some people think he lived in Baishui, Shaanxi province and was buried here, while others hold the opinion that he lived in Ruyang, Henan province. However, Du Kang is generally believed to be the Chinese Dionysus. According to the legend, one day it rained suddenly while Du Kang was herding the sheep. Hastily driving the sheep back to the sheepfold, he forgot some husked sorghum rice in a hollowed trunk by accident, and when he came back after a few days, the rice he left there became so fragrant that he couldn’t help tasting it. Surprisingly, it was palatable. This unexpected finding made Du Kang start to develop the liquor-brewing technique. Nowadays, Du kang has become the synonym of liquor in many places. Moreover, ancestral halls of Du Kang have been built in Baishui in Shaanxi province and Ruyang in Henan province to enshrine him. And the liquor produced in these places are called “Du Kang Liquor.”(Huang yixi, 2008, 12)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.The Types of liquor in Ancient China====<br /> With constant reform and innovation of the techniques of brewing liquor, thousands types of vintage liquor have been created in China. According to the different production techniques, Chinese liquor can be divided into fermented wine and distilled liquor.<br /> <br /> With constant reform and innovation of the techniques of brewing liquor, thousands of types of vintage liquor have been created in China. According to the different production techniques, Chinese liquor can be divided into fermented wine and distilled liquor.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Yellow rice wine is the oldest fermented wine around the world. Shaoxing Wine, a famous specialty of Shaoxing, Zhejiang province, is the representative of yellow rice wine. It has a very long history, and the wine industry in Shaoxing was prosperous early in the Warring States period. Shaoxing wine looks yellow and clear, hence sugar is added in its raw material. The most prominent of Shaoxing Wine is that it’s fragrance improves with age. In addition to Shaoxing Wine, there are other famous yellow rice wine like Jiujiang Old Seal Wine, Mellow Wine and Dongwu Rice Wine and so on. where is the source is coming from please?<br /> <br /> Yellow rice wine is the oldest fermented wine around the world. Shaoxing Wine, a famous specialty of Shaoxing, Zhejiang province, is the representative of yellow rice wine. It has a very long history, and the wine industry in Shaoxing was prosperous early in the Warring States Period. Shaoxing wine looks yellow and clear, because sugar is added in its raw material. (这句话的因果关系不知道是什么，改错了就删掉我的就好）The most prominent characteristic of Shaoxing Wine is that it’s fragrance improves with age. In addition to Shaoxing Wine, there are other famous yellow rice wine like Jiujiang Old Seal Wine, Mellow Wine and Dongwu Rice Wine and so on.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Liquor and Spirits(Baijiu), a kind of distilled liquor, is divided into the following flavor types: sauce-flavor type, light flavor type, strong flavor type and other flavour types. Kweichow Moutai is a traditional Chinese specialty liquor. It is one of the world's three major distilled liquors on par with Scotch whiskey and French cognac. It is also the originator of Daqu sauce-flavored liquor with a history of more than 800 years. The style and quality of Kweichow Moutai is characterized by &quot;prominent sauce, elegant and delicate flavour, full-bodied, long aftertaste, and lasting fragrance in an empty cup&quot;. Its special style comes from the unique traditional brewing techniques formed over the years and the brewing methods are combined with the agricultural production in the Chishui River Basin, which is affected by the environment and seasonal production, retaining some of the original traces of local life. In 1996, Moutai's craftsmanship was identified as a state secret to be protected. In 2001, the traditional craft of Moutai was included in the first batch of national material cultural heritage. In 2006, the State Council approved the inclusion of the &quot;Moutai traditional brewing process&quot; in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage lists, and declared the world intangible cultural heritage. where is source coming?<br /> <br /> Liquor and Spirits(Baijiu), a kind of distilled liquor, is divided into the following flavor types: sauce-flavor type, light flavor type, strong flavor type and other flavour types. Kweichow Moutai is a traditional Chinese specialty liquor. It is one of the world's three major distilled liquors on par with Scotch whiskey and French cognac. It is also the origin of Daqu sauce-flavored liquor with a history of more than 800 years. The style and quality of Kweichow Moutai is characterized by prominent sauce, elegant and delicate flavour, full-bodied, long aftertaste, and lasting fragrance in an empty cup&quot;. Its special style comes from the unique traditional brewing techniques formed over the years and the brewing methods are combined with the agricultural production in the Chishui River Basin, which is affected by the environment and seasonal production, retaining some of the original traces of local life. In 1996, Moutai's craftsmanship was identified as a state secret to be protected. In 2001, the traditional craft of Moutai was included in the first batch of national material cultural heritage. In 2006, the State Council included &quot;Moutai traditional brewing process&quot; in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage lists, and declared it as the world intangible cultural heritage.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.The Types of Drinking Vessel in Ancient China====<br /> Chinese people always pay attention to the beauty and delicacy of tableware, and we stress the exquisiteness and suitability of wine vessels when drinking. Therefore,as part of the liquor culture, drinking vessels also have a long history and varied appearances.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(sorry,又忘记复制粘贴，直接改动了）<br /> <br /> In different historical periods, due to the continuous development of society and economy, the production technology, materials, and appearance of wine vessels will naturally undergo corresponding changes; therefore, a wide variety of wine vessels have been produced. As early as the Neolithic culture period, pottery with shapes similar to later wine-ware, such as the pottery of the Peiligang culture period, appeared. The development of the liquor industry and the noble identity of the drinker have made it possible for liquor utensils to be differentiated from ordinary eating utensils. The quality of wine-ware often becomes one of the symbols of the status of drinkers. Bronze ware originated in Xia Dynasty, and the earliest bronze wine ware that has been discovered is from the Xia Erlitou culture period. Bronze ware reached its heyday in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and declined in the Spring and Autumn Period. The purpose of the Shang and Zhou drinking vessels was basically specific. <br /> In the Shang Dynasty, due to the development of the liquor industry and the improvement of bronze production technology, China's wine ware reached unprecedented prosperity. The bronze wine vessels of Shang and Zhou Dynasties were divided into liquor boiling vessels, liquor serving vessels, drinking vessels and liquor storaging vessels according to their purposes. Each vessel has many styles, some are in common styles, and some take animal shapes. Take Zun as an example, there are Elephant Zun, Rhino Zun, Niu Zun, Yang Zun, Tiger Zun, etc. <br /> <br /> In different historical periods, due to the continuous development of society and economy, the production technology, materials, and appearance of wine vessels naturally has undergone corresponding changes; therefore, a wide variety of wine vessels have been produced. As early as the Neolithic culture period, pottery with shapes similar to later wine-ware, such as the pottery of the Peiligang culture period, appeared. The development of the liquor industry and the noble identity of the drinker have made it possible for liquor utensils to be differentiated from ordinary eating utensils. The quality of wine-ware often becomes one of the symbols of the status of drinkers. Bronze ware originated in Xia Dynasty, and the earliest bronze wine ware that has been discovered is from the Xia Erlitou culture period. Bronze ware reached its heyday in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and declined in the Spring and Autumn Period. The purpose of the Shang and Zhou drinking vessels is basically specific. <br /> In the Shang Dynasty, due to the development of the liquor industry and the improvement of bronze production technology, China's wine ware reached unprecedented prosperity. The bronze wine vessels of Shang and Zhou Dynasties were divided into liquor boiling vessels, liquor serving vessels, drinking vessels and liquor storaging vessels according to their purposes. Each vessel has many styles, some are in common styles, and some take animal shapes. Take Zun as an example, there are Elephant Zun, Rhino Zun, Niu Zun, Yang Zun, Tiger Zun, etc. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:zun.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> During the Qin and Han Dynasties, lacquered wine utensils became popular in southern China. It became the main type in the Han Dynasty, Wei and Jin Dynasties, and its shape basically inherited the shape of bronze liquor vessels. Porcelain roughly appeared around the Eastern Han Dynasty. Compared with pottery, the performance of porcelain surpassed that of pottery. The shape of liquor glasses in the Tang Dynasty was much smaller than in the past, so some people think that distilled spirits appeared in the Tang Dynasty. The Song Dynasty was the heyday of ceramic production, and there were many exquisite wine vessels. People in Song Dynasty like to warm rice wine and drink it. So the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl were invented. People placed the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and poured hot water into the bowl to warm the wine. The representative porcelain wine-ware of the Ming and Qing Dynasty is the blue-and-white porcelain wine-ware.<br /> <br /> During the Qin and Han Dynasties, lacquered wine utensils became popular in Southern China. It became the main type in the Han Dynasty and Wei and Jin Dynasties, and its shape basically inherited the shape of bronze liquor vessels. Porcelain roughly appeared around the Eastern Han Dynasty. Compared with pottery, the performance of porcelain surpassed that of pottery. The shape of liquor glasses in the Tang Dynasty was much smaller than it in the past, so some people think that distilled spirits appeared in the Tang Dynasty. The Song Dynasty was the heyday of ceramic production, and there were many exquisite wine vessels. People in Song Dynasty like to warm rice wine and drink it. So the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl were invented. People placed the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and poured hot water into the bowl to warm the wine. The representative porcelain wine-ware of the Ming and Qing Dynasty is the blue-and-white porcelain wine-ware.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[File:Example3.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> ====4.Drinking Order====<br /> As early as the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, drinking orders appeared at banquets in the Yellow River Basin. There are many ways to make wine orders. The way the literati and the ordinary people make drinking orders are naturally very different. Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc., while ordinary people use simple ways to act without any preparation. It requires a quick, witty, artistic and talented person to do liquor orders. The drinking order is of great significance to the transformation, enrichment and development of drinking rituals. It is not only an important means to add wine to the fun and to invigorate the banquet, but also to make Chinese culture enter the wine and become the Liquor Culture&quot;.<br /> <br /> As early as the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, drinking games appeared at banquets in the Yellow River Basin. There are many ways to make wine games. The way the literati and the ordinary people make drinking games are naturally different. Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc., while ordinary people use simple ways to act without any preparation. It requires a quick, witty, artistic and talented person to do liquor orders. The drinking games is of great significance to the transformation, enrichment and development of drinking rituals. It is not only an important means to add wine to the fun and to invigorate the banquet, but also to make Chinese culture enter the wine and become the Liquor Culture&quot;.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> 1.Du Kang 杜康<br /> <br /> 2.Chinese Dionysus 中国酒神<br /> <br /> 3.husked sorghum rice 秫米饭<br /> <br /> 4.Baishui 白水县（陕西渭南市辖县）<br /> <br /> 5.Ruyang 汝阳县（河南省洛阳市下辖县）<br /> <br /> 6.fermented wine 发酵酒<br /> <br /> 7.Distilled liquor 蒸馏酒<br /> <br /> 8.Yellow rice wine 黄酒<br /> <br /> 9.Shaoxing Wine 绍兴酒 <br /> <br /> 10.Jiujiang Old Seal Wine 九江成年封缸酒<br /> <br /> 11.Mellow Wine 醇香酒 <br /> <br /> 12.Dongwu Rice Wine 东吴老酒<br /> <br /> 13.Liquor and Spirits 白酒 <br /> <br /> 14.Kweichow Moutai 贵州茅台<br /> <br /> 15.sauce-flavor type 酱香型 <br /> <br /> 16.light flavor type 清香型 <br /> <br /> 17.strong flavor type 浓香型 <br /> <br /> 18.Daqu sauce-flavored liquor 大曲酱香型白酒<br /> <br /> 19.the Peiligang culture period裴李岗文化时期 <br /> <br /> 20.the Xia Erlitou culture period 夏二里头文化时期<br /> <br /> 21.Zun 樽 <br /> <br /> 22.injection vessel and bowl 注子和注碗<br /> <br /> 23.drinking order 行酒令<br /> <br /> 23.drinking games 行酒令--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Questions==== （问题好像还要再加一两个 忘记标准了）--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.Who is generally believed to invent liquor in China? <br /> <br /> 2.What is the most prominent of Shaoxing Wine?<br /> 2.What is the most prominent characteristic of Shaoxing Wine?--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.How to use the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl in the Song dynasty?<br /> <br /> 4.How do literati often make drinking orders in China?<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.Du Kang<br /> <br /> 2.It’s fragrance improves with age.<br /> <br /> 3.Place the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and pour hot water into the bowl to warm the wine.<br /> <br /> 4.Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc.<br /> <br /> ====Bibliography====<br /> *Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br /> <br /> *Li Fangzhou 李方舟. (1998) 酒令——酒文化的珍品[Liquor-a treasure of wine culture]. 质量天地Production Room.<br /> <br /> *Du Jinpeng 杜金鹏. (1995) 中国古代酒具[Ancient Chinese Wine Set]. 上海文化出版社 Shanghai Culture Publishing House.<br /> <br /> *Yang Li 杨 利. (2005) 酒文化及酒的精神文化价值探微[A Probe into Wine Culture and Spiritual Cultural Value of Wine]. 邵阳学院学报Academic Journal of Shaoyang University, 2005(02):82-83.<br /> <br /> *Xu Shaohua 徐少华. (1999) 中国酒文化研究50年[Research on 50 years of Chinese wine culture]. 酿酒科技Brewing Technology, 1999(06):15-18.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Fengqi 赵凤琦. (2014) 我国白酒产业可持续发展研究[Research on Sustainable Development of Chinese Liquor Industry]. 中国社会科学院研究生院CASS Graduate School.<br /> <br /> *Wng Jianguo&amp;Xu Liang 汪建国,徐亮.(2005)我国黄酒的特征及展望[Characteristics and Prospects of Chinese Rice Wine] 江苏调味副食品Journal of Jiangsu Seasoning Food, 2005(06):8-12.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jihua 丁季华. (1991) 中国酒文化的结构与功能[The structure and function of Chinese wine culture]. 历史教学问题History Research and Teaching, 1991(2).<br /> <br /> == China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH) - Rajabov, Anushervon student NO. 201921080005 Major: Comparative literature and cross culture ==<br /> <br /> ===China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH)===<br /> <br /> Introduction <br /> <br /> High-speed railway (HSR) in China is the longest network of high-speed railways in the world and is used most widely. The network of UNCC includes the recently built railway at the estimated speed of 200-350 km / h (120-220 miles per hour). The Chinese VSM accounts for two thirds of world high-speed railways. Almost all trains, the path and services of the HSR belong to the Chinese railway corporation under the CHINA Railway High Speed brand (CRH). The high-speed railway has developed rapidly in China over the past 15 years. CRH was put into operation in April 2007, the Intercity Line Beijing-Tianjin, which opened in August 2008, became the first HSR allocated passenger line. HSR applies to all administrative provincial levels, except Macau and Tibet. The total length of the HSR network reached 36,000 km (22,000 miles) in August 2020. The HSR construction boom continues, and the HSR network should reach 70,000 km (43,000 miles) in 2035. China's first high-speed trains were imported or built in accordance with the Technology Transfer Agreement with foreign trains manufacturers, including Alstom, Siemens, Bombardier and Kawasaki Heavy Industry Since the initial technical support, Chinese engineers have overpower the internal components of the train and built local trains produced by the CRRC State Corporation. The appearance of a rapidly accelerated railway in China has decreased in the way and changed Chinese society and the economy. The World Bank study has shown that &quot;a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality.&quot;[http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/451551468241176543/pdf/932270BRI0Box30ffic020140final000EN.pdf]<br /> <br /> Definition and terminology <br /> <br /> High-speed trains in China are usually belonging to passenger trades of classes G, D and C. in class G trains (高 铁; Gāotiě; &quot;High-speed rail&quot;) are commonly used trains E In class D trains (动 车; Dòngchē; &quot;Electrical multiple unit&quot;) are presented by EMU trains operating at lower speeds, whether in high-speed or low-speed ways. The actual movement speed of class D trains can vary greatly. D211 Creament train from Guyang-east to Guangzhou-South along the High Speed Railway Guang-Guangzhou, a line with an estimated speed of 250 km / h, on average, 207 km / h per trip. The sleeping train D312 EMU between South Beijing and Shanghai at a low speed Beijing - Shanghai on average passing 121 km / h. Class C (c héngjì; “intercity”) trains that run on high-speed tracks at speeds above 250 km / h are also considered high-speed trains.[https://ru.qaz.wiki/wiki/China_Railway_High-speed]<br /> <br /> Influence on airlines<br /> <br /> The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights. The effect of high-speed railway on airfare is most acute when traveling for less than 500 km (310 miles). By the spring of 2011, commercial airlines were fully stopped at previously popular routes such as Wuhan Nanjing, Wuhan Nanchang, Xi'an-Zhengzhou and Chengdu Chongqing. Flights along the routes with a length of more than 1500 km (930 miles) usually do not suffer. As of October 2013, half a speed of passengers were transported monthly on high-speed rail than in the country's airlines. where the source a<br /> Technologies <br /> Chinese High Speed Railway Controls Various Electric Forms of Trains, Hexie HAO Title (Simplified Chinese: 和谐 号; Traditional Chinese: 和 諧 號; Pinyin: Héxié Hào; Harmony) is for designs which are imported from other nations and designated CRH-1 to CRH-5 and CRH380A (L), CRH380B (L) and CRH380C (L). CRH compositions are designed for fast and convenient movement between cities. The weakness of intellectual property Hexie HAO creates obstacles to China in the export of its products related to high-speed railways, which leads to the development of a fully recycled railway franchise called Fuxing Hao (Rejuvenation) that based on local technologies.[https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine ]<br /> <br /> 4 + 4 HSR network <br /> <br /> The network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km. Most of the lines follow existing routes and are for passenger traffic only. These are known as Passenger Lines (PDL). Several sections of the national network, especially along the southeastern coastal corridor, have been built to connect cities that previously had no rail links. These sections will carry both passenger and cargo. High-speed trains on HSR corridors can usually reach speeds of 300-350 km / h (190-220 mph). On mixed HSR lines, passenger trains can reach a maximum speed of 200–250 km / h (120–160 mph). This ambitious national grid project was slated to be built by 2020, but government incentives have significantly shortened the construction timeframe for many lines.[http://www.railjournal.com/A/xfeature2.html]<br /> <br /> Advantages <br /> <br /> HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances that: Increases economic productivity and long-term competitiveness by increasing rail capacity and unifying labor markets. Moving passengers onto high-speed lines frees up older railways to carry more cargo, which is more beneficial for railways than for passengers whose fares are subsidized. Boosts the economy in the short term as high-speed rail construction creates jobs and stimulates demand in the construction, steel and cement industries during the economic downturn. 110,000 workers were mobilized for the construction of the Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway. Facilitates economic integration between cities and promotes the growth of second-tier cities. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains. [https://ru.qaz.wiki/wiki/China_Railway_High-speed]<br /> <br /> Wenzhou accident <br /> <br /> On July 23, 2011, two high-speed trains collided on the Ningbo-Taizhou-Wenzhou railway in the Lucheng district of Wenzhou city, Zhejiang province. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped. Signals failed, causing another train to stop a stopped train. Several carriages derailed. State Chinese media confirmed 40 deaths and at least 192 people were hospitalized, including 12 seriously injured. The train accident in Wenzhou and the lack of accountability by rail officials have generated public outcry and heightened concerns about the safety and management of China's high-speed rail system. Concerns about quality and safety have also influenced plans to export cheaper high-speed train technology to other countries. In the aftermath of the deadly disaster, the Chinese government has suspended approval of new rail projects and began security checks on existing equipment.[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/23/china-train-crash-kills-32]<br /> <br /> Terms and expressions<br /> <br /> 高 铁 - High-speed rail<br /> 动 车 - Electrical multiple unit<br /> 和 諧 號 – Harmony<br /> 復興號 - Rejuvenation<br /> <br /> Questions <br /> <br /> 1. What does the World Bank research say?<br /> 2. What forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights?<br /> 3. How many high speed rail corridors are there in the 4 + 4 HSR network? What is their total length?<br /> 4. What caused the accident?<br /> 5. What are the benefits of HSR?<br /> <br /> Answers<br /> <br /> 1. The World Bank study has shown that &quot;a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality.&quot; <br /> 2. The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights.<br /> 3. The 4 + 4 HSR network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km. <br /> 4. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped.<br /> 5. HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains.<br /> <br /> References <br /> <br /> http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/451551468241176543/pdf/932270BRI0Box30ffic020140final000EN.pdf<br /> https://ru.qaz.wiki/wiki/China_Railway_High-speed<br /> https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine <br /> http://www.railjournal.com/A/xfeature2.html<br /> https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/23/china-train-crash-kills-32.<br /> <br /> ==Language, The Chinese Language - Seydou, Sagara, Student No:201911080004,Major:Translation Studies===<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> China is a very big country with a large population, multi-ethnic,and multi-lingual. Each etthnic groups may have its own lingo, or dialects. There are great differences between the dialects because of pronunciation. For example, if people in different places use their dialects to talk, they may not be able to understand each other, and the situation may lead to embarrassment and understanding. Therefore, the Chinese people communicate with each other in a common language, Putonghua, also known as Mandarin in Western countries. Cheng Aimin (2019,<br /> <br /> ==Putonghua and Dialects==<br /> <br /> Putonghua is the national language of China, and Chinese is the most widely spoken language in the world. More than one billion of the world's populations are Chinese speakers. The Chinese population is already one fifth of the population of the world and is rapidly expanding its presence everywhere and influence many people around the world. Cheng Aimin (2019, 25) <br /> It is the modern standard Chinese language with the Beijing pronunciation as its standard pronunciation, the northern dialect (also known as Mandarin, the official language in the past) as its basic dialect, and the modern vernacular as its grammatical norm. Therefore, the northern dialect sounds more like Putonghua than other dialects. Putonghua is a standardized language, which is legally used all over the country. In 2000, the law of the People’s Republic of China on common languages and characters established the legal status of Putonghua and standardized Chinese Characters as the national language and writing system. Putonghua is also one of the six working language of the United Nation and an important means of communication between China and foreign countries. According to statistics from ethnologist, in 2015, 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, but there were still about 400 million people who spoke dialects or minority languages. Article 19 of the constitution of the People’s Republic of China stipulates that ‘’ Putonghua is widely used by the state ‘’, and the third week of September is the national Putonghua Publicity week. We often hear some sayings like this: ‘’ Learn Putonghua well and you will have friend all over the world.’’ Chinese dialects are usually divided into seven groups: northern dialect Wu dialect, Hunan dialect, Jiangxi dialect, Hakka dialect, and Cantonese dialect and Fujian dialect. Most northern are close to Putonghua and easy to understand a non-native speaker. Cheng Aimin (2019, 126) <br /> <br /> The dialects in China differ greatly. Speaking Putonghua allows the Chinese people to communicate better with each other and promote the development of economy and culture everywhere. However, the promotion of Putonghua cannot be achieved in a short time. The Chinese government plans to enable more than 80% of Chinese people to speak Putonghua by 2020. (C.Gov art 10. 2017)<br /> Only by learning Putonghua can you communicate with people from all parts of China and event with Chinese –speaking people all over the world. While striving to promote Putonghua among the people of the whole country, China also pays special attention to the protection of dialects, which should not be lost after learning Putonghua. . Cheng Aimin (2019, 126)<br /> <br /> ==Ancient Chinese and Modern Chinese ==<br /> Over the past three thousand years, Chinese has undergone a long period of development and changes, and has been constantly interacting with the languages of other nations. Ancient Chinese and written Chinese characters are not exactly the same as they are now. When we visit Chinese historical sites, we often see couplets, poems, and inscriptions. Most of them are written in classical Chinese and traditional Chinese characters. Classical Chinese is a written language formed on the basis of the spoken language in the pre-Qin period. Cheng Aimin (2019, 127) <br /> <br /> By the time of the Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties (the 7th century to the 10th century), the spoken Chinese had changed greatly and had significant differences with the classical style of written Chinese. The pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar had changed greatly. But all the time, some people still insisted on writing in classical Chinese, while others wrote in the commonly used vernacular (spoken Chinese). The Four Classical Novels created in the Ming and Qing dynasties, The Dreams of the red Chambers, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, The Outlaws of the Marsh and the journey to the west, are all representative works of the ancient vernacular. After the May 4th movement in 1919, China launched a vernacular movement advocating ‘’my hand writes my speech’’. Since then, the vernacular has gradually been more widely used in the whole society, and modern Chinese has gradually developed and formed. Compared with ancient Chinese, modern Chinese absorbs a lot Western grammar and has added many disyllabic words. Cheng Aimin (2019 ,128)<br /> <br /> ==Idiomatic Phrases- Idioms, Proverbs, Common Sayings, and Allegorical Sayings.==<br /> Many phrases with fixed meanings in Chinese have been handed down from the ancient times. Mastering these phrases will make your language more authentic and vivid. For example, ‘’Lofty mountains and flowing rivers ‘’. Playing the lute to the cow’’ ‘’prescribing medicine according to symptoms’’, and ‘’ pleading guilty by carrying a rod on one’s back’ ’these phrases, often contain four Chinese characters each, are called idioms. They are quite formal and often originate from ancient historical stories, fables, myths and legends, or literary works. Sometimes we cannot guess the meaning of an idiom simply according to the meaning of the words. For example, 崇山峻岭，流淌的河流 ‘’lofty mountains and flowing rivers’’ means meeting someone who can really understand and appreciate them, while吹牛的长笛 ‘’ Playing the lute to the cow’’ means the casting pearls before swine. Wendy Abraham: (2018 ,115)<br /> There are also proverbs, common sayings, and allegorical sayings created and passed down by the common people in spoken language, which are quite colloquial and emotional, reflecting the unique culture of China.<br /> Proverbs are common and easy -to understand fixed phrases used orally, often explaining a truth. For example, ‘’ if you are not in charge of a home, you don’t know how expensive the firewood and rice, if you don’t have children, you don’t know kinds your parents are.’’ ‘’Seeing is better than hearing 100 times, and doing is better than seeing 100 times’’ Cheng Aimin (2019, 129)<br /> Common sayings mostly come in a three –character format, but there are also other formats. In addition to the literal meaning, there are deep metaphorical extensions. For example, 吹牛皮 ‘’blow cow skin’’ (meaning bragging or boating) ‘给某人. 穿紧身鞋 ‘’give SB . Tight shoes to wear ‘’ ( meaning making things hard for SB), ‘为外国人工作时的消磨时间‘’kill time when working for foreigners ‘’ ( loafing on the job) , 提一个黑锅 ‘’ carry a black pot’’ ( taking the blame for the fault of others ) , 钉在眼睛里 ‘’ nail in the eyes’’ ( thorn in the flesh ), 狗腿 ‘’ dog leg’’ ( hired thug) , 不管3x7 = 21 ‘’regardless of 3x7= 21’’( regardless of consequences, in the spite of anything ), 打不了八极 ‘’ can’t hit with eight poles’’ ( extremely distant or unrelated ). (Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002,232)<br /> An allegorical saying is divided into two parts. It is like a riddle: The first part is a metaphor, and the second part is an explanation. There are two types of allegorical sayings: homophonic and figurative. Example of the homophonic type ‘’ the nephew carries a lantern – to light up the uncle’’ (pronounced the same ‘’ as before ‘’ in Chinese); ‘’the monk opens an umbrella – no hair and no sky ‘’ (‘’ no hair ‘’ is pronounced similar to ‘’ lawless ‘’ in Chinese). Examples of the figurative type: ‘’ A mute person takes a dose of bitter medicine- they can’t say it is bitter ‘’; ‘’ Mice go to the street – everybody shouts and beats them.’’ Cheng Aimin (2019.130)<br /> <br /> ==Language policy==<br /> While vigorously promoting Putonghua, the Chinese government has also promulgated many policies to protect dialect and minority languages. In order to promote Putonghua, China promulgated the Chinese Pinyin Program in 1958. Pinyin (the standard Chinese sound- spelling system) is widely used in Putonghua promotion, international Chinese teaching, foreign exchange and other fields. It has become an important tool for reading Chinese characters, learning Putonghua, training and improving reading and writing ability. With the popularization of modern information technology, pinyin is widely used to input the Chinese characters on computers and mobile phones. Pinyin affects all aspects of social life. In translation, Chinese names of people, places, food, and even some cultural concept with Chinese characteristics (Such as Beijing, pingpang, Shaoling, Gongful) are directly spelled with Pinyin, which is therefore an important standard for translation and a bridge for international exchange. Minglang Zhou: (pp.71-95).<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion.== <br /> Today, an increasing number of people from other countries now want to learn Chinese language and culture and also many universities from different countries throughout the world offer Chinese language courses because Putonghua is also an open door to a huge job market in all of the countries where Putonghua is the language of commerce like Mainland China, Taiwan and Singapore. Learning Chinese can help to make a better future for everyone. Abundant opportunities for governments and business careers as well as scientific and cultural exchanges await the student of Chinese. The China market is blossoming after decades of global isolation. As China is rapidly becoming a world economic power as it opens its doors to foreign investment expands its infrastructure, those who know Chinese will be valuable to business.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> Cheng Aimin.(2019), ''中国概况'' [Understanding China]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> Minglang Zhou: Language Policy in the People’s Republic of China (p.71-95), Wendy Abraham: let’s talk Mandarin Chinese: 1,001 real-life phrases and Idioms. Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37) Article 10 Putonghua and the standardized Chinese characters shall be used as the basic language in education and teaching in schools and other institutions of education, except where otherwise provided for in laws.<br /> The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002)<br /> ===Terms and expressions===<br /> <br /> Lingo: 林戈<br /> <br /> Lingo: 行话，语言<br /> <br /> Putonghua: 普通话<br /> <br /> Await student:等待学生<br /> <br /> Pinyin: 等待学生<br /> <br /> Pinyin: 拼音<br /> <br /> Lofty: 崇高<br /> <br /> Vernacular: 白话<br /> <br /> Swine: 猪<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1. Why Putonghua is spoken in United Nations Organization?<br /> 2. How many people speak Putonghua in China and around the world?<br /> 3 .Why Chinese government is promoted Putonghua among many others languages?<br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1. Because it is an important means of communication between China and foreign countries.<br /> 2. According to ethnologist 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, and according to the10 most spoken languages in the world Chinese (and all of its varieties such as Mandarin) is by far the most spoken language across the world with 1.31 billion speakers.<br /> 3. Because Putonghua is become an international language and it also facilitate understanding between different ethnic groups in China.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5&diff=116563 2020-12-20T12:41:00Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Machine Translation */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第五部分(Part 5)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Translation Thoughts=<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Creative Treason of Literature Translation-李玉 Li Yu==<br /> <br /> ==On the Analysis of Three Kinds of Beauty in ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence-林敏 Lin Min 202020080616==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;林敏 Lin Min &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation, aiming to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language in a translation. Xu Yuanchong introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties” principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book, he said that the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem. This thesis is going to use such two theories to compare and analyze the two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond in our nation --Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version with some typical and representative examples, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.This thesis is divided into five parts: the first part roughly describes the purpose, method and significant of the study; the second part introduces the general idea and two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond; The third part introduces two translation theories functional equivalence and three beauty principle; the fourth part, some typical examples are selected and two theories are used to compare study the two versions. The fifth part summarizes the whole thesis.<br /> <br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation, aiming to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language in a translation. Xu Yuanchong introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties” principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book, he said that the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem. This thesis is going to use such two theories to compare and analyze the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version with some typical and representative examples, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.This thesis is divided into five parts: the first part roughly describes the purpose, method and significance of the study; the second part introduces the general idea and two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''; The third part introduces two translation theories functional equivalence and three beauties principle; the fourth part, some typical examples are selected and two theories are used to compare the two versions. The fifth part summarizes the whole thesis.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 02:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Functional Equivalence, Three Kinds of Beauty<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 功能对等理论指导下《荷塘月色》英译本“三美”的传达<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 功能对等论是翻译理论中最重要的理论之一。功能对等论的目的是实现源语和目标语之间的功能对等。许渊冲在《毛泽东诗词四十二首》序言中提出的译诗的“三美”原则，即音美，意美和形美。本篇文章将利用这两个基本原则，通过一些有代表性的例子对译本进行比较学习，学习研究两篇文章是否符合功能对等。本篇论文共分为五部分，第一部分介绍了本研究的目的、意义和方法；第二部分介绍了《荷塘月色》的大意和两个英译本；第三部分对两个翻译原则：功能对等论和“三美”原则做了简要地介绍；第四部分选取了有代表性的例子，运用了两个理论对两译本进行了对比学习；第五部分对全文进行了总结。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 功能对等论，三美原则<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> With the advent of globalization as well as the development of Chinese economy, more and more Chinese literary works have been introduced abroad. Prose is one of the important part of China’s literature.However there is still not enough attention to the introduction of Chinese prose, especially Chinese modern prose.<br /> <br /> With the advent of globalization as well as the development of Chinese economy, more and more Chinese literary works have been introduced abroad. Prose is one of the important parts of China’s literature.However, there is still not enough attention to the introduction of Chinese prose, especially Chinese modern prose.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 03:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''，the well-known lyric prose, written by the famous author Zhu Ziqing, has made a huge influence on the development of Chinese prose. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer's depressing mood. For this prose is a typical example of Chinese modern prose, many translators have given their translations of it, such as Zhu Chunshen, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang, Li Ming and Wang Jiaosheng. A large number of scholars have analyzed its different versions making great contribution to the prose translating. <br /> <br /> <br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''，the well-known lyric prose, written by the famous author Zhu Ziqing, has made a huge influence on the development of Chinese prose. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer's depressing mood. For this prose is a typical example of Chinese modern prose, many translators have tried to translate this prose, such as Zhu Chunshen, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang, Li Ming and Wang Jiaosheng. A large number of scholars have analyzed its different versions making great contribution to the prose translating. --[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 03:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation. Functional equivalence theory introduced by Nida, refers to the fact that the translation does not take rigid correspondence between words and structures as the standard, but aims to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language. The theory emphasizes that“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation. Functional equivalence theory introduced by Nida, refers to the fact that the translation does not take rigid correspondence between words and structures as a standard, but aims to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language. The theory emphasizes that“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 03:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Here, this paper selects This thesis selects two of the most famous English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen's version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, to compare and study, based on Xu Yuanchong's “Three Beauty” principle under the guidance of functional equivalence. This thesis will compare and analyze the two English versions, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> Here, this thesis selects two of the most famous English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen's version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, to compare and study, based on Xu Yuanchong's “Three Beauties” principle under the guidance of functional equivalence. This thesis will compare and analyze the two English versions, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 03:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === 2. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' and Its English Versions ===<br /> Before comparing and analyzing the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' , we need learn some necessary information about the author who wrote it and the relatively background. At present, the two famous English versions are Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version .<br /> <br /> Before comparing and analyzing the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' , we need to learn some necessary information about the author who wrote it and the relatively background. At present, the two famous English versions are Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version .--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is the classical of lyric prose written by Zhu Ziqing in Tsinghua University, Beijing on July 1927，which depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer’s depressing mood. It was published in the Novel Monthly, one of the new literary journals which enjoys the reputation of “the first journal in the China’s literary world” in the 1920s.（Han,2018 ）Since it was published, the article has received both high praise and fierce criticism. From this perspective, it has witnessed the history of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is the classical of lyric prose written by Zhu Ziqing in Tsinghua University, Beijing on July 1927，which depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer’s depressing mood. It was published in ''the Novel Monthly'', one of the new literary journals which enjoyed a reputation of “the first journal in the China’s literary world” in the 1920s.（Han,2018 ）Since it was published, the article had received both high praise and fierce criticism. From this perspective, it has witnessed the history of modern Chinese literature.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In this prose, the author is sleepless and sits in his yard to enjoy the cool in the evening. Suddenly, it occurred to his mind that the lotus pond where he passes every day and the pond must be different at night with the moonlight. So, the author wandered lonely on a cinder footpath around the lotus pond, he feels that he is a “free man”. As he sees the pond cover with trim lotus leaves and white lotus flowers, hearing the sounds of the cicadas and the frogs, Zhu thinks that &quot;this animation was theirs alone, I had no part in it（Yang ,1990 ）.&quot;<br /> <br /> In this prose, the author is sleepless and sits in his yard to enjoy the cool in the evening. Suddenly, it occurrs to his mind that the lotus pond where he passes every day and the pond must be different at night with the moonlight. So, the author wanders lonely on a cinder footpath around the lotus pond, he feels that he is a “free man”. As he sees the pond cover with trim lotus leaves and white lotus flowers, hearing the sounds of the cicadas and the frogs, Zhu thinks that &quot;this animation was theirs alone, I had no part in it（Yang ,1990 ）.&quot;--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Two English Versions ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is one of Zhu Ziqing’s masterpieces and was selected into Chinese textbook. Most scholars say that the prose is “文质相称，形神俱美” which has attracted an amount of scholars and students.（Chen ,2018）The prose has been introduced to foreign countries in different languages, especially in English since the May 4th Movement. The notable translations include Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, Li Ming’s version and Wang Jiaosheng’s version. This thesis choices Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version. Both Zhu ’s version and Yang’s version are faithful to the original meaning and concise to the sentence structure and close to the original style. But Zhu prefer to employ literal translation and Yang uses the free translation, like the words “热闹” ,“冷静”, “群居”and “独处”, Zhu translated these as “a serene and peaceful life”,“a busy and active one”, “being in solitude” and “in company”, in contrast Yang’s translation is “excitement and stillness”.<br /> <br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is one of Zhu Ziqing’s masterpieces and is selected into Chinese textbook. Most scholars say that the prose is “文质相称，形神俱美” which has attracted an amount of scholars and students.（Chen ,2018）The prose has been introduced to foreign countries in different languages, especially in English since the May 4th Movement. The notable translations include Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, Li Ming’s version and Wang Jiaosheng’s version. This thesis choices Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version. Both Zhu ’s version and Yang’s version are faithful to the original meaning and concise to the sentence structure and close to the original style. But Zhu prefer to employ literal translation and Yang uses the free translation, like the words “热闹” ,“冷静”, “群居”and “独处”, Zhu translated these as “a serene and peaceful life”,“a busy and active one”, “being in solitude” and “in company”, in contrast Yang’s translation is “excitement and stillness”.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Basis of Theory ===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Functional Equivalence Theory ====<br /> The first scholar in history to propose the equivalence effect is the British translation theorist Alexander Fraser Tytler in 1790. He defined the “good translation” in his book ''A Brief Introduction to Translation Principles''. He introduced that the good translation completely transfers the advantages of the original work to another language, so that the target language readers can clearly understand and feel strongly as the original readers do. This is to say that a good translation should be able to produce the same effect as the original in different linguistic societies. Then, the German translation theorist Kaul called it a comparable effect in his book ''The Art of Translation'' in 1896.<br /> <br /> The first scholar in history to propose the equivalence effect is the British translation theorist Alexander Fraser Tytler in 1790. He defined the “good translation” in his book ''A Brief Introduction to Translation Principles''. He introduced that the good translation should completely transfer the advantages of the original work to another language so that the target language readers could clearly understand and feel strongly as the original readers do. This is to say that a good translation should be able to produce the same effect as the original in different linguistic societies. Then, the German translation theorist Kaul called it a comparable effect in his book ''The Art of Translation'' in 1896.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 03:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s translation theory was formed in the 1960s and introduced to China in the 1980s. The functional equivalence principle is one of his central translation ideas. In 1964, Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Toward Science of Translating'', proposing to shift the focus of translation research from the attention of static text information to reader’s attention to the dynamic information of the text. In ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida defined this theory again. He proposed that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. Here, the dynamic equivalence refers to the functional equivalence. The basic point of functional equivalence is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by readers with that of the recipient of the target text. It requires the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the original text when understanding the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida’s translation theory was formed in the 1960s and introduced to China in the 1980s. The functional equivalence principle is one of his central translation ideas. In 1964, Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Toward Science of Translating'', proposing to shift the focus of translation research from the attention of static text information to reader’s attention to the dynamic information of the text. In ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida defined this theory again. He proposed that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. Here, the dynamic equivalence refers to the functional equivalence. The basic point of functional equivalence is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by readers with that of the recipient of the target text. It requires readers of the target text to be able to perceive the original text when understanding the translation.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 03:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Three Kinds of Beauty ====<br /> Xu Yuanchong ,the highly respected translator and famous professor, is known as “the only person who translates Chinese poems into English and French”. He introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties”principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book ,he said that “the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem.”(Xu, 2003) Xu Yuanchong said that “in translation, the beauty in sense is the most important, beauty in sound comes next and the last is beauty in form, when it is difficult to achieve them all, translator should stress beauty in sense.”(Xu, 2003)And professor Xu also claimed that the “Three Beauties” principles can use in researching and studying the translation of prose.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong ,the highly respected translator and famous professor, is known as “the only person who translates Chinese poems into English and French”. He introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties”principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book ,he said that “the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem.”(Xu, 2003) Xu Yuanchong said that “in translation, the beauty in sense is the most important, beauty in sound comes next and the last is beauty in form, when it is difficult to achieve them all, translator should stress beauty in sense.”(Xu, 2003)And professor Xu also claimed that the “Three Beauties” principle can be used in researching and studying the translation of prose.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 03:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence ===<br /> Zhu Ziqing used a large number of rhetorical devices and reduplicated words to describe the beauty of the lotus pond under the moonlight at night, to express his gloomy and upset mood, which brings great difficulty to translation, in his famous prose--''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. This part is aimed at using the functional equivalence theory and Xu Yuanchong’s theory of “Three Beauties” to analyze wheatear the two English versions of such prose achieving the degree of function equivalance.<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing used a large number of rhetorical devices and reduplicated words to describe the beauty of the lotus pond under the moonlight at night, to express his gloomy and upset mood, which brings great difficulty to translation, in his famous prose--''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. This part is aimed at using the functional equivalence theory and Xu Yuanchong’s theory of “Three Beauties” to analyze whether the two English versions of such prose achieve the degree of function equivalance.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 ====<br /> Words are the basic meaning of sentences. G •Leech divided “meaning” into two categories: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(Leech,1987) The conceptual meaning is the meaning that we can find in dictionary, and the associative meaning is the actually meaning of the word in the special context. It is a truly universal acknowledge that the meaning of the sentence is not simple addition of word meaning. Thus, the translator should find the conceptual meaning and the associative meaning of the original, especially the associative meaning. Here are some typical examples:<br /> <br /> Example 1: “这几天心里颇不宁静。”（Zhu Ziqing , 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu ’s version: “I have felt quite upset recently.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang ’s version: “The last few days have found me very restless.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> Words are the basic meaning of sentences. G •Leech divided “meaning” into two categories: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(Leech,1987) The conceptual meaning is the meaning that we can find in the dictionary, and the associative meaning is the actual meaning of the word in the special context. It is a truly universal acknowledge that the meaning of the sentence is not simple addition of word meaning. Thus, the translator should find the conceptual meaning and the associative meaning of the original, especially the associative meaning. Here are some typical examples:<br /> <br /> Example 1: “这几天心里颇不宁静。”（Zhu Ziqing , 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu ’s version: “I have felt quite upset recently.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang ’s version: “The last few days have found me very restless.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This sentence is the first sentence in the first paragraph. Here “不宁静” refers to “quite uncomfortable”, which can be translated as “upset, restless, untranquil, disquieting and so on”. However, considering Zhu Ziqing’s patriotic feeling and his responsibility for his wife and kid, he cannot devote his whole life to the great revolution. Therefore “不宁静” in the context means the author is anxiety, because he want to change his condition. Zhu Chunshen translated it as“upset”which means“unhappy or disappointed because of something unpleasant that has happened”in the ''OED'', which emphasized the unhappy mood. And Yang Xianyi employed it as “restless”, which means “unable to stay still or happy where you are, because you are bored or need a change ” in the ''OED'', which stressed on one needing a change. It is clear that the word “restless” is more exactly than the word “quiet” in this sentence.<br /> <br /> This sentence is the first sentence in the first paragraph. Here “不宁静” refers to “quite uncomfortable”, which can be translated as “upset, restless, untranquil, disquieting and so on”. However, considering Zhu Ziqing’s patriotic feeling and his responsibility for his wife and kid, he cannot devote his whole life to the great revolution. Therefore “不宁静” in the context means the author is anxious, because he wants to change his condition. Zhu Chunshen translated it as“upset”which means“unhappy or disappointed because of something unpleasant that has happened”in the ''OED'', which emphasized the unhappy mood. And Yang Xianyi employed it as “restless”, which means “unable to stay still or happy where you are, because you are bored or need a change ” in the ''OED'', which stressed on one needing a change. It is clear that the word “restless” is more exact than the word “quiet” in this sentence.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However,“宁静”has an end rhyme“ing”and neither“upset”in Zhu’s translation nor“restless”in Yang’s version opted the words with the same end rhyme for they both focused on the meaning. And such sentence in original text is a 9 characters short sentence with no subject, Yang translated it into 9 words,used the“the last few day”as the subject, while Zhu’s version only has 6 words and selected “I” as the subject. Therefore, Yang’s version is expressive to the original in this sentence and it retains the beauties of form and sense in this sentence at the same time. In short, the two versions are good translation, but the Yang’s version is much better from this point. <br /> <br /> However,“宁静”has an end rhyme“ing”and neither“upset”in Zhu’s translation nor“restless”in Yang’s version opted the words with the same end rhyme for they both focused on the meaning. And such sentence in the original text is a 9 characters short sentence with no subject, Yang translated it into 9 words,using the“the last few day”as the subject, while Zhu’s version only has 6 words and selected “I” as the subject. Therefore, Yang’s version is expressive to the original in this sentence and it retains the beauties of form and sense in this sentence at the same time. In short, the two versions are good translations, but the Yang’s version is much better from this point. --[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 2“这是一条幽僻的路；白天也少人走，夜晚更加寂寞。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: It is peaceful and secluded here, a place not frequented by pedestrians even in the daytime; now at night, it looks more solitary......”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “It is off the beaten track and few pass this way even by day, so at night it is still more quiet.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> The word “幽僻” means “安静和人迹罕至” here. Zhu rendered the word “幽僻” into “peaceful and secluded”, emphasized that there is silent and private. Yang employed it into “off the beaten track” which means no one knows here and quiet. From this perspective, both translations are very similar in understanding the writer’s meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 2“这是一条幽僻的路；白天也少人走，夜晚更加寂寞。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: It is peaceful and secluded here, a place not frequented by pedestrians even in the daytime; now at night, it looks more solitary......”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “It is off the beaten track and few pass this way even by day, so at night it is still more quiet.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> The word “幽僻” means “安静和人迹罕至” here. Zhu rendered the word “幽僻” into “peaceful and secluded”,and emphasized that there was silent and private. Yang employed it into “off the beaten track” which means no one knows here and quiet. From this perspective, both translations are very similar in understanding the writer’s meaning.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, the word “幽僻” is an adjective word with two meanings: quiet and not disturbed by other people. Zhu’ s version “peaceful and secluded” ,are two adjective words and has two similar meanings, which keep the form and sense of the original sentence. In conclusion，according to the “Three Beauties” principle, Zhu’s translation is much better than Yang’s for it retains the form of the original.<br /> <br /> However, the word “幽僻” is an adjective word with two meanings: quiet and not disturbed by other people. Zhu’ s version “peaceful and secluded” ,are two adjective words and have two similar meanings, which keep the form and sense of the original sentence. In conclusion，according to the “Three Beauties” principle, Zhu’s translation is much better than Yang’s for it retains the form of the original.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 3: “这路上阴森森的，有些怕人。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “The foliage, which, in a moon-less night, would loom somewhat frighteningly dark.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “ On nights when there is no moon the track is almost terrifyingly dark.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> In this sentence, Zhu Ziqing uses “怕人” to describe the atmosphere of the air on the road and his feeling of walking on this path at such a night. “怕人” referred to “令人害怕的” in Chinese, it is an adjective to present his feeling. “Frightening ” means “making you feel afraid”, and “terrifying” means “to make somebody extremely frightened”in the ''OED'' , which can be regarded as synonyms. Both use the adverb to translate the adjective “怕人”. But in Zhu’s translation, “the foliage” is “frighteningly dark” and in Yang’s version, “the track” is “terrifyingly dark”. Both translators have their own understanding of the original content, but the both translations are faithful to the word “怕人”. We could say the two translations achieve the beauty in sense. However, in “Three Beauties” principle, we should consider the beauty in form and sound. As for sound ,the last sound of “怕人” is [en] in Chinese, but both “frightening” and “terrifying” has the same end sound of [en]. As for “frightening” and “terrifying”, the last sound of these are [iŋ] which could be regarded as the similar pronunciation with [en] .So, the two translations achieved beauty in sound from this aspect. In all the both versions are great from this perspective.<br /> <br /> Example 3: “这路上阴森森的，有些怕人。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “The foliage, which, in a moon-less night, would loom somewhat frighteningly dark.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “ On nights when there is no moon the track is almost terrifyingly dark.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> In this sentence, Zhu Ziqing uses “怕人” to describe the atmosphere of the air on the road and his feeling of walking on this path at such a night. “怕人” referred to “令人害怕的” in Chinese, it is an adjective to present his feeling. “Frightening ” means “making you feel afraid”, and “terrifying” means “to make somebody extremely frightened”in the ''OED'' , which can be regarded as synonyms. Both use the adverb to translate the adjective “怕人”. But in Zhu’s translation, “the foliage” is “frighteningly dark” and in Yang’s version, “the track” is “terrifyingly dark”. Both translators have their own understanding of the original content, but both translations are faithful to the word “怕人”. We could say the two translations achieve the beauty in sense. However, in “Three Beauties” principle, we should consider the beauty in form and sound. As for sound ,the last sound of “怕人” is [en] in Chinese, but both “frightening” and “terrifying” have the same end sound of [en]. As for “frightening” and “terrifying”, the last sound of these are [iŋ] which could be regarded as the similar pronunciation with [en] .So, the two translations achieved beauty in sound from this aspect. In all, the both versions are great from this perspective.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 ====<br /> The two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond do a good job in two aspects: “grammaticality”and “idiomaticness”. This part will analyze their features of“clarity”and “ organization”.(“stylistic adaptability” will be analyzed in the next part)<br /> The first is the“clarity”. A qualified translation should be fluent and easy to understand. Here it does not means the two versions have grammatical mistakes.Readers should not be confused by the cultural and social background of a word. In Moonlight over the Lotus Pond ,there are also some words with Chinese cultural or social characteristic. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> Example4 : “我悄悄地披了大衫，带上门出去。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “ Shrugging on an overcoat, quietly, made my way out, closing the door behind me.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang ’s version: “I quietly slipped on a long gown, and walked out leaving the door on the latch.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> The words “大衫”and“带上门” with Chinese characteristics, cannot be simply translated, the translator should carefully apt the best words owing to their traits.<br /> <br /> The two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' do a good job in two aspects: “grammaticality”and “idiomaticness”. This part will analyze their features of“clarity”and “ organization”.(“stylistic adaptability” will be analyzed in the next part)<br /> The first is the“clarity”. A qualified translation should be fluent and easy to understand. Here it does not mean the two versions have grammatical mistakes.Readers should not be confused by the cultural and social background of a word. In ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' ,there are also some words with Chinese cultural or social characteristic. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> Example4 : “我悄悄地披了大衫，带上门出去。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “ Shrugging on an overcoat, quietly, made my way out, closing the door behind me.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang ’s version: “I quietly slipped on a long gown, and walked out leaving the door on the latch.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> The words “大衫”and“带上门” with Chinese characteristics, cannot be simply translated, the translator should carefully apt the best words owing to their traits.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> First of all,“大衫”is means “身长过膝的中式单衣”. Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xianyi employed this word into “overcoat” and “gown” respectively. The overcoat is a long warm coat worn in cold weather. And the gown is a long loose piece of clothing. At the beginning of the prose, the author sits in his yard to enjoy the cool. So, it is hot and the overcoat is not suit for summer. Then, the Chinese people in the later Qing Dynasty and the period of Republican, especially the men who were educated, preferred wearing the long and loose clothes. Thus, “大衫” translated into “grow” is more proper than “overcoat ”. By doing so, readers can correctly understand the meaning of the original text and draw a picture in his mind without confusion: why he wears a thick coat in summer.<br /> <br /> First of all,“大衫”means “身长过膝的中式单衣”. Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xianyi employed this word into “overcoat” and “gown” respectively. The overcoat is a long warm coat worn in cold weather. And the gown is a long loose piece of clothing. At the beginning of the prose, the author sits in his yard to enjoy the cool. So, it is hot and the overcoat is not suitable for summer. Then, the Chinese people in the later Qing Dynasty and the period of Republican, especially the men who were educated, preferred wearing the long and loose clothes. Thus, “大衫” translated into “grow” is proper than “overcoat ”. By doing so, readers can correctly understand the meaning of the original text and draw a picture in his mind without confusion: why he wears a thick coat in summer.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, a house with a courtyard has two doors, the gate of yard and the door of house in China, and when the owner need to go out for a short time, he will not lock the gate of yard, just as the Chinese people says “我一会就回来，别锁门”. Thus the word “带上门出去” translated as “leaving the door on the latch” in Yang’s version is more faithful to the original meaning than the word “closing the door ” in Zhu’s translation. In this sense, readers can receive more information about Chinese cultural or social background.<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, a house with a courtyard has two doors, the gate of yard and the door of house in China, and when the owner needs to go out for a short time, he will not lock the gate of yard, just as the Chinese people says “我一会就回来，别锁门”. Thus the word “带上门出去” translated as “leaving the door on the latch” in Yang’s version is more faithful to the original meaning than the word “closing the door ” in Zhu’s translation. In this sense, readers can receive more information about Chinese cultural or social background.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To sum up, both two versions of this sentence are fluent without any grammatical errors and successful convey the meaning of original. However, Yang masterly selected the words “long gown” and the expression “leaving the door on the latch” .<br /> <br /> Example5 : 月光如流水一般，静静地泻在这一片叶子和花上。薄薄的青雾浮起在荷塘里。叶子和花仿佛在牛乳中洗过一样；又像笼着轻纱的梦。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: The moon sheds her liquid light silently over the leaves and flowers, which, in the floating transparency of a bluish haze from the pond, look as if they had just been bathed in milk, or like a dream wrapped in a gauzy hood.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: Moonlight cascaded like water over the lotus leaves and flowers, and a light blue mist floating up from the pool made them seem washed in milk or caught in a gauzy dream.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> In order to make the translation more authentic and smooth English, both Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xiangyi used the translation method of combination to combine the original three sentences into a long sentence, but the two versions have their different features. As for the form of the translation, Zhu Chunshen rendered his translation in three segments, short parts and long parts combined that is similar to the original sentence.<br /> <br /> To sum up, both two versions of this sentence are fluent without any grammatical errors and successful convey the meaning of original. However, Yang masterly selected the words “long gown” and the expression “leaving the door on the latch” .<br /> <br /> Example5 : 月光如流水一般，静静地泻在这一片叶子和花上。薄薄的青雾浮起在荷塘里。叶子和花仿佛在牛乳中洗过一样；又像笼着轻纱的梦。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: The moon sheds her liquid light silently over the leaves and flowers, which, in the floating transparency of a bluish haze from the pond, look as if they had just been bathed in milk, or like a dream wrapped in a gauzy hood.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: Moonlight cascaded like water over the lotus leaves and flowers, and a light blue mist floating up from the pool made them seem washed in milk or caught in a gauzy dream.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> In order to make the translation more authentic and smooth English, both Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xiangyi used the translation method of combination to combine the original three sentences into a long sentence, but the two versions have their different features. As for the form of the translation, Zhu Chunshen rendered his translation in three segments, short and long parts combined that is similar to the original sentence.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 ====<br /> Style is a difficult and hot issues of literary translation. Leech defined style as “the way in which the language is used in a given context, by a given person, for a given purpose and so on”.(Leech,2001:10) Many scholars believe that although the style is not translatable to some extent, the translation should still strive to reproduce the style of the original text. Liu Zhongde emphasized the importance of being close to the style of the original text in his the three-character principle of translation--faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness. Zhu Guanqian also believed that “对原文忠实，不仅是对表面的字义忠实，对情感，思想，风格，声音节奏等必须同时忠实。” (Zhu Guangqian,1984:447)So how should the translator reproduce the original author’s style?<br /> <br /> Style is a difficult and hot issues of literary translation. Leech defined style as “the way in which the language is used in a given context, by a given person, for a given purpose and so on”.(Leech,2001:10) Many scholars believe that although style is not translatable to some extent, the translation should still strive to reproduce the style of the original text. Liu Zhongde emphasized the importance of being close to the style of the original text in his the three-character principle of translation--faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness. Zhu Guanqian also believed that “对原文忠实，不仅是对表面的字义忠实，对情感，思想，风格，声音节奏等必须同时忠实。” (Zhu Guangqian,1984:447)So how should the translator reproduce the original author’s style?--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In the following part, the author of this thesis is going to compare the two English versions, and is based on the translation of rhetorical devices , to discuss whether or not the two versions can reproduce rhetorical effects of the original. This thesis focus on the analysis of metaphor, personification and other rhetorical devices, and selects several fragments of these rhetorical devices as the comparison of the original text.<br /> <br /> In the following part, the author of this thesis is going to compare the two English versions, and is based on the translation of rhetorical devices , to discuss whether or not the two versions can reproduce rhetorical effects of the original. This thesis focus on the analysis of metaphor, personification and other rhetorical devices, and selects several fragments of these rhetorical devices as the comparison of the original text.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 6: 叶子出水很高，像亭亭的舞女的裙。层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花......正如一粒粒的明珠，又如碧天里的星星，又如刚出浴的美人。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927) <br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: ...reaching rather high above the surface, like the skirts of dancing girls in all their grace. Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms... like scattering pearls, or twinkling stars, or beauties just out of the bath. (Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: ...which rose high out of the water like the flared skirts of dancing girls. And starring these tiers of leaves were white lotus flowers... like glimmering pearls, stars in an azure sky, or beauties fresh from the bath.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)<br /> <br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing used three extremely beautiful metaphors to form a parallel construction, to enhance the language strength, to express his love of lotus, gives people endless feeling of beauty. <br /> <br /> The author uses “亭亭的舞女的裙” to describe the lotus leaves above the surface, vividly and lively depicted the lotus leaves as the skirt of the dancing girls, which is beautiful and charming. Zhu Chunshen rendered“亭亭” into “in all their grace”, though the meaning is relevant, there is an inappropriate: the metaphor here uses to focus on the dance dress rather than dancing girls, so it is not correctly using too much words to modified the dancer. Yang Xianyi added the word “flared “before the “skirts of dancing girls”, which seems out of thin air. However, “flared” referring to the cloths being “wider at the bottom edge than at the top”, the word is more appreciated and reproduces the scene of lotus leaves. In general, Yang handling of metaphor the first sentence is the most appropriate, also can best affect the beauty of sense.<br /> <br /> The author uses “亭亭的舞女的裙” to describe the lotus leaves above the surface, vividly and lively depicting the lotus leaves as the skirt of the dancing girls, which is beautiful and charming. Zhu Chunshen rendered“亭亭” into “in all their grace”, though the meaning is relevant, there is an inappropriate: the metaphor here uses to focus on the dance dress rather than dancing girls, so it is not correct using too much words to modified the dancer. Yang Xianyi added the word “flared “before the “skirts of dancing girls”, which seemed out of thin air. However, “flared” referring to the cloths being “wider at the bottom edge than at the top”, the word is more appreciated and reproduces the scene of lotus leaves. In general, Yang handling of metaphor the first sentence is appropriate and also affects the beauty of sense.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing used “一粒粒的明珠”, “碧天里的星星”and “刚出浴的美人” to describe the “白花 ”. The writer used three different things to describe the lovely lotus blooms. As for the form and sound, Zhu Chunshen employed “一粒粒的明珠” and “碧天里的星星” into two same phrases “scattering pearls” and “ twinkling stars ”which end with “-ing”, which is well-read and looks greater; while Yang translated them into two sentences in different forms, which differs from the original form for such sentence is just faithful to the literal meaning of original. As for the clause “刚出浴的美人”, Zhu’s translation is similar to Yang’s.<br /> <br /> All in all, Yang’s version is more appreciated for keeping the sense of beauty in the first sentence of this fragment. And Zhu’s version better reproduces the beauties of sound and form. <br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing used “一粒粒的明珠”, “碧天里的星星”and “刚出浴的美人” to describe the “白花 ”. The writer used three different things to describe the lovely lotus blooms. As for the form and sound, Zhu Chunshen employed “一粒粒的明珠” and “碧天里的星星” into two same phrases “scattering pearls” and “ twinkling stars ”which end with “-ing”, which is well-read and looks greater; While Yang translated them into two sentences in different forms, which differ from the original form for such sentence is just faithful to the literal meaning of original. As for the clause “刚出浴的美人”, Zhu’s translation is similar to Yang’s.<br /> <br /> All in all, Yang’s version is more appreciated for keeping the sense of beauty in the first sentence of this fragment. And Zhu’s version better reproduces the beauties of sound and form.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 7: “层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花，有袅娜地开着的，有羞涩地打着朵儿的......”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms, some in demure bloom, others in shy bud ...”.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “And starring these tiers of leaves were white lotus flowers, alluringly open or bashfully in bud ...”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)<br /> <br /> “袅娜”and “羞涩”are the words used to describe people;“袅娜” uses to describe elegance posture and expression, especially women’s and girls’. Zhu Chunshen rendered “袅娜” into “demure”, which means “behaving in a way that does not attract attention to herself or her body; quiet and serious” in the OED, which seems inconsistent with the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated it into “alluringly”, which refers to attractive and exciting in a mysterious way in the dictionary. It seems much appropriate. Then as for the word “羞涩”, Zhu translated it into “shy” and Yang’s version is “bashfully”. Both the two words can use to describe people, and use to translate the word “羞涩”. However, the word “bashful” means “shy and easily embarrassed” which is more appropriate to reproduce the beauty of sense. Moreover, yang’s translation retains the beauty of form, because “羞涩” in original text is a adverb, and “bashfully” is a adverb too. Therefore, it is obvious that Therefore, it is obvious that Yang’s version is more appropriate.<br /> <br /> “袅娜”and “羞涩”are the words used to describe people;“袅娜” is used to describe elegance posture and expression, especially women’s and girls’. Zhu Chunshen rendered “袅娜” into “demure”, which means “behaving in a way that does not attract attention to herself or her body; quiet and serious” in the OED, which seems inconsistent with the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated it into “alluringly”, which refers to attractive and exciting in a mysterious way in the dictionary. It seems much appropriate. Then as for the word “羞涩”, Zhu translated it into “shy” and Yang’s version is “bashfully”. Both the two words can be used to describe people, and used to translate the word “羞涩”. However, the word “bashful” means “shy and easily embarrassed” which is more appropriate to reproduce the beauty of sense. Moreover, yang’s translation retains the beauty of form, because “羞涩” in original text is an adverb, and “bashfully” is an adverb, too. Therefore, it is obvious that Yang’s version is more appropriate.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example8: “微风过处，送来缕缕清香，仿佛远处高楼上渺茫的歌声似的。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “A breeze stirs, sending over breaths of fragrance, like faint singing drifting from a distant building”. (Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “The breeze carried past gusts of fragrance, like the strains of a song faintly heard from a far-off tower.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)<br /> <br /> Synaesthesia is the production of a sense impression relating to one sense or part of body by stimulation of another sense or part of the body. The author uses “歌声” to describe the fragrance of the lotus flowers. Here the fragrance of flowers is originally the sense of smell, but the author written it as a melodic song, the sense of hearing. Zhu Chunshen used “breeze...breaths...building” and “fragrance...faint...from”to describe the faint sound of the song which is vividly and close to the original text. And Zhu employed an alliteration, “drifting from a distant” to make the readers feel the dynamic beauty of lotus and achieve the same effect as the original text.In general, Zhu’s version is more appropriate for he reproducing the beauties of sense and sound .<br /> <br /> Synaesthesia is the production of a sense impression relating to one sense or part of body by stimulation of another sense or part of the body. The author uses “歌声” to describe the fragrance of the lotus flowers. Here the fragrance of flowers is originally the sense of smell, but the author wrote it as a melodic song, the sense of hearing. Zhu Chunshen used “breeze...breaths...building” and “fragrance...faint...from”to describe the faint sound of the song which is vivid and close to the original text. And Zhu employed an alliteration, “drifting from a distant” to make the readers feel the dynamic beauty of lotus and achieve the same effect as the original text.In general, Zhu’s version is more appropriate for he reproduces the beauties of sense and sound .--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> We learn from the study and comparison. We develop from the study and comparison. While we are accumulating English and Chinese knowledge and practicing translation skill, we should also study others’ translations carefully. Through comparative study, we can improve ourselves.<br /> <br /> Through the comparative analysis of these two English translations, we will find that functional equivalence theory has been fully embodied. Functional equivalence theory is a bridge connecting world cultures, fully reproducing the original text through form equivalence, content equivalence，so that the readers of the target texts receive the same feeling as the readers of the original. Functional equivalence theory not only has a wide range of applications now, but in the future, functional equivalence theory will certainly play its role in promoting the exchange and development of various cultures and promoting the prosperity of the world’s culture.<br /> <br /> We learn from the study and comparison. We develop from the study and comparison. While we are accumulating English and Chinese knowledge and practicing translation skills, we should also study others’ translations carefully. Through comparative study, we can improve ourselves.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Through the comparative analysis of these two English translations, we will find that functional equivalence theory has been fully embodied. Functional equivalence theory is a bridge connecting world cultures, fully reproducing the original text through form equivalence and content equivalence so that the readers of the target texts receive the same feeling as the readers of the original. Functional equivalence theory not only has a wide range of applications now, but in the future, functional equivalence theory will certainly play its role in promoting the exchange and development of various cultures and promoting the prosperity of the world’s culture.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===6.Reference===<br /> * Leech G N,(2001) Short M H.Style in Fiction:A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2001:10.<br /> * Chen Bohui.陈波慧(2018).汉英叠词对比及其英译——以《荷塘月色》两个英译本为例.[ Comparison of Chinese and English Reduplication and Their English Translation——Taking the Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' as an example ].海外英语.[''Overseas English'']. 2018.7<br /> * Han Zhengshun, Wang Jian.韩征顺,王健. （2008）月朦胧,荷朦胧,雾蒙蒙,意浓浓——《荷塘月色》四译文“模糊美”研究. [A Study on the “Fuzzy Beauty” of the Four Translations of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''] .西安外国语大学学报.[ Journal of Xi’an International Studies University] 第16卷　第4期.Vol. 16 Issue 4<br /> * Liu Huiqun.刘慧群(2015).《荷塘月色》修辞翻译管窥[ A Glimpse of Rhetorical Translation of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'']. 语文学刊 [''Chinese Journal'']外语教育教学[Foreign Language Education and Teaching ].2015年第10期. 2015, Issue 10<br /> * Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲.(1978)毛泽东诗词四十二首.[Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong]. 洛阳：中国人民解放军外国语学院[Chinese People's Liberation Army Institute of Foreign Languages] 1978.<br /> * Yang Xianyi, Gladys Yang杨宪益，戴乃迭(1990,5). ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. 英语学习[''English Learning''], 1990(5).<br /> *Yuan Lei.袁雷.功能对等理论指导下的散文英译及三美分析——《荷塘月色》的两个英译本比较[ On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence]贵州师范大学.[Guizhou Normal University]<br /> * Zhu Ziqing.朱自清(1927).荷塘月色[''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''].全日制普高高一语文第一册第 5 课.[General High School Chinese Book 1 Lesson 5],原载 1927年7月10日《小说月报》第18卷第7期[originally published in ''Novel Monthly''].北京：人民教育出版社[ Beijing: People’s Education Publishing Society] <br /> * Zhu Chunshen.朱纯深(1992). ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''.中国翻译.[''Chinese Translation'']. 1992, (1).--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==On Form and Spirit in Translation -文偲荇 Wen Sixing, 202020080649 亚非语言文学==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 文偲荇 Wen Sixing &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Both the form and the spirit should be pursued in translation, which is a dialectical relationship. However, in translation, it often loses its spirit because of various factors that lead to excessive pursuit of formal resemblance. It is very important to deal with the problem between the formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance in translation. While emphasizing the spiritual resemblance, do not forget the formal resemblance. If possible, try to achieve a balance between the two, and make a choice in the specific context. Only in this way can the translation realize the new unity of the form and content of the source language in the target language. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Formal resemblance; Spiritual resemblance; Form and Content; Dialectical unification<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 论翻译中的形的贴合与神的韵味<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 翻译时应追求形神兼备，这两者是一种辨证关系，但在翻译时常常会因为各种因素导致过度追求形似而失去神韵。处理好翻译中形似与神似之间的问题至关重要。在强调神似的同时不要忘记形似，在可能的情况下尽量达成两者之间的平衡，而在特定的语境下也可做出取舍，才有利翻译在译入语中实现传达原语形式和内容新的统一。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 神似与形似；形式与内容；辨证统一<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> ====1.1 Definition====<br /> Formal resemblance means that when translating, the target text should be consistent with the original text in terms of words, sentence structure, expression and figurative means. And spiritual resemblance means that when translating, we should try to keep the spirit and charm of the original work and achieve the artistic effect of the original work.<br /> <br /> &quot;Form&quot;, in translation activities, is the most important refers to &quot;language&quot;. And &quot;deformation&quot; is what we call &quot;language transformation&quot;. From the source language to the target language, &quot;deformation&quot;, that is, &quot;language transformation&quot;, is inevitable. The change of sound and shape, as well as the combination of sound, shape and meaning should also be changed. And &quot;spirit&quot;, to use the terminology of contemporary linguistics, refers to the product of &quot;linguistic activities&quot;.<br /> <br /> From the point of view recognized by the current translation circle, &quot;spirit&quot; refers to &quot;meaning&quot; to a large extent, but the problem lies in the definition of &quot;meaning&quot;, and the linguistic field has not formed a unified view. In fact, many debates about &quot;spirit&quot; and &quot;form&quot; are more or less rooted in the understanding of &quot;spirit&quot; and &quot;form&quot;.(Xu Jun 2003,01)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Spiritual resemblance in Translation====<br /> The spiritual resemblance is first put forward by Fu Lei. He said, &quot;As far as effect is concerned, translation should be like painting. What is sought is not resemblance in form but resemblance in spirit.&quot; (Fu Lei, 1950). Zhu Shenghao also put forward the idea of &quot;keeping the spirit of the original&quot;. He said, &quot;The aim of the book is to preserve the spirit of the original as far as possible. Must be forced to seek the next, also must be clear and clear words, faithfully convey the meaning of the original; However, the hard translation with word-for-word contrast is not appreciated. &quot;(Zhu Shenghao, 1954). “神”, means the spirit of the original. Good literary works always have rich feelings, profound artistic conception, strong appeal and strong artistic effect.<br /> <br /> ===2. The relationship between Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Correlation====<br /> Yan Fu, said in ''Theory of natural selection'', &quot;Three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expression and elegance&quot;. &quot;Faithfulness&quot; means that the meaning does not differ from the original text, that is, the translation should be accurate, not deviate, not omit, and not add or subtract meanings at will. &quot;Expression&quot; means not sticking to the original form, but making the translation smooth and clear; &quot;Elegance&quot; means that the words chosen in the translation should be appropriate and the article itself should be quaint and concise. In translation, it is difficult to be faithful to the ideological content of the original text. However, if you correctly understand the original text without &quot;expressing&quot; it in a smooth translation, it is equivalent to no translation. Therefore, emphasis should be placed on &quot;expressing&quot; at this time. Since then, the expression of translation has become the focus of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance is two different means of translating expression, question of &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; in translation also is one of the most discussed and most difficult fundamental issues to be unified. &quot;The relationship between form and spirit, which directly reflects the relationship between signifier and signified, which is closely related to the means and ends of translation. The so-called means is the transformation of form, while the end is the rebirth of spirit.&quot; (Xu Jun 2003, 1). Fundamentally speaking, &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; are interdependent. No &quot;form&quot; means no &quot;spirit&quot;.<br /> <br /> However, the saying that &quot;sprit follows form&quot;, which we often emphasize, gives form the primary character as the material basis for spirit's existence. &quot;Form&quot; is concrete, and the relationship between &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; involves every aspect of human life. The discussion about &quot;body&quot; and &quot;soul&quot; is, to a certain extent, a dispute about the relationship between &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot;. &quot;soul&quot; and &quot;flesh&quot; in religion, &quot;substance&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; in philosophy, &quot;form&quot; and &quot;content&quot; in literature, etc, all originate from the fundamental problem of &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot;. &quot;As far as translation is concerned, the question of &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; can be said to be an obvious paradox. The contradiction lies in the fact that &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; are interdependent and inseparable in nature, while the fundamental task of translation is to achieve the rebirth of &quot;spirit&quot; through &quot;form&quot; transformation&quot;. (Xu Jun 2003, 2)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 In translation, numerous factors may cause the Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance out of step====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Metaphors and Associations=====<br /> Due to the different ways of expression in the two languages, the metaphors and associations used in SL(source language) are often unacceptable to TL(target language) readers, or TL readers cannot understand them at all. Or from the surface structure, target language is similar to source language said, but in the sense is not exactly the same, even lost a thousand miles. In this case, for example, the expression form of source language is still used in translation and try to be similar in appearance, which is bound to form a semblance, with similar appearance and spirit completely lost.<br /> <br /> ex）&quot;A man may break a word with you,sir,and words are but wind.&quot;(SL)<br /> <br /> “先生，跟你说话的人可能会失言，而言语总会随风而逝。”(TL)<br /> <br /> &quot;Break a word with you&quot; and &quot;words are but wind&quot; are all metaphors in English that may be difficult for non-native speakers to understand when translated.<br /> <br /> ex）&quot;The rain came down in long knitting needles.&quot;(SL)<br /> <br /> “雨滴像长长的编织针一样落下。”(TL)<br /> <br /> &quot;Long knitting needles&quot;, is a special thing that exists in the context of a native speaker, so non-native speakers are likely to have no accurate concept of it, so it's hard to fully grasp the metaphor even with an honest translation.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 The cultural differences=====<br /> The translator and the author have different cultural backgrounds, so their understanding of the original text is naturally different. This difference in understanding is mainly due to the influence of preconceived notions. This is a pervasive cultural phenomenon.<br /> <br /> ex）He is really the man in the moon(SL) <br /> <br /> “他是个真正的月老”(TL)*<br /> <br /> “他是个真正远离世俗的人”(TL)<br /> <br /> In Britain, people traditionally think of the dark shadow of the moon as a person. The moon is far from the earth, the people in the moon of the nature, he must be unknown to the human world. So He is really a man in the moon means &quot;He is really a man out of the world&quot;(他是个真正远离世俗的人). Under the influence of traditional Chinese culture, once people see the image words &quot;moon&quot; and &quot;man&quot; combined together, they will naturally think of &quot;Yuelao(月老)&quot;——The legendary god of marriage, which leads to the deviation in translation. (Niu Chuangyue 2006, 215)<br /> <br /> ex）He is always politically correct(SL) <br /> <br /> 他总是政治正确(TL)*<br /> <br /> 他说话四平八稳(TL)<br /> <br /> Many people take this sentence that &quot;He is always politically correct&quot; as &quot;He is always correct in politics&quot;, which is in line with the Chinese mindset, but it's not what it says. Politics in Chinese refer to principles of thought and ideology while in English politics refer to how they approach people. &quot;He is always politically correct&quot; is not &quot;He is always correct in politics&quot;, but &quot;He's smooth talking.&quot;<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 The context of languages changes=====<br /> The surface layer of words, is a relatively fixed objective reality; And its deep, namely its connotation, but often because of the person's subjective will shift. For language learners and users, it is not difficult to get familiar with the surface, but to grasp the connotation of its continuous shift. To grasp the connotation of words is to analyze the actual meaning of users in a specific context, which is also known as &quot;understanding&quot; in translation. The change of context can be divided into subjective and objective. The so-called subjective change refers to the meaning given to words by users for certain needs; And the objective change is the change in meaning caused by the natural environment.<br /> <br /> ex) Made in China(SL)<br /> <br /> （由）中国制造(TL1)<br /> <br /> （在）中国制造(TL2)<br /> <br /> Made in China was, of course, “由中国制造”, before western multinationals entered the country. But when multinational companies enter China, the products they set up in factories in China are still marked &quot;Made in China&quot;, but they are not “由中国制造” but “在中国制造”. Made in China, likewise, is different by circumstance, either “由中国制造” or “在中国制造”, of which its connotation is different. Therefore, when understanding the original text, it is not enough to just focus on the literal itself, More attention should be paid to the impact of changes in social history and context.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.4 Human factors=====<br /> &quot;Language is a dog&quot;. It means that people are subject to language. In fact, this metaphor only illustrates one aspect of the relationship between man and language, namely, man's passive adaptation to language changes. Such passive adaptation certainly exists objectively. But a closer look reveals that the so-called passive adaptation is also due to some human factors rather than the powerful inertia of non-language itself.<br /> <br /> On June 20, 2005 British farmers grow potatoes held a noisy protest in London, protesting the Oxford English dictionary, included the couch potato (refers to passive while sitting idly spend your leisure time, especially all day watching TV or DVD), think it said the potatoes too unhealthy, so strongly asked the Oxford English dictionary, delete the entry with couch slouch replace the couch potato.<br /> <br /> This event vividly illustrates the human element of semantic change. Potato is originally a plant without any emotional factors, but it has been artificially given some kind of associative meaning. In a sense, of course, this is an expression of the richness of language, but this richness comes at the cost of deducing the actual meaning of specific concepts. If we compare documents from hundreds or thousands of years ago with the languages we speak today, we will find a general phenomenon that today's languages are much more complex and abstract than those of old. The reason is that we are constantly deducing the semantic meaning of specific concepts or words for various rhetorical purposes. <br /> <br /> In the concrete application of language, such deduction exists objectively and is also the concrete manifestation of the normal function of language communication. However, in translation, the translator should try to avoid the appearance of such deduction and manifestation, or at least control it within a certain limit, which may lead to the semantic variation of the primitive concept in the translation. (Zhang Rui 2015, 117)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Balance of Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance in Translation====<br /> Of course, it is best to retain the original spirit in translation, but is form and spirit necessarily contradictory? The answer is clearly no. This is because sometimes formal resemblance is spiritual resemblance. The ideological content and emotional charm of a literary work must be expressed in a certain form. Sometimes the original text has some metaphors or associative images, vivid and lifelike, with strong appeal, the emotion and artistic conception appear on the paper, and the source language habits are also close to the target language. At this time, keeping the original form of the translation actually plays a role of spirit evocative. By keeping this form, the translation can achieve the unity of form and spirit. <br /> <br /> ex) He was a friendly and very hospitable man.(SL)<br /> <br /> 他是个友善而又十分好客的人。/他为人友善，热情好客。(TL)<br /> <br /> ex)Though somewhat pompous, he was an entertaining companion.(SL)<br /> <br /> 虽然有些浮夸，（仍不免承认）他是个娱人的伴侣。(TL)<br /> <br /> ex)He was a man of good understanding and talents.(SL)<br /> <br /> 他为人通达而富有才情。(TL)<br /> <br /> ex)There are people to do everything for money.(SL)<br /> <br /> 为了钱什么事情都有人做。/有些人为了钱无所不为。(TL)<br /> <br /> The above examples show that, at some point, Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance can achieve a harmonious unity. Proper formal equivalence not only helps to preserve the language style of the original text, but also enriches the expression form of the target language. Such expression can achieve both the form and the spirit of the target language, on the one hand, it can retain the form of the original language, on the other hand, it cannot lose its spirit.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Choice====<br /> <br /> =====2.4.1 The pursuit of spiritual resemblance first=====<br /> But in more cases, Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance cannot be both.In the translation of literary works, the pursuit of a similar-looking translation lacks vitality. It would be best if the two languages can have both formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance. However, due to great differences in thinking mode, cultural basis and language structure of the two languages, especially the target language and the source language belong to two different language families with great cultural differences, it is difficult to achieve the unity of the formal resemblance and the spiritual resemblance. <br /> <br /> In this case, if the blind pursuit of form similarity, the pursuit of language structure, vocabulary, grammar and other aspects of equivalence, will make the translation stiff, obscure, difficult to understand. For example, in English-Chinese translation, translators with low proficiency are often unable to get rid of the linguistic structure and form of the original text, resulting in a large number of European languages appearing in the Chinese translation. <br /> <br /> Professor King Shenghua, a famous Hong Kong translator, once criticized this Europeanized language and called it &quot;translated style&quot;. &quot;What is 'translated style' ?&quot; she said, “The word 'translationese' in English. In the past, it has been called the &quot;translation cavity.&quot; (King Shenghua, 2006). Which means the translation has a strange-sounding, and unbearable tone of European language. However, up to now, the &quot;translation cavity&quot; is no longer enough to describe this phenomenon, because the evolution so far has formed a style, which appears not only in the translation, but also in the daily life of writing, meeting and communication. This phenomenon is not conducive to the development of translation. From the following examples, you can see the awkwardness of pursuing only the form of translation. <br /> <br /> ex)There was much traffic at night and many mules on the road with boxes of ammunition on each side of their pack—saddles and gray motor trucks that carried men, and other trucks with loads covered with canvas that moved slower in the traffic.(SL)<br /> <br /> 晚上交通甚繁，有许多骡子走过，鞍子驮着军火箱子，灰色的摩托货车装着人，此外，还有一些装货的货车，上面用帆布盖着，走起来慢一点。(TL)*<br /> <br /> 夜间，这里运输繁忙，路上有许多骡子，鞍子的两侧驮着弹药箱，灰色的卡车上坐满了士兵，还有一些辎重车辆，用帆布盖着，在路上慢慢的行驶着。(TL)<br /> <br /> Boxes, motor trucks, and trucks were used to identify the “军火箱子”,“摩托货车”, and “装货的货车”, totally be loyal to the source language. But in literary translation, the translation needs to consider the specific context. The writing background of this article is the period of war, so the translator should also put these words in the specific writing background of war, i.e. the “弹药箱”, “卡车”, “辎重车辆” in the next translation. The translation here obviously violates the original meaning and is a kind of betrayal to the original text. However, this kind of betrayal is the result of the translator's proper re-creation after considering the writing background of the original text. That is to say, in the process of translation, the translator lays emphasis on the spiritual resemblance of the original text, and thus abandons the formal resemblance in part.<br /> <br /> ex)“原始森林景区是一个最具自身特点的生态观光区。放眼沟畔，‘林涛万顷接天碧，幽谷百丈入地青’ 的峡谷奇观，总会让人长久驻足; 登上矗立于沟畔的望火楼极目远眺，会真切体验登临泰山那种‘会当凌绝顶，一览众山小’的感觉。”(SL)<br /> <br /> “The scenic primitive forest, as an eco-tourism place of interest, possesses its distinctive style. No tourists will not take time to enjoy the canyon spectacle: the vast expense of trees choiring in the wind and the deep valley dressed in green stretches long and deep. When climbing up the fire-watching tower and gawking into the distance, tourist scan experience the sense: &quot;I have now ascended the mountain's crest that dwarfs all peaks under my feet&quot;, just as standing on top of Mount Tai. ”(TL)<br /> <br /> “Artistic creation originates from a different national (aesthetic standard). As for the translation of artistic conception, some uncertain factors, such as language structure, narrative method, aesthetic method and context creation, often make it difficult for the translation to realize the absolutely correct &quot;equivalence&quot;. The implication of this is that contextual translation has a lot of arbitrariness (i.e., asymmetrical equivalence) and is often not limited to any theory. This arbitrariness is reflected in the inspiration generation and Aesthetic creation of the translator in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> In other words, the translator is affected by the artistic conception of the original text, arouses infinite emotion and artistic conception, and naturally puts this feeling into the translation. The key lies in the expressiveness, that is, the fluency and accuracy of the narration, and the completion of the transformation from one kind of beauty to another. ” (Zhang Ju 2011, 76)<br /> <br /> =====2.4.2 Formal resemblance first=====<br /> The choice of formal resemblance is preferred, mostly in the case of neat alignment and elegant form. For example, the translation of Chinese couplets, or poems, such as antithetical couplets, is a very important form of text.In the translation of general text, content is the primary form. However, when translating poetry, both content and form must be paid equal attention to. For poetry, form is often an integral part of the content that cannot be divided.<br /> <br /> ex)《芣苢》：“采采芣苢，薄言采之。采采芣苢，薄言有之。采采芣苢，薄言掇之。采采芣苢，薄言捋之。采采芣苢，薄言袺之。采采芣苢，薄言襭之。”(SL)<br /> <br /> Gathering plantain, Here we go plucking it; Gathering plantain, Here we go picking it. Gathering plantain, Quick fingers strip it; Gathering plantain, By handfuls pull it. Gathering plantain, Here we fill skirts with it; Gathering plantain, Belt up full skirts. (translated by Yang Xianyi)(TL)<br /> <br /> ex)You say that you love rain, but you open your umbrella when it rains...<br /> You say that you love the sun, but you find a shadow spot when the sun shines...<br /> You say that you love the wind, But you close your windows when wind blows...<br /> This is why I am afraid; You say that you love me too...(SL)<br /> <br /> 你说烟雨微芒，兰亭远望；后来轻揽婆娑，深遮霓裳。<br /> 你说春光烂漫，绿袖红香；后来内掩西楼，静立卿旁。<br /> 你说软风轻拂，醉卧思量；后来紧掩门窗，漫帐成殇。<br /> 你说情丝柔肠，如何相忘；我却眼波微转，兀自成霜。(TL)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in order to maintain the evenness and the artistic conception of the poem, many images and function words that were not in the original text were added in the translation. Thus it can be seen that it is of course ideal to achieve spiritual resemblance in translation, but it is also a choice to achieve formal resemblance. As long as it conveys the connotation of the original text and achieves functional equivalence, it should be regarded as a success.<br /> <br /> ===3. Discussion on Form and Spirit===<br /> It should be noted that in the history of translation, the thinking about &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; has been going on almost all the time. In the 20th century, there have been many heated discussions about &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; in Chinese literary translation, and the focus of the discussions is mainly on whether translation should seek formal resemblance or spiritual resemblance. On the surface, it does not seem to be a problem whether the translation should seek resemblance in form or in spirit, because seeking resemblance is not and should not be the purpose of translation. <br /> <br /> “However, those who advocate formal resemblance believe that only by seeking formal resemblance first can the spiritual resemblance be guaranteed. But the school that advocates spiritual resemblance thinks, shape resemblance is hard to find, can rely on spiritual resemblance only. The former pursues the first appearance and then spirit, and &quot;both form and spirit&quot; is the best realm; The latter takes &quot;spiritual resemblance&quot; as the only pursuit, and clearly puts forward that &quot;what the translation seeks for is not in appearance but in spiritual resemblance&quot;. Due to the difference in emphasis between the formal resemblance school and the spiritual resemblance school, there are also differences in translation methods. The former advocates literal translation while the latter advocates free translation.” (Xu Jun 2003, 02)<br /> <br /> The discussion of form and spirit in translation can be traced back to Mao Dun's article &quot;Responsibility and Efforts of New Literature Researchers&quot;, published in ''Fiction Monthly'' (1921), in which he proposed that &quot;the most important artistic color of a literary work is the spirit of the work. Chen Xiying also published &quot;on Translation&quot; in ''New Moon''(1929), proposing the theory of sculpture and painting. He pointed out that &quot;translation is the same as painting, of course, imitation is the most important. But the imitation art of a original painting uses the same brush color, while the original text of a book and the translated text use very different languages. Due to different tools, the methods vary greatly.&quot; (Chen Xiying,1921). Chen also divides translation into three levels, formal resemblance, meaning resemblance and spiritual resemblance. Chen's &quot;Three Levels&quot; theory is similar to Zhu Shenghao's &quot;Three Levels&quot;: (spirit, interest and charm, and rigid translation) theory in translation of Shakespeare's plays. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong, a famous translator and professor of Peking University, also put forward the theory of &quot;three likings&quot;, based on his own experience in poetry translation. In the ''Art of Translation'', he thought that in order to convey the beauty of meaning, sound and form of poetry, the degree of meaning resemblance, sound resemblance and shape resemblance in the translation can be changed. Jiang Feng, a translator, pursues resemblance in form followed by resemblance in spirit. He said in the afterword of translation of ''Selected Shelley poems'' that in translating poems, one should strive to be alike in form and spirit, because spirit lives in form, and those who lose his form are bound to perish his spirit. Bian Zhilin, also advocated that the translated poems should be translated in accordance with the original form. <br /> <br /> Therefore, as far as translation is concerned, Mao Dun and Fu Lei advocate the emphasis on spiritual resemblance rather than formal resemblance, Jiang Feng advocates both form and spirit, while Bian Zhilin advocates that form resemblance is spiritual resemblance.<br /> <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> From the above content, we can know that there are many factors that influence the form and spirit in translation, and the emphasis on the form or spirit resemblance in translation depends on some specific situations, which need to be analyzed on a specific basis. For example, when translating ancient poems and poems, in order to keep the antithesis neat, we emphasize the form more; When translating long sentences with beautiful artistic conception, we usually put more emphasis on the spirit in order to preserve the beauty of artistic conception. <br /> <br /> In the process of translation, to achieve the dialectical unity of form and spirit, at least two aspects need to be considered: one is the restriction of form on content; the other is the stylistic meaning of form itself. We should not only consciously convey the content of the original text, but also convey the formal meaning, so as to achieve a new unity of form and content in the target language, to produce a better translation and achieve a harmonious unity between form and spirit. <br /> <br /> However, in some cases the formal resemblance is the spiritual resemblance. The two are not completely separated, but there is a part of you and a part of me in each other. Sometimes the formal resemblance is bigger than the spiritual resemblance, and sometimes spiritual resemblance is bigger than the formal resemblance. This is the dialectic of things, if we insist on consistency, it will backfire. Therefore, we should not only get a thorough understanding of the original text, in-depth study, strive for both form and spirit, grasp the key points and master them thoroughly, but also be prepared to abandon the form of the original text, grasp the essence of the original text, use appropriate form, the original text for artistic recreation, so as to strive for the ideal effect of spirit resemblance.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> [1] Cui Yonglu. 崔永禄. (2002). 得意不可忘形——试论翻译中形与神的辨证关系. [Pride must not Be Lost in Shape -- On the dialectical relationship between form and God in Translation]. ''天津外国语学院学报''. [Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University] 1-5. <br /> <br /> [2] Li Zhengguo. 李振国. (2016). 从奈达的功能对等理论视角探析英汉翻译中的“形神兼备”——以程雨民的《初次与约翰逊见面》译本为例. [An Analysis of &quot;Both form and Spirit&quot; in English-Chinese translation from the Perspective of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory -- A case study of Cheng Yumin's ''First Meeting with Johnson'']. ''贵州师范学院学报''. [Journal of Guizhou Normal University] 92-94. <br /> <br /> [3] Niu Chuangyue. 牛喘月. (2006). 形与神俱,不可分离——从语义与语境的演变看中医翻译中的“常”与“变”. [Form and Spirit are inseparable -- &quot;Chang&quot; and &quot;Chang&quot; in TCM Translation from the Perspective of Semantic and Contextual Evolution]. ''中西医结合学报''.<br /> <br /> [4] Pang Xuefeng. 庞学峰. (2013). 翻译中的文质之争与神形之辩. [The quality of the text and the form of the debate in translation]. ''赤峰学院学报(汉文哲学社会科学版)''. [Journal of Chifeng College (Chinese Philosophy and Social Sciences edition)] 150-151. <br /> <br /> [5] Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). “形”与“神”辨. [&quot;Form&quot; and &quot;Spirit&quot;]. ''上海外国语大学学报''. [Journal of Shanghai International Studies University] 57-66.<br /> <br /> [6] Zhang Ju. 张巨. (2011). 汉英意境翻译中的形与神. [Form and Spirit in Chinese-English translation of Artistic Conception]. ''江苏外语教学研究''. [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu province] 74-78.<br /> <br /> [7] Zhang Rui. 张蕊. (2015). 从形与神之矛盾看“翻译者即背叛者”. [From the contradiction between form and Spirit, &quot;translator is a traitor&quot;]. ''鸭绿江(下半月版)''. [The Yalu River (second Half)] 122+117. <br /> <br /> [8] Zhang Xiaoman. 张小曼. (2006). 诗歌翻译中的形神问题——以杜甫《望岳》一诗的英译为例. [The Problem of Form and Spirit in Poetry Translation -- Taking The English translation of Du Fu's ''Wangyue'' as an example]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''. [Journal of Hefei University of Technology (Social Science edition)] 157-160.<br /> <br /> ==Book Analysis: The Way of Transaltion: Theories and Application 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing== <br /> your student number and 专业are missing--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 11:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> The Way of Translation:Theories and Applications closely circled around the mutual relationship between translation theory and practice to make explanation about translation studies. This article aims to make a summary about the original text, which includes a brief translation history, the present situation about the translation study, the detailed analysis about the “cultural turn” as well as some important redefined concept about translation studies and the deep reflection about the translation studies. The author would like to make some analysis about the book from different perspectives, includes the introduction, major contend, academic contributions, strength and weakness etc.<br /> <br /> ==Key Words==<br /> translation theory and practice; “cultural turn”; medio-translotology; translation study; textual purpose<br /> Translation theory and practice; “cultural turn”; medio-translotology; translation study; textual purpose--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 11:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 《翻译之道：翻译理论与实践》一书紧紧围绕翻译理论与实践之间的互动关系展开, 作者对中西翻译历史作出简要回顾，针砭时弊，对翻译理论与实践现状进行了切中的描述，深挖“文化转向”的来龙去脉，重新界定了翻译概念、目的与标准等概念，对理论与实践的现状作出深刻反思。本文将就原书出版背景、逻辑主线、学术立意、读后启发几个方面展开论述。<br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 翻译理论与实践；“文化转向”；译介学；翻译学；文本目的<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> About the Background<br /> As we all know, the theory and practice are interrelated with each other closely. Since the beginning of the social practice and people began to work, human beings know exactly how to use their wisdom to accumulate their experience. So did translation activities. Translation activities began from the fact that human beings used language to communicate. At the early stage, it was mainly serving to the purpose of ideology. With the development of formal translation activity, translation activities diversified. Since the contemporary and modern times, translation studies have been prospered across the world. In the west, the representatives were scientific linguistics, philological school. In China, we mainly focused on the study of literature translation at that time. <br /> After the May 4th Movement as well as the contemporary event called reform and opening up, we Chinese citizens appealed to learn the advanced western approaches and theories. As western advanced theories were introduced into China, different areas of scientific studies like theory of literature and art, psychology, philosophy and sociology provided rich contends and materials for the study of translation, which helped the later became an independent and disciplinary subject. <br /> However, after Cultural Turn, translation studies followed this trend. They no longer solely targeted at the translation activities and theories, but also included other spheres which concerned about various aspects of human activities (Cao Minglun, 2003). This made translation studies lose their defined focus on translation research itself. Since the translation studies were transitioned into other spheres while the translation activities kept its own sphere, the relationship between the two was no longer closely interrelated with each other. <br /> Therefore translation teaching jobs and translation and interpretation activities have become worse. Because of this, it turned to be an urgent need to establish a systematic and cohesive guiding system about translation theories and practice.<br /> Thus, the publishment of the book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications quickly won the praise and good comments from translators and students majoring in translation. At the same time, this book provided a systematic and scientific study for translation teaching practice and researches. <br /> <br /> About the Author <br /> Cao Minglun, professor as well as doctoral supervisor of Sichuan University, received his doctor degree at Peking University. He majored in the studying of British and American literature, translation studies, literature translation and the study of comparative culture. During his three years at Peking University, Professor Cao systematically studied the present translation researches and the realistic problems. Combined with his decades of translation experience, he dived into the study translation books and monographs. Through the combination of logical researches and provision of living samples, the combining approach of diachronic review and synchronic research, Professor Cao built up a systematic academic system about translation practice and theory by transcending various subjects, providing research direction for our researchers.<br /> <br /> The book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications published in 2007 and revised in 2013, was the most famous representation of him. The author would like to introduce this book in the following and make some analytical comments about it based on his understanding and facts.<br /> <br /> ===About the Background===<br /> As we all know, the theory and practice are interrelated with each other closely. Since the beginning of the social practice and people began to work, human beings know exactly how to use their wisdom to accumulate experience. So did translation activities. Translation activities began from the fact that human beings used language to communicate. At the early stage, it was mainly serving to the purpose of ideology. With the development of formal translation activity, translation activities diversified. Since the contemporary and modern times, translation studies have been prospered across the world. In the west, the representatives were scientific linguistics, philological school. In China, we mainly focused on the study of literature translation at that time.<br /> <br /> After the May 4th Movement as well as the contemporary event called reform and opening up, we Chinese citizens appealed to learn the advanced western approaches and theories. As western advanced theories were introduced into China, different areas of scientific studies like theory of literature and art, psychology, philosophy and sociology provided rich contends and materials for the study of translation, which helped the later became an independent and disciplinary subject.<br /> <br /> However, after Cultural Turn, translation studies followed this trend. They no longer solely targeted at the translation activities and theories, but also included other spheres which concerned about various aspects of human activities (Cao Minglun, 2003). This made translation studies lose their defined focus on translation research itself. Since the translation studies were transitioned into other spheres while the translation activities kept its own sphere, the relationship between the two was no longer closely interrelated with each other. <br /> <br /> Therefore translation teaching jobs and translation and interpretation activities have become worse. Because of this, it turned to be an urgent need to establish a systematic and cohesive guiding system about translation theories and practice.<br /> <br /> Thus, the publishment of the book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications quickly won the praise and good comments from translators and students majoring in translation. At the same time, this book provided a systematic and scientific study for translation teaching practice and researches.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===About the Author=== <br /> Cao Minglun, professor as well as doctoral supervisor of Sichuan University, received his doctor degree at Peking University. He majored in the studying of British and American literature, translation studies, literature translation and the study of comparative culture. During his three years at Peking University, Professor Cao systematically studied the present translation researches and the realistic problems. Combined with his decades of translation experience, he dived into the study translation books and monographs. Through the combination of logical researches and provision of living samples, the combining approach of diachronic review and synchronic research, Professor Cao built up a systematic academic system about translation practice and theory by transcending various subjects, providing research direction for our researchers.<br /> <br /> The book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications published in 2007 and revised in 2013, was the most famous representation of him. The author would like to introduce this book in the following and make some analytical comments about it based on his understanding and facts.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 11:59, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Main body==<br /> ==The brief introduction==<br /> From the point of view of Professor Cao, the interrelationship between translation practice and theory can be summed up with six characters, which are “mutual construction, mutual supplementation and mutual manifestation”. Centering on the relationship between translation theories and practice, the book The way of Translation Studies explained effectively how to analysis properly this kind of relationship. This book is divides into eight chapters; each of them clearly focuses on how to manifest the relationship based on different perspectives.<br /> First of all, in the first chapter, it made a vivid review about both the eastern and western translation history which highlights the fact that the two are closely interrelated with each other since the beginning of the translation activity. Second, in the second chapter, the book targeted on the contemporary situation of translation theory and practice and pointed out the essential matters. The author then made a thorough research about “the Cultural Turn” and the origin of the discipline of Translation Studies. He pointed out the urgent problem of the focus of translation research and the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice. Thirdly, the author reaffirmed respectively about the concept of translation, its aim as well as the tasks of translation studies in a logical manner. In his strong belief, the content of translation will not lose with the diversification of scientific researches. <br /> Translation should be regarded as the activity of the transformation of linguistic signs. Fourthly, the author made a detailed description of the present situation of translation theory and practice. Then he taught us how to combine both the theory and practice together, which provides us with a practical approach to further study the relationship between translation theory and practice. During this process, the author pointed out that the purpose of translation should be focused on the transformation of the texts itself rather than other purposes and he also proposed the concepts of “textual purpose” and “non-textual purpose”. Besides this, Professor Cao borrowed Benjamin’s appeal to the translators ’tasks, pointing out that a translator must be loyal to the original book and the translation version should not stick to one type and be independent. <br /> In terms of the translation standard, Professor Cao made a clear distinguish between translation studies and medio-translatology and he emphasized the weak points of new criticism. In the next chapter, that is chapter five, the Professor draw a line between translation study and translation theory. The concept of translation study includes translation theory, translation history and translation analysis. At the same time, he creatively established “the location map of translation theory”, they are “introvert ontology” and “extrovert comprehensiveness”. <br /> The six and seven chapters made a detailed reviewed about the translation theory and practice. For the theory part, researches did not provide strong evidence and lack of prove and identification, the translation of terms and translation nouns did not consist with each other and the logical problems about thinking pattern and language organization. He also tackled on the recognition process to prove whether it was objective. Finally, Professor proposed the effective way of combining translation theory and practice together, pointing out the scientific approach for translators. <br /> Above all, the whole book followed by severe and strict scientific demonstration of the relationship between translation theory and practice, providing us with effective approach to combine both the practice and theory together during which process, the systematically theoretical guidance was constructed. This all contributed to an excellent academic book rich in content and vivid in demonstration.<br /> <br /> ===The brief introduction===<br /> From the point of view of Professor Cao, the interrelationship between translation practice and theory can be summed up with six characters, which are “mutual construction, mutual supplementation and mutual manifestation”. Centering on the relationship between translation theories and practice, the book The way of Translation Studies explained effectively how to analysis properly this kind of relationship. This book is divides into eight chapters; each of them clearly focuses on how to manifest the relationship based on different perspectives.<br /> <br /> First of all, in the first chapter, it made a vivid review about both the eastern and western translation history which highlights the fact that the two are closely interrelated with each other since the beginning of the translation activity. Second, in the second chapter, the book targeted on the contemporary situation of translation theory and practice and pointed out the essential matters. The author then made a thorough research about “the Cultural Turn” and the origin of the discipline of Translation Studies. He pointed out the urgent problem of the focus of translation research and the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice. Thirdly, the author reaffirmed respectively about the concept of translation, its aim as well as the tasks of translation studies in a logical manner. In his strong belief, the content of translation will not lose with the diversification of scientific researches.<br /> <br /> Translation should be regarded as the activity of the transformation of linguistic signs. Fourthly, the author made a detailed description of the present situation of translation theory and practice. Then he taught us how to combine both the theory and practice together, which provides us with a practical approach to further study the relationship between translation theory and practice. During this process, the author pointed out that the purpose of translation should be focused on the transformation of the texts itself rather than other purposes and he also proposed the concepts of “textual purpose” and “non-textual purpose”. Besides this, Professor Cao borrowed Benjamin’s appeal to the translators ’tasks, pointing out that a translator must be loyal to the original book and the translation version should not stick to one type and be independent.<br /> <br /> In terms of the translation standard, Professor Cao made a clear distinguish between translation studies and medio-translatology and he emphasized the weak points of new criticism. In the next chapter, that is chapter five, the Professor draw a line between translation study and translation theory. The concept of translation study includes translation theory, translation history and translation analysis. At the same time, he creatively established “the location map of translation theory”, they are “introvert ontology” and “extrovert comprehensiveness”.<br /> <br /> The six and seven chapters made a detailed reviewed about the translation theory and practice. For the theory part, researches did not provide strong evidence and lack of prove and identification, the translation of terms and translation nouns did not consist with each other and the logical problems about thinking pattern and language organization. He also tackled on the recognition process to prove whether it was objective. Finally, Professor proposed the effective way of combining translation theory and practice together, pointing out the scientific approach for translators.<br /> <br /> Above all, the whole book followed by severe and strict scientific demonstration of the relationship between translation theory and practice, providing us with effective approach to combine both the practice and theory together during which process, the systematically theoretical guidance was constructed. This all contributed to an excellent academic book rich in content and vivid in demonstration.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===The Specific Exposition===<br /> To be more specific, in the second chapter, Professor Cao made a description about both the east and west contemporary translation study. Since many scholars have previously contributed the reasons of the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice to the phenomenon called “cultural turn”, Professor Cao had done a great program in the study of “cultural turn”. For example, to discover why the imbalanced situation between translation study and theory appeared, Professor Cao did quite a lot of comparative study of the previous scholars’ work.<br /> He found out that a lot of intellectuals had already discovered the problems, believing that translation theory and practice were broke up with each other for quite long time. Many scholars thought the most severe problem was that translation theory did not focus on the practice itself but other spheres like human activity or cultures etc. Therefore, the Professor made a thorough investigation about the history after “cultural turn”. During this process, he discovered that decades of years of “annual overview” towards translation study had severe problems published in Chinese Translation Journal. <br /> In fact, translation study in China did not establish comprehensive and scientific study towards translation practice. The name of this subject is called Translation Studies, the author made a deep exploration of this name. Among which, the most impressive one should belong to translation study’s concept of Holmes by Tury as well as the four research fields divided by Bassinet in the late 1980s. This transition made a great impact on the happening of the phenomenon of “cultural turn”. Besides this, Professor Cao did a thorough research about the book written by Bassinet and the other person named “Translation, history and culture”. <br /> In the introduction part, the content can be called the announcement of “cultural turn”. Before the translation subject became an independent subject, it was considered in the fields of literature. In the announcement part, Professor pointed out that the review about the translation study in the fields of literature helps to give power to let translation get independent. <br /> While in terms of the origin of the term ‘Translation Study”, the Professor made a detailed and scientific study about a period of history about scholar Holmes. In 1972, from August 21st to 26th, the Third International Applied Linguistics Seminar was opened in Copenhagen. The American Scholar Holmes, the Professor of Amsterdam University attended this conference and he also handed in the paper named “The Nature of Translation Studies”. <br /> This paper used a third length to revise the formal name of translation study. For the English alone, the previous used names were Science of Translation, Translation Theory, Translatology, and Translatistics. In Holmes’s view, he points out that the names above had their respective weakness as the names of these translation versions did not have a solitary direction, this would greatly impact the future development of this subject because people found it hard to have a common consensus. <br /> Therefore, he recommended using Translation Studies as the set name of this subject.<br /> In the later part of this article, Holmes set this subject as an empirical discipline and set the research scope as well as designs the disciplinary framework. However, in the later ten years, although the name Translation Studies was widely accepted, Holmes’ design and plan did not receive wide response. Until he was passed away two years later, his paper collections “Translated! Paper on Literary Translation and Translation Studies, 1988” was published. His translation philosophy won the positive response and recognition from the translation circle and was widely considered the establishing announcement of the subject of Translation Study. (Gentzler, 1993:92/2004:933). In 1995, Toury in his book Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond, he constructed Toury’s concept of translation study as Holmes’ basic “map” of Translation Studies :(Toury, 1995:10).<br /> From this map we can see, the blueprint of Holmes can be grand and his written one can be regarded as much greater.(Holmes, 1988:72-73). As we can see from this above picture, translation study is divided into two dimensions, one is the pure theory and the other is applied linguistics. According to Holmes’ explanation, the branch of descriptive translation study, that is function-oriented DTS will gradually developed into socio-translation study, while the process-oriented DTS will developed into socio-translation study(Holmes,1988:72-73). <br /> However, in his explanation, Holmes did not neglect totally those questions that translators concerned about for 2000 years. For example, Translation Critics and the Translator Training in Applied Translation study, while in the theoretical part, for the text-type restricted analysis and problem restricted type, they were picked out for specific analysis. For the original purpose of his revising of the subject’s name was to make itself more inclusive and open. However, the so-called Manipulation School positively accepted this name. But they tend to analyze translation study from the background of translation study. This has led to the mistaken perception that Translation Studies refers to the study of literary translation and translations. (Shuttleworth&amp; Cowie, 2004:183). <br /> Due to this, Bassinet divided translation into four spheres in 1980, that is History of Translation; Translation in TL culture; Translation and Linguistics; Translation and Poetics.(Bassnett,1991:7-8/2004:16-17). Based on this, we can tell translation is sometimes combined with literature study, which must be paid attention to by Chinese scholars. What’s more, the cultural turn in translation studies urges intellectuals to lay great importance to the study of the independent development of translation. By analysis, the result can be that translation unit would be more put as the culture as the unit but not the word in linguistics or text in literature. Thus, this contributed to the later development of cultural turn. <br /> From this above, we can see that Professor did make a thorough investigation in great detail to make analysis about the origin of the term Translation Studies and the history of cultural turn. By learning and studying previous scholars like Shuttleworth, Holmes and Toury and so on, it would make it easier to understand how translation become independent and how it was transitioned from the branch of literature to translation itself.Second, when it comes to the responsibility of the translator, Professor Cao made a specific analysis and defines again about the real purpose of this task. <br /> First of all, he makes a clear definition about translation, regarding it as an activity of the transformation of semiotics between different languages. Next, he thought that translation study should not focus on other spheres but the text itself, because if we analyze other fields like culture or anything else we would find it easy to lose the original analysis of translation activity itself but to talk about other things that have no direct relationship with the translation activity thus it will be too superficial and lack of depth.<br /> The core issue of translation study should be centered on its concept, aims, tasks and standard and so on. Despite in the micro-aspects, western theories like deconstruction, new criticism and teleology was not studied clearly in China, we should still make clear understandings about this theory. In the response to what kind of responsibility a translator should bear, Professor Cao copied Benjamin’s view. In Benjamin’s book, The Task of Translators, the author divides into two parts, one is to analyze the idea readers and the other is to describe the idea translators. <br /> In this book, Benjamin vividly describes what kind of qualities an adequate translator should have; these are divided into 11 points containing the key elements demonstrating from two perspectives, one is the science and the other is theology. Benjamin thought qualified translators must obey the original sentence and the textual style. Translators must obey the original text and thus transform the source language into the target language from a purified manner.<br /> <br /> ===The Specific Exposition===<br /> To be more specific, in the second chapter, Professor Cao made a description about both the east and west contemporary translation study. Since many scholars have previously contributed the reasons of the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice to the phenomenon called “cultural turn”, Professor Cao had done a great program in the study of “cultural turn”. For example, to discover why the imbalanced situation between translation study and theory appeared, Professor Cao did quite a lot of comparative study of the previous scholars’ work.<br /> <br /> He found out that a lot of intellectuals had already discovered the problems, believing that translation theory and practice were broke up with each other for quite long time. Many scholars thought the most severe problem was that translation theory did not focus on the practice itself but other spheres like human activity or cultures etc. Therefore, the Professor made a thorough investigation about the history after “cultural turn”. During this process, he discovered that decades of years of “annual overview” towards translation study had severe problems published in Chinese Translation Journal.<br /> <br /> In fact, translation study in China did not establish comprehensive and scientific study towards translation practice. The name of this subject is called Translation Studies, the author made a deep exploration of this name. Among which, the most impressive one should belong to translation study’s concept of Holmes by Tury as well as the four research fields divided by Bassinet in the late 1980s. This transition made a great impact on the happening of the phenomenon of “cultural turn”. Besides this, Professor Cao did a thorough research about the book written by Bassinet and the other person named “Translation, history and culture”.<br /> <br /> In the introduction part, the content can be called the announcement of “cultural turn”. Before the translation subject became an independent subject, it was considered in the fields of literature. In the announcement part, Professor pointed out that the review about the translation study in the fields of literature helps to give power to let translation get independent.<br /> <br /> While in terms of the origin of the term ‘Translation Study”, the Professor made a detailed and scientific study about a period of history about scholar Holmes. In 1972, from August 21st to 26th, the Third International Applied Linguistics Seminar was opened in Copenhagen. The American Scholar Holmes, the Professor of Amsterdam University attended this conference and he also handed in the paper named “The Nature of Translation Studies”.<br /> <br /> This paper used a third length to revise the formal name of translation study. For the English alone, the previous used names were Science of Translation, Translation Theory, Translatology, and Translatistics. In Holmes’s view, he points out that the names above had their respective weakness as the names of these translation versions did not have a solitary direction, this would greatly impact the future development of this subject because people found it hard to have a common consensus. <br /> <br /> Therefore, he recommended using Translation Studies as the set name of this subject.In the later part of this article, Holmes set this subject as an empirical discipline and set the research scope as well as designs the disciplinary framework. However, in the later ten years, although the name Translation Studies was widely accepted, Holmes’ design and plan did not receive wide response. Until he was passed away two years later, his paper collections “Translated! Paper on Literary Translation and Translation Studies, 1988” was published. His translation philosophy won the positive response and recognition from the translation circle and was widely considered the establishing announcement of the subject of Translation Study. (Gentzler, 1993:92/2004:933). In 1995, Toury in his book Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond, he constructed Toury’s concept of translation study as Holmes’ basic “map” of Translation Studies :(Toury, 1995:10).<br /> <br /> From this map we can see, the blueprint of Holmes can be grand and his written one can be regarded as much greater.(Holmes, 1988:72-73). As we can see from this above picture, translation study is divided into two dimensions, one is the pure theory and the other is applied linguistics. According to Holmes’ explanation, the branch of descriptive translation study, that is function-oriented DTS will gradually developed into socio-translation study, while the process-oriented DTS will developed into socio-translation study(Holmes,1988:72-73).<br /> <br /> However, in his explanation, Holmes did not neglect totally those questions that translators concerned about for 2000 years. For example, Translation Critics and the Translator Training in Applied Translation study, while in the theoretical part, for the text-type restricted analysis and problem restricted type, they were picked out for specific analysis. For the original purpose of his revising of the subject’s name was to make itself more inclusive and open. However, the so-called Manipulation School positively accepted this name. But they tend to analyze translation study from the background of translation study. This has led to the mistaken perception that Translation Studies refers to the study of literary translation and translations. (Shuttleworth&amp; Cowie, 2004:183).<br /> <br /> Due to this, Bassinet divided translation into four spheres in 1980, that is History of Translation; Translation in TL culture; Translation and Linguistics; Translation and Poetics.(Bassnett,1991:7-8/2004:16-17). Based on this, we can tell translation is sometimes combined with literature study, which must be paid attention to by Chinese scholars. What’s more, the cultural turn in translation studies urges intellectuals to lay great importance to the study of the independent development of translation. By analysis, the result can be that translation unit would be more put as the culture as the unit but not the word in linguistics or text in literature. Thus, this contributed to the later development of cultural turn.<br /> <br /> From this above, we can see that Professor did make a thorough investigation in great detail to make analysis about the origin of the term Translation Studies and the history of cultural turn. By learning and studying previous scholars like Shuttleworth, Holmes and Toury and so on, it would make it easier to understand how translation become independent and how it was transitioned from the branch of literature to translation itself.Second, when it comes to the responsibility of the translator, Professor Cao made a specific analysis and defines again about the real purpose of this task.<br /> <br /> First of all, he makes a clear definition about translation, regarding it as an activity of the transformation of semiotics between different languages. Next, he thought that translation study should not focus on other spheres but the text itself, because if we analyze other fields like culture or anything else we would find it easy to lose the original analysis of translation activity itself but to talk about other things that have no direct relationship with the translation activity thus it will be too superficial and lack of depth.<br /> <br /> The core issue of translation study should be centered on its concept, aims, tasks and standard and so on. Despite in the micro-aspects, western theories like deconstruction, new criticism and teleology was not studied clearly in China, we should still make clear understandings about this theory. In the response to what kind of responsibility a translator should bear, Professor Cao copied Benjamin’s view. In Benjamin’s book, The Task of Translators, the author divides into two parts, one is to analyze the idea readers and the other is to describe the idea translators.<br /> <br /> In this book, Benjamin vividly describes what kind of qualities an adequate translator should have; these are divided into 11 points containing the key elements demonstrating from two perspectives, one is the science and the other is theology. Benjamin thought qualified translators must obey the original sentence and the textual style. Translators must obey the original text and thus transform the source language into the target language from a purified manner.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The writing feature==<br /> ===Complete system with extensive quotations===<br /> In the second chapter, the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice is described. However, the author has found the common root of the problems in the studies of many eastern and Western scholars. Among them, The Chinese scholar Mr. Long Luo pointed out that the most serious problem in China's translation circle is the disconnection between theory and practice. <br /> Professor Alby argues that modern scholars seem to have forgotten to look at translation from the perspective of translation practice itself. Translation scholars seem to pay more attention to the relationship between translation and human culture, ignoring the relationship between translation theory and translation activities themselves. After more than ten years of investigation, the author found that the imbalance between the two is also due to the &quot;annual review&quot; of Chinese translation studies.<br /> For this reason, the author makes a research on the &quot;cultural turn&quot; which causes these problems and the source Translation Studies of the subject name. Second, the second chapter on the definition of translation and literary translation learning concept, reference many translation books, such as &quot;equivalent translation exploration&quot;, &quot;contemporary translation theory&quot;, &quot;translation&quot;, &quot;the basic framework of the translation in China&quot; in these books to find the definition of translation and from an introduction to comparative literature, the theory of comparative literature &quot;and other books found in the corresponding to the concept of translation study, the author detailed comparative analysis of the two, and by logical reasoning, analyze their difference in addition, the authors also find problems, points out that translation scholars into the difficulty of translation study. <br /> The final reason for the imbalance between translation theory and practice caused by regression. And, the author in view of the status quo proposed the problems effectively, citing industry scholar ji, scholar GuZhengKun’s point of view, emphasizes the necessity of the combination of theory and practice, emphasis on translation theory must be given priority to with translation studies, cultural studies is complementary, define the nature of good translation, purpose, combining introverted text research and export-oriented text research.<br /> In the third chapter, in the process of defining the concept and connotation of translation, a large number of previous researchers, including Venuti and Philophor, are quoted and compared.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> In the second chapter, the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice is described. However, the author has found the common root of the problems in the studies of many eastern and Western scholars. Among them, The Chinese scholar Mr. Long Luo pointed out that the most serious problem in China's translation circle is the disconnection between theory and practice.<br /> <br /> Professor Alby argues that modern scholars seem to have forgotten to look at translation from the perspective of translation practice itself. Translation scholars seem to pay more attention to the relationship between translation and human culture, ignoring the relationship between translation theory and translation activities themselves. After more than ten years of investigation, the author found that the imbalance between the two is also due to the &quot;annual review&quot; of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> For this reason, the author makes a research on the &quot;cultural turn&quot; which causes these problems and the source Translation Studies of the subject name. Second, the second chapter on the definition of translation and literary translation learning concept, reference many translation books, such as &quot;equivalent translation exploration&quot;, &quot;contemporary translation theory&quot;, &quot;translation&quot;, &quot;the basic framework of the translation in China&quot; in these books to find the definition of translation and from an introduction to comparative literature, the theory of comparative literature &quot;and other books found in the corresponding to the concept of translation study, the author detailed comparative analysis of the two, and by logical reasoning, analyze their difference in addition, the authors also find problems, points out that translation scholars into the difficulty of translation study.<br /> <br /> The final reason for the imbalance between translation theory and practice caused by regression. And, the author in view of the status quo proposed the problems effectively, citing industry scholar ji, scholar GuZhengKun’s point of view, emphasizes the necessity of the combination of theory and practice, emphasis on translation theory must be given priority to with translation studies, cultural studies is complementary, define the nature of good translation, purpose, combining introverted text research and export-oriented text research.<br /> <br /> In the third chapter, in the process of defining the concept and connotation of translation, a large number of previous researchers, including Venuti and Philophor, are quoted and compared.<br /> --[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Logical and philosophical Explanation===<br /> At the beginning of the third chapter, the understanding of translation is discussed. The definition of translation will not change with the progress of practical activities, and the attribute of translation is the unchangeable concept of the transformation of language symbols. Fourth chapter, the first first, the author applies the formal logic to define the concept of translation, with the method of analogy to clarify language information and the relationship between language carrier, then the author is to distinguish between translation concept connotation and denotation, secondly, the author applies the theoretical thinking of philosophy to translation after the concept of qualitative to define the nature of translation activity, is art or science of translation activities, to make a strong argument to translation and the relationship between translation and classified, then respectively for the purpose of translation, tasks, and standard is defined. <br /> First, the author proposes two pairs of concepts: textual purpose and non-textual purpose, textual behavior and non-textual behavior. As mentioned in the preceding chapter &quot;cultural turn&quot;, known as translator for the purpose of present diversification trend, the purpose of the text should be stressed again and again, which is the core of the translation purpose, translation study of the text itself, rather than in the service of other USES, such as ideology, culture, aesthetics and other text purpose can be used as a reference. Secondly, the author reinterprets Benjamin's The Translator's Task and divides the concept of deconstruction into two parts.<br /> The translator's task is to &quot;make foreign books understood by non-foreign language readers&quot;. As for the standard of translation, the author introduces the concepts of new criticism, deconstruction and translation mediology, and points out the connections and differences between them and translation studies, so as to help us better grasp the methods of translation studies. The fifth chapter, the author of modernism puts forward the concept of &quot;translation theory location map&quot;, can be seen as an extension of the translation purpose, respectively, introverted and export-oriented comprehensive text, introverted text should be closely around the translated text itself to research, and export-oriented comprehensive for translation text such as interdisciplinary field theory to provide support for translation study.<br /> <br /> <br /> At the beginning of the third chapter, the understanding of translation is discussed. The definition of translation will not change with the progress of practical activities, and the attribute of translation is the unchangeable concept of the transformation of language symbols. Fourth chapter, the first first, the author applies the formal logic to define the concept of translation, with the method of analogy to clarify language information and the relationship between language carrier, then the author is to distinguish between translation concept connotation and denotation, secondly, the author applies the theoretical thinking of philosophy to translation after the concept of qualitative to define the nature of translation activity, is art or science of translation activities, to make a strong argument to translation and the relationship between translation and classified, then respectively for the purpose of translation, tasks, and standard is defined.<br /> <br /> First, the author proposes two pairs of concepts: textual purpose and non-textual purpose, textual behavior and non-textual behavior. As mentioned in the preceding chapter &quot;cultural turn&quot;, known as translator for the purpose of present diversification trend, the purpose of the text should be stressed again and again, which is the core of the translation purpose, translation study of the text itself, rather than in the service of other USES, such as ideology, culture, aesthetics and other text purpose can be used as a reference. Secondly, the author reinterprets Benjamin's The Translator's Task and divides the concept of deconstruction into two parts.<br /> <br /> The translator's task is to &quot;make foreign books understood by non-foreign language readers&quot;. As for the standard of translation, the author introduces the concepts of new criticism, deconstruction and translation mediology, and points out the connections and differences between them and translation studies, so as to help us better grasp the methods of translation studies. The fifth chapter, the author of modernism puts forward the concept of &quot;translation theory location map&quot;, can be seen as an extension of the translation purpose, respectively, introverted and export-oriented comprehensive text, introverted text should be closely around the translated text itself to research, and export-oriented comprehensive for translation text such as interdisciplinary field theory to provide support for translation study.--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Powerful Critism with strong evidence===<br /> Throughout the full text, from the status quo of the theory and practice of the second chapter, especially the book in the last few chapters, the author through a large number of reading and rely on the accumulation of translation practice for a long time, have been put forward for the theoretical study and practice of translation problems in reality, the relationship between problem, theory research example, textual research is lax, citing uncertainty, terminology translation and the translation is not unified, there thinking logic and language logic problem, theory and problems such as monotonous and argument, and the question of whether cognitive process is objective, translator translation practice have a &quot;betrayal&quot; of the problem of the wind, vision, objective, to the point, In the last chapter, the author elaborated on the relationship between pure theory and translation, provided a way to combine theory with practice, and improved a complete methodology and action guide for us to better combine theory with practice.<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> From all of these analyses above, the author has explained the book following the order of introduction part including the background and the introduction of the author, the main body part which includes the major contend and the specific explanation as well as the writing features. Professor Cao made an overview towards the history of both the east and west translation history, the proper description of the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice, the careful and strict definition about the core concepts of translation theory such as the purpose, aim, translators’ tasks and standards.<br /> Besides this, Professor Cao also locates the situation of translation theory by distinguishing the translation theory and mediotology. In the end, he also returned to the present problem about the breaking up of the relationship between theory and practice. To solve this, he teaches us on how to study the pure theory and then how to combine theory with practice, which provides a practical guidance for translation study and teaching activities. <br /> <br /> In the following, the author would like to make some comments about this book.<br /> Frist of all, this book closely centered on the relationship between translation theory and practice to make scientific explanation and study in a very logical and scientific manner. Since the beginning of translation activities, theory and practice have become interrelated with each other closely. Both in the east and the west, translation practice has been paid great attention to while translation theory closely followed the translation activities. At the very beginning translation activity has been focused on the democracy and ideology purpose. <br /> With the development of the society, human activities have been prosperous thus translation activities become more diversified and vivid. From translation history, the current situation of translation theory and practice, the defined concept of translation purpose and tasks as well as standard to the effective approach of translation practice and theory, Professor Cao opened a new area of translation study which covers a wide range of multidisciplinary subjects and areas. <br /> Hence, Professor Cao strict academic attitude and research spirit deserves to learn.<br /> Second, in the process of defining several concepts such as translation aims, purposes, translators’ tasks as well as translation standard, Professor Cao introduced many useful terms such as textual purposes, translators’ tasks and the translation study and mediotology and textual purpose and non-textual purpose etc., among these newly introduced concepts, some of them are pioneered and innovative. <br /> Thus, from this we can see, the author is very creative while following the principle of scientific researches. The most impressive theory is his own theory called “translation theory location”, which vividly introduced us the defined circle of translation circle and research range. This translation map is divided into two parts, one is “introvert ontology translation theory” and the other is “extrovert comprehensive translation theory”. <br /> He point out that scholars working on the extrovert should pay attention to the following four aspects, the academic results and theoretical approaches of translation issue should be to enrich translation theory while not to replace it, when you study some phenomenon of translation restricted with certain social context, cultural background and ideology, researches must take the limitation of time and locality into consideration but not assentation, when we analyze translation as a certain behavior with certain purpose relates to society, culture, politics or economy, we must distinguish between textual and non-textual behavior, textual purpose and non-textual purpose and the last is the research about the translation version analysis on the culture of the target language, while in China, it belongs to the branch of comparative literature called mediotology. Academic study must be very strict and severe which need to be logical and scientific.<br /> Third, the construction of the book is independent, for example theoretical analysis is combined with problem solving, and conclusion is combined with new problem rising. For example, as Professor Cao made a detailed description of the present relationship of translation theory and practice, he introduced the term translation study and analyzed the origin of culture turn. Translation study includes several aspects like translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. As translation study is a borrowed term, Professor Cao made a research in China to define the real concept of translation activity. <br /> He made a thorough distinguish between translation study and the mediotology in comparative literature. The borrowed term translation study brought us a lot of reflections and lessons. He proposed some urgent and practical issues whether translation theory should be combined with practice and how to avoid the crisis of the discipline. We should keep a calm and practical attitude to keep the features of this subject. <br /> Based on the practical researches, Professor Cao could analyze the thesis and propose proper scientific construction towards translation circle in China. Since in China translation study mainly focuses on the study of literature and besides this, comparative literature would more or less pay attention to the fields of literature but not translation. However, the Professor made a clear distinguish between translation study and mediotology and argued that translation study includes translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. This helps to set a clear definition towards translation study and effectively avoid translation study’s confusion.<br /> Last but not the least, the language use in the whole text is very beautiful and comfortable. Although Professor Cao uses a lot of samples and evidences as well as a lot of historical samples, the transition is very smooth and he would also quotas many poems and history which makes his article seem more poetic and vivid. Through long terms of translation practice, there is no doubt that Professor Cao had a rich experience in translation practice and strong base of translation basis. What’s more, Professor Cao also had a very specific purpose for translation study. He is not only an excellent translator, professor and scholar, but also a very responsible educator and practitioner. <br /> To sum up, Based on the above analysis, the author elaborates on the current imbalance between translation theory and practice, and puts forward targeted solutions, which provide the direction and action guide for translation research and translation teaching. In addition, the author can benefit a lot from his rigorous academic attitude, rigorous theoretical system construction and critical logical thinking. First, Professor Cao Minglun's full text is fluent in writing and appropriate use of professional vocabulary, which fully reflects his profound academic accumulation and solid foundation of academic research. In addition, more importantly, Professor Cao's logical reasoning ability provides reference for the author's future academic research. <br /> The author uses rigorous logical thinking to accurately explain these concepts, both in terms of defining the relationship between translation theory and practice, and in terms of defining the relationship between translation concepts, objectives and tasks. Third, the author in the process of building the book chapters, layer upon layer, closely around the core of the theory and practice of the main line, from the macroscopic roughly summed up as above summary review, described the status quo, put forward the problems to solve the problem, finally the logical context is very clear, from the micro level above, each chapter, cited fully detailed, illustration, contrast analysis, the most important thing is that the author according to the research of the early learning put forward their own theoretical system or solution to the problem. Translation is indeed a cross-cultural discipline, but the study of translation must be closely centered on the translated text itself and supported by the theories of other disciplines, such as comparative literature studies and linguistic studies. Finally, the author uses standard words and the language is exquisite, which reflects the strong academic writing ability. The above contents are the valuable wealth of the author's future theoretical learning career!<br /> <br /> <br /> From all of these analyses above, the author has explained the book following the order of introduction part including the background and the introduction of the author, the main body part which includes the major contend and the specific explanation as well as the writing features. Professor Cao made an overview towards the history of both the east and west translation history, the proper description of the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice, the careful and strict definition about the core concepts of translation theory such as the purpose, aim, translators’ tasks and standards.<br /> <br /> Besides this, Professor Cao also locates the situation of translation theory by distinguishing the translation theory and mediotology. In the end, he also returned to the present problem about the breaking up of the relationship between theory and practice. To solve this, he teaches us on how to study the pure theory and then how to combine theory with practice, which provides a practical guidance for translation study and teaching activities. <br /> <br /> In the following, the author would like to make some comments about this book.<br /> <br /> Frist of all, this book closely centered on the relationship between translation theory and practice to make scientific explanation and study in a very logical and scientific manner. Since the beginning of translation activities, theory and practice have become interrelated with each other closely. Both in the east and the west, translation practice has been paid great attention to while translation theory closely followed the translation activities. At the very beginning translation activity has been focused on the democracy and ideology purpose. <br /> <br /> With the development of the society, human activities have been prosperous thus translation activities become more diversified and vivid. From translation history, the current situation of translation theory and practice, the defined concept of translation purpose and tasks as well as standard to the effective approach of translation practice and theory, Professor Cao opened a new area of translation study which covers a wide range of multidisciplinary subjects and areas.<br /> <br /> Hence, Professor Cao strict academic attitude and research spirit deserves to learn.<br /> <br /> Second, in the process of defining several concepts such as translation aims, purposes, translators’ tasks as well as translation standard, Professor Cao introduced many useful terms such as textual purposes, translators’ tasks and the translation study and mediotology and textual purpose and non-textual purpose etc., among these newly introduced concepts, some of them are pioneered and innovative. <br /> <br /> Thus, from this we can see, the author is very creative while following the principle of scientific researches. The most impressive theory is his own theory called “translation theory location”, which vividly introduced us the defined circle of translation circle and research range. This translation map is divided into two parts, one is “introvert ontology translation theory” and the other is “extrovert comprehensive translation theory”.<br /> <br /> He point out that scholars working on the extrovert should pay attention to the following four aspects, the academic results and theoretical approaches of translation issue should be to enrich translation theory while not to replace it, when you study some phenomenon of translation restricted with certain social context, cultural background and ideology, researches must take the limitation of time and locality into consideration but not assentation, when we analyze translation as a certain behavior with certain purpose relates to society, culture, politics or economy, we must distinguish between textual and non-textual behavior, textual purpose and non-textual purpose and the last is the research about the translation version analysis on the culture of the target language, while in China, it belongs to the branch of comparative literature called mediotology. Academic study must be very strict and severe which need to be logical and scientific.<br /> <br /> Third, the construction of the book is independent, for example theoretical analysis is combined with problem solving, and conclusion is combined with new problem rising. For example, as Professor Cao made a detailed description of the present relationship of translation theory and practice, he introduced the term translation study and analyzed the origin of culture turn. Translation study includes several aspects like translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. As translation study is a borrowed term, Professor Cao made a research in China to define the real concept of translation activity. <br /> <br /> He made a thorough distinguish between translation study and the mediotology in comparative literature. The borrowed term translation study brought us a lot of reflections and lessons. He proposed some urgent and practical issues whether translation theory should be combined with practice and how to avoid the crisis of the discipline. We should keep a calm and practical attitude to keep the features of this subject.<br /> <br /> Based on the practical researches, Professor Cao could analyze the thesis and propose proper scientific construction towards translation circle in China. Since in China translation study mainly focuses on the study of literature and besides this, comparative literature would more or less pay attention to the fields of literature but not translation. However, the Professor made a clear distinguish between translation study and mediotology and argued that translation study includes translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. This helps to set a clear definition towards translation study and effectively avoid translation study’s confusion.<br /> <br /> Last but not the least, the language use in the whole text is very beautiful and comfortable. Although Professor Cao uses a lot of samples and evidences as well as a lot of historical samples, the transition is very smooth and he would also quotas many poems and history which makes his article seem more poetic and vivid. Through long terms of translation practice, there is no doubt that Professor Cao had a rich experience in translation practice and strong base of translation basis. What’s more, Professor Cao also had a very specific purpose for translation study. He is not only an excellent translator, professor and scholar, but also a very responsible educator and practitioner.<br /> <br /> To sum up, Based on the above analysis, the author elaborates on the current imbalance between translation theory and practice, and puts forward targeted solutions, which provide the direction and action guide for translation research and translation teaching. In addition, the author can benefit a lot from his rigorous academic attitude, rigorous theoretical system construction and critical logical thinking. First, Professor Cao Minglun's full text is fluent in writing and appropriate use of professional vocabulary, which fully reflects his profound academic accumulation and solid foundation of academic research. In addition, more importantly, Professor Cao's logical reasoning ability provides reference for the author's future academic research.<br /> <br /> The author uses rigorous logical thinking to accurately explain these concepts, both in terms of defining the relationship between translation theory and practice, and in terms of defining the relationship between translation concepts, objectives and tasks. Third, the author in the process of building the book chapters, layer upon layer, closely around the core of the theory and practice of the main line, from the macroscopic roughly summed up as above summary review, described the status quo, put forward the problems to solve the problem, finally the logical context is very clear, from the micro level above, each chapter, cited fully detailed, illustration, contrast analysis, the most important thing is that the author according to the research of the early learning put forward their own theoretical system or solution to the problem. Translation is indeed a cross-cultural discipline, but the study of translation must be closely centered on the translated text itself and supported by the theories of other disciplines, such as comparative literature studies and linguistic studies. Finally, the author uses standard words and the language is exquisite, which reflects the strong academic writing ability. The above contents are the valuable wealth of the author's future theoretical learning career!--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:24, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Reference=<br /> Bassnett,Susan and André Lefevere .Translation, History and Culture[M].London and New York: Pinter Publishers.<br /> Mark Shuttleworth，Moira Cowie：翻译研究词典[M]．外语教学与研究出版社，2005<br /> 谢天振，王宁 翻译学:作为独立学科的求索与发展 [M]．复旦大学出版社，2017<br /> 曹明伦，翻译之道 ：理论与实践 [M]．保定：河北大学出版社，2007<br /> 甘雪梅 ．2010．“学 、“术 共生 ，“道”、“器”互彰——评曹明伦教授 《翻译之道：理论与实践》一书[J]．湖北 函授大学学报，(5)：110-111<br /> 黄中习．2008．努力构建翻译理论与实践的和谐关系——翻译之道理论与实践介评[J]．北经济学院学报 ，(10)：150一l51<br /> 朱蕤 ．2010．对翻译研究 “文化转向”的反思—— 以 《翻译之道 》为伽 R1．福建省外国语文学会2010年年会 ．厦门<br /> <br /> =Translation Strategies=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Study on the Translation Strategies, Translation Methods and Translation Techniques in ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper studies the English version of ''seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' from the perspective of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory of translation. It can be found that this English version focuses on the target audience and uses appropriate translation strategies, methods and techniques in the light of the target audience's reading habits and cultural background, such as free translation, literal translation, shift, addition, omission, division and combination. As a result, the English translation’s vocabulary, discourse structure or expression can be easier to be accepted by the target audience, which is conducive to the dissemination of China's information and maximizes the communication effect of international news of China.<br /> <br /> Keywords: Skopos Theory; translation strategies; translation methods；audience<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 根据汉斯・佛米尔翻译目的论的观点对《为人民谋幸福：新中国人权事业发展70年》英译本进行研究，发现该译本以目标受众为着眼点，从目标受众的阅读习惯和文化背景出发，运用恰当的翻译策略、方法和技巧，比如意译、直译、转译、增译、减译等，因而译本的英语词汇、语篇结构或表达方式更易为目标受众接受，这有利于中国信息的传播，最大程度增强我国国际新闻的对外传播效力。<br /> <br /> 关键词: 目的论；翻译方法；翻译技巧; 受众 <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' is a white paper published by the Information Office of the State Council of China in September 2019. In addition to the preface and conclusion, the text contains eight parts, and quotes a large amount of datum to show in detail the progress of human rights in China since 1949; the people-centered of human rights; the way to realize the protection of human rights; the remarkable achievements made in the implementation of human rights; the continuous strengthening of human rights protection and China's contribution to promoting the cause of human rights in the world.<br /> <br /> ''Working for People's Happiness: 70 Years of China's Human Rights Progress'' is a white paper published by the Information Office of the State Council of China in September 2019. In addition to the preface and conclusion, the full text consists of eight parts, citing a large amount of data and information to show in detail the progress of China's human rights cause since 1949; the people-centeredness of human rights; the ways to achieve human rights protection; the remarkable achievements in human rights implementation; the continuous strengthening of human rights protection and China's contribution to promoting the cause of human rights in the world.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, international political, economic and cultural exchanges are unprecedented frequent and in-depth. International information and culture should be welcomed by our country. At the same time, Chinese culture and values need to be spread. We should have our own voice in international exchange activities, to tell Chinese stories, and let the world understand China better (He Jiaying 2020,4). Therefore, the translation of Chinese international news plays an important role in cross-cultural communication and communication between China and foreign countries. Therefore，it is also worthwhile to study the translation of these news.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, international political, economic and cultural exchanges are more frequent and deeper than ever. International information and culture should be welcomed by our country. At the same time, Chinese culture and values need to be spread. In international exchange activities, we should have our own voice and tell the Chinese story so that the world can better understand China (He Jiaying 2020,4). Therefore, Chinese international news translation plays an important role in cross-cultural exchange and communication between China and foreign countries. Therefore, the translation of these news is also worth studying.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'', its accurate and rigorous translation plays a positive role in shaping national image and building international discourse power. There are a large number of words related to political system with Chinese characteristics in this text. These words often represent some important policies and current situation of human rights of our country. Accurate translation of these words is the key to correctly convey these messages.<br /> <br /> In ''Working for the People's Happiness: 70 Years of China's Human Rights Progress,'' its accurate and rigorous translation has played a positive role in shaping the country's image and building international discourse. The text contains a large number of terms related to the political system with Chinese characteristics. These words often represent some important policies and the current situation of human rights in China. Accurate translation of these words is the key to correctly conveying these messages.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Skopos theory focuses on the purpose of translation and holds that translation activities should adopt corresponding translation methods and techniques. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation work is mainly for the target audience. Its purpose is to achieve the re-dissemination of the original content and finally gain certain communicative effect.<br /> <br /> Scopes theory focuses on the purpose of translation and believes that translation activities should adopt corresponding translation methods and techniques. From the perspective of Scopes' theory, translation work is mainly for the target audience, and its purpose is to realize the retransmission of the original content and finally obtain certain communicative effects. Its purpose is to realize the retransmission of the original content and finally obtain a certain communicative effect.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As a political document, ''seeking happiness for people: 70 years of progress on human rights in China'' can be regarded as government behavior, that is, the organizer and client of translation is the government, and the translator is the institution and interpreter entrusted by the Chinese government. If the relationship between entrustment and entrustment is made clear, the purpose of translation is obvious. The Chinese government disseminates such information, like the concept of human rights, the way to realize the cause of human rights, the achievements of developing human rights, and China's contributions over the years, to English speaking countries on the basis of respecting their language habits and cultural backgrounds. In this way，translators should observe translation principles and choose appropriate translation strategies under the guidance of this purpose. <br /> <br /> As a political document, ''Working for the People's Happiness: 70 Years of China's Human Rights Progress'' can be regarded as a governmental act, that is, the organizer and commissioner of the translation is the government, and the translators are the institutions and translators commissioned by the Chinese government. If the relationship between the commissioned and the entrusted is clear, the purpose of the translation becomes obvious. On the basis of respecting the linguistic habits and cultural background of English-speaking countries, the Chinese government disseminates to English-speaking countries information about the concept of human rights, the way to realize the cause of human rights, the achievements of human rights development, and China's contributions over the years. Therefore, under the guidance of this purpose, translators should abide by the translation principles and choose appropriate translation strategies.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The principle of coherence requires a clear logic and semantic cohesion in the translation, which can keep the Chinese style of political documents and also make the readers have no barrier to read. The principle of faithfulness requires the translator to accurately understand and master the connotation of article. (Luo Mazhang, 1984,124-126). On this basis, translators use translation techniques and methods to translate and interpret the original text, so that what readers understand from the English version is consistent with the information expressed in the original text. Moreover, according to the different characteristics of these words related to the political system with Chinese characteristics, we should adopt different translation strategies, methods and skills.<br /> <br /> The principle of coherence requires the translation to be logically clear and semantically cohesive, which can maintain the Chinese style of the political document while making it accessible to readers. The principle of fidelity requires the translator to accurately understand and grasp the connotation of the text. (Roman Chapter, 1984,124-126). On this basis, the translator uses translation techniques and methods to translate and interpret the original text so that what the reader understands from the English version is consistent with the message expressed in the original text. In addition, according to the different characteristics of these words related to the political system with Chinese characteristics, we should adopt different translation strategies, methods and techniques.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory===<br /> Skopos theory originated in Germany in the 1970s put forward by Hans Vermeer. It belongs to functional translation theory, in which it is the most important theory. It has a wide influence on text translation and is widely employed in translation. Vermeer believes that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any behavior has a purpose. The primary factor determining the process of translation is the purpose of translation (VERMEER HANS. J 1989:90). That is to say, translators shall exercise corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what contents of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified in the light of the translation purpose. The translation strategy depends on the needs and expectations of the target language readers or audiences. Therefore, we can say that translation is a text that meets the needs of readers on the basis of translation purpose.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory originated in Germany in the 1970s put forward by Hans Vermeer. It belongs to functional translation theory, in which it is the most important theory. It has a wide influence on text translation and is widely employed in translation. Vermeer believes that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any behavior has a purpose. The primary factor determining the process of translation is the purpose of translation (VERMEER HANS. J 1989:90). That is to say, translators shall exercise corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what contents of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified in the light of the translation purpose. The translation strategy depends on the needs and expectations of the target language readers or audiences. Therefore, we can say that translation is a text that meets the needs of readers on the basis of translation purpose.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 14:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> People pursuing skopos theory believe that skopos rules, coherence rule and fidelity rule should be followed in translation. The Skopos rule refers to that the translation behavior depends on the translation purpose, in other words the result determines the method; the coherence rule means that the translation must conform to the standard of intralingual coherence, namely, the translation must be comprehensible by the receiver and be meaningful in the target language communication; the faithfulness method refers to the existence of interlingual coherence between the original text and the target text, that is, the translation should be as faithful as possible to the original text (NORD C 2002,28).<br /> <br /> People pursuing skopos theory believe that skopos rules, coherence rule and fidelity rule should be followed in translation. The Skopos rule refers to that the translation behavior depends on the translation purpose, in other words the result determines the method; the coherence rule means that the translation must conform to the standard of intralingual coherence, namely, the translation must be comprehensible by the receiver and be meaningful in the target language communication; the faithfulness method refers to the existence of interlingual coherence between the original text and the target text, that is, the translation should be as faithful as possible to the original text (NORD C 2002,28).--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 14:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Among the three laws, the rule of faithfulness is subordinate to the law of coherence, and at the same time, the two laws ultimately depend on the law of purpose. The translator should first ensure that the translation can achieve the intended purpose, then ensure the coherence of the translation, and finally ensure the consistency between the translation and the original (N. Zhao 2014, 98-101). We know that different cultures have different cultural customs and their own unique values, so translation is not an act of transforming one language into another. The translator should translate based on some specific requirements, combined with the specific demands of the translation, the target readers' reading habits and cultural background.<br /> <br /> Among the three laws, the rule of faithfulness is subordinate to the law of coherence, and at the same time, the two laws ultimately depend on the law of purpose. The translator should first ensure that the translation can achieve the intended purpose, then ensure the coherence of the translation, and finally ensure the consistency between the translation and the original (N. Zhao 2014, 98-101). We know that different cultures have different cultural customs and their own unique values, so translation is not an act of transforming one language into another. The translator should translate based on some specific requirements, combined with the specific demands of the translation, the target readers' reading habits and cultural background.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 14:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===The Employment of the Translation Strategies And Translation Methods in ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' from the Perspective of Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> ====Foreignization Strategy Under the Skopos Theory====<br /> In Schleiermacher's words, the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him.&quot; (2006,229) It is shown that in translation, the language, literature and cultural characteristics of the original text should be retained to the full, and the foreign tone kept. The advantages of foreignization strategy are as follows: the structure of source language, poetic features can be introduced into the target language to enrich the expression of the target language; the target language readers can fully appreciate the exotic beauty, and thus promote the cultural exchange between different nationalities (Venuti, 1995). The defect of foreignization strategy is mainly reflected in the readability of the translation, that is, the translation may be stiff and not natural enough, which will affect the reception and dissemination of the target language among the target recipients.<br /> <br /> In Schleiermacher's words, the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him.&quot; (2006,229) It is shown that in translation, the language, literature and cultural characteristics of the original text should be retained to the full, and the foreign tone kept. The advantages of foreignization strategy are as follows: the structure of source language. Poetic features can be introduced into the target language to enrich the expression of the target language; the target language readers can fully appreciate the exotic beauty, and thus promote the cultural exchange between different nationalities (Venuti, 1995). The defect of foreignization strategy is mainly reflected in the readability of the translation, that is, the translation may be stiff and not natural enough, which will affect the reception and dissemination of the target language among the target recipients.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 14:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Literal Translation Under the Strategy of Foreignization=====<br /> Literal translation is characterized by two main features: with regard to lexical meaning and rhetoric without the use of paraphrase, which distinguishes it from free translation; in the processing of lexical and syntactic structure, appropriate changes or transformations are allowed, for example, word order transformation is used to make the translation conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language, which distinguishes literal translation from word-for-word translation (Munday, J 2008,9). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':<br /> <br /> Literal translation has two main features: in terms of lexical and rhetorical meaning, no paraphrasing is used, which is the difference between it and free translation; in terms of the treatment of lexical and syntactic structures, appropriate changes or conversions are allowed, such as the use of word order conversions, so that the translation conforms to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language, which is the difference between literal translation and word-by-word translation (Munday,J 2008,9). There are some examples taken from ''Working for the People's Happiness: 70 Years of China's Human Rights Progress'':--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 14:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 两个一百年 Two Centenary Goals; 当家作主 became masters of their country; 伟大复兴的中国梦 Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation;人类命运共同体 a global community of shared future;中共十八大 the 18th CPC National Congress;五位一体Five-point Strategy;习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想 Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era;民法通则和侵权责任法the General Principles of the Civil Law and Tort Liability Law<br /> <br /> 两个一百年 Two Centenary Goals; 当家作主 became masters of their country; 伟大复兴的中国梦 Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation;人类命运共同体 a global community of shared future;中共十八大 the 18th CPC National Congress;五位一体Five-point Strategy;习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想 Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era;民法通则和侵权责任法the General Principles of the Civil Law and Tort Liability Law--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 14:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Analysis: with the continuous advancement of China's political and economic status in recent years, China has mastered a certain voice in the international community, and initially established a unique political discourse system. Therefore, some characteristic political words can be translated literally without causing difficulties for the foreign audience to understand.<br /> <br /> Analysis: With the continuous improvement of China's political and economic status in recent years, China has grasped a certain amount of discourse power in the international community and has initially established a unique political discourse system. Therefore, some distinctive political terms can be translated literally without causing difficulties in understanding for foreign audiences.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 14:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Zero Translation Under the Strategy of Foreignization=====<br /> Zero translation does not demand any operation in translating. Some elements of the source language are directly introduced into the target language (Munday, J 2008,8). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':<br /> <br /> Example 1:中国以占全球6.6%的淡水资源和9%的耕地，养活了世界近20%的人口。<br /> China feeds approximately 20 percent of the world's population using 6.6 percent of the fresh water resources and 9 percent of the arable land of the world.<br /> With 6.6% of the world's fresh water resources and 9% of its arable land, China supports nearly 20% of the world's population.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 14:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 2:1949年末，全国城乡就业人员18082万人，其中城镇就业人员仅有1533万人，城镇失业率高达23.6%。<br /> At the end of 1949 there were 180.82 million people across the country in employment, of whom only 15.33 million worked in urban areas.<br /> At the end of 1949, 180.82 million people were employed in urban and rural areas nationwide, of whom only 15.33 million were employed in urban areas, and the urban unemployment rate was as high as 23.6%.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 14:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Analysis: the white paper contains a large number of figures to specifically describe the changes and achievements of China since the implementation of human rights. For these large numbers, it is not necessary to translate them, but to keep the Arabic numerals directly. In this way, the translation is faithful to the original text. Besides, it is in line with the purpose of publicity translation.<br /> <br /> Analysis: The White Paper uses a large number of figures to describe specifically the changes and achievements in China since the implementation of human rights. For these large numbers, there is no need to translate them, but to keep the Arabic numbers directly. In this way, the translation is faithful to the original text. In addition, this is in line with the purpose of propaganda translation.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 14:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Word-for-word translation Under the Strategy of Foreignization=====<br /> Word-for-word translation refers to the translation of the original sentence by word without considering the differences in morphology, syntax and semantics between the two languages (Munday, J 2008,7). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':<br /> Word-for-word translation is a word-for-word translation of the original sentence without considering morphological, syntactic and semantic differences between the two languages (Munday, J 2008,7). There are some examples taken from ''Working for the People's Happiness: 70 Years of China's Human Rights Progress''.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 14:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 半殖民地半封建社会 semi-colonial and semi-feudal society；改革开放 the reform and opening up；一带一路”倡议 the Belt and Road Initiative <br /> <br /> Analysis: the above political words widely emerge in various documents and news in China, and also appear in all sorts of reports of foreign media with high rate. Therefore, even if word-for-word translation of above words is taken by translators, readers can also understand translations easily without additional translation or explanation, which reflects the principle of faithfulness to the original text in skopos theory.<br /> <br /> Analysis: The above political terms appear widely in various documents and news in China, and also in a high proportion in various reports of foreign media. Therefore, even if the above words are taken word by word by translators, readers can easily understand the translation without additional translation and explanation, which reflects the principle of fidelity to the original text in skopos theory.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 14:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Domestication Strategy Under the Skopos Theory====<br /> In Schleiermacher's words, the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(2006:229). Translators should try to replace the source language, literature and culture with those being popular among the target language readers, and abide by the target language norms. The advantages of domestication are that the translation is fluent, easy to be understood and accepted by the target language recipients, or to meet the specific needs of the target language readers. The defects of domestication strategy are as follows: the loss of language, literature and cultural elements in the original text, which results in the target language recipients being deprived of the opportunity to appreciate foreign languages, literature and culture. This is not conducive to the enrichment and development of the language, literature and culture of the target country and the cultural exchange among different nationalities (Venuti,1995).<br /> <br /> In Schleiermacher's words, the translator should try to calm the reader as much as possible and let the author go to him (2006:229). The translator should try to replace the source language with a language, literature and culture that is pleasing to the target language readers, and to comply with the target language norms. The advantage of the domestication strategy is that the translation is smooth and easily understood and accepted by the target language receivers or meets the special needs of the target language readers. The disadvantage of the domestication strategy is that the loss of linguistic, literary and cultural elements in the original text results in the loss of the opportunity for the target language receivers to appreciate the foreign language, literature and culture. This is detrimental to the enrichment and development of the language, literature and culture of the target country and to the cultural exchange between different peoples (Venuti, 1995).--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Free Translation Under the Strategy of Foreignization=====<br /> The main feature of free translation is the use of paraphrase in the processing of lexical meaning and rhetoric, so as to reproduce the meaning of the original text smoothly and truly. There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':<br /> <br /> The main feature of free translation is the use of Italian translation in the treatment of word meanings and rhetoric, so that the meaning of the original text can be reproduced smoothly and authentically. There are some examples taken from ''Working for the People's Happiness: 70 Years of China's Human Rights Progress''.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 1：四个全面”战略布局Four-pronged Strategy <br /> <br /> Analysis: Four pronged refers to the rake with four teeth. Through cultural borrowing, it vividly interprets a comprehensive strategy of four pronged, to illustrate that the strategic layout includes four aspects, and the contents of the four aspects should go hand in hand. This translation reproduces the lexical and syntactic structure of the source language as well as the form of the original language.<br /> <br /> Analysis: Four-pronged refers to a rake with four teeth. Four prongs refers to a rake with four teeth. Through cultural borrowing, the comprehensive strategy of the four prongs is vividly interpreted to show that the strategic layout includes four aspects and that the four aspects should go hand in hand. This translation reproduces both the lexical and syntactic structure of the source language and the form of the original text.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 2：新时代中国特色社会主义将人民对美好生活的向往作为奋斗目标。<br /> In building socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era, the people's aspiration to live a better life is the focus of all the country's work.<br /> Socialism with Chinese characteristics in the new era takes the people's desire for a better life as the goal of struggle.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Analysis: The literal translation of “奋斗目标” is usually goal or purpose, but here it is translated as“the focus of all the country's work”，which emphasizes its importance in this context.<br /> Analysis:&quot; The literal meaning of &quot;奋斗目标&quot; is usually a target or objective, but here it is translated as &quot;the focus of all national efforts,&quot; emphasizing its importance in this context.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 3：世界各国在人权保障上没有最好，只有更好。<br /> Every country has room for improvement in protecting human rights. <br /> There is no best, only better, in human rights protection in countries around the world.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 4：个人权利只有与集体权利统一起来，才能实现人权的最大化。Individual rights can only be maximized in the context of collective rights. <br /> Individual rights can be maximized only if they are unified with collective rights.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 5：新中国成立之初，社会保障尚属空白。<br /> There was no social security system in China when the PRC was founded. <br /> There was no social security system in China when the PRC was founded. --[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 6：绿水青山就是金山银山。<br /> Lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets. <br /> Lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 7：截至2018年，西藏自治区已有117名学经僧人获得了格西“拉让巴”学位，68名僧人获得了中国藏语系高级佛学院“拓然巴”高级学衔。<br /> By 2018 a total of 117 monks from Tibet had received senior academic titles in Lhasa and 68 from the High-level Tibetan Buddhism College of China. <br /> By 2018, 117 Buddhist monks in the Tibet Autonomous Region had obtained the degree of Lajangpa in Gexi, and 68 monks had obtained the senior academic title of Tuoranpa in the Senior Buddhist College of Tibetan Language Department of China.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Analysis: In example 3, &quot;better&quot; is translated into &quot;there is still room&quot;, which uses another expression to convey the same idea. Although the expression is different, but the meaning is the same, which means that there are always more efforts needed to be put into protecting human rights. In example 4, it uses “in the context” to vividly deliver the condition that individual rights are combined with collective rights. In example 5, “空白”actually refers that social security has yet to be popularized to the public. So it can't be literally translated into “blank”. The free translation here is a good expression of the original meaning. “绿水” in example 6 is not to emphasize that the water is green, but to indicate all the clear and clean waters and the currents, so it is lucid waters. In example 7,“拉让巴”and “拓然巴” are all translated into “senior academic titles”, which make the readers directly clear about its real connotation.<br /> Analysis: In Example 3, &quot;better&quot; is translated as &quot;there is still room&quot;, which is another expression to convey the same meaning. Although the expressions are different, the meaning is the same, that is, more efforts are always needed in protecting human rights. In Example 4, it vividly expresses the condition of combining individual rights with collective rights by using &quot;situation&quot;. The &quot;gap&quot; in Example 5 actually refers to the fact that social security is not yet universal to the general public, so it cannot be literally understood as social insurance is not yet universal to the general public. Therefore, it cannot be translated literally as &quot;blank&quot;. The free translation here expresses the original meaning very well. The word &quot;green water&quot; in Example 6 does not emphasize that the water is green, but indicates that all water is clear and clean, and the water flow is green, so it is bright water. In Example 7, &quot;rajangpa&quot; and &quot;topranpa&quot; are both translated as &quot;senior academic title&quot;, so that readers can directly clarify their real connotation.--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===The Employment on the Translation Techniques in ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory===<br /> In the translation methods, apart from zero translation, transliteration and word-for-word translation, the other five translation methods will involve the usage of various translation techniques. There are many kinds of skills, but they can be generally classified into five kinds: omission, addition, division, combination and shift (M. F. Zhang 2009, 53-60). The following is a rough analysis of the translation techniques employed in ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China''.<br /> <br /> ====Omission Under Translation Skills====<br /> Omission refers to the deletion of some complicated and redundant words, sentences or even paragraphs in the original text according to the needs of morphology, syntax, semantics, rhetoric or style of the target language, or due to some specific cultural norms of the target language (Reiss K 1971). By doing so, the original ideas can be expressed more concisely and smoothly, and then the translation can better achieve the specific translation purposes. There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':<br /> <br /> Example 1: 中国人权事业的命脉所在、根本所在。<br /> the foundations for the cause of human rights in China. <br /> <br /> Example 2: 国家提出经济建设、政治建设、文化建设、社会建设、生态文明建设“五位一体”总体布局，使每个人的经济、政治、文化、社会、环境权利能够得到充分保障。<br /> It puts forward the Five-point Strategy (promoting economic, political, cultural, social, and environmental progress in a coordinated way), so every citizen's rights can be fully protected in each of these spheres. <br /> <br /> Example 3：中国的粮食总产量由1949年的11318万吨提高到2018年的65789万吨，耕地灌溉面积由1949年的1594万公顷扩大到2018年的6810万公顷。<br /> Total grain output soared from 113.18 million tons in 1949 to 657.89 million tons in 2018, and the area of irrigated farmland from 15.94 million ha in 1949 to 68.1 million ha in 2018. <br /> <br /> Example 4：中国从根本上消除了饥饿，持续改善了人民的营养水平。<br /> It has succeeded in improving nutrition and eradicating hunger. <br /> <br /> Example 5：截至2018年，全国已有84%的行政村实现生活垃圾收运处置体系基本覆盖。<br /> By 2018, 84 percent of all administrative villages were provided with garbage treatment. <br /> <br /> Analysis: in example 1, “命脉”and “根本” are all used to express the necessity of the cause of human rights, thus one of them can be omitted. In example 2, “economic, political, cultural, social and environmental spheres” has been mentioned in the preceding sentence, so the latter one can replace them with “each of these spheres”. In example 3 the verbs in the first and second sentences are both “soar”，so the latter one can directly be left out by the rules of English grammar. Example 4 directly through the phrase “has succeeded in” to show the results. &quot;从根本上&quot; and “水平” of “营养水平” is to emphasize with no much necessity in the translation, whose omission does not affect the original meaning. Example 5 only use the passive voice of &quot;provide&quot; that can succinctly and lucidly express the original meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 6：因为有了新中国70年，中国人民的生活才更加幸福美满；因为有了新中国70年，我们的世界才更加繁荣发展；因为有了新中国70年，人类社会才更加丰富多彩。<br /> As a result of the developments that have taken place in the PRC over the 70 years, the people of China are living a happier life, the world is more prosperous, and human society is more diverse and colorful. <br /> <br /> Analysis: &quot;因为有了新中国70年&quot; has been repeated three times to strengthen the tone. While in the translation, it is only referred once to avoid wordiness. There are several other same translations using this skill in the following text. A large number of parallelisms often appear in Chinese political texts. When studying the translation of these sentences, we can find one thing in common, that is, repeated words can be translated only once, which reflects the concise characteristics of English language.<br /> <br /> ====Addition Under Translation Skills====<br /> Additional translation refers to the reasonable and appropriate addition of certain words, sentences or paragraphs to the translation according to the needs of the morphology, syntax, semantics, rhetoric or style of the target language, or subject to certain norms of the target language, so as to better express the content of the original text and better realize the specific translation purpose (Shuttleworth, M. &amp;M. Cowie 2004). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':<br /> <br /> Example 1：人权是历史的、发展的。<br /> Human rights are a historical and developmental concept. <br /> <br /> Example 2：人类社会发展经验 the experience gained in human social development<br /> <br /> Example 3：中国共产党带领人民深刻总结我国社会主义建设正反两方面经验。<br /> Under the leadership of the CPC, the people review experiences and lessons drawn from socialist construction.<br /> <br /> Analysis: Example 1 adds “concept”；Example 2 adds “gain”, a verb, to show the source of experience；Example 3 adds “lessons”, because experiences and lessons can be regarded as a pair of phrases that always appear together.<br /> <br /> Example 4：改善城市和农村人居环境，开展生态修复、城市修补……生活垃圾收运处置体系建设。<br /> Efforts have been made in several areas: improving the living environment in cities……transporting and disposing of household garbage in rural areas.<br /> <br /> Example 5：国家建立了最低生活保障制度、最低工资保障制度……中小学义务教育制度等。 <br /> Chinese government has put into place a number of systems and mechanisms, including those dealing with subsistence allowances, the minimum wage……and compulsory education (primary and middle schools). <br /> <br /> Analysis: Summary phrases have been added in several parts of the white paper to make the text clearer. Example 4 adds “efforts” to be the subject in order to clearly state what has been done by China；example 5 uses “systems and mechanisms” to outline its specific content one by one. <br /> <br /> Example 6：新时代中国特色社会主义着眼于实现“两个一百年”奋斗目标和中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦。<br /> In building socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era, China focuses on achieving the Two Centenary Goals and realizing the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation. <br /> <br /> Example 7：依法保障宗教信仰自由。<br /> China protects freedom of religious belief in accordance with the law. <br /> <br /> Example 8：建立起世界上覆盖人口最多的社会保障制度。<br /> China has established a social security system that covers the largest population in the world.<br /> <br /> Example 9：尊重和保障人权 We must respect and guarantee human rights.<br /> <br /> Analysis: when translating a Chinese sentence without subject into English, the subject mentioned above should be added in translation. Because in Chinese discourse, when the subject appears, it can be omitted in later sentences. As a hypotaxis language, English is stricter with its language structure. As an important part of a sentence, the subject cannot be omitted. Therefore, in examples 6-9, the subjects of “China” and “we” are added to the sentence to make the sentence complete.<br /> <br /> ====Division Under Translation Skills====<br /> Division refers to dividing a sentence into two or more sentences, which can effectively solve the translation difficulties of long complex sentences and satisfy the expression habits of the target language and the reading habits of the audience (Shuttleworth, M. &amp;M. Cowie 2004). There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':<br /> <br /> Example 1: 中国共产党的领导，是中国人民能够享有人权并不断享有更加充分人权的根本保证，是全体中国人民的利益所在、幸福所在。 <br /> The Party's leadership is the fundamental guarantee for the people of China to have access to human rights, and to fully enjoy more human rights. This leadership is therefore in the interests of all people of China, critical for their pursuit of a happy life. <br /> <br /> Example 2: 中国特色社会主义将“人权得到切实尊重和保障”作为全面建成小康社会的重要目标，从战略层面确立了人权事业的重要地位。<br /> In building socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era, full respect for and protection of human rights is an important goal of China's endeavors to build a moderately prosperous society in all respects. This establishes the importance of human rights from a strategic perspective. <br /> <br /> Example 3: 多年来，中国始终把解决人民的生存权、实现人民的发展权作为第一要务，不断解放和发展生产力，致力于消除贫困，提高发展水平，为保障人民各项权利的实现创造了基础条件。<br /> Prioritizing people's rights to subsistence and development, China has committed to liberating and developing productive forces, eliminating poverty, and enhancing its level of development. All this has laid the foundation for fulfilling the various rights of the people.<br /> <br /> Example 4: 坚持人民在人权事业中的主体地位，把人民利益摆在至高无上的位置，让人民过上好日子，使发展成果更多更公平地惠及全体人民，让每个人更好地发展自我、幸福生活，让每个人都能够免于恐惧、不受威胁，是实现人人享有更加充分人权的真谛所在。<br /> For everyone to fully enjoy human rights, we must uphold the people-centered approach……and ensure a good life for the people. We must ensure that the fruits of development offer greater benefits to all the people in a fair way……and prevent them from fear and threat. <br /> <br /> Example 5: 国际社会应秉持和平、发展、公平、正义、民主、自由的人类共同价值，维护人的尊严和权利，推动形成更加公正合理包容的全球人权治理。<br /> The international community should uphold the shared values of humanity – peace, development, fairness, justice, democracy and freedom. It must safeguard human dignity and rights, and strive for fairer, more reasonable and inclusive global human rights governance.<br /> <br /> Example 6: 多年来，中国政府通过改革农村土地制度，稳定和完善农村土地承包关系，大力推进农田水利设施建设，使农业综合生产能力不断提升，主要农产品产量稳定增长。<br /> Over the years the Chinese government has carried out rural land reforms to stabilize and improve land contracting system in rural areas. With improved irrigation infrastructure, China's agriculture has seen a continuing rise in productivity and steady increase in the output of main agricultural products.<br /> <br /> Analysis: In example 1-6, the syntax is too long and there are too many clauses. Therefore, in order to avoid the syntax being too complicated, it is necessary to split it. At the same time, there are many non-subject sentences in Chinese while English sentences usually have subjects. Therefore, when translating Chinese sentences without subject into English, translators need to complete the subject of most sentences according to the context. For example, add pronouns “it”, “this”, or start with preposition &quot;with&quot;. In this case, the translated sentences will make the readers more relaxed and comfortable in reading.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Combination Under Translation Skills====<br /> Combination refers to combining two or more sentences in the original text into one sentence. There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':<br /> <br /> Example 1: 1982年，第五届全国人大五次会议通过了现行宪法。宪法明确规定了中国社会主义民主的主要内容和基本形态。<br /> In 1982, the Fifth Session of the Fifth NPC adopted the current Constitution of the PRC, which clearly defines the substance and basic form of socialist democracy.<br /> <br /> Example 2: 中国努力通过发展增进人民福祉，实现更加充分的人权保障。China strives to enhance people's wellbeing through development in order to better protect their human rights.<br /> <br /> Analysis: Example 1 combines the two sentences with “which”, making the text more compact. In example 2, the combination is realized by “in order to”, which reflects the logical connection between sentences, and the purpose is clearer.<br /> <br /> ====Shift Under Translation Skills====<br /> =====Shift From Active Voice to Passive Voice=====<br /> There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':<br /> <br /> Example 1：在新中国成立前夕，通过了具有临时宪法作用的《中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领》。<br /> The Common Program of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, which was adopted on the eve of the founding of the PRC and served as the provisional Constitution of China.<br /> <br /> Example 2：第一届全国人民代表大会第一次会议通过的《中华人民共和国宪法》。<br /> The 1954 Constitution of the PRC, which was adopted at the First Session of the First National People's Congress (NPC).<br /> <br /> Example 3：应当尊重人权发展道路的多样性<br /> Diversity in developing human rights should be respected.<br /> <br /> Example 4：尊重和保障人权 <br /> Human rights are respected and guaranteed.<br /> <br /> Example 5：在当代中国的人权实践中，既重视集体人权的发展，又重视个人人权的保障。<br /> In China, equal attention has been paid to developing collective rights and ensuring individual rights.<br /> <br /> Analysis: Chinese uses more active voice while English more passive voice. Therefore, in the translation of the original sentences, the subject is put in front and the passive voice is used. In addition, Chinese often express the logical relations between words and sentences by context and word order while English needs clear connectives to express them. Therefore, it is often necessary to add connective words to express logical relations in translation from Chinese to English.<br /> <br /> =====Class Shift=====<br /> There are some examples extracted from ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China'':<br /> <br /> Example 1: 从1950年起，对国营厂矿交通企业的生产和管理制度进行民主改革，建立工厂管理委员会和职工代表大会 。<br /> The democratic reform of the production and management of state-owned factories, mines, and transportation operators that started in 1950 set up factory management committees and workers' congresses in these entities.<br /> Here the verb“民主改革”is shifted to a noun, and leads this sentence, which stresses the role of it.<br /> <br /> Example 2人民基本居住条件显著改善。Improved housing conditions. <br /> <br /> Example 3饮水安全获得切实保障。Safe drinking water. <br /> <br /> Example 4国民健康水平持续提高。Better health for the people. <br /> <br /> Example 5 经济凋敝、民不聊生 a shattered economy, a destitute populace<br /> <br /> Analysis: In example 2-4, all the verbs are shifted to adjectives in above sentences, which become neater and terser. In example 5,“民不聊生” means ordinary people is too hard and poor to survive themselves. If just literally translate it like above, the sentence will not so succinct or regular as well as not conform to the sentence structure of four characters in parallelism.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> This text introduces ''Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China''. Because the white paper is a typical central document published by government, propagating the concept of human rights, practical measures and gains, and takes the comprehensive and accurate introduction as the purpose. What’s more, it is closely related to national interests and national image.<br /> <br /> Based on its political characteristics, this paper studies its translation strategies, methods and techniques from the perspective of Skopos theory, and finds that the difference between the Chinese version and the English version is mainly due to the different readers. The English version is aimed at English audiences, and linguistic form and culture in England are different from China’s. For example, English uses more passive voice, while Chinese uses active voice; when translating Chinese without subject into English, except those passive voice translations, the correct subject should be added into the translation; English focuses more on logic and connection while Chinese on the meaning and content of text. <br /> <br /> The differences may affect readers' understanding of the translation. Therefore, in the process of translation, translators should use appropriate translation techniques and methods according to their differences. Moreover, for such a political report, there are many official words, long sentences and heavy emphases on tone. Thus, the techniques of literal translation, division, addition and subtraction are frequently used. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation takes into account not only the function and purpose of the original text, but also the receptivity of the audience and the effect of the translation. Through the study of this white paper, we can see that translators need to stand on the perspective of the audience in the white paper translation, should shift from Chinese language patterns to western with facility, use appropriate translation methods, strategies and techniques, and be faithful to the original content in order to translate political intent clearly and accurately. In this way, misinterpretation, leaking and unclear translation can be avoided, so as to let foreign audiences can quickly and efficiently receive the information that the original text intends to pass on. This study can provide theoretical basis and good ideas for the future translators to find the best translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Catford, J. C. (1965/2000). ''Translation Shift''. In Venuti, L.(ed.).<br /> <br /> [2]Munday, J. (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies Theories and Applications'' (2nd ed.) . London &amp;New York: Routledge.<br /> <br /> [3]M. F. Zhang. (2009). Text Typology Theory and Its Implications for Translation Studies. ''Chinese Translators Journal'', vol.30.<br /> <br /> [4]N. Zhao. (2014). Translation of Categorical Words in Chinese from the Perspective of Thinking Difference between China and the West, ''Journal of Anyang Normal University.''<br /> <br /> [5]Nida, E A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J. Brilll.<br /> <br /> [6]NORD C. (2002). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity—functionalist Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> [7]Pinkham Joan. (2000). ''The Translator's guide to Chinglish''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> [8]Reiss K. (1971). Text Types, ''Translation Types and Translation Assessment//Chesterman A. Readings in Translation Theory''. Finland: Oy Finn Lectura Ab.<br /> <br /> [9]Shuttleworth, M. &amp;M. Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> [10]Vinay, J. P &amp;J. Darbelnet. (2020). ''A Methodology for Translation''. Trans. by J.C. Sager &amp;M. Hamel. In Venuti, L.(ed.).<br /> <br /> [11]Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China.(2019).''The Journal of Human Rights''.<br /> <br /> [12]VERMEER HANS. J. (1989). ''Skopos and Commission in Translational Action.'' ANDREW CHESTERMA. Readings in Translation. Helsinki: Oy Finn Leetura Ab. <br /> <br /> [13]He Jiaying 何嘉莹, et al.(2020). &quot;翻译目的论视角下英语新闻的编译策略——基于江苏某科技组织微信公众号平台和南方某高校外国语学院英文网站建设.&quot; [Translation Strategy Is Based on the Skopos Theory: The Construction of English News Website Based on the Official Account of WeChat, A Science And Technology Organization in Jiangsu, and the English Website of A Foreign Language College in Southern China.] 科技传播 Science And Technology Communication.<br /> <br /> [14]Luo Mazhang 罗新璋.(1984). 翻译论集[Translation Volume]. 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: Commercial Press.<br /> <br /> [15]Ma Huijuan, Miao Ju 马会娟，苗菊. (2009). 当代西方翻译理论宣读[Reading of Contemporary Western Translation Theories].北京：外语研究与教学出版社 Beijing: Foreign Language Research And Teaching Press.<br /> <br /> [16]Xiong Bing 熊兵.(2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”为例 [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: A Case Study of &quot; Translation Strategies &quot;, &quot; Translation Methods &quot; And &quot; Translation Techniques &quot;] 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal.<br /> <br /> [17]Information Office of the State Council of the people's Republic of China 中华人民共和国国务院新闻办公室. (2019). &quot;为人民谋幸福：新中国人权事业发展70年&quot; [Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China]. 人民日报 People’s Daily.<br /> <br /> ==Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” to “Visibility” 胡百辉 Hu Baihui 202070080590 MTI==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;胡百辉 Hu Baihui 202070080590&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on translator’s subjectivity from translator’s “invisibility” to “visibility”. As we all know, the translator is the subject of translation, by whom the meaning of the translated text is conveyed. However, the invisibility of translator has always been emphasized in the traditional theory of translation. Until 1970s, with the “cultural turn”, the translators’ role has been redefined and their subjectivity in translation has caught much attention. As a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects. In addtion, the current challenges should also be identified and dealt with. Translators should give full play to their subjective initiative and deal with the relationship between them.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translator’s subjectivity; Invisibility; Visibility.<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 译者主体性：从“隐形”到“显性”<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 本章从译者的“隐形”到“显形”论述译者的主体性。众所周知，译者是翻译的主体，翻译文本意义的传达是通过译者实现的。然而，传统译论一直强调译者在翻译中“隐形”。直到20世纪70年代出现了翻译研究的“文化转向”，才重新定义了译者的角色，其主体性才得到关注。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点，我们不能简单说译者的角色从“隐形”转化为“显性”，而是从多个方面探讨，并且关注和解决其面临的挑战。译者要合理发挥自己的主观能动性，合理地处理二者之间的关系。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 译者主体性；“隐形”；“显性”。<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The translator's “invisibility” and “visibility” have always been a controversial topic in the field of translation, and both of which have their own theoretical basis and purpose; however, both of them are the result of the exertion of the translator's subjective initiative. These arguments are not to prove who is right and who is wrong, but to enrich the arguments in the process of proving their personal views or persuading others, so as to perfect the relevant theories. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 128)<br /> <br /> For a long time, the translator's subjectivity has been one of the focuses of scholars, but the role of translators in translation activities has always been neglected. It was not until the “cultural turn” in the 1970s that translators and some scholars began to study and discuss this issue. There are some translation theories in the West that face the target culture. So with these translation theories that oriented toward target culture, the scholars will inevitably do some research in translator’s subjectivity. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129) <br /> <br /> At present, there are many researches on translator's subjectivity in China. This shows that the study of translator's subjectivity is deepening day by day. The translator should not continue to be invisible in the process of translation. The translator's subjectivity will directly affect the translator selecting words and sentences and the style of translation. In short, at present, the status of translator and translator's subjectivity are highly praised in the field of translation studies. However, it should be emphasized that in today's information technology era, the translator's subjectivity is not only valued, but also faced with great challenges. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> ===Translator's Subjectivity===<br /> <br /> Traditional translation theories often neglect the study of translator's subjectivity, but tend to explore the linguistic level of the translated text. Therefore, translation, as a dynamic process, is often ignored and the translator's subjective factors are not paid enough attention. On the one hand, the traditional translation view, holds that translation is not creative and can not be compared with creation. On the other hand, it is against advocating the translator's subjectivity and creativity, and requires the translator to worship the original author, which also tends to the original. &quot;And the traditional role of translator was identified as the “servant” of the author, while assessing fidelity to the original text was primary. Pulled between the two poles: fidelity and treason, the translator faced the dilemma of lacking independence and subjectivity&quot; (Shufen Huang 2019, 100). Now it seems that this view of negating translator's subjectivity is unreasonable.<br /> <br /> As mentioned in the abstract, attention to the translator’s subjectivity did not arise until the 1970s, when Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefevere have come up with the idea of “the cultural turn”. They stated that translation is not the simple transform between two languages, it goes in special cultural environment. &quot;And studies on the role of translators as well as the function of their subjectivity in the translating process have begun to flourish. However, the role of the translator and his subjectivity have been renewed and affirmed with the development of translation theory and translating activities. In the transitional years for translation studies, new translation theories were proposed&quot;(Shufen Huang 2019, 100). &quot;Those influential translation series, such as the polysystem theory and manipulation school have integrated researches on translator’s subjectivity into their massive system respectively&quot; (Zhiwei Gu 2017,24). At present, the study of translator's subjectivity is emerging in an endless stream.<br /> <br /> ====1. Definition of Translator's Subjectivity====<br /> <br /> According to Za Mingjian and Tian Yu, translator’s subjectivity can be defined that on the premise of respecting the translation text, the translator shows his subjective initiative in order to achieve the purpose of translation. Its basic characteristics are the cultural consciousness, humanistic character, cultural and aesthetic creativity of the translator. And the essential characteristics of the translator’s subjectivity refer to the translator’s “active cultural consciousness”, “human character” and “ascetic creativeness”. (Zha MIingjian, Tian Yu 2003, 22)<br /> <br /> ====2. Related Theories on Translator's Subjectivity====<br /> <br /> In the 1970s, some scholars proposed the idea of “culture turn”, and since then many scholars such as Susan Bassnett (1980), Theo Hermans(1985), Andre Lefevere(1992), Tejaswini Niranjana (1992), Lawrence Venuti(1995), and Douglas Robinson (1997) have made studies on translator’s subjectivity. The issue of translator's cultural identity and subjectivity has naturally become an important research topic. While in China, some scholars studying in translation theory have conducted in-depth study in the translator’s subjectivity since the 1980s. In recent years, there are many papers on the study of translator's subjectivity.<br /> <br /> The studies on translator’s subjectivity of some typical schools will be introduced as follows. <br /> <br /> =====2.1 Polysystem Theory=====<br /> <br /> This theory is introduced by Tynjanov, and he argues that &quot;elements do not exist in isolation, but always in an interrelationship with other elements of other systems&quot; (Even-Zohar, Itamar 1979, 287). Actually, Tynjanov is a cultural theorist, but his polysystem theory has made the study on translator more popular. But his pioneering work continues to exert considerable influence on translation, particularly when studying translation in emerging cultures or cultures in crisis. He said, it is necessary to include translated literature in the polysystem. &quot;And through studies on the translated edition, it provides a feasible way to reconsider issues like the proper translator, suitable network on translation edition, translating adequacy and so on. This theory ushers in the cultural shift paves the way for the appearance of manipulation school&quot; (Zhiwei Gu 2017,24).<br /> <br /> =====2.2 Manipulation School=====<br /> <br /> The name of manipulation school was given by the title of a collection of essays edited by Theo Hermans(1985), The Manipulation of Literature:Studies in Literature Translation, which gathers a number of studies by scholars such as Van Gorp and Andre Lefevere. &quot;From the point of view of the target literature, all translation implies a degree of manipulation of the source text for a certain purpose&quot; (Hermans 1985, 30), said Hermans. They sited that &quot;translating is rewriting”, which is the foundation of the manipulation school. They have made the translation studies shift from the source-text oriented to target-text oriented. In their opinion, translators have their own feelings for the source text, and they respond to their intuitive feeling, and render the source text in the target culture.<br /> <br /> ====3. Factors Influencing the Translator's Subjectivity====<br /> <br /> The exertion of translator's subjectivity runs through the whole process of translation activities. When different translators read the same article, their understanding varied. Also when selecting words, choosing translation strategies, the translators would have their own opinions. Understanding the factors that influence the translator's subjectivity makes great contribution to the study of the translator's translation style and characters. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)<br /> <br /> =====3.1 The historical background of translator=====<br /> <br /> The historical background determines the criteria of value evaluation of translation, which also leads to the trend of mainstream translation style. The era in which translators live will limit the breadth and depth of their understanding. Therefore, the former translation standards may no longer conform to the contemporary development. It took a long time for the translator's position to rise from invisibility to visibility. Yan Fu, a famous translator in China at the end of the 19th century, has put forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. At this time, China was written in classical Chinese, so the “elegance” here means that the translation should be elegant and be translated in classical Chinese. <br /> <br /> Since the May Fourth New Culture Movement, vernacular gradually replaces classical Chinese. Translators begin to translate a large number of classic works of Marxism Leninism, literary theory, progressive literary works of Soviet Union and other countries. Therefore, the translation at this time emphasizes the plainness and energy. So in 1979, Liu Zhongde, a translation theorist, has come up with a new translation criteria of “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, which is accepted by the majority now. Different background determines different criteria of translation value, and the change of criteria also leads the trend of mainstream translation style, with obvious era brand. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Translator's bilingual cultural competence=====<br /> <br /> The translator's bilingual cultural competence includes linguistic knowledge and cultural knowledge. When translating an article, the translator accepts the cultural influence of the original text and brings the translation into another culture. The coordination of the two cultures reflects the translator's bilingual cultural ability,which directly affects the translator's choice of translation strategies. In general, if the translator has a strong native language ability, he tends to choose the “domestication” strategy when translating the foreign language into the native language. On the contrary, when translating the native language into a foreign language, the translator often uses the strategy of “foreignization” because he can't find the corresponding foreign language expressions. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21) <br /> <br /> This is often seen in the translation of literary works and proverbs. It rains dogs and cats, which means it rains heavily. When translating into Chinese, it should be “大雨倾盆”. If this sentence is translated words by words, the target readers will not understand it. In fact, it is obvious in translation whether a translator's bilingual ability is good enough.If not, it will often make errors.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Understanding of the original=====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, only when the translator has a thorough understanding of the meaning of the original can he accurately convey the meaning of the original to the readers. As a saying goes,&quot; A thousand readers make a thousand Hamlets &quot;. There is a growing tendency to believe that it is the reader that decides the meaning of the literary text. <br /> <br /> Zhu Shenghao, a famous translator in China, has translated a lot of Shakespeare's works in his life. Shakespeare's works began to be introduced and translated in China at the beginning of last century. Zhu Shenghao is recognized as an early translator of Shakespeare's works in China, and his translation style has also been highly recognized. Different from the chronological arrangement of the Oxford edition, he divides the works into comedy, tragedy, historical drama and zaju, which are arranged in a self-contained system. Since he has a thorough understanding of the original, he could rewrite and rearrangement it and his translation text is well received at home and abroad. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 22)<br /> <br /> In a word, the process of translation is also a process of recreation. Under the new study of translation theory, the translator's subjectivity is encouraged and supported, but it needs to be limited. In the process of translation, the translator can always choose their preferred translation strategy and style, and fully develop your own style and characteristics in the translation. In this context, it is always restricted by the original work, and can't be separated from the original meaning. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 22)<br /> <br /> ===The Influence of Translator's Invisibility and Visibility on Translator's Subjectivity===<br /> <br /> In literary translation, the word &quot;invisibility&quot; refers to &quot;the translator should insist on the translation in a smooth and accurate way, and can not add the translator's emotion&quot;; while &quot;apparent&quot; is put forward according to the opposite of &quot;invisibility&quot;, which means that the translator can put his own subjective feelings into literary translation, At the same time, in literary translation, the fact is that there are some differences in the transformation of language symbol system to make reasonable and appropriate explanation of words, sentence processing, space structure reconstruction and other forms of translation through their own understanding.Translator should fully make use of it. (Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 71) <br /> <br /> Cultural differences refer to different cultural styles in different cultural environments. Cultural differences also provide a more free creative environment for translators. Specifically, they can display their own unique styles by refining words, sending sentences and making sentences. This difference leads to the inevitable existence of the translator's &quot;appearance&quot;.(Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 71)<br /> <br /> 1. Translator's invisibility<br /> <br /> The traditional translation theory focuses on the issue of language, focusing on how the ideal translator should do and what kind of requirements a perfect translation should achieve. It tries its best to eliminate the translator's traces in language and cultural transformation, and faithfully and completely convey all the information of the original work.<br /> <br /> According to the traditional translation theory, the translator should be invisible, that is, to achieve &quot;transparency&quot; and &quot;invisibility&quot;. The &quot;transparency&quot; of the translation requires the translator to strive to achieve fluenct, while the &quot;invisibility&quot; refers to that the target readers should not see the trace and influence of the translator when reading the translation text. &quot;The translator's invisibility depends on the following three conditions, which are often emphasized in the traditional translation theory: first, the translator should not incorporate his own subjective idea into the translation; second, the translator should not show his own personality in the translation; third, the translator should take the original text as the basis.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2003). <br /> <br /> In a word, &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;equivalence&quot; should be achieved in translation. The criterion of &quot;faithfulness&quot; also contributes to the tendency of traditional translation theories to neglect the translator's subjectivity. The traditional translation theories would emphasize to eliminate the differences in language, even some extreme domestication translation, even cultural differences. In domestication, the translator seems to be invisible. But the fact is that in order to meet the requirements of the target language and cultural norms, and get the recognition of the target language readers, the translator will spare no effort to exert his subjective initiative, which is the process of subject intervention. In this process, the translator should give full play to his subjectivity and bring his subjective idea into play. Therefore, on the surface, the translator seems to be &quot;invisible&quot;, but in essence, this &quot;invisibility&quot; is also the result of the translator's subjective initiative, which is the translator's conscious choice and abandonment. (Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 72)<br /> <br /> 2. Translator's visibility<br /> <br /> In the 1970s, some scholars proposed the idea of “culture turn”, and since then many scholars have made studies on translator’s subjectivity. The issue of translator's cultural identity and subjectivity has naturally become an important research topic. The most familiar one is the Translator's Invisibility by American scholar Lawrence Venuti. In this book, he put forward the concepts of “foreignization” and “domestication”. According to his view, “domestication” emphasizes fluency and smoothness in order to minimize the exotic flavor in the translation and provide a natural and fluent translation for the target language readers.(Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006) <br /> <br /> However, “foreignization” is intended to break through the conventions of the target language, retain the exotic flavor in the original text, and inject the linguistic and cultural differences in foreign texts into the target language. He called on translators to &quot;resist&quot; and adopt poor translation. &quot;Venuti believes that foreignization translation can not bring about the improvement of faithfulness. On the contrary, it is a misuse of faithfulness. Not only will some features of the original language be lost, but also new things will be added.&quot; (Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)<br /> <br /> As a result, the translator appears and the independent status of translation is revealed. In the actual translation process, the translator deliberately uses the &quot;resistance&quot; translation strategy to retain the expression and sentence pattern of the original text, so as to avoid the smooth translation. In this context, the readers can clearly feel that what they are reading is the translation, thus feeling the existence of the translator, reflecting the creativity of the translator and highlighting the role of the translator. (Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)<br /> <br /> ===The Challenge of Translator's Subjectivity===<br /> <br /> As the focus of translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be limited to the transformation from being ignored to being valued, but should be found and faced up to the challenges it is facing from a comprehensive perspective.<br /> <br /> 1. The challenge of modern information technology to translator's Subjectivity<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of modern information technology, translation activities can be completed efficiently in a short time. In the past, translation was time-consuming and laborious, and the executor was the translator. Now, with the emergence of translation software and machines, the subject of translation activities has been increased in the traditional sense. These modern technologies have become the active elements in translation activities, which has caused a challenge to the translator's subjectivity. In some occasions where the requirements for translation are low and there is a certain tolerance for translation errors, translators have completely retired from the background. Because software and machines are supported by powerful corpora, they cover a wide range of fields, can process all kinds of texts, and can produce high-quality translations in a short time. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the target language readers can quickly get the original translation through the translation software or machine. In addition, in other occasions where translation requirements are high, translators with the help of translation software and various tools can not only shorten the translation time, but also obtain the translation with high accuracy. However, without the help of translation software and other tools, the translator needs to spend time to mobilize the initiative of all aspects, which can not be as fast and efficient as the machine assisted. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> There is no doubt that a series of modern information technology has played a positive role, which requires the translator not only to have the consciousness of language operation, cultural characteristics, artistic creation, aesthetic standards and humanistic character, but also to closely combine his own ability with modern information technology and have the ability to skillfully apply translation software and various auxiliary tools, However, the excessive dependence of translators on translation software can not be ignored. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> Some translators are eager for quick success and instant benefit, and make use of translation software and machines to make them become money making accelerators and produce poor quality translation works. In the mixed translation market, there are not a few translators who completely rely on machine for translation with only minor modifications. In the absence of machine translation, translation activities mainly rely on the translator's mental operation, and the translator's subjectivity can be brought into full play. <br /> <br /> But now, with the shortcut of translation, some translators can't help being lazy, which makes the most important part of the translation activities to fully display the translator's demeanor and play the translator's subjectivity lose its significance and turn into mechanical language output. In this process, the translator is satisfied with the convenience of machine translation and ignores the full play of the translator's subjectivity. Although translation tools can speed up the translation and improve the quality of translation in the process of translation activities, the excessive dependence on translation tools poses a challenge to the translator's subjectivity. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> 2. The challenge of the era to the translator's Subjectivity<br /> <br /> In the past, professional translators always had to practice a lot of translation, combined with their preferences and strengths, to be able to translate works of interest to people. Many famous translations were produced at that time. Now, with the “one belt, one road” and the common destiny of mankind, the political, economic and cultural exchanges between China and other countries are becoming more frequent. More and more translators need to be served as bridges. The increasing number of translators and the professionalization of translation make translation a means of livelihood. <br /> <br /> The common existence of translation companies makes the threshold of becoming a translator too low, which reduces the requirement of translators' competence to a certain extent. From the recruitment information released by various companies, it can be found that many companies place too much emphasis on the language proficiency of interpreters, and they do not attach importance to translation experience or request to check relevant translation works, and neglect to investigate whether the translator's subjectivity, which reflects their profound skills, is fully exerted in their works. At present, the requirement of the translator's ability to survive in the field of translation has been reduced. Translation activities have become a kind of assembly line operation, and the translators participating in the assembly line have also changed from elite translators with strong translation ability to mechanical translation product producers. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129) <br /> <br /> From this point of view, professionalization also prose challenges on the translator's subjectivity. With the continuous updating of the information in various fields, the powerful corpus behind the translation software and machine can not be updated automatically, so it is necessary for the translator to explore the untranslated fields in order to obtain the relevant corpus to fill the corpus. From this point of view, as the subject of translation activities with individual thinking, translators must be prior to machines. If they excessively rely on modern technology, they will despise their initiative of thinking and choosing translation strategies in the process of translation, and can not give full play to the translator's subjectivity. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> 3.The rational exertion of translator's subjective initiative<br /> <br /> The translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;manifestation&quot; are both the manifestation of subjectivity, and have their specific social and theoretical background. &quot;Translation is the active creative activity of the subject and the author's own language experience. Only through the translator's translation and interpretation can the text survive. The original text needs the participation of the translator's subject to help it obtain new life. The objective &quot;uncertainty&quot; needs to be filled and processed by the translator, so that the original intention of the composition can be revealed &quot; (Wang Zhengliang, Ma Tan, 2010). <br /> <br /> However, this kind of filling and processing is not random. Before translation, translators should first confirm whether their own conditions and temperament can adapt to the original text, and then translate the original composition. If the translated text is translated and interpreted at will, it will exaggerate the translator's autonomy to control the original work, and overemphasizes the translator's intervention in the work and the translator's interpretation space. Even under the banner of respecting the translator's identity and status and highlighting the translator's subjectivity, it is difficult to avoid the suspicion of &quot;overcorrection&quot;. In this process, we should pay attention to the influence of the mainstream ideology in the historical background of the translator. (Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 130) <br /> <br /> When there is a conflict the ideology between the translator and the target culture, there are many translators in history who delete and change the original content in order to conform to the mainstream ideology and exert their subjective initiative. When the source language poetics is different from the target language poetics, the translator also needs to play an active role in mediating the differences between the two poetics, so as to make the translation get new life in the target language.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 130)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Many scholars have put forward their own views on the translator's subjectivity. However, few scholars have mentioned the challenge to the translator's subjectivity. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the challenges faced by translators' subjectivity. On the one hand, translators are required to improve their ability to exert their subjective initiative, closely integrate their own abilities with modern information technology, learn and skillfully apply various translation software, search tools, corpus and other auxiliary tools to improve the speed and quality of translation, On the other hand, the translator should be warned not to rely solely on the tool while neglecting the translator's subjectivity. The translator's subjectivity is an important support for our translation research and translation activities. We must face up to the challenges and actively deal with them.<br /> <br /> Translation is a process of gradual development and change, not a process of translating one language into another. Translators should fully understand, be familiar with and be familiar with the cultural differences in the original language in order to realize the true transmission of the original content. According to &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;manifestation&quot; in contemporary literary translation, we should know &quot;invisibility&quot; when necessary to ensure the fluency of language. According to Venuti's viewpoint of &quot;invisibility or invisibility is to make the translator invisible&quot;, we can better understand the meaning of &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator, and pay attention to the application effect of &quot;manifestation&quot; when necessary, which can not only make people pay attention to the translator, At the same time, it also reflects the cultural differences and image understanding in the process of reading. Therefore, the choice of &quot;invisible&quot; or &quot;explicit&quot; in translation is worth considering.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. (1979). &quot;Polysystem Theory&quot;. Poetics Today (1) 287.<br /> <br /> Hermans, Theo. (1985). &quot;The Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;. London and Sydney: Croom Helm. (12) 30.<br /> <br /> Lan Hongjun 蓝红军. (2017). 译者主体性困境与翻译主体性建构 [Translator's subjectivity dilemma and construction of translation subjectivity]. 上海翻译 Shanghai Translation Journal (2) 21-27.<br /> <br /> Li Hua, Li Guochao 李华,李国超. (2019). 文学翻译中译者的“隐身”与“显形”——以《第十个人》翻译中人物形象的塑造为例[J] [The translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;manifestation&quot; in Literary Translation--Taking the creation of characters in the translation of the Tenth Man as an example]. 智库时代 Think Tank Tines (42) 130-132.<br /> <br /> Li Yingying, Lan Jie 李盈盈,兰杰. (2014). 浅谈翻译中的译者主体性 [On the translator's subjectivity in Translation]. 考试周刊 Weekly examination (24) 21-22.<br /> <br /> Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 李铮;杨贤玉. (2011). 论译者的“隐形”和“显形” [On the translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;visibility]. 邢台学院学报 Journal of Xingtai College (26) 71-72.<br /> <br /> Shufen Huang. (2019). “A Study of the Translator’s Subjectivity in Literary Translation--Exemplified by the English Version of The Border Town”. Open Journal of Social Sciences(JSS) (7) 100. <br /> <br /> Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 王玉,田翠芸. (2020). 从译者的“隐形”“显形”到“忘形”谈译者主体性 [Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” and “Visibility” to “Complacency”]. 华北理工大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of North China University of science and Technology (SOCIAL SCIENCE EDITION) (28) 128-131.<br /> <br /> ZhaMingjian, Tian Yu 查明建,田雨. (2003). 论译者主体性—从译者文化的边缘化谈起 [On Translator's Subjectivity -- from the Marginalization of Translator's Culture]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1) 22.<br /> <br /> Zhiwei Gu. (2017). &quot;On Zhang Peiji's Prose Translation from the Perspective of the Translator's Subjectivity&quot;, English Language and Literature Studies (1) 24.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 11:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility - 马智星 Ma Zhixing Japanese Language and Literature==<br /> <br /> the major and student number are missing--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 11:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> &lt;center&gt;马智星 Ma Zhixing 202020080625&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Throughout the history of western translation, as the subject of translation, the change of translator's identity reveals a process from &quot;invisibility&quot; to &quot;appearance&quot;. In different historical periods, different translators have never stopped discussing the &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;appearance&quot; of translators. From the perspective of historical development, this paper examines the different evolution of Lefevere's operation theory and Venuti's invisible translation theory in the western translation history, so as to analyze the change of the translator's identity and discuss the translator's subjectivity.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> translator's view;translation behavior;invisibility;<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 纵观西方翻译史，作为翻译主体的译者，其身份的变化彰显了一个由“隐身”到“现身”的过程。不同历史时期，不同翻译家们对于译者的“隐身”和“现身”的讨论，从未停止。本文从历史发展的角度，考察西方翻译史中勒菲弗尔的操作论和韦努迪的译者隐身翻译理论的不同演变，以此分析译者身份的变化，从而对译者的主体性进行探讨。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译观；译者行为；隐形<br /> <br /> ===Ⅰ.Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory===<br /> In the 1980s, culture, rather than text, emerged as the Unit of translation, bringing cultural studies into a new stage of translation theory: Cultural Theory of translation. This change is called the &quot;cultural turn&quot; in the field of translation studies. Andrea, a representative of the Cultural School of Translation Studies, is an important theoretical figure in the field of contemporary Western Comparative Literature and Translation Studies. The translation studies school originally originated in Europe, and Lefevere's profound insight enriched and advanced the further development of this theory in the United States and the world.<br /> <br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory is a well-known theory in the Cultural School of Translation Studies. Lefevere regards translation as a rewriting of the original and a manipulation of the original, which breaks the traditional thinking of evaluating translation with the original as the criterion. Lefevere's manipulation theory generally refers to the process of translation, adaptation, compilation, criticism and editing of literary works. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and a form of creating another text image Literary criticism, biography, film, drama, parody, reader's guide, compilation of history, criticism and editing are all rewriting of the text, which are all forms of creating another text image. In other words, translation creates the literary and cultural images of the original text, the original author, and the original text. And all rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics.(Bassnett &amp; Lefevere, 1990:8) <br /> <br /> Lefevere studies translation in a broad sociocultural context, emphasizing the role of ideology, mainstream poetics and culture. Translation is bound to serve certain ideology and poetics. In his view, &quot;rewriting&quot; is &quot;manipulating&quot; . It can &quot;manipulate&quot; literature and &quot;culture&quot; , the positive aspect of which is to help the evolution of literature and society through the introduction of new concepts, new literary genres and new means of expression. The rewriting of different historical periods should be controlled by ideology and mainstream poetics, and finally be related to power and become a means to serve it. The three elements of Lefevere's manipulation theory are set out in translation, rewriting, and the manipulation of literary fame. In his opinion, translation can not truly reflect the original work, mainly because it is always manipulated by three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.<br /> <br /> '''Ideological'''<br /> <br /> ideology refers to a system of ideas that reflects the interests and requirements of a particular economic form, class or social group. Its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. . Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communicative activity, will inevitably be affected by ideology. Lefevere points out that ideology has a great influence on translation, which exerts a subtle influence on the translator's thinking and translation activities. Ideology influences the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Under the control of ideology, the translator may add, delete or change the original text at will, making the translation serve his own political purposes.<br /> <br /> At the same time, different translators will form their own ideology because of their different personal experience, educational level, social and cultural environment, etc. . If a translated work wants to enter into the social and cultural system of the target language, it is bound to be restricted by the corresponding social and ideological standards. If the translation violates or offends ideological taboos, it will be difficult to spread smoothly in the target language culture, and may even be banned. Through the analysis of famous translators such as Lin Shu's works, we can clearly feel that it was controlled and influenced by the ideology and poetics of Chinese society at that time. Ideological manipulation of translation can be reflected in the influence on the purpose of translated novels, the choice of translated texts and the application of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> '''Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics is a theory about poetry and the study of poetry and its techniques. It is also a theory about literature and art. The formation of poetics occurs in a certain period, which is often a choice for some types of practice at that time, while excluding other types. According to Lefevere, the methods of translation adopted by translators are carried out under the restriction of certain poetic factors. The study of poetics is as small as a word, as large as a sentence, the style of the whole text and the translation strategies. Translation greatly influences the interpenetration of different literary systems, not only by successfully introducing the image of a writer or a work into another literary system, but also in the introduction of new literary means into a certain poetics.<br /> <br /> In lefevere's opinion, as the manipulator of translation, such rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because in the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. The rewriting of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriter works. In order to conform to the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the work is rewritten and to be accepted by as many readers as possible, the rewriter often makes some adjustments to the original work. Some masterpieces have also been dealt with to varying degrees so that they can be adapted to the cultural background of different social and historical conditions. <br /> <br /> In the development of translation theory, more and more attention has been paid to the indispensability of poetics in translation. Poetics is concerned with what literature should or could be, and has two components, &quot;One is a list of literary techniques, genres, themes, typical characters and situations, and symbols; the other is an idea of what role literature plays or should play in the overall social system. &quot; To a certain extent, the poetic factors also determine the social role that the translation will play and the degree of its influence. The aesthetic sense of poetry in a work will disappear if the significance is emphasized but the poetic factors and the literary brilliance are ignored.<br /> <br /> '''The power of patronage'''<br /> <br /> Lefevere regards literary translation and other forms of rewriting as one of the social systems. This literary system has two controlling factors, one is the internal factor of the literary system, which is made up of various professionals such as critics, critics, teachers and translators The other is a patron who works outside the system and is &quot;generally more interested in the ideology of literature than in the poetics of Literature&quot; , &quot;The powers (people or institutions) that promote or discourage literary reading, writing or rewriting, such as religious groups, classes, government departments, publishing houses, mass media organizations, can also be personal forces&quot; (Lefevere, 1992:17) <br /> <br /> In Lefevere's theory of the three elements, the most important factor is the power of the sponsor, who is always in charge of the whole process of translation. Translation itself is not an isolated act, but closely related to political, social and economic factors. Most translators translate well and safely within the space allowed by the social and political authority of their times. As &quot;any force that may contribute to the production and dissemination of literary works and may hinder, prohibit and destroy literary works&quot; (Chen Dehong, Zhang Nanfeng, 2000:176) , the power of patron can play a role through ideology, economic interests and social status.<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the trend of translation activities, the development of translated literature and the social status of translators. For example, Yan Fu, as a translator and thinker, although he had his own clear goals and ideas in selecting translation materials, he was also an official appointed by the Qing government, therefore, his selection of translation materials is also controlled by the ideology of the sponsors. There is also a series of translations, translated or edited by Lin Yutang, that are closely related to the requests and suggestions of his patrons, the Pearl Buck and her husband.Lefevere's manipulation theory has opened up a new perspective for translation studies, which has shifted researchers'attention from the internal factors of the text to the external factors of the text, such as ideology, poetics and the power of patronage, this is of great significance to translation studies. Manipulation theory broadens the horizon of translation studies from text to culture. In recent years, with the rise of the Cultural School of Translation, the Study of translation from the perspective of the three elements of manipulation theory has become increasingly attractive.<br /> <br /> === Ⅱ. Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility===<br /> <br /> '''1.the translator's invisibility'''<br /> <br /> Lawrence Venuti, an Italian American scholar, is an important representative and advocate of deconstructive translation theory. His translation thoughts are mainly concentrated in his monograph translator's invisibility published in 1995, his deconstructive translation essays rethinking and translation scandal.n his monograph the translator's invisibility, Venuti puts forward the term &quot;invisibility&quot;, which is used to describe the status of translators in ontemporary British and American translation circles. He pointed out that the &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translation makes the reader unable to see the translator, as if he were reading the original rather than the translation.<br /> <br /> There are two reasons why the translator is actually &quot;invisible&quot;. First of all, translators themselves tend to translate into &quot;fluent&quot; English. Secondly, the way the target readers read the translated text. Whether it is prose, poetry, fiction or other types of subjects, most people accept that the ranslation is fluent in reading, without any unique language or style. It seems that the translation has reflected the author's substantive significance, and the translation seems to be not the translation but the original work.However, the premise of translation is that different languages and cultures are different and there is no absolute equivalence between them. This fluent translation method not only ignores the relationship between the author and the translator, the source text and the target text, obliterates the translator's interpretation, due status and efforts, but also conceals the differences between languages and cultures. <br /> <br /> Therefore, Venuti puts forward the &quot;resistance&quot; translation strategy and advocates the translator to show his form. This kind of resistance is the courage to admit the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language and culture, and to show such differences, and even deviate from the original text. The translator should deliberately retain the expression and sentence pattern of the original text to avoid the smooth translation, so that readers can clearly feel that what they are reading is the translation, thus feeling the existence of the translator, reflecting the creativity of the translator and highlighting the role of the translator. <br /> <br /> The emergence and development of deconstructionism is a landmark in the history of both translation theory and practice. Before its appearance, all translation theories depend upon some notion of equivalence. As a deconstructionist, Venuti contributes much to translation studies. Venuti criticizes the ethnocentric and imperialist cultural consequences of the domestic values.<br /> <br /> '''2、 Foreignization -- the core of Venuti's translation thought'''<br /> <br /> In 1813, Schleiermacher pointed out in his speech on different translation methods: &quot;either the translator should keep the author at home and let the reader approach the author as much as possible, or the translator should keep the reader at ease and let the author approach the reader as much as possible.&quot; The former shows the language and cultural differences in foreign texts and sends readers abroad, which belongs to foreignization translation; the latter, centering on nationalism, naturalizes foreign values into the target culture and invites the original author to China. <br /> Different from Schleiermacher, Venuti believes that foreignization translation can &quot;suppress the violence of racial center in translation&quot; and suppress the &quot;violent&quot; domestication of translation cultural values in English speaking countries. Therefore, foreignization translation is also known as resistance translation, which means that the translator highlights the foreign identity of the foreign text in the translation works by adopting non fluent translation techniques, and protects the original text from the control of the cultural ideology of the target language, so that he is no longer the &quot;implicit person&quot; of translation. Through the selection of foreign texts and foreignization translation, it challenges the cultural hegemony of English speaking countries and achieves the goal of cultural exchange.<br /> <br /> '''3、The progress of foreignization translation theory'''<br /> <br /> Venuti considers translation in the context of society and culture and criticizes the way in which foreign literature is assimilated into the target language by domestication. He proposed and advocated foreignization translation strategy or &quot;resistance strategy&quot;, emphasizing that the translation should maintain the flavor of the foreign language text and let readers feel the exotic customs. This kind of translation strategy is not only helpful for the translator to &quot;manifest&quot; in translation, but also more conducive to cultural exchange and supplement in the context of world cultural integration.<br /> <br /> Contrary to the traditional view, hold that foreignization translation is a kind of recreation, and there is no strict boundary between creation, translation and research. The original is not self-made, but the author uses the long-standing cultural materials, after reorganization, according to some values. Different cultural places are the places for readers to understand. Therefore, Venuti believes that translation should not deny the necessity of &quot;reserving differences&quot; under the pretext of &quot;seeking common ground&quot;. He believes that foreignization translation can not bring about the improvement of faithfulness, on the contrary, it is &quot;the misuse of faithfulness&quot;. It will not only lose some characteristics of the original language, but also add new things. As a result, the translator appears and the independent status of translation is revealed.<br /> <br /> '''4、The limitations of foreignization translation theory'''<br /> <br /> Translation is an activity of cross language and cultural communication, but the premise that can not be ignored is that the source language and the target language are different in ideology, values, habitual expression, logical thinking and so on. Venuti's foreignization strategy is to resist cultural hegemony when translating a weak culture into a strong one. For the weak culture and the marginalized and excluded culture, when they are translated into the strong culture by means of foreignization, the strategy is undoubtedly the best way to resist the strong culture and values and express ideas and culture. However, when a strong culture is translated into a weak culture in the same way, foreignization translation is likely to play a role in boosting the flames. In the face of superior British and American cultures, foreignized translation may subvert the norms of the target language, destroy the target language and the target language culture, or become the accomplice of cultural colonialists inadvertently.<br /> <br /> <br /> Although foreignization translation reflects the characteristics of the source language and has positive significance for cultural communication, it imposes the language system and cultural phenomena in the source language on the target readers. For ordinary readers, without familiar language expression and the same cultural knowledge background, reading foreignization translation of foreign text will not only feel that the translation is obscure and difficult to understand, but also will gradually alienate or even exclude the foreign text. In this way, foreign texts will not be accepted by the public and can only be shelved.<br /> <br /> Venuti says that the translator‟s invisibility raises such troubling questions about the geopolitical economy of culture that a greater suspicion toward translation is urgently needed to confront them. Foreignization is benefit for keeping the characteristics of the source-language texts. It changes the status of the translations. And at the same time, it can advance the translators. However, the transformation of translation ideology needs future more hospitable to the differences that the translator must negotiate.<br /> <br /> The emergence and development of deconstructionism is a landmark in the history of both translation theory and practice. Before its appearance, all translation theories depend upon some notion of equivalence. As a deconstructionist, Venuti contributes much to translation studies. Venuti criticizes the ethnocentric and imperialist cultural consequences of the domestic values.Venuti says that the translator‟s invisibility raises such troubling questions about the geopolitical economy of culture that a greater suspicion toward translation is urgently needed to confront them. Foreignization is benefit for keeping the characteristics of the source-language texts. It changes the status of the translations. And at the same time, it can advance the translators. However, the transformation of translation ideology needs future more hospitable to the differences that the translator must negotiate.<br /> <br /> ==='''Ⅲ.My thought of &quot;visibility&quot;&amp;&quot;invisibility&quot; in translation behavior'''===<br /> Venuti believes that in order to translate a good work, the translator must eliminate his sense of racial and cultural superiority, and try to retain the <br /> language style of the original text, so that the target language readers can be exposed to the original foreign language and culture, so as to promote the language and cultural exchange between countries. His foreignization translation strategy can make readers better understand foreign language characteristics, foreign culture, local customs, traditional customs and aesthetic habits. <br /> <br /> By reading foreign versions, readers can learn different ways of thinking and language expression, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their own language and cultural knowledge. With the continuous development and evolution of language, foreignization translation plays an important role in promoting cultural exchange and absorbing vocabulary and language structure from different countries. It is precisely because of foreignization translation that many foreign words, such as sofa, salon, clone, generation gap, hot spot and so on, are often used in newspapers, magazines and literary works, which greatly enriches our language and culture. And the words developed from Chinese, such as kowtow, Taichi and kungfu, also have a firm foothold in English dictionaries. Under the background of world cultural integration, this kind of translation strategy is more conducive to cultural exchange and supplement.<br /> <br /> The purpose of vernuti's foreignization translation is to pursue cultural diversity. This strategy can effectively resist the interference and tampering of British and American cultures on the inequality of weak cultures, so as to curb ethnocentrism and cultural hegemony. At the same time, he claims that the translator's &quot;manifestation&quot; is of positive significance to the affirmation of the translator's value and to the improvement of the translator's status. <br /> <br /> However, foreignization translation is not the best way to be universally accepted, and there are also limitations. Foreignization translation requires too much knowledge of readers and is not suitable for translating non literary texts. The strategy adopted in translation plays an important role in the translation, which determines what kind of translation will be produced in the end. Domestication translation and foreignization translation have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they play an irreplaceable role in each other. Therefore, in practice, no matter what translation strategy the translator chooses, he should consider the differences between readers' receptivity, text type and ideology, and strive to find a balance between different languages and cultures to achieve the best effect of equal communication 。<br /> <br /> ===Ⅳ.Conclusion===<br /> Throughout the history of western translation, we find that, in addition to the special historical period, the translator has been gradually pushed from behind the scenes to the front of the screen. The traditional translation theory holds that translators must abide by the principle of faithfulness, and there is only one correct translation. In this way, translators begin to become &quot;invisible people&quot;. People ignore that translators are independent individuals in social life and have different understanding of the world, just like everyone else. Translation is a subjective activity. Translators play an important role in intercultural communication in the process of translation. Therefore, we should consider the translator's subjectivity in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,1992.<br /> <br /> [2]郭建中.当代美国翻译理论[C].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [3]施建伟.林语堂传[M].北京:十月文艺出版社,1999.<br /> <br /> [4]陈德鸿,张南峰.西方翻译理论精选[M].香港:香港城市大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [5]Bassnett,Susan and André Lefevere .Translation, History and Culture[M].London and New York: Pinter Publishers.<br /> <br /> [6]Lefevere,Andre.Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame[M].London: Routledge,1992a.<br /> <br /> --[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 11:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC) the form of the reference-listing is not standard<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Business Contracts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 胡瑾 Hu Jin 202070080591 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization in China and the increasing frequency of modern commercial activities, commercial contracts are particularly vital in order to ensure the smooth progress of commercial activities. In a business contract, it is required to ensure that the expression of any text in the contract is accurate as far as possible, and the same is true when translating it. Contracts provide vital basis for the smooth development of business and the protection of rights. Accurate and vivid translation of contracts has an important impetus to the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations and the resolution of disputes. Therefore, it is of practical significance to study the translation of business contracts. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory, equivalence is first realized in meaning and then in form. Dynamic equivalence is used to break the static equivalence and maximize the meaning of the translation. This thesis gives a preliminary introduction to the translation of business contracts, studies the application of functional equivalence theory in contract translation, and puts forward some major translation skills and methods, which will be of some guiding significance to the future translation of business contracts, thus avoiding unnecessary disputes between the two parties.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> business contract; Functional Equivalence Theory; contract translation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中国全球化进程不断加快，现代商务活动日益频繁，为了确保商务活动的顺利进行，商务合同的签订显得尤为重要。在商务合同中，要求尽量确保合同中的每一个文字都表达准确，在对其进行翻译时也是如此。合同是确保业务开展顺利和进行权利保障的重要依托，对合同进行准确生动的翻译对业务的开展和权利、义务的保障以及出现争议时的解决等有着重要的推动力。因此，研究商务合同的翻译有一定的现实意义。根据奈达的功能对等理论，对等首先在意义上实现，然后在形式上实现，利用动态对等，打破静态对等，使译文意义最大化。此课题初步介绍了商务合同的翻译，研究了功能对等理论在合同翻译中的应用，提出了一些主要的翻译技巧和方法，对今后商务合同的翻译具有一定的指导作用，从而避免合同双方出现不必要的纠纷。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 商务合同；功能对等理论；合同翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since China promoted the Silk Road Economic Belt, China's economic exchanges with other countries in the world have been increasing day by day. China's exports volume is also increasing, and goods are exported to other countries in the world. In 2013, China overtook the United States as the world's largest trading nation. In this context, in order to ensure the smooth progress of transactions and reduce trade friction and disputes, commercial contracts, which have legal effect, have attracted more and more attention. Contract translation belongs to the category of legal translation. Accurate translation of contracts plays an important role in the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations, and the resolution of disputes. However, commercial disputes in China's foreign economic and trade business are very common, and many disputes are caused by various problems in contract translation. Therefore, they should be guided by scientific translation theories. (Jin Di 1998，112)<br /> <br /> Since China promoted the Silk Road Economic Belt, China's economic exchanges with other countries in the world have been increasing day by day. China's exports volume is also rising, and goods are exported to other countries in the world. In 2013, China overtook the United States as the world's largest trading nation. In this context, in order to ensure the smooth progress of transactions and reduce trade friction and disputes, commercial contracts, which have legal effect, have attracted more and more attention. Contract translation belongs to the category of legal translation. Accurate translation of contracts plays an important role in the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations, and the resolution of disputes. However, commercial disputes in China's foreign economic and trade business are very common, and many disputes are caused by various problems in contract translation. Therefore, they should be guided by scientific translation theories. (Jin Di 1998，112)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This paper mainly includes 3 chapters. The first chapter is the introduction of business English contracts, including the definition of business contract, the categories of business contract, and the linguistic features of English business contract. (Jin Di 1998，115)<br /> <br /> This paper mainly includes three chapters. The first chapter is the introduction of business English contracts, including the definition of business contract, the categories of business contract, and the linguistic features of English business contract.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second chapter introduces the theoretical framework of functional equivalence translation, including Nida's main principles and viewpoints of functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> The third chapter is the main part of the article, including the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. (Jin Di 1998, 115)<br /> <br /> The second chapter introduces the theoretical framework of functional equivalence translation, including Nida's main principles and viewpoints of functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> The third chapter is the main part of the article, namely the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. (Jin Di 1998, 115)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 General Introduction of Business Contract===<br /> <br /> This chapter first introduces the definition of business contract and the categories of business contract, and then analyzes the linguistic features of English business contract from lexical, syntactic and textual levels respectively.<br /> <br /> This chapter first introduces the definition and categories of business contract, and then analyzes the linguistic features of English business contract from lexical, syntactic and textual levels respectively.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> As an important link in foreign trade activities, business contracts have always been valued by people. Article 2 of The PRC Contract Law clearly stipulates that Commercial contract refers to the agreement clauses that are formally concluded according to law, notarized and must be abided by jointly in order to determine their respective rights and obligations during certain commercial cooperation between the parties concerned. It can be seen from this that a commercial contract is the result of the consensus reached by the parties and is a civil legal act. A legally established contract shall take effect from the date of its establishment and shall be legally binding. This provides a legal guarantee for effectively avoiding trade frictions. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 24)<br /> <br /> As an important link in foreign trade activities, business contracts have always been highly valued by people. Article 2 of The PRC Contract Law clearly stipulates that commercial contract refers to the agreement clauses that are formally concluded according to law, notarized and must be abided by jointly in order to determine their respective rights and obligations during certain commercial cooperation between the parties concerned. It can be seen from this that a commercial contract is the result of the consensus reached by the parties and is a civil legal act. A legally established contract shall take effect from the date of its establishment and shall be legally binding. This provides a legal guarantee for avoiding trade frictions effectively. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 24)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, special attention should be paid to the fact that China's Economic Law on Foreign Contracts stipulates that commercial contracts can take many forms, such as formal contracts, letters of intent, memorandum, agreements, commissioned purchase orders, etc. But no matter what form it takes, it should be signed in writing. The oral agreement cannot be submitted to the court as evidence after the dispute occurs.(Ma Huijuan 2005, 24)<br /> <br /> However, special attention should be paid to the fact that China's Economic Law on Foreign Contracts stipulates that commercial contracts can take many forms, such as formal contracts, letters of intent, memorandum, agreements, commissioned purchase orders, etc. But no matter what form it takes, it should be signed in writing. Since the oral agreement cannot be submitted to the court as evidence after the dispute occurs.(Ma Huijuan 2005, 24)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Categories and Structure of Business Contract====<br /> Based on different standards, business contracts can be divided into many categories. According to the contract maker, they can be divided into sales contract (made by the seller) and purchase contract (made by the buyer); according to the subject matter, they can be divided into technology transfer contracts, processing contracts, foreign labor contracts, and agency agreements, etc; according to the details of the contract, they can be divided into sales contract, sales confirmation letter, purchase contract and purchase confirmation letter; according to the price terms used in the contract, they can be divided into CIF contract, FOB contract and goods arrival contract, etc. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 26)<br /> <br /> Based on different standards, business contracts can be divided into many categories. According to the contract maker, they can be divided into sales contract (made by the seller) and purchase contract (made by the buyer); according to the subject matter, they can be divided into technology transfer contract, processing contract, foreign labor contract, and agency agreement, etc; according to the details of the contract, they can be divided into sales contract, sales confirmation letter, purchase contract and purchase confirmation letter; according to the price terms used in the contract, they can be divided into CIF contract, FOB contract and goods arrival contract, etc. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 26)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Although there are many types of commercial contracts, the structure of commercial contracts is generally relatively fixed, generally including three parts: preface, text and contract end. The first part is the preface, which generally includes the name of the contract, the parties to the contract, the date of signing and the place of signing. The second part is the main body of the contract, which mainly stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties to the agreement, the specific conditions of the traded goods, such as commodity name, quantity, total value, delivery date and validity period, port of shipment and destination, insurance and confidentiality clauses, payment clauses,etc. The third part is the end, which mainly includes the signatures of all parties to the agreement, the language of the contract, the number of copies of the contract and the explanation of the validity of the contract. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 27)<br /> <br /> Although there are many types of commercial contracts, the structure of commercial contracts is generally fixed, generally including three parts: preface, text and contract end. The first part is the preface, which generally includes the name of the contract, the parties to the contract, the date of signing and the place of signing. The second part is the main body of the contract, which mainly stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties to the agreement, the specific conditions of the traded goods, such as commodity name, quantity, total value, delivery date and validity period, port of shipment and destination, insurance and confidentiality clauses, payment clauses,etc. The third part is the end, which mainly includes the signatures of all parties to the agreement, the language of the contract, the number of copies of the contract and the explanation of the validity of the contract. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 27)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 A Contrastive Analysis of Stylistic Features of Chinese and English Business Contracts====<br /> <br /> English business contract is a solemn style with the highest degree of formality among all styles of English. A comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English business contract in terms of vocabulary, syntax and discourse will be made in this chapter. (Wang Yang 2009, 13)<br /> <br /> English business contract style is solemn with the highest degree of formality among all styles of English. A comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English business contract in terms of vocabulary, syntax and discourse will be made in this chapter. (Wang Yang 2009, 13)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Lexical Features of Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> As the most basic semantic constituent unit, vocabulary plays the most basic and important role in the whole contract text. When reading any text, the characteristics of words can often reflect the characteristics of the whole text. Therefore, it is necessary to study the characteristics of vocabulary so as to lay a foundation for the study of the whole text. (Wang Yang 2009, 30)<br /> <br /> As the most basic semantic constituent unit, vocabulary plays the most basic and important role in the whole contract text. For the characteristics of words can often reflect the characteristics of the whole text. Therefore, it is necessary to study the characteristics of vocabulary so as to lay a foundation for the study of the whole text. (Wang Yang 2009, 30)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> First of all, the use of archaism is the most prominent feature in international business contract English. The extensive use of archaic words in business contracts and legal styles fully reflects their solemn and serious style, which is related to the social function of English style of business contracts and the particularity of international business. The archaism most commonly used in business contract English are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中)，therein-after(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于). (Wang Yang 2009, 34)<br /> <br /> First of all, the use of archaism is the most prominent feature in international business contract English. The extensive use of archaic words in business contracts and legal styles fully reflects their solemn and serious style, which is related to the social function of English style of business contracts and the particularity of international business. The archaic words most commonly used in business contract English are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中)，therein-after(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于). (Wang Yang 2009, 34)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In contrast, some classical Chinese words are often used in Chinese business contract terms, such as“兹、若”. This is to reflect the conciseness and clarity of the Chinese contract text. However, strictly speaking, Chinese business contract terms are more straightforward, the classical Chinese vocabulary is less frequently used, and the stylistic features are not as obvious as English business contracts. (Wang Yang 2009, 36)<br /> <br /> In contrast, some classical Chinese words are often used in Chinese business contract terms, such as“兹、若”. This is to reflect the conciseness and clarity of the Chinese contract text. Strictly speaking, Chinese business contract terms are more straightforward, the classical Chinese vocabulary is less frequently used, and the stylistic features are not as obvious as English business contracts. (Wang Yang 2009, 36)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the use of synonyms is another feature of English business contracts. Two or more synonyms are often used together in English business contracts. This is to make the terms of the contract more precise and accurate, and to avoid ambiguities and omissions as much as possible, for example, by and between, sole and exclusive, make and enter into, etc. (Wang Yang 2009, 37)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the use of synonyms is another feature of English business contracts. Two or more synonyms are often used together in English business contracts. And his is to make the terms of the contract more precise and accurate, and to avoid ambiguities and omissions as much as possible, for example, by and between, sole and exclusive, make and enter into, etc. (Wang Yang 2009, 37)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> However, we must note that synonyms are not commonly used in Chinese business contracts. This is mainly because of the differences in expression habits between Chinese and English and the differences in legal and cultural traditions between countries. (Wang Yang 2009, 38)<br /> <br /> However, we must note that synonyms are not commonly used in Chinese business contracts. This is mainly because of the differences in expression habits between Chinese and English and the divergences in legal and cultural traditions between countries. (Wang Yang 2009, 38)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, as a contractual document with legal effect, legal terms are also used in the contract. In formal English business contracts, drafters often use “convene” instead of “hold or assemble”; “dispatch” instead of “spread out or handout”; “terminate” instead of “stop”. Similarly, in Chinese business contracts, interpreters use“承诺”to indicate “commitment”;“撤销”to indicate“cancel”instead of “取消”;“裁决” to mean “decision” instead of “决定”. Finally, the contract contains many professional knowledge and terminology. (Wang Yang 2009, 40)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, as a contractual document with legal effect, legal terms are also used in the contract. In formal English business contracts, drafters often use “convene” instead of “hold or assemble”; “dispatch” instead of “spread out or handout”; “terminate” instead of “stop”. Similarly, in Chinese business contracts, interpreters use“承诺”to indicate “commitment”;“撤销”to indicate“cancel”instead of “取消”;“裁决” to mean “decision” instead of “决定”. Finally, the contract contains many professional knowledges and terminologies. (Wang Yang 2009, 40)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.2 Syntax Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> Besides vocabulary, the syntax of business contracts also has their own characteristics, such as common clauses, declarative sentences, passive voice, modal verbs, etc. <br /> The most obvious feature in business contracts is the use of subordinate clauses. They are in obvious positions to explain, restrict and supplement the meaning of the main sentence. The positions of these clauses are relatively flexible. For example, attributive clause can be placed together with the central word or separated from the central word. A noun can be modified by multiple attributive clauses, and an attributive clause can also modify multiple nouns. The adverbial clause of time can be placed either at the beginning of the sentence or at the middle and end of the sentence. (Wang Yang 2009, 44)<br /> <br /> Besides vocabulary, the syntax of business contracts also has their own characteristics, such as common clauses, declarative sentences, passive voice, modal verbs, etc. <br /> The most obvious feature in business contracts is the use of subordinate clauses. And they are in obvious positions to explain, restrict and supplement the meaning of the main sentence. The positions of these clauses are relatively flexible. For example, attributive clause can be placed together with the central word or separated from the central word. A noun can be modified by multiple attributive clauses, and an attributive clause can also modify multiple nouns. The adverbial clause of time can be placed at the beginning, the middle or the end of the sentence. (Wang Yang 2009, 44)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 12:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the positions of attributive clauses and adverbial clauses in Chinese are relatively fixed. The adverbial clause of time is usually next to the modified verb because there is no temporal change in Chinese verbs. Declarative sentences are clear in meaning, division of powers and responsibilities, objective and fair in stating facts, and conform to the requirements of business contract terms. Therefore, they are frequently used in Chinese and English business contracts, but interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences are seldom used. (Wang Yang 2009, 45)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the positions of attributive clauses and adverbial clauses in Chinese are relatively fixed. The adverbial clause of time is usually next to the modified verb because there is no temporal change in Chinese verbs. Declarative sentences are clear in meaning, division of powers and responsibilities, objective and fair in stating facts, and conform to the requirements of business contract terms. Therefore, they are frequently used in Chinese and English business contracts, while interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences are seldom used. (Wang Yang 2009, 45)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 12:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Passive sentences are also quite common in business contracts. The passive voice is often used when there is no need to clearly indicate the sender of the behavior and the emphasis is placed on the object of the behavior. (Wang Yang 2009, 47)<br /> <br /> Passive sentences are also quite common in business contracts. The passive voice is often used when there is no need to clearly indicate the behavior agent and the emphasis is placed on the object of the behavior. (Wang Yang 2009, 47)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 12:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.3 Textual Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> The textual features of Chinese and English business contracts are mainly reflected in textual cohesion and textual structure. In business contracts, whether Chinese or English, contextual cohesion is realized by adding conjunctions or repetitions of words, which indicates the logical relationship between sentences and reflects the rigour and solemnity of business contract language. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 45)<br /> <br /> The textual features of Chinese and English business contracts are mainly revealed in textual cohesion and textual structure. In business contracts, whether Chinese or English, contextual cohesion is realized by adding conjunctions or repeating words, which indicates the logical relationship between sentences and reflects the rigour and solemnity of business contract language. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 45)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The discourse structure of Chinese and English business contracts is basically the same, with highly stylized features. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 47)<br /> <br /> The discourse structure of Chinese is basically the same with that of English business contracts, with highly stylized features. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 47)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This kind of consistency is not only to obtain formal uniformity, but also often mainly due to the requirements of meaning, so that readers have the impression that the contents expressed by clauses with the same sentence pattern are equivalent in the legal effect of the contract.① (Liu Miqin 1998, 310-312)<br /> <br /> This kind of consistency is not only to obtain formal uniformity, but also due to the requirements of meaning, so that readers have the impression that the contents expressed by clauses with the same sentence pattern are equivalent in the legal effect of the contract.① (Liu Miqin 1998, 310-312)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 General Study of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This chapter introduces Nida's functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> <br /> This chapter introduces Nida's functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principles to business contract translation.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida first proposed the“dynamic equivalence”theory, then further developed the theory, emphasizing the equivalence of two aspects, namely“formal equivalence”and“dynamic equivalence”.“Formal equivalence”emphasizes the form and content of the information itself and believes that the translation should be close to the original structure. “Dynamic equivalence”refers to“reproducing source language information from semantics to style with the closest (original) natural equivalent in the recipient language”.② (Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward 1986, 113-120 ) <br /> <br /> Nida first proposed the “dynamic equivalence” theory, then further developed the theory, emphasizing the equivalence of two aspects, namely “formal equivalence”and“dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” emphasizes the form and content of the information itself and believes that the translation should be close to the original structure. “Dynamic equivalence”refers to“reproducing source language information from semantics to style with the closest (original) natural equivalent in the recipient language”.② (Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward 1986, 113-120 )--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi（谭载喜） pointed out, in this definition, there are three key points: 1. Natural, the translation cannot have a translation cavity. 2. Closeness, referring to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of nature. 3. Equivalence, which is the core. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 23-27)<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi（谭载喜） pointed out, in this definition, there are three key points: 1. Natural, the translation cannot have a translationese. 2. Closeness, referring to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of nature. 3. Equivalence, which is the core. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 23-27)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After the proposal of dynamic equivalence, many disputes have arisen. It is considered as free translation or live translation. In order to change people's misunderstanding of it, Nida pointed out:“Everything in the text is meaningful, including speech forms, so forms cannot be sacrificed easily.”④ (Nida, E. A 1993, 119-130) Therefore, he replaced“dynamic equivalence”with “functional equivalence”. There is no essential difference between the two, but the latter highlights the concept of“function”.<br /> <br /> After the proposal of dynamic equivalence, many disputes have arisen. It is considered as free translation or live translation. In order to change people's misunderstanding of it, Nida pointed out:“Everything in the text is meaningful, including speech forms, so forms cannot be sacrificed easily.”④ (Nida, E. A 1993, 119-130) Therefore, he replaced “dynamic equivalence” with “functional equivalence”. There is no essential difference between the two, but the latter highlights the concept of “function”.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the question of which level equivalence should be reflected, Nida pointed out that in addition to content and form equivalence, style equivalence should also be considered. (Nida, E. A 1993, 119-130)<br /> <br /> On the question of which level of equivalence should be reflected, Nida pointed out that in addition to content and form equivalence, style equivalence should also be considered. (Nida, E. A 1993, 119-130)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida divided functional equivalence into“maximum functional equivalence”and“minimum functional equivalence”since absolute equivalence is impossible to achieve. The so-called“maximum functional equivalence”means that the target readers can understand the original text in a way consistent with the original readers and further appreciate the original text while“minimum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand how the original readers understand and appreciate the original through their understanding of the target text. (Nida, E. A 1993, 154)<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida divided functional equivalence into “maximum functional equivalence” and “minimum functional equivalence” since absolute equivalence is impossible to achieve. The so-called “maximum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand the original text in a way consistent with the original readers and further appreciate the original text while “minimum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand how the original readers understand and appreciate the original through their understanding of the target text. (Nida, E. A 1993, 154)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Researches on Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Abroad, Beekman(1972: 32) pointed out:“Nida's functional equivalence theory makes theorists and translators believe that a good translation must be able to convey the meaning and dynamics of the original text at the same time.”⑤ (Beekman 1974, 191-221)<br /> <br /> At abroad, Beekman(1972: 32) pointed out:“Nida's functional equivalence theory makes theorists and translators believe that a good translation must be able to convey the meaning and dynamics of the original text at the same time.”⑤ (Beekman 1974, 191-221)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Wilss(2001: 51) stressed:“Nida's functional equivalence theory can be applied to translation practice because it can achieve effective translation.”⑥ (Wilss 2001, 72-86) <br /> Venuti said:“Functional equivalence theory also eases the debate between translators on“domestication” and “foreignization” from the perspective of language and culture.”⑦ (Venuti 1995, 76-89)<br /> <br /> Wilss(2001: 51) stressed:“Nida's functional equivalence theory can be applied to translation practice because it can achieve effective translation.”⑥ (Wilss 2001, 72-86) <br /> Venuti said:“Functional equivalence theory also eases the debate between translators on 'domestication' and 'foreignization' from the perspective of language and culture.”⑦ (Venuti 1995, 76-89)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At home, Jin Di(金堤) put forward“equivalence theory”on the basis of“functional equivalence theory”, and applied it to the translation of Ulysses, which illustrates the feasibility of“functional equivalence” theory in practical translation. Tan Zaixi made a comprehensive and systematic summary of the formation process of Nida's translation theory and its profound connotation. In addition, in the CNKI database, retrieval using“functional equivalence theory” as the key word shows that there are 2444 related articles in various core journals and magazines. (Jin Di 1998, 122)<br /> <br /> At home, Jin Di(金堤) put forward “equivalence theory” on the basis of “functional equivalence theory”, and applied it to the translation of Ulysses, which illustrates the feasibility of “functional equivalence” theory in practical translation. Tan Zaixi made a comprehensive and systematic summary of the formation process of Nida's translation theory and its profound connotation. In addition, in the CNKI database, retrieval using “functional equivalence theory” as the key word shows that there are 2444 related articles in various core journals and magazines. (Jin Di 1998, 122)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Applicability of Functional Equivalence Theory to E-C Translation of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> At present, there are no authoritative translation principles and standards for commercial contract translation, but the three principles of contract translation put forward by Ma Huijuan(马会娟) are highly recognized: First, the words used are accurate and the translation is complete. The translator shall not add, delete or change any information contained in the contract at will. The language of the translation shall be accurate, complete and natural. Second, the organization is clear and the format is equivalent. The translation should correspond to the original text format as a whole and reproduce the structural features of the source language as much as possible. Third, the translation should be in line with the stylistic characteristics of the contract. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 134)<br /> <br /> At present, there are no authoritative translation principles and standards for commercial contract translation, but the three principles of contract translation put forward by Ma Huijuan(马会娟) are highly recognized: First, the words used are accurate and the translation is complete. The translator shall not add, delete or change any information contained in the contract at will. The language of the translation shall be accurate, complete and natural. Second, the organization is clear and the format is equivalent. The translation should correspond to the original text format as a whole and reproduce the structural features of the source language as much as possible. Third, the translation should be in line with the stylistic characteristics of the original contract. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 134)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory emphasizes content equivalence, form equivalence and style equivalence. These three requirements are consistent with the three principles above put forward by Ma Huijuan respectively. Both of them limit the translation standards from the aspects of content, form and style. Therefore, the functional equivalence theory can be fully applied to the translation practice of business contracts. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 154)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory emphasizes content equivalence, form equivalence and style equivalence. These three requirements are consistent with the three principles above put forward by Ma Huijuan respectively. All of them limit the translation standards from the aspects of content, form and style. Therefore, the functional equivalence theory can be fully applied to the translation practice of business contracts. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 154)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Business Contract Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This part focuses on the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. Combining with actual translation cases, this chapter analyzes the common problems in contract translation and puts forward corresponding solutions. (Miao Xipu 2011, 78)<br /> <br /> This part focuses on the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. Combining with actual translation cases, this chapter discusses the common problems in contract translation and puts forward corresponding solutions. (Miao Xipu 2011, 78)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Equivalence at the Lexical Level====<br /> <br /> Vocabulary is the basic component of sentences and chapters. In the specific translation process, if vocabulary translation is not handled well, sentence and chapter translation will be impossible. (Miao Xipu 2011, 98)<br /> <br /> Vocabulary is the basic component of sentences and chapters. In specific translation processes, if vocabulary translation is not handled well, sentence and chapter translation will be impossible. (Miao Xipu 2011, 98)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Equivalence of Technical Terms—Literal Translation and Free Translation=====<br /> <br /> The contents of business contracts involve all trades and professions, and there are many subject matters, including many professional knowledge and terminology, which is a big obstacle for many translators who do not know the professional knowledge of the industry. Therefore, before translation, translators should understand the relevant industries involved in the contract and master the necessary knowledge in the industry so as to avoid the layman's words and semantic errors in the translation, which will affect the accuracy and formality of the contract and cannot achieve functional equivalence. (Miao Xipu 2011, 116)<br /> <br /> The contents of business contracts involve all trades and professions, and there are many subject matters, including many professional knowledges and terminologies, which are big obstacles for many translators who do not know the professional knowledge of the industry. Therefore, before translation, translators should understand the relevant industries involved in the contract and master the necessary knowledge in the industry so as to avoid the layman's words and semantic errors in the translation, which will affect the accuracy and formality of the contract and cannot achieve functional equivalence. (Miao Xipu 2011, 116)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example1:“The balance 80% (Eighty percent) of the contract value shall be paid against irrevocable L/C at 360 days sight to be accepted by both parties.” <br /> <br /> 译文：“合同金额的80%（百分之八十）以不可撤销信用证的方式在交单的360天予以支付。” <br /> <br /> Many words in the contract appear in the form of letter abbreviations. As shown in this example,“L/C”is the abbreviation of letter of credit, which is translated literally into“信用证”. This is a well-established translation method in the industry, which can reflect both the equivalence of meaning and the professionalism of language expression. (Liao Ying 2005, 23)<br /> <br /> Example2:“The seller shall present the following documents required for negotiation or collection to the banks.”<br /> <br /> 译文:“卖方应向银行提交议付或托收所需的下列文件。”<br /> <br /> In this sentence,“negotiation”and“collection”are both technical terms of the contract, they are translated into“议付”and“托收” respectively, instead of“谈判”and“收取”. The expressions not only conform to the professional expression of the economic and trade industry, but also accurately reflect the meaning of the original text and achieve the meaning and style equivalence emphasized by the functional equivalence theory. (Liao Ying 2005, 34)<br /> <br /> Example3:“UNIT PRICES: FOB Xingang, Tianjing USD 22 150.00 per unit (US Dollars twenty two thousand, one hundred and fifty only).”<br /> <br /> 译文:“单价: FOB天津新港, 每辆22150.00美元（贰万贰仟壹佰伍拾美元）。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“FOB”is an abbreviation of “Free on board”. It can be translated into “FOB” by free translation or by shifting translation. This is mainly because the readers of business contracts themselves are professionals in the industry. They usually exchange price terms in the form of English letters and abbreviations in their daily work. Therefore, when translating such price terms, their source language expressions can be retained. (Liao Ying 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Equivalence of Archaism—Omission, Addition and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Archaisms are rarely used in modern English, but they are still common in business contracts. They can not only reflect the formal rigour of business contracts, but also highlight the conciseness and clarity of language. The archaisms most commonly used in English business contract are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中), hereinafter(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于), etc. (Miao Xipu 2011, 118)<br /> <br /> Archaisms are rarely used in modern English, but they are still common in business contracts. They can not only reflect the formal rigour of business contracts, but also highlight the conciseness and clarity of language. The archaisms most commonly used in English business contracts are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中), hereinafter(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于), etc. (Miao Xipu 2011, 118)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example1:“The parties hereto shall, first of all, settle any dispute arising from or in connection with the contract through amicable negotiation.” <br /> <br /> 译文:“合同双方首先应该通过友好协商，解决因合同而发生的或与合同相关的争议。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“hereto”means“本协议的、本合同的”. It can be translated with omission. The contract subject relationship is clear, literal translation will only lead to redundant repetition of the translation, so there is no need to translate it. (Liao Ying 2005, 50)<br /> <br /> Example2: Now, therefore, in consideration of the recitals set forth above and the mutual covenants, promises, and agreements contained herein, and other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged, the Parties do hereby agree as follows: <br /> <br /> 译文：因此，考虑到上述陈述和本协议中包含的共同契约、承诺和协议，以及其他良好和有价值的对价，双方特此达成如下协议，特此确认其接收和充分性。<br /> <br /> In this example, herein usually means“此中，于此”. But such translation here will confuse readers. Therefore, we can adopt addition and translate it into“此协议中”. Although this expression is not as concise as“于此”, accuracy is the first requirement in contract translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 53)<br /> <br /> Example3: After arrival of goods at port of destination, the buyer shall apply to China Commodity Inspection Bureau (hereinafter referred to as CCIB) for a further inspection as to the specifications and quantity/weight of the goods.<br /> <br /> 译文：货到目的港后，买方将申请中国商品检验局(以下简称商检局)对货物的规格和数量重量进行检验。<br /> <br /> In this case, the original meaning of“hereinafter”is“以下，在下文中”. Its original meaning is directly inserted into the sentence, which not only accurately expresses the original meaning, but also makes the translated language natural and smooth, meeting the requirements of functional equivalence theory. (Liao Ying 2005, 63)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Equivalence of Formal Words—Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> “Functional Equivalence”emphasizes the transmission of reading experience, requiring the translator to transmit not only language functions but also legal functions, so as to enable the target readers to feel the reading experience of the original readers. (Miao Xipu 2011, 122)<br /> <br /> “Functional Equivalence” emphasizes the transmission of reading experience, requiring the translator to transmit not only language functions but also legal functions, so as to enable the target readers to feel the reading experience of the original readers. (Miao Xipu 2011, 122)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example1: The agreement does not operate as an acceptance of any conflicting terms and conditions and shall prevail over any conflicting provision of any purchase order or any other instrument of Customer. <br /> <br /> 译文：本协议不接受任何与本协议产生冲突的任何条款。若在乙方订单或任何文件中出现与本协议相冲突的条款，应均以本协议为准。<br /> <br /> Example2:“Time of shipment: within 15 days after receipt of the advance payment and the L/C of balance value to be accepted by the × Bank.” <br /> <br /> 译文:“装运日期：收到预付款且剩余货款的信用证被××银行承兑后的15天内装运。”<br /> <br /> In the first example, although the basic meaning of“胜过”is also expressed, it is usually translated into“以....为准” or “效力高于”in legal texts. In the second example, the common meaning of“accept”is “接受”, but in legal translation it is usually translated as “承兑”. Formal words are usually translated according to conventions, so the difficulty in translation lies not in the choice of translation strategies, but in the grasp of semantics and the reproduction of style. (Miao Xipu 2011, 113)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.4 Equivalence of Juxtaposition—Contracted Translation=====<br /> <br /> English business contracts often use two or more synonyms to ensure the uniqueness of words meaning. The functional equivalence theory emphasizes the equivalence of meaning and form, but in the actual translation process, the absolute equivalence between the two, that is, the “maximum functional equivalence”proposed by Nida, is impossible to realize. (Miao Xipu 2011, 115)<br /> <br /> English business contracts often use two or more synonyms to ensure the uniqueness of words' meaning. The functional equivalence theory emphasizes the equivalence of meaning and form, but in the actual translation process, the absolute equivalence between the two, that is, the “maximum functional equivalence”proposed by Nida, is impossible to realize. (Miao Xipu 2011, 115)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example1:“The agreement is made and entered into on April 16, 2007 by and between Party A and Party B.”<br /> <br /> 译文:“此合同由甲乙双方于2007年4月16日达成。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“made and entered into”and“by and between”are juxtaposed by two pairs of synonyms. When translating, these words only need translate once, which is called contracted translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 83)<br /> <br /> Example2: This agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the subject matter hereof and supersedes all prior agreements, understanding, warranties, representations, negotiations and discussion, whether oral or written, of the parties except as specifically set forth herein.<br /> <br /> 译文：此合同是双方就合同主体所达成的全部协议，将取代双方过往所有口头或书面的协议、理解、声明、保证、谈判和讨论，在此明确阐明的除外。<br /> <br /> In this example, several synonyms are juxtaposed to make the terms of the contract include all relevant matters as much as possible so as to make the writing strict and clear. Here, we can adopt literal translation strategy, keeping the total number of words listed in the original text, and looking for the corresponding Chinese words to achieve the double equivalence of content and form. (Miao Xipu 2011, 116)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Equivalence at the Syntactic Level====<br /> <br /> Cliches are commonly used in official document and usually have a fixed translation method. Passive sentences and subordinate clauses have long sentence patterns and complicated logical relations, which tests the translator's translation ability and logical expression ability. (Miao Xipu 2011, 122)<br /> <br /> Cliches are commonly used in official documents and usually have fixed translation methods. Passive sentences and subordinate clauses have long sentence patterns and complicated logical relations, which tests the translator's translation ability and logical expression ability. (Miao Xipu 2011, 122)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Conventional Phrases—Imitation Translation=====<br /> <br /> There are many cliches in business contracts, which are common at the beginning and end of contracts. (Miao Xipu 2011, 139)<br /> <br /> There are many cliches in business contracts, which are common at the beginnings and ends of them. (Miao Xipu 2011, 139)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example1:“In consideration of the mutual covenants contained in this agreement, the parties agree as follows:”<br /> <br /> 译文:“考虑到本协议中的共同承诺，协议双方约定如下:”<br /> <br /> Example2: This Agreement may be executed in two or more counterparts, each of which shall be deemed an original and all of which together shall constitute one instrument. <br /> <br /> 译文：本协议可签署两个或两个以上的副本，每一副本构成本协议的一份原件，所有副本构成一份法律文件。<br /> <br /> Although the original expression of each text is not the same, the basic meaning is the same. A relatively fixed translation method has been formed, so the translators should know the common expressions in advance, or look for the parallel text to imitate the translation. (Miao Xipu 2011, 140)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Equivalence of Passive Sentence=====<br /> <br /> Passive voice is a typical language structure in English business contracts. It can effectively reflect the objectivity and fairness of contracts. However, unlike English, passive voice is seldom used in Chinese. Therefore, in translation, we usually use various translation strategies to convert passive voice into active voice. The most common translation strategy is conversion, that is, the object of the original text is converted into the subject, and the subject is converted into the object. (Miao Xipu 2011, 150)<br /> <br /> Passive voice is a typical language structure in English business contracts. It can effectively show the objectivity and fairness of contracts. However, unlike English, passive voice is seldom used in Chinese. Therefore, in translation, we usually use various translation strategies to convert passive voice into active voice. The most common translation strategy is conversion, that is, the object of the original text is converted into the subject, and the subject is converted into the object. (Miao Xipu 2011, 150)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example1: This Contract is made by and between the Buyer and the Seller whereby the Buyer agree to buy and the Seller agrees to sell the commodity in attached Annex according to the terms and condition stipulated below: <br /> <br /> 译文：买卖双方同意按下述条款购买出售附件中的商品并签订本合同： <br /> <br /> Example2: Agent shall be entitled to nominate mandate other third parties to act upon behalf of Agent in generating business to the Parties, as Agent’s sole discretion. <br /> <br /> 译文：代理人有权自行指定、授权其他第三方代表代理人为缔约方带来业务。<br /> <br /> From the first example, “by and between” is used as adverbial in the sentence. The object“the Buyer and the Seller” is the originator of this sentence, which is transformed into the subject of Chinese, and the recipient of the action“this contract”is transformed into the object of Chinese, thus the passive sentence of English is transformed into the active sentence of Chinese. In addition, some passive sentences in business contracts can also be translated into active sentences without changing the subject of the original sentence, as shown in the second example. (Miao Xipu 2011, 158)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Equivalence of Long Sentence—Combination, Division and Reconstruction=====<br /> <br /> Long sentences must contain many clauses and modifiers, and their writing ideas are quite different from those of Chinese. Therefore, how to split the sentences into several parts, how to extract the core meaning of complex logical relations and how to reorganize Chinese are the three major difficulties. (Miao Xipu 2011, 188)<br /> <br /> Long sentences usuallly contain many clauses and modifiers, and their writing ideas are quite different from those of Chinese. Therefore, how to split the sentences into several parts, how to extract the core meaning of complex logical relations and how to reorganize Chinese are the three major difficulties. (Miao Xipu 2011, 188)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example1: Agent’s undertaking and obligation is to search, locate and refer (lead) potential and prospective clients/customers to Principal who are seriously interested, ready, willing and able to apply for the Product. <br /> <br /> 译文：代理人的责任和义务是为委托人寻找、定位和推荐（引导）潜在的、真正对本产品感兴趣、准备好且愿意申请的客户。<br /> <br /> This is a restrictive attributive clause. We often adopt a combination method, translating the subordinate clause into“...的” and putting it before the modifier in the form of adjectives. This is mainly due to the structural differences between English and Chinese. The attributive elements in Chinese are not as flexible as the attributive clauses in English. (Miao Xipu 2011, 190)<br /> <br /> Example2: The parties may not assign or transfer this Agreement or any of its rights and obligations under this Agreement without the prior written consent of the other party, which shall not be unreasonably withheld. <br /> <br /> 译文：未经另一方事先书面同意，缔约方不得出让或转让本协议或本协议项下的各项权利和义务，此要求不得被无理拒绝。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a non-restrictive attributive clause. Since this clause and the antecedent are not closely related and generally play an explanatory role, we often use division method in E-C translation. That is to say, the two should be separated and naturally combined by repeating antecedents. (Miao Xipu 2011, 192)<br /> <br /> Example3: Should Principal be reasonably sure that Agent violated this rule, or should any client/customer present proof of such violation, Agent will not be entitled to its omission for the particular client or group of clients and Principal may terminate this Agreement with immediate effect at its own discretion. <br /> <br /> 译文：如果委托人有理由确定代理人违反了此项规定，或如果有客户提供了其违反此项规定的证据，代理人将无权享这一客户或这一组客户的佣金，委托人可自行终止本协议，即刻生效。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a adverbial clause. The structure of“should+subject+verb”belongs to the unreal conditional sentence. But there is no such usage in Chinese. Therefore, we can reconstruct the original text according to the logical structure of the original sentence and adjust the word order appropriately to make it natural and more in line with the Chinese expression habits. (Liao Ying 2005, 103)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Equivalence at Textual Level====<br /> <br /> The text consists of sentences, so the following focuses on the cohesion and format of the text. (Miao Xipu 2011, 218)<br /> <br /> A text consists of sentences, so the following focuses on the cohesion and format of the text. (Miao Xipu 2011, 218)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Text Cohesion=====<br /> <br /> Text cohesion is realized through the use of conjunctions and lexical repetition, reflecting the rigour and solemnity of business contract language. (Miao Xipu 2011, 228)<br /> <br /> Text cohesion is realized through the use of conjunctions and lexical repetition, strongly reflecting the rigour and solemnity of business contract language. (Miao Xipu 2011, 228)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> Thereafter, this Agreement shall be renewed automatically for successive additional one-year terms under the same terms and conditions unless either party chooses not to continue the relationship and provides written notice 30 days prior to the natural expiration of the existing one-year term. <br /> <br /> 译文：此后，本协议应以同样的条款自动延期一年，除非任何一方选择解除合作关系，并在一年合同期满前30天提交书面通知。<br /> <br /> Here, explicit connectives,“thereafter, and, unless”are clearly translated, which is conducive to textual cohesion and indicates the logical relationship between sentences. Therefore, we can translate them into “此后、和/并、除非”, which not only realizes the formal equivalence between the translation and the original, but also achieves the semantic equivalence. (Liao Ying 2005, 213)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Text Format=====<br /> <br /> As one kind of legal documents, commercial contracts are highly normative and have strict writing format. Therefore, attention should be paid to the corresponding format in translation. (Miao Xipu 2011, 238)<br /> <br /> As a kind of legal documents, commercial contracts are highly normative and have strict writing format. Therefore, attention should be paid to the corresponding format in translation. (Miao Xipu 2011, 238)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Contract No: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Date: Aug. ××,2013 <br /> <br /> The Buyer: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Representative: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> The seller: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××<br /> <br /> Representative: ××××××<br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> 译文：合同编号：×××××× <br /> <br /> 日期：2013年8月×号 <br /> <br /> 买方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：×××××× <br /> <br /> 卖方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：××××××<br /> <br /> Here, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the contract text, and keep the format of the translation and the original text in alignment during translation. Firstly, capital words with the first letter should be emphasized in terms consistent with Chinese expression habits. Secondly, the parts marked in bold or italics in the contract shall still be marked in bold or italics in the translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 223)<br /> <br /> Here, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the contract text, and keep the format of translation and original text in alignment during translation. Firstly, capital words with the first letter should be emphasized in terms consistent with Chinese expression habits. Secondly, the parts marked in bold or italics in the contract shall still be marked in bold or italics in the translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 223)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> To sum up, according to the requirements of functional equivalence theory on translation quality, commercial contract translation should meet the following standards:<br /> In terms of content, first, the translation language should be natural and fluent and conform to Chinese expression habits. Second, pay attention to the professionalism of the language expression in the translation, avoid using colloquial expressions, and achieve the meaning equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)<br /> <br /> To sum up, according to the requirements of functional equivalence theory on translation quality, commercial contract translation should meet the following standards:<br /> In terms of content, first, the translation language should be natural and fluent and conform to Chinese expression habits. Second, pay attention to the professionalism of language expression in translation, avoid using colloquial expressions, and achieve the meaning equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of format, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the commercial contract text and try our best to achieve the formal equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)<br /> <br /> In terms of format, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of commercial contract text and try our best to achieve the formal equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language style, the translation should retain the original language style as much as possible. The business contract language is professional and solemn, so the translation should reproduce the strict and formal legal style of the original text on the premise of ensuring accurate content and natural language. (JIn Di 1998, 298)<br /> <br /> As to language style, the translation should retain the original language style as much as possible. The business contract language is professional and solemn, so the translation should reproduce the strict and formal legal style of the original text on the premise of ensuring accurate content and natural language. (JIn Di 1998, 298)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes and summarizes specific contract terms and puts forward countermeasures. Although the translation strategies given in this paper have certain universality, the research text is slightly narrower than that of the whole commercial contract text research. Due to the space limitation, the cases provided are limited. Therefore, the scope of the research text should be broadened and analyzed from a broader research perspective in future research. (JIn Di 1998, 310)<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes and summarizes specific contract terms and puts forward countermeasures. Although the translation strategies given in this paper have certain universality, the research text is slightly narrower than that of the whole commercial contract text research. Due to the space limitation, the cases provided are limited. Therefore, the scope of the research should be broadened in the future. (JIn Di 1998, 310)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> [1] Beekman, J. &amp; John C. Translating the word of God [M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974. <br /> <br /> [2] Catford, J. C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965. <br /> <br /> [3] Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> [4] Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986.<br /> <br /> [5] Nida, E. A., and R Taber, Charles. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. New York: E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1969.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995.<br /> <br /> [7] Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [8] Yallop, C. The construction of equivalence[A]. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2001.<br /> <br /> [9] Dun Guangang 顿官刚. (2002). 经贸英语词汇的特点及翻译 [Characteristics and Translation of Business English Vocabulary]. 山东外语教学 Shandong Foreign Language Teaching Journal (1) 112-114.<br /> <br /> [10] Jin Di 金堤. (1998). ''等效翻译探索''[Translation Theory and Practice Series]. Beijing; China Translation Corporation Press 中国对外翻译出版公司. <br /> <br /> [11] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1998). ''文体与翻译''[English Varities and Translation]. Beijing: China Translation Corporation Press 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> [12] Liao Ying 廖瑛. (2005). ''实用公关英语''[Practical English PublicRelations]. Shanghai: University of International Business and Economics Press 对外经济贸易大学出版社. <br /> <br /> [13] Ma Huijuan 马会娟. (2005). 论商务文本翻译标准多元化 [On Diversification of Business Text Translation Standards]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1) 24-154.<br /> <br /> [14] Miao Xipu 苗锡璞. (2011). 功能对等理论指导下的商务英语翻译 [Business English Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory]. 内蒙古财经学院学报 Journal of Inner Mongolia (1)78-238.<br /> <br /> [15] Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史''[A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> [16] Wang Yang 汪洋. (2009). 浅析商务合同的词汇与句法翻译技巧 [The Lexical and Syntactic Features of Business Contract and its Translation]. 科技文汇 The Science Education Article Collects (2) 13-47.(serial number can be deleted)--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 12:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The identity of translator in translation activities张毓婕 Zhang Yujie==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In translation activities, translators have freedom in the choice of texts to be translated and translation strategies. They also have freedom in the choice of ways to understand the author’s emotions and values and reproduce the connotations and cultural flavor of the text. And Only when translators truly realize what roles they should play in translation activities and play these roles well can they create high-quality translations. Therefore, the translation is deeply imprinted by the translator, and the roles of the translator have become an important issue that cannot be ignored in translation studies. And with the development of translation studies, the issue of translator's identity has received due attention. This article also discusses the issue of translator’s identity.<br /> <br /> In translation activities, translators have freedom in the choices of texts to be translated and translation strategies. They also have freedom in the choice of ways to understand the author's emotions and values and reproduce the connotations and cultural flavors of the text. And Only when translators truly realize what roles they should play in translation activities and play these roles well, can they create high-quality translations. Therefore, the translation is deeply imprinted by the translator, and the roles of the translator have become an important issue that cannot be ignored in translation studies. And with the development of translation studies, the issue of translator's identity has received due attention. This article also discusses the issue of translator's identity.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> identity of translator, translation activities, roles of today’s translator<br /> <br /> Identity of translator, Translation activities, Roles of today's translator--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 论翻译活动中译者的身份<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 翻译活动中，译者既可以在翻译文本、翻译策略的选择上发挥主观能动性，也可以在对作者情感和价值观的理解、语言的选择、文化风味的重现上发挥主观能动性。而只有译者真正认识到自己在翻译活动中应该扮演什么角色并且扮演好这种角色，他们才能创造出高质量的译作。因而译作深深地打上了译者的烙印，译者的身份角色成为翻译研究中不可忽视的一个重要问题。而随着翻译实践的发展，译者的身份问题受到了应有的重视，本文也对这一问题进行了探讨。<br /> <br /> 翻译活动中，译者既可以在翻译文本、翻译策略的选择上发挥主观能动性，也可以在对作者情感和价值观的理解、语言的选择、文化韵味的重现上发挥主观能动性。而只有译者真正认识到自己在翻译活动中应该扮演什么角色并且扮演好这种角色，他们才能创造出高质量的译作。因而译作深深地打上了译者的烙印，译者的身份角色成为翻译研究中不可忽视的一个重要问题。而随着翻译实践的发展，译者的身份问题受到了应有的重视，本文也对这一问题进行了探讨。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 译者的身份，翻译活动，当今译者的角色<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translators’ playing roles well in translation is vital to the accomplishment of high-quality translations. Therefore, the identity of translator is an important issue in translation studies and we should pay much attention to it. As for this paper, first of all, it makes an analysis of the importance and necessity of valuing the issue of translator’s identity. Then, it expounds different kinds of roles translators have played in the history. Next, it concludes the features of the changes of translator’s identity and its complexity. Finally, from the perspective of today’s translators, it shows what roles today’s translators should play with today’s development of society and technologies, so as to explain how can we make more contributions to culture and development of the world.<br /> <br /> It is vital for translators to play roles well in the accomplishment of high-quality translations. Therefore, the identity of the translator is an important issue in translation studies and much attention should be paid to it. As for this paper, first of all, it makes an analysis of the importance and necessity of valuing the issue of translator's identity. Then, it expounds different kinds of roles translators have played in the history. Next, it concludes the features of the changes of translator's identity and its complexity. Finally, from the perspective of today’s translators, it shows what roles today’s translators should play with today’s development of society and technologies, so as to explain how can we make more contributions to culture and development of the world.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1.The importance and necessity of valuing the issue of translator's identity===<br /> <br /> ===1.The Importance and Necessity of Valuing the Issue of Translator's Identity===--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Two scholars Zhong Weihe and Zhou Jing made the following overview: as the subject of translation, translators need to respect the objective translation environment and fully understand the cultural needs of the target language, and they must also show their self-consciousness through subjective initiative. For example, they can show it through language operation, cultural characteristics, artistic creation, aesthetic standards, and humanistic character. In addition, they must give full play to their autonomy, initiative, purpose, creativity, and acceptance. This is the subjectivity of translation. （Zhong and Zhou, 2006）<br /> <br /> Two scholars, Zhong Weihe and Zhou Jing made the following overview: as the subject of translation, translators need to respect the objective translation environment and fully understand the cultural needs of the target language, and they must also show their self-consciousness through subjective initiative. For example, they can show it through language operations, cultural characteristics, artistic creations, aesthetic standards, and humanistic characters. In addition, they must give full play to their autonomy, initiative, purpose, creativity, and acceptance. This is the subjectivity of translation. （Zhong and Zhou, 2006）--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The two scholars not only pointed out the objective conditions that translators need to consider in translation activities, but also further explained that translators need to stimulate their subjective initiative and creativity, which is very enlightening. As the subject of translation, the translator’s activity is the specific translation behavior, that is, the conversion between two different languages and cultures. He can be creative and active in the choice of the text to be translated, the order of translation and translation strategies. The translated version is also deeply imprinted by the translator. Although the translation is derived from the original, it is no longer the original and have a new life. In addition, the translator can not only give the original work a new life, but also decide which new life to give it, so that it will be presented to the target language readers in an acceptable appearance. Therefore, the identity of the translator runs through the entire translation activity and is closely linked to the original and translated work. It is an important issue worthy of our attention.<br /> <br /> The two scholars not only pointed out the objective conditions that translators need to consider in translation activities, but also further explained that translators need to stimulate their subjective initiative and creativity, which is very enlightening. The translator's activity is the specific translation behavior, that is, the conversion between two different languages and cultures. He can be creative and active in the choice of the text to be translated, the order of translation and translation strategies. The translated version is also deeply imprinted by the translator. Although the translation is derived from the original, it is no longer the original and has a new look. In addition, the translator can not only give the original work a new look, but also decide which new look to give, so that it will be presented to the target language readers in an acceptable appearance. Therefore, the identity of the translator runs through the entire translation activity and is closely linked to the original and translated works. It is an important issue worthy of our attention.缺少引用--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.Different kinds of roles translators have played in history===<br /> <br /> ===2.Different Kinds of Roles Translators Have Played in History===--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1The identity of translator under the source language centralism====<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Identity of Translator Under the Source Language Centralism====--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Under the source language centralism, the purpose of translation is to reproduce the author’s original meanings and the highest standard of translation is being faithful to the original text. In these translation theories, translators’ cultural status is marginalized, and many of these translators are invisible, given various kinds of humble titles and roles.<br /> <br /> Under the source language centralism, the purpose of translation is to reproduce the author's original meaning and the highest standard of translation is being faithful to the original text. In these translation theories(these是哪些？）, translators' cultural status is marginalized, and many of these translators are invisible, given various kinds of humble titles and roles.缺少引用--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1Translator as a servant=====<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 Translator as a Servant=====--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are certain common cognitions and understandings of the identity of translators in China and western countries. Due to their long-exist limitations in public awareness of translation activities and the low social status of translators, translators were once generally regarded as playing the &quot;servant role&quot; in both East and West.<br /> <br /> There are certain common cognition and understandings of the identity of translators in China and western countries. Due to their long-standing limitations in public awareness of translation activities and the low social status of translators, translators were once generally regarded as playing the &quot;servant role&quot; both in the East and the West.缺引用--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> John Dryden compares a translator to a slave, thinking that the &quot;slave&quot; can only work in someone else's manor, manuring and pruning the grapes, while the wine produced belongs to the owner. （Tan, 1991）<br /> <br /> John Dryden compares a translator to a slave, thinking that the &quot;slave&quot; can only work in someone else's manor, manuring and pruning the grapes, while the wine produced belongs to the owner. （Tan, 1991）引用格式错误 （Tan 1991, 页码）--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> American modern translator Weinberger complained that although his translation works had attracted millions of readers, there was no his name on the cover of the translations, so he was merely an unsung hero.<br /> <br /> American modern translator Weinberger complained that although his translation works had attracted millions of readers, there was no his name on the cover of the translations, so he was merely an unsung hero.缺引用; 前后统一下用过去式还是三单（John Dryden compares... Weinberger complained...)--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Yang Jiang also said in her book Experience of Failures-Trial Translation: At least, this is a hard job, because translators as servants have to follow the master and cannot be self-assertive. Moreover, a servant serves two masters at the same time: one is the original text, and the other is the readers of his translation. (Jin and Huang, 2019)<br /> <br /> Yang Jiang also said in her book ''Experience of Failures-Trial Translation'' &quot;At least, this is a hard job, because translators as servants have to follow the master and cannot be self-assertive. Moreover, a servant serves two masters at the same time: one is the original text, and the other is the readers of his translation.&quot; (Jin and Huang, 2019)引用格式错误--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The identity of servant requires translators to be completely faithful to the original text, adhere to the source-centered and author-centered theory, and not be affected by their own emotions and values. Playing this kind of role, the translator should only faithfully convey the connotation of the text and the author's original intention, so he just like a slave in shackles without personal freedom, and can only follow the author in anywhere. Of course, it is true that translators’ playing a role as a servant can help translators to faithfully restoring the author’s intention and not distorting his original meanings so that meet the requirements of “faithfulness” and “loyalty”, but this kind of theory ignores the translator’s subjectivity and will place translators in a very low social status. Just as an ancient craftsman did not have the right to sign his name on his carvings, a translator also doesn’t have this kind of right and is neglected in their translations. <br /> <br /> The identity of servant requires translators to be completely faithful to the original text, adhere to the source-centered and author-centered theory, and not be affected by their own emotions and values. Playing this kind of role, the translator should only faithfully convey the connotation of the text and the author's original intention. Therefore, the translator is like a slave in shackles without personal freedom, and can only follow the author in anywhere. It is true that translators’ playing a role as a servant can help translators to faithfully restore the author's intention and not distort his original meanings to meet the requirements of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;loyalty&quot;, but this kind of theory ignores the translator's subjectivity and will place translators in a very low social status. Just as an ancient craftsman did not have the right to sign his name on his carvings, a translator also doesn’t have this kind of right and is neglected in their translations. 缺引用--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, this theory reveals various prejudices and disregard of public for translators. And even in today’s China with prosperous economy and society, most people still hold the view that translation is merely the mechanical conversion of the source language and the target language. They believe that if they understand English, they are absolutely qualified for the job of translation. At the same time, a lot of issues such as a chaotic translation market, low salary for translators, talent shortage in translation and gloomy employment prospects are very prominent. What’s more, even in the Chinese translation circles, there are long-exist serious problem of &quot;seeing things but not people&quot;. Translators have a low status in the literary world and are treated with indifference and contempt. And their fruits, that is, translations, are not valued or even recognized on many occasions.<br /> <br /> Therefore, this theory reveals various prejudices and disregards of public to translators. And even in today's China with prosperous economy and society, most people still hold the view that translation is merely the mechanical conversion of the source language and the target language. They believe that if they understand English, they are absolutely qualified for the job of translation. At the same time, a lot of issues, such as a chaotic translation market, low salary for translators, talent shortage in translation and gloomy employment prospects, are very prominent. What's more, even in the Chinese translation circles, there are long-standing serious problem of &quot;seeing things but not people&quot;. Translators have a low status in the literary world and are treated with indifference and contempt. And their fruits are not valued or even recognized on many occasions.缺引用--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2Translator as an invisible person=====<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 Translator as An Invisible Person=====--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> One topic that has been heatly debated for a long time in the translation world is that whether translators should be invisible or visible in translation. The translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;visibility&quot; have their own purpose and theoretical basis respectively, but both &quot;invisibility&quot; or &quot;visibility&quot; are translators’ own choices made after deliberations.<br /> Venuti, the translation theorist of deconstruction, explained invisibility in his monograph The Translators Invisibility: A History of Translation with Norman Shapiro's words and he thought that the translation should be transparent so that it does not look like the translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass. There are only small imperfections on the glass like scratches and bubbles. Of course, the ideal is to have nothing. The translation should never cause readers to feel that they are reading the translation. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> One topic that has been heatedly debated for a long time in the translation world is that whether translators should be invisible or visible in translation. The translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;visibility&quot; have their own purpose and theoretical basis respectively, but both are translators' own choices made after deliberations.缺引用--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Venuti, the translation theorist of deconstruction, explained invisibility in his monograph ''The Translators Invisibility'' A History of Translation with Norman Shapiro's words and he thought that the translation should be transparent so that it does not look like the translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass. There are only small imperfections on the glass like scratches and bubbles. And the ideal is to have nothing. The translation should never cause readers to feel that they are reading the translation. (Venuti, 1995)引用格式错误--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu also had similar points of view and he stated in the article The Translation of Lin Shu that: The highest standard of literary translation is &quot;sublimation&quot;. In translation, if you can not only do not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched due to the differences of language habits, but also completely preserve the original flavor, then it has met requirements of “sublimation”. In the seventeenth century, someone praised this kind of translation as &quot;the transmigration of souls&quot; of the original text, whose body was changed and the spirit remained the same. In other words, the translation should be so faithful to the original that it does not read like the translation, because the original work will never read as if it is translated from somewhere else. （Qian，1984）<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu also had similar points of view and stated in the article ''The Translation of Lin Shu'' that &quot;The highest standard of literary translation is 'sublimation'.&quot; In translation, if you can not only not show the traces of being blunt and far-fetched due to the differences of language habits, but also completely preserve the original flavor, then it will meet requirements of &quot;sublimation&quot;. In the seventeenth century, someone praised this kind of translation as &quot;the transmigration of souls&quot; of the original text, whose body was changed and the spirit remained the same. In other words, the translation should be so faithful to the original that it does not read like the translation, because the original work will never read as if it is translated from somewhere else. （Qian，1984）引用格式错误--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The French translation theorist Munin once wrote in his translation monograph Les Belles Infideles: &quot;The ideal translator, as defined by Gogol, should turn into a glass, so transparent that readers can’t even feel its existence.<br /> <br /> The French translation theorist Munin once wrote in his translation monograph ''Les Belles Infideles'' &quot;The ideal translator, as defined by Gogol, should turn into a glass, so transparent that readers can't even feel its existence.&quot; 缺引用--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The &quot;invisible&quot; identity of the translator means that the translator can reproduce the spiritual essence and style of the source text naturally, so as to achieve the &quot;transparency&quot; of the translation and the &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator. The translation needs to be fluent and natural, in line with the reading habits of the target language readers, and translators should avoid obscure word choice and mechanical sentence conversion. While reading the translated text, readers should not feel the existence of the translator and the influences he exerts on the text. And when the translator is nowhere to be seen and felt in the text, we can say that the translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; has been achieved. This requires translators to pay attention to three points that are often emphasized in traditional translation theories: one is that the translator should not incorporate their own emotions and values in the translation; the second is that the translator should not show his or her own personality in the translation; the third is that in translation the author should be based on the original text and follow the author in each choice. （Xu，2003）<br /> <br /> The &quot;invisible&quot; identity of the translator means that the translator can reproduce the spiritual essence and style of the source text naturally, so as to achieve the &quot;transparency&quot; of the translation and the &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator. The translation needs to be fluent and natural, in line with the reading habits of the target language readers, and translators should avoid obscure word choice and mechanical sentence conversion. While reading the translated text, readers should not feel the existence of the translator and the influences he exerts on the text. And when the translator is nowhere to be seen and felt in the text, it means that the translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; has been achieved. This requires translators to pay attention to three points that are often emphasized in traditional translation theories: one is that the translator should not incorporate their own emotions and values in the translation; the second is that the translator should not show his or her own personality in the translation; the third is that in translation the author should be based on the original text and follow the author in each choice.（Xu，2003）引用格式错误--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Translator as a painter=====<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Translator as a Painter=====--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Dryden once compared the translator to a painter. He advocated the translation view of comparing translation to painting: In translation, a translator should regard the original text as a model, and use his own colors to express the power and effect of the original text. The earliest Chinese translator who used metaphor like this was Chen Xiying. He believed that: translation is the same as a painting, although imitation is the most important, the colors used in the copy of a painting and the painting itself are the same. While the languages and strategies used in the original text and the translated version are totally different. On the other hand, a person who can appreciate the original painting has the ability to appreciate the copy one, while most people who can read the original book cannot read the translated version, and most people who can read the translation cannot understand the original text. This is the first difficulty the translator will face. &quot;And Chinese are much more familiar with Fu Lei’s statement: “In terms of effect, translation should be like a painting, and what you should restore is not the form but the spirit.” This theory extracts the common characteristics of translation and painting, and vividly elaborates the process and details of translation activities.<br /> <br /> Dryden once compared the translator to a painter. He advocated the translation view of comparing translation to painting. In translation, a translator should regard the original text as a model, and use his own colors to express the power and effect of the original text. The earliest Chinese translator who used metaphor like this was Chen Xiying. He believed that translation is the same as a painting, although imitation is the most important, the colors used in the copy of a painting and the painting itself are the same. While the languages and strategies used in the original text and the translated version are totally different. On the other hand, a person who can appreciate the original painting has the ability to appreciate the copy one, while most people who can read the original book cannot read the translated version, and most people who can read the translation cannot understand the original text. This is the first difficulty the translator will face. And Chinese are much more familiar with Fu Lei's statement, &quot;In terms of effect, translation should be like a painting, and what you should restore is not the form but the spirit.&quot; This theory extracts the common characteristics of translation and painting, and vividly elaborates the process and details of translation activities.缺引用--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The identity of translator under the translator centralism====<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Identity of Translator Under the Translator Centralism====--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In 1980s, there was a cultural turn of translation studies in western countries from language translation to cultural translation. Translation theorists began to study translation with valuable theories from other subjects such as Semiotics, Hermeneutics, Philosophy, Literature and so on, which helped them to improve the traditional translation models. The subjectivity of translators were valued at that time and there appeared various kinds of roles of translators which emphasize the creativity, imagination, and activity of translators. <br /> <br /> In 1980s, there was a cultural turn of translation studies in western countries from language translation to cultural translation. Translation theorists began to study translation with valuable theories from other subjects such as semiotics, hermeneutics, philosophy, and literature, which helped them to improve the traditional translation models. The subjectivity of translators were valued at that time and there appeared various kinds of roles of translators which emphasized the creativity, imagination, and activity of translators. --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1Translator as a manipulator=====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Translator as a Manipulator=====--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The manipulator status of the translator originated from the manipulation school. Manipulation school was an important part of the cultural school of translation studies in the 1980s. It was developed in the category of comparative literature. The main representatives are Hesman and Lefevre. Hesman said: From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for a certain purpose. Lefevre combines translation studies with power, ideology, patronage, and poetics and believed: “Translation, of course, is a rewriting of the original text. Rewriting is manipulation.” （Lefevere, 2010）The manipulation school is different from those schools that put &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;faithfulness&quot; in the most important place. Its representatives believe that translation is the manipulation and rewriting of the original text, the translator is the manipulator of the text, and the translation and the original text are both important. This theory is contrary to the original work-centered theory and author-centered theory, and is subversive to the previous translation theories. It shifts the focus of translation from the original author to the translator, which is conducive to improve the status of translators. They also particularly emphasized the status of culture in translation and the significance of translation to culture. They believed that the purpose of translation is not to simply complete the conversion of words, phrases and sentences, but to achieve cultural correspondence, so that the cultural meanings conveyed by the translation is consistent with the cultural meanings in the original text. <br /> <br /> The manipulator status of the translator originated from the manipulation school. Manipulation school was an important part of the cultural school of translation studies in the 1980s. It was developed in the category of comparative literature. The main representatives are Hesman and Lefevre. Hesman said &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for a certain purpose.&quot; Lefevre combines translation studies with power, ideology, patronage, and poetics and believed that translation is a rewriting of the original text. Rewriting is manipulation.（Lefevere, 2010）引用格式错误 The manipulation school is different from those schools that put &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;faithfulness&quot; in the most important place. Its representatives believe that translation is the manipulation and rewriting of the original text. The translator is the manipulator of the text, and the translation and the original text are both important. This theory is contrary to the original work-centered theory and author-centered theory, and is subversive to the previous translation theories. It shifts the focus of translation from the original author to the translator, which is conducive to improve the status of translators. They also particularly emphasized the status of culture in translation and the significance of translation to culture. They believed that the purpose of translation is not to simply complete the conversion of words, phrases and sentences, but to achieve cultural correspondence, so that the cultural meanings conveyed by the translation is consistent with the cultural meanings in the original text. 缺引用--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2Translator as a writer=====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Translator as a Writer=====--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Women and translation have been long connected with each other for both of them occupy very humble positions. The traditional view holds that translation is considered as a secondary work dependent on and subservient to the original text, just as women are inferior to men under patriarchal power. <br /> <br /> Feminist translation theory came into being in a wave of opposition to this kind of traditional thought. It combined feminism and translation, and its representatives put forward many translation viewpoints influenced by feminism, providing a new perspective for translation studies and subverting the traditional translation theory. The representatives of feminist translation theory include Sherry Simon, Lori Chambelain, Luise von Flotow, etc. Thus, translation studies “began to distrust the traditional hierarchical order and gender roles, and began to question the faithful rules and universal standards of meaning and value.&quot; They believed that translators should not be faithful to the original text or the author, but the identity and discourse power of women. The purpose of translation is to make language speak for women, improve their status and liberate women through language. Feminist translators revealed many sexist words and phrases in translation, re-examined the relationship between the original text and the translated version, advocated rewriting translation strategies, and required feminist intervention and rewriting of the original text. In this way, feminist translation theorists improved the status of translators and helped them to go to the front of the stage from behind the scenes, playing the role of an author.<br /> <br /> Feminist translation theory came into being in a wave of opposition to this kind of traditional thought. It combined feminism and translation, and its representatives put forward many translation viewpoints influenced by feminism, providing a new perspective for translation studies and subverting the traditional translation theory. The representatives of feminist translation theory include Sherry Simon, Lori Chambelain, Luise von Flotow, etc. Thus, translation studies began to distrust the traditional hierarchical order and gender roles and to question the faithful rules and universal standards of meaning and value. They believed that translators should not be faithful to the original text or the author, but the identity and discourse power of women. The purpose of translation is to make language speak for women, improve their status and liberate women through language. Feminist translators revealed many sexist words and phrases in translation, re-examined the relationship between the original text and the translated version, advocated rewriting translation strategies, and required feminist intervention and rewriting of the original text. In this way, feminist translation theorists improved the status of translators and helped them to go to the front of the stage from behind the scenes, playing the role of an author.缺引用--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3Translator as a conqueror=====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 Translator as a Conqueror=====--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As a social practice activity, translation is also a product of political thoughts and ideologies in a sense. When translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously affected by their political stance and ideologies, and the translator’s cultural identity and cultural attitude are always political. Therefore, the translated text is not exactly equivalent to the original, because in the process of translation, translators will add their own feelings and values to the translated version. What's more, some people think that translators are aggressors, and the purpose of translation is to impose one culture on another, such as the translations serving as a tool for the construction of subjectivity of colonialism in the process of colonization and maintaining cultural hierarchy after the end of the colonial era. This type of translation is used as a tool for political purpose and is just like a conqueror. <br /> <br /> As a social practice activity, translation is also a product of political thoughts and ideologies in a sense. When translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously affected by their political stance and ideologies, and the translator’s cultural identity and cultural attitude are always political. Therefore, the translated text is not exactly equivalent to the original, because in the process of translation, translators will add their own feelings and values to the translated version. What's more, some people think that translators are aggressors, and the purpose of translation is to impose one culture on another, such as the translations serving as a tool for the construction of subjectivity of colonialism in the process of colonization and maintaining cultural hierarchy after the end of the colonial era. This type of translation is used as a tool for political purpose and is just like a conqueror.缺引用 --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.4The translator's &quot;independent&quot; status=====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.4 The Translator's &quot;Independent&quot; Status=====--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Post-colonial research in the field of modern translation believes that translation has three functions: (1) the means of colonization (2) the lightning rod for cultural inequality (3) the tools of decolonization.(Robinson, 1997) As is mentioned above, when translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously influenced by their own political stance and ideologies, and thus become a tool for cultural expansion and maintaining cultural hierarchy in the colonial era. Similarly, this tool can also be applied to the activities of anti-colonialism. In fact, in the process of anti-colonialism, translation has also played an important role, providing a stage for anti-colonialism activities and becoming a tool used by the colonized to get rid of the colonial yoke and weaken cultural hegemony.<br /> <br /> Post-colonial research in the field of modern translation believes that translation has three functions: (1) the means of colonization (2) the lightning rod for cultural inequality (3) the tools of decolonization.(Robinson, 1997) 引用格式错误 As is mentioned above, when translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously influenced by their own political stance and ideologies, and thus becoming a tool for cultural expansion and maintaining cultural hierarchy in the colonial era. Similarly, this tool can also be applied to the activities of anti-colonialism. In fact, in the process of anti-colonialism, translation has also played an important role, providing a stage for anti-colonialism activities and becoming a tool used by the colonized to get rid of the colonial yoke and weaken cultural hegemony.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.5Translator as a creative rebel=====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.5 Translator as a Creative Rebel=====--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The term creative rebellion comes from French literary sociologist Robert Escarpit. He holds the view that translation is rebellious, because it puts the work in a completely unexpected reference system (referring to language); Translation is creative, because it gives the work a new look and makes it more comprehensive. So that readers can have a brand-new literary exchange.（Escarpit, 1987）That is to say, on the one hand, this theory believes that translation is creative, that is, in the process of translation, in order to restore the original contents and cultural flavor, the translator must use his creativity and imagination to find suitable words and styles in the target language to stimulate readers to have similar associations. This is a kind of creative work that can give the original work a new life in a new language. On the other hand, translation is rebellious. When using the target language to restore the connotations of the original text, the translator must discard some of the original form. Creative rebellion can be divided into three types: the creative rebellion of the translator, the creative rebellion of the recipient, and the creative rebellion of the receiving environment. The creative treason of the translator can be conscious and unconscious, such as personalized translation, mistranslation, omission, compilation, adaptation and so on.<br /> <br /> The term creative rebellion comes from French literary sociologist Robert Escarpit. He holds the view that translation is rebellious, because it puts the work in a completely unexpected reference system (referring to language). Translation is creative, because it gives the work a new look and makes it more comprehensive. So that readers can have a brand-new literary exchange.（Escarpit, 1987）引用格式错误 On the one hand, this theory believes that translation is creative in the process of translation in order to restore the original contents and cultural flavor and the translator must use his creativity and imagination to find suitable words and styles in the target language to stimulate readers to have similar associations. This is a kind of creative work that can give the original work a new life in a new language. On the other hand, translation is rebellious. When using the target language to restore the connotations of the original text, the translator must discard some of the original forms. Creative rebellion can be divided into three types: the creative rebellion of the translator, the creative rebellion of the recipient, and the creative rebellion of the receiving environment. The creative treason of the translator can be conscious and unconscious, such as personalized translation, mistranslation, omission, compilation, adaptation and so on.缺引用--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.6Translator as a language quality controller(Li and He, 2018)=====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.6 Translator as a Language Quality Controller(Li and He, 2018)=====--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In recent years, with the development of the world economy and Internet technology, computer-assisted translation has become more and more popular. It has overturned the traditional translation model and most of the work of language conversion is completed by computers instead of translators. However, although the computer can complete the task of translation, the translated texts usually don’t have a very high quality and need to be improved by human translators. Especially in literary translation, as we all know, when translating a literal work, translators need to have sufficient cultural background knowledge, and in the process of literal translation, they must put themselves into the author’s context and fully understand his emotions, attitudes and values in order to create translations with high quality. This is something that computer translation software are unable to achieve. Therefore, translators play the role of processing, modifying, and polishing the texts produced by computers. They are the controllers of language quality, making up for the flaws in the translation given by the computer, ensuring the fluency of the translation and choosing an appropriate style for it. This identity of the translator does not mean that the translator is marginalized again and in a low position. On the contrary, translators are playing an irreplaceable role in ensuring the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> In recent years, with the development of the world economy and internet technology, computer-assisted translation has become more and more popular. It has overturned the traditional translation model and most of the work of language conversion is completed by computers instead of translators. However, although the computer can complete the task of translation, the translated texts usually don't have a very high quality and need to be improved by human translators. Especially in literary translation, when translating a literal work, translators need to have sufficient cultural background knowledge, and in the process of literal translation, they must put themselves into the author's context and fully understand his emotions, attitudes and values in order to create translations with high quality. This is something that computer translation software are unable to achieve. Therefore, translators play the role of processing, modifying, and polishing the texts produced by computers. They are the controllers of language quality, making up for the flaws in the translation given by the computer, ensuring the fluency of the translation and choosing an appropriate style for it. This identity of the translator does not mean that the translator is marginalized again and in a low position. On the contrary, translators are playing an irreplaceable role in ensuring the quality of translation.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.The features of the changes of translator’s identity and its complexity===<br /> <br /> ===3.The Features of the Changes of Translator's Identity and Its Complexity===--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The identity of translators changed from invisible to visible, from subordinate to dominant, from author-centered to translator-centered. ====<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Identity of Translators Changed from Invisible to Visible, from Subordinate to Dominant, from Author-centered to Translator-centered. ====--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At the beginning, due to the limitations of people’s understanding about translation activities, translators had low social status, and most of them played the roles of &quot;invisible man&quot;, &quot;slave&quot;, &quot;servant&quot; and &quot;painter&quot;. The author and the original text were the center of translation activities, while the translators were marginalized. <br /> <br /> At the beginning, due to the limitations of people's understanding about translation activities, translators had low social status, and most of them played the roles of &quot;invisible man&quot;, &quot;slave&quot;, &quot;servant&quot; and &quot;painter&quot;. The author and the original text were the center of translation activities, while the translators were marginalized. 缺引用--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Later, with the cultural turn of translation studies, translators gradually got rid of the shackles, moved from behind the scenes to the front stage, and became the subject of translation activities. （Yao, 1996）This feature is reflected in translation views of manipulation school, feminist translation theories, creative treason translation views and post-colonial translation views. At that time, translators played many other roles, such as &quot;manipulator&quot;, &quot;writer&quot;, &quot;creative rebel&quot;, &quot;conqueror “and so on.<br /> <br /> Later, with the cultural turn of translation studies, translators gradually got rid of the shackles, moved from behind the scenes to the front stage, and became the subject of translation activities.（Yao, 1996）引用格式错误 This feature is reflected in translation views of manipulation school, feminist translation theories, creative treason translation views and post-colonial translation views. At that time, translators played many other roles, such as &quot;manipulator&quot;, &quot;writer&quot;, &quot;creative rebel&quot;, &quot;conqueror&quot; and so on.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have gained more roles such as &quot;language quality controller&quot;, &quot;learners of new technology and new knowledge&quot; and so on. Although part of the translator's work is done by a computer now, this is not a manifestation of the translator's marginalization again, but a manifestation of the translator's freedom and subjectivity. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have gained more roles such as &quot;language quality controller&quot;, &quot;learners of new technology and new knowledge&quot; and so on. Although part of the translator's work is done by a computer now, this is not a manifestation of the translator's marginalization again, but a manifestation of the translator's freedom and subjectivity. 缺引用--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translators today should grasp the trend of the evolution of the translator's identity, give full play to their subjective initiative in translation practice, and avoid becoming servants or slaves of the original text. At the same time, this does not mean that the translator can distort the author’s original meaning arbitrarily. Translation is just like “dancing with shackles&quot;. On the one hand, we should be faithful to the author and adhere to certain translation principles. One the other hand, we can adjust our translation strategies according to our purposes of translation and find a good way to restore the feelings, values and attitude of the original author as well as cultural flavor of the original text. In this way, the translator can present a high-quality translation to readers.<br /> <br /> Therefore, translators today should grasp the trend of the evolution of the translator's identity, give full play to their subjective initiative in translation practice, and avoid becoming servants or slaves of the original text. At the same time, this does not mean that the translator can distort the author's original meaning arbitrarily. Translation is just like &quot;dancing with shackles&quot;. On the one hand, we should be faithful to the author and adhere to certain translation principles. One the other hand, we can adjust our translation strategies according to our purposes of translation and find a good way to restore the feelings, values and attitudes of the original author as well as cultural flavor of the original text. In this way, the translator can present a high-quality translation to readers.缺引用--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The identity and status of translators are closely connected with the era in which they live.==== <br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Identity and Status of Translators Closely Connected with the Era ==== --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Throughout the history of translation studies at home and abroad, the role of the translator was ignored in the early translation studies due to the limitations of the times, and translators had a low cultural and social status. It was not until the cultural turn in the 1970s that translators truly moved from behind the scenes to the foreground. We can say that the shift of the focus of translation studies and the change of the identity of translators are deeply influenced by the time and cultural backgrounds. For example, in the 1970s, the slogan &quot;women must be liberated from language, and women's liberation must start with language&quot; emerged and translation had always been in a position similar to that of &quot;women&quot; in its own hierarchical structure. Therefore, the feminist translation theory rose and its representative translation theorists revealed discriminations in the field of translation, and liberated women by liberating translation. Another example is that many translated works under colonial expansion and anti-colonial struggle have obvious ideological characteristics, and translators of that time hoped to use culture as a tool to achieve certain political goals. <br /> <br /> Throughout the history of translation studies at home and abroad, the role of the translator was ignored in the early translation studies and had a low cultural and social status due to the limitations of the times. It was not until the cultural turn in the 1970s that translators truly moved from behind the scenes to the foreground. The shift of the focus of translation studies and the change of the identity of translators are deeply influenced by the time and cultural backgrounds. For example, in the 1970s, the slogan &quot;women must be liberated from language, and women's liberation must start with language&quot; emerged and translation had always been in a position similar to that of &quot;women&quot; in its own hierarchical structure. Therefore, the feminist translation theory rose and its representative translation theorists revealed discriminations in the field of translation, and liberated women by liberating translation. Another example is that many translated works under colonial expansion and anti-colonial struggle have obvious ideological characteristics, and translators of that time hoped to use culture as a tool to achieve certain political goals.缺引用 --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation activities are complex, and so is the identity of translator.====<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Complexity of Translation Activities and the Identity of Translators====--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In different times, the identity of translator is complicated. Faced with different works, the identity of translator changes, because we have different purposes and needs when translating different works. Even when the translator is only faced with one work, in many cases, the identity of the translator will not be a single one, but a combination of multiple identities. It is the integration of these identities that makes the translation more smooth and complete. For example, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have multiple identities such as &quot;learner of new knowledge and new technology&quot;, &quot;selector of the style&quot;, and &quot;controller of language quality&quot;. We can say that translators can play different roles for different translation purposes and requirements as well as in different steps of translation.<br /> <br /> In different times, the identity of translator is complicated. Faced with different works, the identity of translator changes, because translators have different purposes and needs when translating different works. Even when the translator is only faced with one work, in many cases, the identity of the translator will not be a single one, but a combination of multiple identities. It is the integration of these identities that makes the translation more smooth and complete. For example, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have multiple identities such as &quot;learner of new knowledge and new technology&quot;, &quot;selector of the style&quot;, and &quot;controller of language quality&quot;. Translators can play different roles for different translation purposes and requirements as well as in different steps of translation.缺引用--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. The roles of today’s translators===<br /> <br /> ===4. The Roles of Today's Translators===--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Dancers in shackles. ====<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Dancers in Shackles. ====--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Historically, there are many arguments about whether translators should be visible or invisible, servant or master. From today’s point of view, translators should keep a balance between them. They should not merely follow the author’s steps, and be the “servant” of the original text, nor should they believe that they can distort and rewrite the original text arbitrarily. Instead, they should act as a dancer in shackles: He should not only be faithful to the original text, adhere to specific translation standards and principles, carefully consider the choice of words and sentences, but also give full play to his subjective initiative and choose the most appropriate, natural and easily acceptable languages to convey the connotations of the original text.<br /> <br /> Historically, there are many arguments about whether translators should be visible or invisible, a servant or a master. From today's point of view, translators should keep a balance between them. They should not merely follow the author's steps, and be the &quot;servant&quot; of the original text, nor should they believe that they can distort and rewrite the original text arbitrarily. Instead, they should act as a dancer in shackles. The translator should not only be faithful to the original text, adhere to specific translation standards and principles, carefully consider the choice of words and sentences, but also give full play to his subjective initiative and choose the most appropriate, natural and easily acceptable languages to convey the connotations of the original text.缺引用--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Megaphones of real problems.====<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Megaphones of Real Problems====--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Feminist translation theory combined feminism with translation, and at that time translation became a tool for women to fight for independence and liberation. This reflects that translations are instrumental in reflecting social problems and seeking appropriate solutions to them. Excellent translation theorists can not only pay attention to the text translation itself, but also pay attention to the reflecting and solving of realistic issues in the field of translation and using translation as a tool to reasonably convey their appeals to the public on behalf of a specific group.<br /> <br /> Feminist translation theory combined feminism with translation, and at that time translation became a tool for women to fight for independence and liberation. This reflects that translations are instrumental in reflecting social problems and seeking appropriate solutions to them. Excellent translation theorists can not only pay attention to the text translation itself, but also pay attention to the reflecting and solving of realistic issues in the field of translation and using translation as a tool to reasonably convey their appeals to the public on behalf of a specific group.缺引用--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Learners who keep up with the time.====<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Learners who Keep up With the Time ====--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Translation is progressing with the time developing. If you stand still, you will lose out, and so will translators. They need to continuously learn new translation theories and accumulate more experience in practice in order to create excellent translation works. In addition, they must continue to learn new technologies and other new knowledge, such as computer-assisted translation technology, so that they can not only keep the traditional translation model in mind, but also find better ways to translate. In this way, they can adapt to the society and technological development more easily, and create high-quality translated works more efficiently. What’s more, translators should also pay attention to hot issues happened around the world, because translators should not only practice their translation skills, but also learn more new culture, which is vital in translation in the future.<br /> <br /> Translation is progressing with the time developing. If you stand still, you will lose out, and so will translators. They need to continuously learn new translation theories and accumulate more experience in practice in order to create excellent translation works. In addition, they must continue to learn new technologies and other new knowledge, such as computer-assisted translation technology, so that they can not only keep the traditional translation model in mind, but also find better ways to translate. In this way, they can adapt to the society and technological development more easily, and create high-quality translated works more efficiently. What's more, translators should also pay attention to hot issues happened around the world, because translators should not only practice their translation skills, but also learn more new culture, which is vital in translation in the future.缺引用--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Promoters of cultural communication.====<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Promoters of Cultural Communication.====--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Translators are the bridges between the source language and the target language, the author and the readers. Translators with profound knowledge in language skills and cultural backgrounds can accurately grasp the connotations of the original text, reproduce the original style, convey cultural messages, and bring readers to foreign authors with unique emotional attitudes and values. With the globalization, today's world is characterized by frequent economic, political, and cultural exchanges between China and the West. Translators play the role of cultural communicators of the world. But this is different from the “conqueror” in the context of colonial expansion in the past, because China has long respected the diversity of world culture and treated the culture of every country and nation equally, so the purpose of translation activities for today’s translators is not cultural aggression but spread valuable Chinese culture to other countries and receive the essence of other countries' cultures. The role of today’s translators is the promoter of communication of cultures.<br /> <br /> Translators are the bridges between the source language and the target language, the author and the readers. Translators with profound knowledge in language skills and cultural backgrounds can accurately grasp the connotations of the original text, reproduce the original style, convey cultural messages, and bring readers to foreign authors with unique emotional attitudes and values. With the globalization, today's world is characterized by frequent economic, political, and cultural exchanges between China and the West. Translators play the role of cultural communicators of the world. However, this is different from the &quot;conqueror&quot; in the context of colonial expansion in the past, because China has long respected the diversity of world culture and treated the culture of every country and nation equally, so the purpose of translation activities for today's translators is not cultural aggression but the spread of valuable Chinese culture to other countries and reception of the essence of other countries' cultures. The role of today's translators is the promoter of communication of cultures.缺引用--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The identity of translator is an important issue of translation studies. Throughout the history, translators have played various kinds of roles in translation. At the beginning, translators had a low cultural status and are given such roles as “servant” and “invisible man”. And the subjectivity and creativity of translators were ignored in translation studies. Later in 1970s, with the cultural turn in translation studies of western countries, translators got much more attention and walked from behind the scenes to the front stage, and various kinds of roles are given to them such as: “manipulator” “writer” “creative rebel”. The status of translators had been improved. Then with the development of society and technology, translators are playing more roles such as “language quality controller” “new learner” and “selector”. From the changes of the translators’ identity, we can conclude many features of it and realize what roles should today’s translators play in order to give full play to their creativity and subjectivity, so as to create wonderful translated versions.<br /> <br /> The identity of translator is an important issue of translation studies. Throughout the history, translators have played various kinds of roles in translation. At the beginning, translators had a low cultural status and are given such roles as &quot;servant&quot; and &quot;invisible man&quot;. And the subjectivity and creativity of translators were ignored in translation studies. Later in 1970s, with the cultural turn in translation studies of western countries, translators got much more attention and walked from behind the scenes to the front stage. Various kinds of roles are given to them such a&quot;manipulator&quot;, &quot;writer&quot;, and &quot;creative rebel&quot;. The status of translators had been improved. Then with the development of society and technology, translators are playing more roles such as &quot;language quality controller&quot;, &quot;new learner&quot; and &quot;selector&quot;. From the changes of the translators' identity, many features of it can be concluded and the roles today's translators play can be realized in order to give full play to their creativity and subjectivity, so as to create wonderful translated versions. 缺引用--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1] Venuti (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility'': London and New York: Routledge. <br /> <br /> [2] Robinson, D (1997). Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theories Explained: Manchester: St.Jerome Publishing. <br /> <br /> [3] 埃斯卡皮，罗贝尔(1987).文学社会学-罗•埃斯卡皮文论选:杭州：浙江人民出版社. <br /> <br /> [4] Lefevere, Andre (2010). ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame'': Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> [5]仲伟合、周静（2096），译者的极限与底线-试论译者主体性与译者的天职，外语与外语教学（07）：42-46。<br /> <br /> [6]谭载喜（1991），西方翻译简史，北京：商务印书馆：153。<br /> <br /> [7]许钧（2003），翻译论，武汉：湖北教育出版社。<br /> <br /> [8]杨武能（2003），再谈文学翻译主题，中国翻译（03）。<br /> <br /> [9]李晖，郝思源（2018），计算机辅助翻译中的译者身份研究，校园英（17）。<br /> <br /> [10]钱钟书（1984），林殊的翻译，北京商务印书馆。<br /> <br /> [11]姚亚平（1996），中国当代修辞学，广州：广东教育出版社：37。<br /> <br /> [12]金圣华，黄国斌（1996），因难见巧-名家翻译经验谈，香港：三联书店有限公司。<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> *Lefevere, Andre (2010). Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame: Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> *Robinson, D (1997). Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theories Explained: Manchester: St.Jerome Publishing. <br /> <br /> *Venuti (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility'': London and New York: Routledge. <br /> <br /> *埃斯卡皮，罗贝尔(1987).文学社会学-罗•埃斯卡皮文论选:杭州：浙江人民出版社.<br /> <br /> *仲伟合、周静（2096），译者的极限与底线-试论译者主体性与译者的天职，外语与外语教学（07）：42-46<br /> <br /> *谭载喜（1991），西方翻译简史，北京：商务印书馆：153<br /> <br /> *许钧（2003），翻译论，武汉：湖北教育出版社<br /> <br /> *杨武能（2003），再谈文学翻译主题，中国翻译（03）<br /> <br /> *李晖，郝思源（2018），计算机辅助翻译中的译者身份研究，校园英（17）<br /> <br /> *钱钟书（1984），林殊的翻译，北京商务印书馆<br /> <br /> *姚亚平（1996），中国当代修辞学，广州：广东教育出版社：37<br /> <br /> *金圣华，黄国斌（1996），因难见巧-名家翻译经验谈，香港：三联书店有限公司<br /> <br /> 句号需要删除，不需要[1] [2]...，按照格式改，需要中英文，如：Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Study of Domestication and foreignization in Cross-cultural Translation 顾东方 Gu Dongfang 202070080635 Interpretation英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;顾东方 Gu Dongfang &lt;/center&gt; <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's economic globalization, international cultural exchanges are expanding, and translation as a communication tool is also crucial. As a form of cross-cultural and cross-linguistic communication, translation is a kind of communication and interaction between two cultures with very different social backgrounds and cultural traditions. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, the application and selection of translation strategies should not only reflect the translator's style, but also directly affect the audience of the translated work among the target language readers. In 1995, Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization .<br /> <br /> In The Invisibility of Translators. domestication and foreignization are both opposed and unified, i.e. there is no such thing as absolute domestication or absolute foreignization. This paper will discuss the selection and application of domestication and foreignization in cross-cultural translation, based on the two translation strategies themselves and actual translation cases, so that translators can use these two translation strategies more flexibly in translation to better convey the meaning of the original texts and make the translations reach more readers, and thus promote the communication between different cultures. <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication and foreignization; cross-cutural; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在经济全球化的今天，国际间文化交流也在不断扩大，而翻译作为一种交流工具也显得至关重要。作为一种跨文化、跨语言交际的形式，翻译是一种社会背景与文化传统很不相同的两种文化间的交流与交往。因此，在跨文化翻译中，翻译策略的运用与选择不仅仅要体现出译者的风格，也会直接影响译作在目的语读者中的受众程度。美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出了归化与异化两种翻译策略。归化与异化，既对立又统一，也即绝对的归化或者绝对的异化都是不存在的。本文将从归化与异化这两种翻译策略的本身出发，并结合实际翻译案例，来探讨归化与异化在跨文化翻译当中的选择与运用，使得译者能够在翻译中更灵活地使用这两种翻译策略，更好地传达出原作的意蕴，使译作受众于更多的读者，以此促进不同文化之间的交流。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化与异化；跨文化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> === Definitions of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Domestication is to localize the original language and focuses on the target language or readers by conveying the original text in the way target readers are familiar with. In order to close the readers of target texts.Domesticated translation requires the translator to speak like a native author, and the translation must become authentic to the native language if the original author is to speak directly to the readers. It helps the reader to better understand the translation and enhances the readability and enjoyment of the translation.<br /> <br /> Foreignization is that the translator tries not to disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader can get closer to the author&quot;. In translation, it means to accommodate the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorb foreign expressions, require the translator to approach the author, and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the original content. The purpose of the foreignization strategy is to consider about the differences in national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationalities and linguistic styles, and to preserve the exoticism of the translated text for the readers.（Wang Ying 2007）<br /> <br /> ===The relationship between literal translation and free translation ,and domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Historically, foreignization and domestication can be seen as extensions of, but not identical to, literal and free translation. The terms &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot; are English translation version. Literal translation is a kind of method or text that keeps the original content and the form of the original text. Free translation means that it keeps only the content of the original text, not the form of the original text. Literal translation appeared during the May 4th Movement, emphasizing the need for faithfulness to the original text so that the translation can be &quot;expressive&quot; and &quot;elegant&quot;.<br /> <br /> Literal translation does not mean translating word for word in mechanical way. Since English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate them word for word. Literal translation is to fully and accurately clarify the meaning of the original work, without any distortion or random addition or deletion of the original ideas to maintain the original style. Sometimes even the original mood or emotion, such as anger or embarrassment, sarcasm or irony, joy or happiness, should not be ignored. <br /> <br /> Fu Si Nian and Zheng Zhenduo both advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, literal translation is the overriding rule. The work of Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren, The Collected Works of Extra-territorial Novels, is regarded as the representative of literal translation. <br /> <br /> Fu Sinian and Zheng Zhenduo both advocate literal translation.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 06:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The free translation, on the other hand, starts from the meaning and requires only the main idea of the original text to be expressed without excessive attention to detail, but a natural flow of the translation. In translation, if we cannot directly adopt the structure and expression of the original, we must change the sentence structure and expression to convey the meaning of the original according to the form and characteristics of the expression. <br /> <br /> Since there are many differences between the original language and the translated language in word order, grammar, changing forms and rhetoric, we can only use appropriate ways to convey the meaning of the original and reproduce the effect of the original. Mr. Jing-Shen Zhao once said, &quot;A smooth and fluent version is better than one that focuses only on fidelity to the original&quot;. Obviously, Mr. Zhao was in favor of foreignization, and so did Mr Yan Fu.<br /> <br /> Foreignization has been used in many works of Yan Fu, for example, the Evolution and Ethics is a typical example . In literal translation, faithful to the original form should be placed first, followed by faithful to the original content, again the fluency and popularity of translated language; while in free translation, faithful to the original content should be placed first, translation language fluency and popularity of the second, but free translation is not limited to the form of the original. <br /> <br /> Some scholars often discuss literal translation, free translation and domestication and foreignization together, which is understandable, but it is necessary to make a distinction. Based on the level of language and culture,domestication and foreignization focus more on the use of language from the perspective of cultural differences and are a kind of translation strategy, while literal and free translation is a translation technique, which is only at the level of language.<br /> <br /> There may be only one main translation strategy for a text or a work, but each strategy may use both literal and free translation methods, and each method serves the general direction of the translation strategy. The choice of the main translation strategy depends on the purpose of the translation, if it is to maximize the understanding of foreign cultures or cross-cultural comparative study, then the main focus is on foreignization; if it is to understand the information or story development through reading, then the domestication may be the best choice. <br /> <br /> Taking the translation of the famous work Dream of the Red Chamber as an example, there are two versions by two masters, Yang Xianyi and Hawkes, the former adopts foreignization to deal with the cultural factors in the language, that is, to keep the source culture as much as possible in the translation, while Hawkes adopts domestication in order to avoid the conflict between two different cultures, Chinese and English.(Wang Ying 2007)<br /> <br /> ===National and international research on the development of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> <br /> ===The history of the development of domestication and foreignization abroad.===<br /> The German translator Schleiermacher, in his work, On the Different Methods of Translation, elaborated the need for translations to bring the reader as close as possible to the original author, and for the first time introduced the concepts of domestication and foreignization.<br /> <br /> At the same time, in the British academic circles of the time, domestication was the main translation strategy, but Francis Newman in England, when discussing the transl ation work on Homer, advocated that translators should consciously translate in the ancient language to emphasize the heterogeneity of the work.<br /> <br /> At the same time, in the British academic circles of the time, domestication was the main translation strategy, but Francis Newman in England, when discussing the translation work on Homer, advocated that translators should consciously translate in the ancient language to emphasize the heterogeneity of the work.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1960s A.D., Nida proposed the theory of domestication for the first time in many structuralist theoretical works, and since then the climax of the debate on domestication and foreignization rose on the stage in western translation field . In Nida's view, domesticated translation does not need to stick to the form of the original text, but only needs to express the content with the closest and most natural equivalent in the translated text to achieve equivalence.<br /> <br /> The French theorist Antoinette Bellman deplored the tendency of eliminating foreignization in translation through the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot;. He said: &quot;The proper theoretical goal of the translation action is to accept heterogeneity as it is.&quot; This view seems to have an impact on Venuti's strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot; .<br /> <br /> In his book The Invisibility of the Translator, Italian scholar Venuti discusses the &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator by combining the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization for the first time. He strongly advocates foreignization and questions domestication, arguing that domestication is essentially a means of cultural colonization by Western colonizers. At the same time, he also suggests that the purpose of translation is not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express linguistic and cultural differences.(Liu Ping 2008)<br /> <br /> ===Domestic development history on domestication and foreignization===<br /> The earliest translations of Buddhist scriptures have included the debate between assimilation and dissimilation. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the translator Zhiqian pioneered the translation style of using free translation instead of transliteration, which had far-reaching significance and influence in history.<br /> <br /> At the end of the 19th century, several other great translators emerged in Chinese history, and Yan Fu was one of them. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, foreign powers invaded extensively and the Chinese nation faced an existential crisis, under such a background, Yan Fu believed that translation must be carefully chosen based on the social and historical reality of the country into which it is translated. In the translation, the translator should take the literary tradition of the nation and the specific historical and cultural purpose as the main purpose, combining the cultural and linguistic background of the readers. <br /> <br /> The translator should not focus on how to be &quot;faithful to the original&quot;, but how to adapt to the social and cultural choices of the time.<br /> With the rise of the May 4th New Culture Movement, many translators tried to learn from foreign literature in order to transform literature and society.Lu Xun's most famous dictum relating to translation was &quot;I'd rather be faithful than smooth&quot;, and advocated &quot;preserving the foreign flavor as much as possible&quot; and &quot;the need for exoticism&quot;. <br /> <br /> After the founding of New China, China's translation industry entered the third high point, and a large number of Western and Soviet works were introduced, which was connected with the spiritual needs of people at that time. After the reform and opening up, with the influx of Western translation ideas, &quot;foreignization&quot; has emerged. Many scholars have put forward the idea that &quot;Foreignization is primary while domestication is supplementary&quot;.(Liu Ping 2019)<br /> <br /> ===domestication and foreignization of cultural exchange translation===<br /> <br /> ====the relationship between culture and language==== <br /> 标题单词首字母大写--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a broad sense, culture refers to the material and spiritual wealth created and accumulated by human beings in the course of social development; in a narrower sense, it refers to the ideology of society and the system of organizational constructs that corresponds to it. Culture has the following four basic characteristics 1) culture is owned and shared by all members of a society; 2) culture is acquired rather than inherited; 3) culture is biologically based; and 4) culture is based on a symbolic system. <br /> <br /> The relationship between language and culture is between the part and the whole; language is a subsystem of culture, and language cannot exist apart from culture; it embodies all the beliefs and emotions of a cultural group. Language and culture interact and influence each other and are inseparable. Based on the close relationship between language and culture, more consideration should be given to cultural factors in translation research, which means that translation research should be carried out in a more macro context.<br /> <br /> Translators should be aware of enough cultural differences when dealing with the cultural differences between the original language and the target language. Due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese, many English and Chinese phrases, although literally having the same or similar meanings, are inherently different. Therefore, a word-for-word translation without considering cultural factors can lead to ambiguity.（Wang Hongwei 2002）<br /> <br /> ==== Translatability and untranslatability of cultures====<br /> On the one hand, the similarity of human experience worldwide contributes to the translatability of cultures. In this regard, Nida has said that &quot;all human beings eat, work, sleep and procreate, and they produce objects such as furniture, tools and vehicles. They also organize themselves into families, clans, internal and external groups, nations and inter-national organizations. They have a conscious similarity in their views of the universe, values, religion and supernatural forces. <br /> <br /> In fact, the different groups of people in the world have much more in common with each other than they do with each other.&quot; It is the similarity of the cultures of different peoples that allows people of different cultures to understand each other and makes translation possible. Nida thus states, &quot;Linguists and anthropologists have discovered that what binds human beings together far outweighs what alienates them, and this is the basis for generating communication.&quot; Many expressions that are unique to one culture can be found almost identically in a culture and become the best evidence of cultural translatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, each people has a culture that is distinct from the others, which hinders mutual understanding with the others and may even cause cultural shock. Due to different cultural inheritances, the languages of different nationalities have their own symbol systems and lexical, syntactical and grammatical characteristics, which often make them untranslatable. For example, the Chinese phrase &quot;客上天然居，居然天客&quot; is one of the examples of untranslatable culture.(Wang Hongwei 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Factors influencing cultural translation strategies====<br /> <br /> =====Motives and objectives of translation=====<br /> <br /> Different motivations and purposes for translation lead to different translation principles and methods<br /> <br /> =====Text type=====<br /> <br /> Different texts influence the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord, translation can be divided into instrumental translation, which refers to the means of transferring information from the source language to the target language, and documentary translation, which refers to the means of transferring information about communication activities from the source language to the target language. This type of translation emphasizes the transmission and conveyance of information and mainly includes non-literary writing, including advertising, media writing, scientific writing, propaganda and announcements, etc. With this method of translation, which is guided by the culture of the target language, the information that needs to be conveyed can be better expressed and accessed. <br /> <br /> The other type of text is documentary translation. This type of translation refers to the presentation of real communicative activities and information to the target language readers. The term &quot;documentary translation&quot; is appropriate for translating (language-)-specific expressions, where translation of language and content are equally important. eter Newmark distinguishes between communicative and semantic translation of such texts, emphasizing the &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot; of the message. &quot; in order to achieve the same effect on the readers of the original language as on those of the target language.<br /> <br /> Although this type of translation is a subjective process, the translator will attach great importance to the effect of the translation on the reader's mind. By reorganizing and rearranging the order of sentences, the translator will eliminate obscurities and ambiguities in order to achieve &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot;. Most non-literary writing, informative articles and books, as well as textbooks, bulletins, standardized writing, and novels are suitable for this type of communicative translation; because it emphasizes the need to have the same effect on both the original and target language readers, it often uses expressions that are customary and easily understood in the language in which they are written. <br /> <br /> Thus, communicative translation is equivalent to naturalized translation, where the translator's preference for idiomatic expressions is produced or determined by the translator's preference for the target language. Semantic translation attempts to get as close as possible to the exact meaning of the original text in terms of wording. Semantic translation focuses on the expression of the exact meaning of the content in order to preserve as accurate a style of the original text as possible. <br /> <br /> This type of translation is an objective process during which the translator focuses only on whether the translation is precise and retains the flavor of the original text. In this type of translation, the translator tries to preserve the semantic and syntactic structure of the original text, as well as the tone of the original text, etc. semantic translation applies to autobiographies, private correspondence, personal emotional texts and quotations. A semantic translation is equivalent to an alien translation in an attempt to achieve the preservation of the flavour of the original, due to the translator's original language preference.(Wang Hongwei2007)<br /> <br /> =====Acceptance by readers=====<br /> In the past, traditional translation theories placed one-sided emphasis on extra-author-centred and text-centred research, neglecting the involvement of translators and target language readers. Modern reception aesthetics considers the reader not as an unimportant and unnecessary perspective, but as a historical, active and creative factor in the relationship between author, text and reader. <br /> <br /> This is why different people have different interpretations of the same text of Hamlet. Naida was influenced by the acceptance of the aesthetic sub. His theory and practice of translation are very much focused on the readers' reflection. He pointed out that &quot;Judging the validity of a translation does not stop at the comparison of word meanings, grammar and rhetoric; what is important is the extent to which the recipient is able to understand and appreciate the translation correctly.&quot;(Wang Hongwei2007)<br /> <br /> ===Cultural Schools of Translation===--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In 1990, the representatives of the cultural school of translation, Bassnett and Lefevere, in their co-edited book Translation, History and Culture, formally proposed the slogan of &quot;Cultural Turn of Translation&quot;, which also marked the official emergence of the cultural school of translation. In the following years, they published several monographs, individually or together, discussing about the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture.<br /> <br /> In the following years, they published several monographs, either individually or jointly, to discuss the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. Unlike the literary or linguistic schools of translation in the past, the cultural school is a school with a strong &quot;revolutionary&quot; element in translation theory, and some people even consider their views to be &quot;subversive&quot; to the previous translation theories.<br /> <br /> This is mainly because they especially emphasize the status of culture in translation and the importance of translation to the spread of culture and the promotion of social and cultural progress. Other translators, such as Lambert and Robyns, argue that translation is more accurately regarded as a communication activity between two cultures than as a bilingual conversion activity.<br /> <br /> Therefore, they believe that translation activity is a cultural conversion. In recent years, Chinese scholars have done some research and reflection on the essence of translation. In the researches of many scholars, under the current globalization environment ,the importance of translation to cultural exchange and communication is getting more and more attention from people.<br /> <br /> For example, Lv Jun proposes that &quot;translation is a kind of cross-cultural information exchange activities, and its essence is dissemination. To a certain extent, the viewpoint of Chinese scholars and the Western cultural schools can be said to echo each other. Language is not only a carrier of information, but also a carrier of culture. Therefore, in essence, translation as a kind of inter-linguistic communication, it is not only the conversion of language information , but also the transplantation of cultural information. Therefore, in essence, translation is not only a language information conversion, but also a cultural communication activity.(Wang Hongwei2007)<br /> <br /> ====Application of domestication in English-Chinese Translation==== <br /> 标题大写--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Chinese famous writer Mo Yan has won the Nobel Prize for Literature for a series of works including Fatigue of Life and Death (2006) and Frog (2009) and American sinologist Ge Haowen should also be credited , who was called “the only midwife of Mo Yan’s works”.Ge's translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out reflects his consistent principle: &quot;The author is writing for the Chinese, while I am translating for foreigners,translating is a process of rewriting”. Ge Haowen did a lot of rewriting and compilation based on respecting the original work, and in the translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out, the domesticated translation reflects his relentless pursuit of &quot;accuracy&quot;, &quot;readability&quot; and &quot;acceptability&quot;. (Zhou Yongkun 2019) <br /> <br /> 例一： 常言道‘螃蟹过河随大流’，‘识时务者为俊杰’，不要顽固不化，不要充当挡路的石头，不要充硬汉子。<br /> <br /> Join the commune and stop working for yourself, end your quest for independence.Stop being headstrong,and an obstructionist.<br /> <br /> “螃蟹过河随大流” is a two-part allegorical saying in Chinese folks . It means &quot;following the majority of people to speak or act&quot;. A post-slip is a short, witty phrase that can be used as a philosophical and wisdom-boosting phrase. A man who knows the times is a hero&quot; is an idiom derived from a historical allusion, meaning &quot;only those who can recognize the trend of the times can become heroes and heroines&quot;. Ge Haowen domesticated these two slang expressions: first, because they have the same meaning as the one that follows: &quot;Don't be stubborn ...... don't be a tough guy anymore&quot;, which is used to kindly advise people who are unable to see the current affairs of the day, but are still stubbornly stubborn. <br /> <br /> The deletion of these two daily phrases does not affect the main content of the narrative and the expression of ideas in the context. Secondly, there is the concern that the translation may not produce the desired effect of depth, image, and humor as the source language. And then there is the fact that the target language readers are relatively unfamiliar with Chinese slang, so it is better to delete it directly than to translate it to increase the readers' reading burden and affect their understanding and grasp of the whole text. Ge Haowen's domesticated translation method reflects his holistic view of discourse as a unit<br /> <br /> 例二：但一个二十多岁就当了县级领导干部的人，和农村姑娘结婚的可能性几乎是零，无论她貌如西施还是色比婵娟。<br /> <br /> There was no chance that a leading country-level cadre in his twenties would ever actually marry a peasant girl , no matter how pretty or fetching she might be.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaojun ,Xishi, Diao Chan and Yang Yuhuan were the main characters with unique beauty at that time in historical illusions ,named as “Four Beauties in ancient times”.In the original work, Mo Yan chose only two historical figures, &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, to contrast and emphasize the beauty of rural girls. In the process of translation, Ge did not translate &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, nor did he make any commentary, but took into account the target audience's alienation from the historical allusion to the Four Beauties.<br /> <br /> Therefore, he adopt a domesticated translation method to make a simplification, breaking the constraints of the original language and enhancing the readability of the translation, without deviating from the original meaning.(Zhou Yongkun 2019) <br /> <br /> In the above example, when dealing with unfamiliar allusions or common sayings and proverbs, Ge Haowen boldly rewrote and deleted them, translating the work from the reader's point of view, so that the target readers will be pleased with his translation.<br /> <br /> 5.2 The Application of Foreignization in English-Chinese Translation<br /> 注意标题格式--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The nature of foreignization is such that it deals with elements of the original language that are culturally distinctive, and the result of the translation is to bring in new forms of expression that are different from the mother tongue and the cultural connotations attached to them. Language is an open system with a strong capacity for absorption and inclusion.<br /> <br /> With the deepening of communication among countries and peoples, various languages have been enriched to different degrees, and variant translation plays a more important role in this process. In Chinese, the terms &quot;internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot; are used to refer to the &quot;Internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot;. &quot;Time is money&quot;, &quot;ivory tower&quot;, &quot;washroom&quot;.... (crocodile tears), &quot;black humor&quot; , and &quot;qi gong&quot; ), &quot;taijiquan&quot; , &quot;kong fu&quot; , &quot;typhon”<br /> <br /> These words did not originally exist in the Chinese and English language systems. However, translators make a large number of words with exoticism in the way of foreignization more popular and acceptable among the massive culture . Therefore, foreignization is not only beneficial to introduce local history and culture to foreign countries, but also gives local readers the opportunity to understand foreign customs and realize the purpose of cross-cultural communication.<br /> （Wang Ying 2007）<br /> 例一.打破铁饭碗<br /> <br /> Break the”iron rice bowl”<br /> <br /> &quot;Iron rice bowl&quot; is a Chinese idiom, in Chinese we compare &quot;rice bowl&quot; to an occupation, while &quot;iron rice bowl&quot; refers to a stable job, no doubt, it is difficult to convert such words with obvious Chinese characteristics into the target language through the method of &quot;domestication&quot;, but foreignization not only retains the imagery of the source language, but also introduces the unique culture of China to Western readers.<br /> <br /> 例二.下海<br /> <br /> A.to jump into the sea of business<br /> <br /> B.To turn professional<br /> <br /> In the early days of reform and opening up, the word “jumping into the sea of business” was popular, mainly meaning the trend of doing business.For this new phenomenon ,translators adopt different methods. Text A used foreignization and direct translation while the later domestication. In comparison, the former was more expressive and vivid, conveying the meaning of source language in a proper way.<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization is more apparent in the literary translation. Here I will take the translation of Dream of the Red Chamber as an example and compare the translations of Mr. and Mrs. Yang Xianyi ,and Mr. Hawkes. The translation of Dream of the Red Chamber by Yang Xianyi and his wife is a typical representative of foreignization, which is highly praised by domestic readers, but some scholars have conducted a survey and found that it is far inferior to the British sinologist David Hawks in terms of the number of borrowed readers, citations and reprinted editions. Why the &quot;cold shoulder&quot;? Let's find out by comparing and analyzing some examples of the two translations.<br /> <br /> 例一.刘姥姥道: “这倒不然。谋事在人，成事在天。咱们谋到了，靠菩萨的保佑，有些机会，也未可知。”<br /> <br /> A.“ Don’t be so sure,” said Granny Liu. “Man proposes, Heaven disposes. Work out a plan,trust to Buddha,and something may come of it for all you know.”<br /> <br /> B.“ I wouldn’t say that.”said Grannie Liu.”Man proposes, God disposes.It is up to us to think of something. We must leave it to the good Lord to decide whether He’ll help us or not. Who knows, he might give us the opportunity we are looking for.”<br /> <br /> Dream of the Red Chamber is a literary work full of Buddhist and Taoist thoughts. Yang Xianyi and Hawks have different approaches to the phrase“谋事在人，成事在天”， which also reflects different religious thoughts. In Yang's translation, &quot;God&quot; is replaced by &quot;Heavenly Father,&quot; which is in line with the Chinese religious belief that Heavenly Father in control of everything, while retaining the religious flavor of the source culture.<br /> <br /> However, Hawks gave priority to the religious background and acceptance of the English readers, so he adopted the English proverb directly without any modification, thus transforming the Buddhism and Taoism in the East to Christianity in the West, in accordance with western religious belief and thinking ways.<br /> <br /> The two translations have their own merits. The choice of translation strategies is based on different objectives. Mainly depending on the foreignization stategy, Mr. and Mrs. Yang tried to spread Chinese literature classics and convey Chinese traditional culture originally.However, they didn't get the desired results.One of the main reasons is that Mr. and Mrs. Yang regard faithfulness as the first priority and overemphasize the foreign culture of the translated works, neglecting to consider the reception environment and the recognition of the target readers.（Wang Ying 2007）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> With the continuous expansion of international cultural exchanges, the human cultural gap is gradually narrowing, language as an important carrier of culture has also been affected by the same, an appropriate increase in the use of &quot;foreign&quot; translation,can not only inject the new elements into domestic culture, but also promote the spread of local culture, achieve cross-cultural exchange and accelerate the process of &quot;cultural globalization&quot;. <br /> <br /> It should be pointed out foreignization is not at the expense of forgetting one's own culture, on the contrary, it is based on the familiarity with other cultures, and then carry out painstaking, creative translation work. To give more attention to &quot;alienation&quot; translation is not to deny, reject the domesticated translation method, because domestication and foreignization play an irreplaceable rol in the target language and culture.Therefore, the two translations will always co-exist and complement each other. Flexible use of foreignization and domestication is the real way of addressing the cultural conflicts. (Xiong Bing 2003)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> Wang Ying王瑛. &quot;跨文化翻译中的归化和异化.&quot; 内蒙古财经学院学报(综合版) 03(2007):83-87.<br /> <br /> Zhou Yongkun周永堃. &quot;归化异化在跨文化翻译中的选择与运用——以《红楼梦》和《生死疲劳》为例.&quot; 邵阳学院学报(社会科学版) 18.01(2019):103-108.<br /> <br /> Wang Hongwei王红卫. &quot;跨文化交际翻译方法:归化和异化策略.&quot; 西南民族学院学报(哲学社会科学版) 9(2002):250-253.<br /> <br /> Xiong Bing熊兵. &quot;文化交流翻译的归化与异化.&quot; 中国科技翻译 16.003(2003):5-9.<br /> <br /> Liu Ping刘苹. &quot;中国翻译史上的归化和异化.&quot; 滨州学院学报 24.001(2008):74-75.<br /> <br /> no numbers, attention to the detailed request on the bottom of the home page--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />  <br /> <br /> ==The Translation Strategies of Chinese Political Discourse under the Standard of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; 202070080585 高明珠 Gao Mingzhu 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With the development of globalization, the political communication among countries is more and more frequent, and the translation of political terms has gradually become one of the heated topics in the translation field. Political discourse translation is challenging, because not only does it concern the relationship between countries, national status, political attitude and other important issues, but also it is developmental. Political neologisms will keep emerging, and some political terms will contain new connotations with the advancement of the times. In addition to the above characteristics, Chinese political discourse has many affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases, metaphors.In 2008, Yang Mingxing and other scholars put forward the &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; based on Eugene Nida's &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; theory for the translation of Chinese political discourse, which pointed out that the translation of political discourse should follow the three principles of &quot;political&quot;, &quot;dynamic&quot; and &quot;balanced&quot;. On the basis of some related papers, this chapter will sum up the specific strategies such as supplement, omission, keeping or converting analogical body, adding explanation and narration for translating Chinese political discourse with characteristics of having lots of affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases and metaphors following the guidance of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> With the development of globalization, political exchanges among countries have become more frequent, and the translation of political discourse has gradually become one of the heated topics in the translation field. The translation of political discourse is challenging not only because it is related to important issues such as the relationship between countries, national status and political attitudes, but also because political vocabulary is developmental and new words are constantly coming into the political vocabulary, and some political words will add new connotations with the development of the times. In addition to the above characteristics, Chinese political discourse has many affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases, metaphors. In 2008, Yang Mingxing and other scholars put forward the &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; based on Eugene Nida's &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; theory for the translation of Chinese political discourse, which pointed out that the translation of political discourse should follow the three principles of &quot;political&quot;, &quot;dynamic&quot; and &quot;balanced&quot;. On the basis of some related papers, this chapter will sum up the specific strategies such as supplement, omission, keeping or converting analogical body, adding explanation and narration for translating Chinese political discourse with characteristics of having lots of affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases and metaphors following the guidance of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> political equivalence Chinese political discourse translation strategies<br /> <br /> political equivalence; Chinese political discourse; translation strategies --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:55, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着全球化的发展，各国间的政治交流愈加频繁，政治话语的翻译也逐渐成为翻译界讨论热点之一。政治话语的翻译是具有挑战性的，不仅是因为它关系到国与国之间的关系、国家地位、政治态度等重要问题，而且因为政治词汇是发展性的，政治词汇中会不断有新的词汇涌进，且某些政治词汇会随着时代的发展而增加新的内涵。而中国政治话语除了具有以上特点，它还有多词缀、缩写、四字短语[1]，多用隐喻等修辞手法的特点。2008年，杨明星等学者针对中国政治话语的翻译，基于尤金·奈达的“功能对等”理论提出了“政治等效”翻译标准，该标准指出政治话语的翻译要遵循“政治性”、“动态性”、“平衡性”三大原则。本文基于相关文献，总结出在该标准下，对中国政治话语在具有多词缀、缩写、四字短语及多采用隐喻这几个特点下的翻译可采用的具体的翻译策略，如增补法、省略法[1]、喻体保留法（完全保留、部分保留）、喻体转换法、喻底补充法、喻义直叙法[2]等。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 政治等效 中国政治话语 翻译策略<br /> <br /> 政治等效; 中国政治话语; 翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction of Background===<br /> <br /> Political discourse is a communication carrier or one kind of discourse behaviors that elaborate a country's foreign policies, governance mechanisms or political ideas, including oral expression and written expression. Oral expressions includes leaders' speeches, the contents conveyed by various government agencies' press conferences, and written expressions includes diplomatic documents, white papers, legal provisions, treaties, agreements and communiques issued by relevant state agencies. With the improvement of China's comprehensive national strength and the continuous expansion of its global influence, the study of the translation standards, principles, strategies of Chinese political discourse has become an important topic in the field of translation. A study in 2019 has shown that domestic political discourse translation studies started in 2000 and entered a stage of rapid development with the convening of the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012. The current research hot spots of political discourse translation include the translation of Xi Jinping's speeches and works, the application of various translation laws and interpretive theories, the principle of political equivalence and the theory of ecological translation(Chu Xingjun 2020,36).<br /> <br /> <br /> Political discourse is a vehicle of communication or one kind of discourse behaviors used to articulate a country's foreign policy, governance mechanisms or political ideas, including both oral and written expression. Oral expression includes leaders' speeches, the content conveyed by various government agencies' press conferences, and written expression includes diplomatic documents, white papers, legal provisions, treaties, agreements and communiques issued by relevant state agencies. With the improvement of China's comprehensive national strength and the continuous expansion of its global influence, the study of the translation standards, principles, strategies of Chinese political discourse has become an important topic in the field of translation. A study in 2019 has shown that domestic political discourse translation studies started in 2000 and entered a stage of rapid development with the convening of the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012. The current research hot spots of political discourse translation include the translation of Xi Jinping's speeches and works, the application of various translation laws and interpretive theories, the principle of political equivalence and the theory of ecological translation(Chu Xingjun 2020,36). --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Significance of Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> This chapter holds that the significance of political discourse translation mainly involves two aspects----politics and linguistics. Firstly, in terms of politics, translating political discourse is to facilitate the political communication between countries, show the country's political attitude, theory and policy to the outside world. Political discourse translation plays a significant role in promoting the relationship between the countries, taking one’s stand, safeguarding one’s national interests and shaping one’s national image and so on. Secondly, in terms of linguistics, political terms are developmental. With the advance of the times and the rapid development of the world, new political terms will constantly emerge, which is also the process of language expansion. The study of the translation of new words is not only the bounden duty of translators, but also of great significance to the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> This chapter holds that the significance of political discourse translation mainly involves two aspects----politics and linguistics. Firstly, in terms of politics, translating political discourse is to promote the political communication between countries and show the political attitudes, theories and policies of the country to the outside world. Political discourse translation plays a significant role in promoting the relationship between the countries, taking one’s stand, safeguarding one’s national interests and shaping one’s national image and so on. Secondly, in terms of linguistics, political terms are developmental. With the advance of the times and the rapid development of the world, new political terms will constantly emerge, which is also the process of language expansion. The study of the translation of new words is not only an obligatory task for translators, but also of great significance to the development of translation studies. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Difficulties in Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> The difficulties are mainly reflected in three aspects. Firstly, the translator should correctly understand the political connotation of the source language and translate it as the target language faithfully. Secondly, different expression ways between two languages. There are rare equivalent words in both languages, so when translating the source language as the target language, the expression habits of the target language users should be taken as account, so as to facilitate the target language users to accurately understand the original meaning. Especially, Chinese political discourse often present metaphor rhetoric which may not be easy for foreigners to understand, thus when translating such words, methods that we can adopt not only include literal translation, transliteration plus explanation, but also sometimes it would be better to translate those words on the basis of the target language’s culture to make the translation more vivid and help readers understand the meaning accurately. In a word, be more flexible in adopting methods according to different cases; Finally, the same political term may have different meanings in different contexts, or it may require translators to adopt different translation methods in different contexts. In addition, the connotation of some political terms will develop with the advance of The times. Therefore, translators should keep up with current events and deal with them flexibly in translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> The difficulties are mainly reflected in three aspects. Firstly, the translator should correctly understand the political connotation of the source language and translate it faithfully to the target language. Secondly, the expressions are different between the two languages. There are quite few equivalent words in both languages, so when translating the source language to the target language, the expression habits of the target language users should be taken into consideration, so as to facilitate the target language users to accurately understand the original meaning. In particular, Chinese political discourse is often presented metaphorically which may not be easy for foreigners to understand, thus when translating such words, methods that we can adopt not only include literal translation, transliteration plus explanation, but also sometimes it would be better to translate those words on the basis of the target language’s culture to make the translation more vivid and help readers understand the meaning accurately. In a word, be more flexible in adopting methods according to different cases; Finally, the same political term may have different meanings in different contexts, or it may require translators to adopt different translation methods in different contexts. In addition, the connotation of some political terms will develop with the advance of The times. Therefore, translators should keep up with current events and deal with them flexibly in translation. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Connotations of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal and connotation of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard<br /> <br /> In 2008, US Department of Defense mistranslated the term &quot;韬光养晦&quot; to propaganda &quot;China threat theory&quot;. Therefore, based on Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, a scholar, Yang Mingxing, proposed the translation concept of &quot;political equivalence&quot; for the first time from the perspective of international relations and diplomatic analysis (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). The connotation of this concept mainly involves three aspects: firstly, the translator needs to truthfully convey the political thought of the source language as well as the speaker; secondly, when translating, the translator should choose the target language according to the expression ways that the target language users get used to, so that the information and political thoughts brought by the target text to the target language users are equivalent to those brought by the source text to the source language users; Thirdly, in different contexts and historical backgrounds, the connotations of political discourse will be different. Translators' translation should keep pace with the times and be determined in accordance with the situation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). In 2012, Yang Mingxing and other scholars further proposed three prominent principles or characteristics of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; translation standard: political, balanced and dynamic (Yang Mingxing, Yan Da 2012, 35). Among them, political nature, namely accurately grasping the political connotation of the source language, is the most prominent characteristic, which is determined by the strong political color of the political terms themselves. Balance means to strike a balance among source language, target language, speaker and audience without focusing on either side, and strive to make the effect produced by the translation in the foreign readers be similar or equivalent to that produced by the original text in local readers. Dynamic means that the equivalent process mentioned above is a dynamic equivalent process. Because political terms’ connotation changes with the advance of the times and varies from different contexts, translators need to keep pace with the times, follow up the connotation development of political terms, and translate flexibly according to different situations. In 2018, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed a compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + aesthetic representation&quot; on the basis of the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; (Yang Mingxing, Qi Jingjing 2018,15). This standard was put forward in the context of the appearance of ancient poetry in political discourse. Besides meeting the requirements of &quot;political equivalence&quot; mentioned above, this standard asks to take the literary beauty of ancient poetry and prose, such as rhythm, form, artistic conception, etc as account. In January 2020, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed another compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + image representation&quot; based on the frequently used the rhetoric device metaphor in political discourse(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2018,41). The purpose of realizing &quot;image reproduction&quot; and &quot;aesthetic reproduction&quot; is basically similar, both of which are to reproduce the aesthetic experience of the original text. In October 2020, Yang Mingxing and some other scholars made a review of several major diplomatic event in the Sino-British diplomatic history and put forward that the realization of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard should not only rely on the translator's ability, but also have some connections with the national policy of translation, translation system and equal speaking rights between two countries, among which equal speaking right is the key to realize &quot;political equivalence&quot;(Yang Mingxing 2020,05). <br /> <br /> [You may organize it into following paragraphs and it includes my corrections.]<br /> <br /> In 2008, US Department of Defense mistranslated the term &quot;韬光养晦&quot; which led to the propaganda &quot;China threat theory&quot;. Therefore, based on Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, a scholar, Yang Mingxing, proposed the translation concept of &quot;political equivalence&quot; for the first time from the perspective of international relations and diplomatic analysis (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). The connotation of this concept mainly involves three aspects: firstly, the translator needs to truthfully convey the political ideas of the source language as well as the speaker; secondly, when translating, the translator should choose the target language according to the expression ways that the target language users get used to, so that the information and political thoughts brought by the target text to the target language users are equivalent to those brought by the source text to the source language users; Thirdly, in different contexts and historical backgrounds, the connotations of political discourse will be different. Translators' translation should keep pace with the times and be determined in accordance with the situation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In 2012, Yang Mingxing and other scholars further proposed three prominent principles or characteristics of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; translation standard: political, balanced and dynamic (Yang Mingxing, Yan Da 2012, 35). Among them, political nature, namely accurately grasping the political connotation of the source language, is the most prominent characteristic, which is determined by the strong political color of the political terms themselves. Balance means to maintain a balance among source language, target language, speaker and audience without focusing on any one of them, and strive to make the effect produced by the translation in the foreign readers be similar or equivalent to that produced by the original text in local readers. Dynamic means that the equivalent process mentioned above is a dynamic equivalent process. As political terms’ connotation changes with the advance of the times and varies from different contexts, translators need to keep pace with the times, follow up the connotation development of political terms, and translate flexibly according to different situations. In 2018, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed a compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + aesthetic representation&quot; on the basis of the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; (Yang Mingxing, Qi Jingjing 2018,15). This standard was put forward in the context of the appearance of ancient poetry in political discourse. In addition to meeting the requirements of &quot;political equivalence&quot; mentioned above, this standard also requires to take the literary beauty of ancient poetry and prose, such as rhythm, form, artistic conception, etc as account. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In January 2020, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed another compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + image representation&quot; based on the frequently used the rhetoric device metaphor in political discourse(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2018,41). The purpose of realizing &quot;image reproduction&quot; and &quot;aesthetic reproduction&quot; is basically similar, both of which are to reproduce the aesthetic experience of the original text. In October 2020, Yang Mingxing and some other scholars made a review of several major diplomatic events in the Sino-British diplomatic history and put forward that the realization of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard should not only rely on the translator's ability, but also have some connections with the national policy of translation, translation system and equal speaking rights between two countries, among which equal speaking right is the key to realize &quot;political equivalence&quot;(Yang Mingxing 2020,05). --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> (2)The differences between “political equivalence” and “functional equivalence” put forward by Nida<br /> <br /> &quot;Firstly, the 'equivalence' emphasized by Nida does not pay enough attention to the political connnotations of the original text in translation, ignoring the particularity of diplomatic or political discourse, and that whether the original text and translation are quite consistent in political standpoint and political connotation. Secondly, although functional equivalence pays attention to the information equivalence between the original text and the translated text, it does not pay enough attention to the real intention of the speaker or writer of the original text, because the literal meaning of the original text cannot be equal with the political standpoint and ideological connotation of the speaker or writer. Thirdly, the 'dynamic' concept Nida proposed in 'functional equivalence' theory ignores the dynamic changes in context and connotation of original text and translation. However, for diplomatic or political discourse, the connotations of the political terms do not remain unchanged. It changes constantly with the speaker's context, political tendency and historical background at that time. On the other hand, the target language is also dynamic, because the meaning and usage of the target language are constantly changing, the translator must keep track of the latest development of the target language and the domestic political and cultural background of the target audience &quot;(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> &quot;Firstly, the 'equivalence' emphasized by Nida does not pay enough attention to the political connotations of the original text in translation, ignoring the particularity of diplomatic or political discourse, and that whether the original text and translation are quite consistent in political standpoint and political connotation. Secondly, although functional equivalence pays attention to the information equivalence between the original text and the translated text, it does not pay enough attention to the real intention of the speaker or writer of the original text, because the literal meaning of the original text cannot be equal with the political standpoint and ideological connotation of the speaker or writer. Thirdly, the concept of 'dynamic' proposed by Nida in the theory of 'functional equivalence' ignores the dynamic changes in the context and connotation of the original text and the translation. However, in the case of diplomatic or political discourse, the connotations of political terms do not remain unchanged. It changes constantly with the speaker's context, political tendency and historical background at that time. On the other hand, the target language is also dynamic, because the meaning and usage of the target language are constantly changing, the translator must keep track of the latest development of the target language and the domestic political and cultural background of the target audience &quot;(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In a word, the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; is an important theory aiming at the translation of foreign affairs, diplomacy and political discourse, and provides theoretical guidance and normative requirements for the translation of political terms.<br /> <br /> In a word, the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; is an important theory aiming at the translation of foreign affairs, diplomacy and political discourse, providing theoretical guidance and normative requirements for the translation of political terms. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===5. Requirements of “Political Equivalence” for Translators ===<br /> <br /> First of all, translators should grasp not only the meaning of the original text, but also the political intention of the speaker or the writer, because sometimes the literal meaning of Chinese words in the political discourse cannot fully represent the real intention of the speaker or the writer.What translators should do is to learn more about the related background knowledge before the translation and keep pace with the worldwide current events in daily life, and choose the proper translation strategies according to specific situations to make the translation be in line with the context and political background of the speaker or the writer as well as the audience or reader, which is the key to the realization of &quot;political equivalence&quot;.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)<br /> <br /> First of all, the translator should grasp not only the meaning of the original text, but also the political intention of the speaker or the writer, because sometimes the literal meaning of Chinese words in the political discourse cannot fully represent the real intention of the speaker or the writer. What translators should do is to learn more about the relevant background knowledge before translating and keep pace with the worldwide current events in daily life, and choose the proper translation strategies according to specific situations to make the translation be in line with the context and political background of the speaker or the writer as well as the audience or reader, which is the key to achieving &quot;political equivalence&quot;.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:35, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, translators should treat both the source language and the target language equally, and grasp the relationship between the speaking country and the receiving country. The translation of political discourse should not only aim at correctly understanding and expressing China's political thoughts, but also fully consider the national emotions, language habits and identity psychology of the receiving country, which requires the proper selection and use of the target language. If the translation only focuses on one side, it will be difficult to achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; and even cause political events.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)<br /> <br /> Secondly, translators should treat both the source language and the target language equally, and grasp the relationship between the speaking country and the receiving country. The translation of political discourse should not only focus on the correct understanding and expression of China's political thoughts, but also fully consider the national emotions, language habits and identity psychology of the receiving country, which requires the proper selection and use of the target language. If the translation only focuses on one side, it will be difficult to achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; and even cause political incidents.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:35, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, translators should know well about the differences between English and Chinese customs, cultures, national emotions and ideologies.As we all know, translation is not only the transformation of language symbols, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication behavior. The translation of political discourse is closely related to the cultural background of language. Due to the differences between China and West in way of thinking and language environment, corresponding words in English and Chinese may have different national emotion and political connotation.For example, sometimes we may meet idioms, metaphors, allusions, myths and fables in the political discourse which are the quintessence of a nation's language with its own characteristics. They formed and developed on the basis of different culture and living environmnet, so it is necessary to strictly distinguish their differences in cultural connotation and political orientation which are the difficulties and key points in political discourse translation.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, translators should know well about the differences between English and Chinese customs, cultures, national emotions and ideologies. As we all know, translation is not only the transformation of language symbols, but also a cross-cultural communication behavior. The translation of political discourse is closely related to the cultural background of the language. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and language environment, the corresponding words in English and Chinese may have different national emotion and political connotation. For example, sometimes we may meet idioms, metaphors, allusions, myths and fables in the political discourse which are the quintessence of a nation's language with its own characteristics. They formed and developed on the basis of different culture and living environment, so it is necessary to strictly distinguish their differences in cultural connotation and political orientation which are the difficulties and key points in political discourse translation.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, translators should also know well about the differences between the two languages.In English, there are many grammatical rules different from Chinese, such as tense, voice, subjunctive mood, singular and plural, case, article, etc. If translators deal with these special expressions improperly, these expressions will hinder the realization of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; in translation. (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, translators should also know well about the differences between the two languages. In English, there are many grammatical rules that are different from those of Chinese, such as tense, voice, subjunctive mood, singular and plural, case, article, etc. If translators deal with these special expressions improperly, these expressions will hinder the realization of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; in translation. (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, to achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; in political discourse translation, the translation strategies cannot be single, rigid but flexible and diversified. In addition, the translation either cannot be confined to the primitive form of the original text and the original or even several extended connotations of the words in it,instead,translators should recognize the real connotations of the political terms according to the context and different occasions. Translators should make the necessary adjustment and bold choices in supplement and omission to the language form of the original text in accordance with the context and the real thoughts of the speaker or the writer and the background of the political relationships between the two countries.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, to achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; in translating political discourse, translation strategies should not be single, rigid, but flexible and diversified. In addition, the translation can neither be confined to the primitive form of the original text and the original nor even several extended connotations of the words in it, instead, translators should recognize the real connotations of the political terms according to the context and different occasions. Translators should make the necessary adjustment and bold choices in supplement and omission to the language form of the original text in accordance with the context and the real thoughts of the speaker or the writer and the background of the political relationships between the two countries.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> lastly, translators should ensure the political correctness in the translation of political discourse using their knowledge reserves. Many countries have such sensitive issues as appellation, ethnicity, religion, sovereignty and territory. These are the &quot;minefields&quot; of political translation. When translating, one must handle it carefully and respect the language and cultural habits of the other party, otherwise it will easily lead to &quot;translation storm&quot; and affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation. (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)<br /> <br /> Lastly, translators should ensure the political correctness in the translation of political discourse by using their knowledge reserves. Many countries have such sensitive issues as appellation, ethnicity, religion, sovereignty and territory. These are the &quot;minefields&quot; of political translation. When translating, one must handle it with much care and respect the language and cultural habits of the other party, otherwise it will easily lead to &quot;translation storms&quot; and affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation. (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05) --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===6. Translation Strategies under The Standard of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of the standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot;, the following translation strategies are provided for reference on the characteristics of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> (1) Characteristics of Chinese political discourse<br /> <br /> Affixes are often seen in Chinese political discourse such as “化” in &quot;现代化&quot; and &quot;城镇化&quot;, so are abbreviations like &quot;‘十四五’规划&quot;, &quot;四个自信&quot;, etc., and four-character phrases such as &quot;和平共处&quot;, &quot;和而不同&quot;, etc. Besides, metaphor is also used frequently in Chinese political discourse such as &quot;‘老虎’、‘苍蝇’一起打&quot;, among which &quot;老虎(tiger)&quot; and &quot;苍蝇(flies)&quot; refer to officials accused of bribery and corruption. So, how do we translate these words that have Chinese language characteristics but need us to take their political implications as consideration? Pointing at these characteristics, some scholars have proposed specific translation strategies based on the &quot;political equivalence&quot;standard.<br /> <br /> Affixes are often seen in Chinese political discourse such as “化” in &quot;现代化&quot; and &quot;城镇化&quot;, so are abbreviations like &quot;‘十四五’规划&quot;, &quot;四个自信&quot;, etc., and four-character phrases such as &quot;和平共处&quot;, &quot;和而不同&quot;, etc. Besides, metaphor is also used frequently in Chinese political discourse such as &quot;‘老虎’、‘苍蝇’一起打&quot;, among which &quot;老虎(tiger)&quot; and &quot;苍蝇(flies)&quot; refer to officials accused of bribery and corruption. Therefore, how do we translate these words that have Chinese language characteristics but need us to take their political implications into consideration? In view of these characteristics, some scholars have proposed specific translation strategies based on the &quot;political equivalence&quot;standard. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (2) The strategies of supplement and omission for affixes, four-character phrases and abbreviations(Wu Jing 2014, 30)<br /> <br /> ① supplement<br /> <br /> The supplement strategy is to add words appropriately in the translation so as to convey the meaning of the original text accurately. In the foreign translation of Chinese political terms, this strategy is mainly applicable to two situations. Firstly, the abbreviation, which is a refined utterance of many political words for the convenience of memory. When the target language users don’t have relevant knowledge or language background about those abbreviations, supplementary explanation plays its role. Secondly, four-character phrases. Four-character phrases are typical examples of Chinese expressions. In order to conform to the expression habits of the target language, these condensed words should be supplemented and explained so that the audience can understand the meaning of the original text correctly. <br /> <br /> The supplement strategy is to add words appropriately in the translation so as to convey the meaning of the original text accurately. When Chinese political terms are translated for foreigners, this strategy is mainly applied in two cases. Firstly, the abbreviation. It is a refined utterance of many political words for the sake of memorization. When the target language users don’t have relevant knowledge or language background about those abbreviations, supplementary explanation plays its role. Secondly, four-character phrases. Four-character phrases are typical examples of Chinese expressions. In order to conform to the expression habits of the target language, these condensed words should be supplemented and explained so that the audience can understand the meaning of the original text correctly. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The strategy of supplement can be applied to the following situations: firstly, supplement relevant knowledge background. For example, “‘十四五’规划”is translated by China Daily as “the 14th Five-Year Plan(2021-25) for economic and social development”. In the translation, “十四”is translated as “the 14th” and“五” is translated as “Five-Year”, which adds category words to those numbers and time horizon as well as the nature of the plan to the content; Secondly, supplement detailed content to abbreviations. For example,“四个自信”is translated as “confidence in the path, theory, system and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics.”<br /> <br /> The strategy of supplement can be applied in the following situations: firstly, supplementing relevant knowledge background. For example, “‘十四五’规划”is translated by China Daily as “the 14th Five-Year Plan(2021-2025) for economic and social development”. In the translation, “十四”is translated to “the 14th” and “五” is translated to “Five-Year”, which adds category words to those numbers and time horizon as well as the nature of the plan to the content; Secondly, supplementing details to abbreviations. For example, “四个自信” is translated to “confidence in the path, theory, system and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics.” --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 00:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ②Omission<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belong to two kinds of language families, having great differences from vocabulary to the sentence structure, expression ways, etc. There are very little equivalent words in the two languages, so in order to make the translation smoother and be more in line with the expression ways of the target language, translator can use the strategy----omission, namely omitting those expressions without practical significance but hindering translation work, on the basis of being loyal to the original text.<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belong to two kinds of language families, which are very different in terms of vocabulary, sentence structure and expressions. There are few equivalent words in the two languages, so in order to make the translation more fluent and be more in line with the expression ways of the target language, the translator can use the strategy — omission, namely omitting those expressions without practical significance but hindering the translation work, on the basis of being faithful to the original text. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 00:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The strategy of omission is often used in the process of translation from Chinese to English, and the translation of Chinese political terms is no exception. For emphasizing, Chinese political leaders often use parallel sentences or repeated words, so we can omit those repeated words in the translation. For example, “治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字仍然在扩大。”can be translated as “Governance, trust, development and peace deficits continue to grow.” In addition, there are situations where multiple sentences express the same meaning, in which omission is also available. For example, “改善人民生活，增进人民福祉。”can be translated as “improve people’s livelihood”.<br /> <br /> The strategy of omission is often used in the process of translation from Chinese to English, and the translation of Chinese political terms is no exception. For emphasis, Chinese political leaders often use parallel sentences or repeated words, so we can omit those repeated words in the translation. For example, “治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字仍然在扩大。”can be translated to “Governance, trust, development and peace deficits continue to grow.” In addition, there are situations where multiple sentences express the same meaning, in which omission is also available without changing the meaning. For example, “改善人民生活，增进人民福祉。”can be translated to “improve people’s livelihood”. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 00:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (3) Translation strategies for metaphor<br /> <br /> Metaphor refers to the use of known figurative concepts to explain abstract concepts in diplomatic discourse. The translation standard and strategies of metaphor are determined by their inherent special attributes, which are not only the key factors to select their translation strategies, but also the important yardstick to test whether those strategies are applicable(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41). Metaphor is an objective phenomenon that has existed in political discourse for a long time. Its special attributes are reflected in political discourse, such as high political sensitivity, high cultural load and strong national characteristics. In view of the strong political sensitivity of diplomatic discourse, plain and direct words in political discourse is often empty of words, which is difficult to produce obvious communicative effect in foreign relations. In most cases, metaphorical discourse can be used to imply and disseminate a country's diplomatic ideas, attitudes and positions to achieve better communication effects (Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41).<br /> <br /> Metaphor refers to the use of known figurative concepts to explain abstract concepts in diplomatic discourse. The translation standard and strategies of metaphor are determined by their inherent special attributes, which are not only the key factors to select their translation strategies, but also the important yardstick to test whether those strategies are applicable(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41). Metaphor is an objective phenomenon that has existed in political discourse for a long time. Its special attributes are reflected in political discourse, such as high political sensitivity, high cultural load and strong national characteristics. In view of the strong political sensitivity of diplomatic discourse, ordinary and direct words in political discourse is often empty of words, which is difficult to produce significant communicative effects in diplomatic relations. In most cases, metaphorical discourse can be used to imply and disseminate a country's diplomatic ideas, attitudes and positions to achieve better communication effects (Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41). --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Through reading relevant papers, this chapter finds that the translation strategies proposed by scholars for metaphorical rhetoric in political discourse are mainly as follows(Long Xinyuan, Li Qiuxia 2020, 27):<br /> <br /> ① Literal translation of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> Although English and Chinese belong to different language families, and the cultural background and geographical area on which they live are also different, language is created by human beings, and human emotions always have something in common. At the same time, human beings live in the same world, especially in an increasingly integrated world like today, where the communication between human beings and the collision between cultures are inevitable. As a result, we are becoming more tolerant and understanding of different cultures and languages. When translating metaphorical words with cultural characteristics, we can render the metaphorical words in literal translation under the condition that the audience can understand them correctly, which is easier to arouse emotional resonance and cultural identity.<br /> <br /> Although English and Chinese belong to different language families, and the cultural background and geographical area in which they live are also different, language is created by human beings, and human emotions always have something in common. At the same time, human beings live in the same world, especially in today's increasingly integrated world where the interactions between human beings and the clashes between cultures are inevitable. As a result, we are becoming more tolerant and understanding of different cultures and languages. When translating metaphorical words with cultural characteristics, we can render the metaphorical words in literal translation under the condition that the audience can understand them correctly, which is easier to arouse emotional resonance and cultural identity. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “新时代的长征路” is translated as &quot;Long March of the new era&quot;. The original text compares China's development path in the new era to the new Long March. In Chinese history, the Long March was a bloody road trodden by the communist party of China to save the country and the people. On the one hand, the literal translation of &quot;The Long March&quot; retains the historical allusions used in the original text, so that the audience can understand its meaning only by a simple association. On the other hand, it is more conducive to show the national spirit of China.<br /> <br /> For example, “新时代的长征路” is translated as &quot;Long March of the new era&quot;. The original text compares China's development path in the new era to the new Long March. In Chinese history, the Long March was a bloody road trodden by the Communist Party of China to save the country and its people. On the one hand, the literal translation of &quot;The Long March&quot; retains the historical allusions used in the original text, so that the audience can understand its meaning only by a simple association. On the other hand, it is more conducive to showing the national spirit of China. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ② Substitution of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> After all, differences are greater than similarities between different languages, so sometimes adopting literal translation in the text using metaphor does not make the audience clear, but may mislead. However, different metaphorical entities are often used to express the same abstract concept between Chinese and English. At this time, in order to make the audience better understand and accept the original metaphor, translator can replace the original metaphorical entities with those referring to same thing in the target language, which can also improve the external communication effect of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> After all, the differences between languages far outweigh the similarities, so sometimes adopting literal translation in the text by using metaphor does not make the audience clear, but may mislead the reader. However, different metaphorical entities are often used to express the same abstract concept between Chinese and English. At this time, in order to make the audience better understand and accept the original metaphor better, translator can replace the original metaphorical entities with those referring to the same thing in the target language, which can also improve the effectiveness of Chinese political discourse for international communication. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, foreign ministry spokesman Hua Chunying once said:”The US wants to make China a scapegoat(对于美国的花式‘甩锅’，我们不想接也不能接。).”“甩锅”is an internet buzzword in China used to vividly express the meaning of shifting the blame onto someone else. And “scapegoat” originates from an allusion in the Bible which has the same meaning with the Chinese word “甩锅”(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41), so translator made a conversion between the two words. In this way, English readers can better understand the political connotation of the original sentence. However, if adopting literal translation, English readers won’t understand.<br /> <br /> For example, Foreign Ministry spokesman Hua Chunying once said:”The US wants to make China a scapegoat(对于美国的花式‘甩锅’，我们不想接也不能接。).” “甩锅”is an buzzword on the Internet in China used to vividly express the meaning of shifting the blame onto someone else. And the word “scapegoat” originates from an allusion in the Bible which has the same meaning with the Chinese word “甩锅”(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41), so the translator made a conversion between the two words. In this way, English readers can better understand the political connotation of the original sentence. However, if adopting literal translation, English readers will not understand it. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ③literal translation+explanation<br /> <br /> In some other cases, either literally translating those metaphorical entities or using corresponding ones to substitute them cannot eliminate the language barrier caused by cultural differences, then translator can adopt the strategy of “literal translation+explanation”, which is to literally translate the metaphor entity and then add explanation to it. In this way, the translation not only keeps the cultural characteristics of the source language while making English readers be clear with the meaning of them, but also contributes to the spread of Chinese culture to the outside world.<br /> <br /> In some other cases, where either literally translating those metaphorical entities or using corresponding ones to substitute them cannot eliminate the language barrier caused by cultural differences, then the translator can adopt the strategy of “literal translation + explanation”, which is to literally translate the metaphor entity and then add explanation to it. In this way, the translation not only maintains the cultural characteristics of the source language while enabling English readers to be clear with the meaning of them, but also contributes to the spread of Chinese culture to the outside world. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 01:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For an instance, “不能腐的笼子越扎越牢”is translated as “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption has been strengthened”. The Chinese words “笼子”refers to the strict management institutions against corruption set up by Chinese government. Comparing the institution to the cage makes the action of fighting against corruption become more vivid. However, for English readers, it is hard to understand the original political connotation according to a simple word “cage”, so translator needs to add some explanations like “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption.” As a result, the meaning is clear and vivid.<br /> <br /> For an instance, “不能腐的笼子越扎越牢”is translated as “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption has been strengthened”. The Chinese words “笼子”refers to the strict management institutions against corruption set up by the Chinese government. Comparing the institution to the cage makes the action of fighting against corruption become more vivid. However, for English readers, it is difficult to understand the original political connotation according to a simple word “cage”, so the translator needs to add some explanations like “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption.” As a result, the meaning is clear and vivid. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 01:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ④abandoning the figurative body and translate its connotation directly<br /> <br /> Metaphor, as a figure of speech, is highly culture-loaded, while political discourse is a kind of words with high political sensitivity. These characteristics make the translation of Chinese political discourse more difficult, and it is inevitable that translators may meet the situation where they cannot easily balance and take all these characteristics into consideration. At this time, the translator should choose to abandon the figurative body and keep the metaphorical meaning, after all, it is the first important thing to convey the correct political implication.<br /> <br /> Metaphor, as a figure of speech, is highly culture-loaded, while political discourse is a kind of words with high political sensitivity. These characteristics make the translation of Chinese political discourse more difficult, and it is inevitable that translators may encounter the situation where they cannot easily balance and take all these characteristics into consideration. At this time, the translator should choose to abandon the figurative body and retain the metaphorical meaning; after all, it is the first priority to convey the correct political implication. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 01:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “保障‘米袋子’、‘菜篮子’安全”is translated as “ensure the security of grain supply and non-staple food supply”,among which the Chinese words “米袋子(rice bag)”and“菜篮子(vegetable basket)”refer to major grain supply and non-staple food supply respectively. Because rice is the staple food in most ares of China while vegetable is the complementary food, such a metaphor is very vivid and down to earth. However, it's hard for foreigners to understand the meaning of &quot;rice bag&quot; or &quot;vegetable basket&quot; without a similar living environment, so we have to discard the original figurative body and translate its meaning directly.<br /> <br /> For example, “保障‘米袋子’、‘菜篮子’安全” is translated as “ensure the security of grain supply and non-staple food supply”,among which the Chinese words “米袋子(rice bag)”and“菜篮子(vegetable basket)”refer to major grain supply and non-staple food supply respectively. Since rice is the staple food in most parts of China while vegetable is the supplementary food, such a metaphor is very vivid and down-to-earth. However, it is difficult for foreigners to understand the meaning of &quot;rice bag&quot; or &quot;vegetable basket&quot; without a similar living environment, so we have to discard the original figurative body and translate its meaning directly. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 01:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===7. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the summary of the above-mentioned translation strategies pointing at different situations in translating Chinese political discourse, we can see that every strategy follows the three principles under the standard of &quot;political equivalence” ---- political, balance and dynamic. Every translation strategy takes the correct transition of the political implications of the original text as the first rule, namely being political; and then keeps the cultural or linguistic characteristics of the original text as much as possible, namely keeping balance; additionally, adopting appropriate translation strategies according to different contexts or situations, namely being dynamic. The translation of political discourse has its particularity and is of great importance, so it is necessary to be careful when choosing translation strategies. Translators should not only have high linguistic literacy and fair political standpoint, but also keep up with current events, correctly and fully understand the political meaning of the original text, and make specific analysis according to different contexts and occasions to adopt the most appropriate translation strategies.<br /> <br /> From the summary of the above-mentioned translation strategies pointing at different situations in translating Chinese political discourse, it can be seen that every strategy follows three principles under the standard of &quot;political equivalence”-- political, balance and dynamic. Every translation strategy takes the correct transition of the political implications of the original text as the primary rule, namely being political; and then maintains the cultural or linguistic characteristics of the original text as much as possible, namely keeping balance; additionally, adopting appropriate translation strategies according to different contexts or situations, namely being dynamic. <br /> <br /> The translation of political discourse has its characteristics and is of great importance, so it is necessary to be careful in choosing translation strategies. Translators should not only have high linguistic literacy and fair political standpoint, but also keep up with current events, correctly and fully understand the political meaning of the original text, and make specific analysis according to different contexts and occasions to adopt the most appropriate translation strategies. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 02:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===8. References===<br /> <br /> [1]楚行军. 中国政治话语翻译研究二十年(2000—2019)[Studies on the Translation of Chinese Political Discourse over the past 20 years(2000-2019)]——基于中国知网的分析[J]. 焦作师范高等专科学校学报,2020,36(03):24-27+40.<br /> <br /> [2]吴静. 基于“政治等效”的中国政治新词翻译策略解析[An analysis of translation strategies of Chinese new political terms on the basis of &quot;political equivalence&quot;][J]. 兰州文理学院学报(社会科学版),2014,30(01):95-98.<br /> <br /> [3]龙新元,李秋霞. “政治等效+认知趋同”：认知翻译观视阈下的政治文本翻译研究[&quot;Political Equivalence + Cognitive Convergence&quot; : A Study of political Text translation from the perspective of cognitive Translation][J]. 天津外国语大学学报,2020,27(05):104-120+161.<br /> <br /> [4]杨明星. 论外交语言翻译的“政治等效”——以邓小平外交理念“韬光养晦”的译法为例[The application of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; in diplomatic Language Translation -- Taking Deng Xiaoping's diplomatic idea &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2008,(05):90-94.<br /> <br /> [5]杨明星,闫达. “政治等效”理论框架下外交语言的翻译策略——以“不折腾”的译法为例[Translation strategies of diplomatic language under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;-- Taking the translation of &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2012,35(03):73-77.<br /> <br /> [6]杨明星,齐静静. 外交修辞的复合性翻译标准:“政治等效+审美再现”——以国家领导人外交演讲古诗文为例[The composite translation standard of diplomatic rhetoric: &quot;Political equivalence + aesthetic reproduction&quot; -- taking the ancient poems and essays in diplomatic speeches of national leaders as an example][J]. 中国外语,2018,15(06):89-96+109.<br /> <br /> [7]杨明星,赵玉倩. “政治等效+”框架下中国特色外交隐喻翻译策略研究[A research on translation strategies of metaphors in diplomatic discorses with Chinese characteristics under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence plus&quot;][J]. 中国翻译,2020,41(01):151-159+190.<br /> <br /> [8]杨明星,张琰. 中英外交翻译中“政治等效”与话语平等辩证关系分析——从马戛尔尼使华到共建“一带一路”(1792-2019)[Dialectical relationship between &quot;political equivalence&quot; and discourse equality in diplomatic translation between China and Britain -- from macartney's mission period to &quot;One Belt And One Road&quot; period(1792-2019)][J]. 上海翻译,2020,(05):24-29+94.<br /> <br /> [You do not need to use numbers to order the references. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)]<br /> <br /> ==Classification, Chinese translation methods and Strategies of Russian Proverbs - 张虎 Zhang Hu==<br /> &lt;center&gt;张虎 Zhang Hu 202020080666&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Russian proverbs are produced under the specific cultural background and have rich cultural connotations. They are an important part of Russian language and culture. However, there are great cultural differences between Russian and Chinese, and the language forms of Russian and Chinese proverbs have their own characteristics. This paper attempts to classify Russian proverbs and explore the translation methods and Strategies of Russian proverbs.(This article only discusses the Chinese translation of Russian proverbs, the English translation of proverbs is for reference only.)<br /> <br /> Russian proverbs are produced under the specific cultural background and have rich cultural connotations. They are an important part of Russian language and culture. However, there are great cultural differences between Russian and Chinese, and the language forms of Russian and Chinese proverbs have their own characteristics. This paper attempts to classify Russian proverbs and explore the translation methods and Strategies of Russian proverbs.(This article only discusses the Chinese translation of Russian proverbs, the English translation of proverbs is for reference only.)<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Russian proverb，classification，Chinese translation methods，translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 俄语谚语的分类、汉译方法及策略<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俄语谚语于特定的文化背景下产生，具有丰富的文化内涵，是俄语语言文化的重要组成部分。 而俄汉两族文化差异较大，俄汉谚语语言形式各具特色，俄语谚语的翻译问题成为一个难题。本文试对俄语谚语进行分类，探究俄语谚语的翻译方法及翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 俄语谚语；分类；汉译方法；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Proverbs are a genre of folk literature（Wang Yanrong 2013,114) , and they are simple, popular and meaningful fixed sentences commonly used by the people. Generally speaking, proverbs are rhythmic in form, including various life phenomena in content, rich in educational significance, vividly reflecting the cultural connotations and characteristics of a nation, and are the result of wisdom of the broad masses of people and the essence of a national language（Zhou Changyu 2006,5). Therefore, understanding proverbs is an effective way to understand a nation. Proverbs of different nationalities have their own characteristics. The translation of proverbs among different nationalities has become an important issue in translation studies. This paper attempts to explore the translation methods and principles of Russian proverbs.<br /> <br /> Proverbs are a genre of folk literature（Wang Yanrong 2013,114) , and they are simple, popular and meaningful fixed sentences commonly used by the people. Generally speaking, proverbs are rhythmic in form, including various life phenomena in content, rich in educational significance, vividly reflecting the cultural connotations and characteristics of a nation, and are the result of wisdom of the broad masses of people and the essence of a national language（Zhou Changyu 2006,5). Therefore, understanding proverbs is an effective way to understand a nation. Proverbs of different nationalities have their own characteristics. The translation of proverbs among different nationalities has become an important issue in translation studies. This paper attempts to explore the translation methods and principles of Russian proverbs.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.Classification of Russian proverbs===<br /> The formation of Russian proverbs is inseparable from the production, life, customs, religion, culture and history of the nation, and has a distinctive national style. The Russian and Chinese languages belong to different language systems, and there is a big difference in the way of expression. In order to fully understand Russian proverbs and grasp the translation methods of Russian proverbs, this article first compares Russian and Chinese proverbs, and divides Russian proverbs into three categories based on the degree of consistency between Russian and Chinese proverbs, namely “complete consistency” and “partial consistency” and “complete inconsistency”（Wang Yanrong 2013,114).<br /> <br /> The formation of Russian proverbs is inseparable from the production, life, customs, religion, culture and history of the nation, and has a distinctive national style. The Russian and Chinese languages belong to different language systems, and there is a big difference in the way of expression. In order to fully understand Russian proverbs and grasp the translation methods of Russian proverbs, this article first compares Russian and Chinese proverbs, and divides Russian proverbs into three categories based on the degree of consistency between Russian and Chinese proverbs, namely “complete consistency” and “partial consistency” and “complete inconsistency”（Wang Yanrong 2013,114).<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Complete consistency====<br /> &quot;Complete consistency&quot; means that Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs are completely consistent in terms of thinking and figurative meaning. Such Russian proverbs can be found in Chinese that fully correspond to them. The number of such proverbs is relatively small, but they reflect the cultural commonality between the Russian and Chinese languages, indicating that the two peoples are similar in cognitive mode, thinking mode and personality characteristics between the two countries(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114).<br /> <br /> &quot;Complete consistency&quot; means that Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs are completely consistent in terms of thinking and figurative meaning. Such Russian proverbs can be found in Chinese that fully correspond to them. The number of such proverbs is relatively small, but they reflect the cultural commonality between the Russian and Chinese languages, indicating that the two peoples are similar in cognitive mode, thinking mode and personality characteristics between the two countries(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114).<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, there is an ancient Chinese proverb in the Biography of Zhao Chongguo, The History of the Former Han Dynasty in ancient my country “百闻不如一见.” The meaning of this sentence is “it is better to see once than to hear a hundred times,” which expresses that hearing more is not as reliable as seeing it. And there is a widely used proverb in Russian “Лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать.(Jia Shufen 1996,146)” They are completely consistent and show that the people of the Russian and Han ethnic groups have the same understanding of the importance of “seeing with their own eyes.” <br /> <br /> For example, there is an ancient Chinese proverb in the Biography of Zhao Chongguo, The History of the Former Han Dynasty in ancient my country “百闻不如一见.” The meaning of this sentence is “it is better to see once than to hear a hundred times,” which expresses that hearing more is not as reliable as seeing it. And there is a widely used proverb in Russian “Лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать.(Jia Shufen 1996,146)” They are completely consistent and show that the people of the Russian and Han ethnic groups have the same understanding of the importance of “seeing with their own eyes.” <br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example is “Из искры возгорится пламя” in Russian. It was first written by Decembrists, famous Russian poet, A. I. Odoevsky(А. И. Одоевский) in reply to Pushkin’s support of Decembrists’ revolution, and was later written by Lenin. The application in Iskra is well known and circulated. The Chinese counterpart “星星之火, 可以燎原(A single spark can start a prairie fire)” is widely known and become a proverb because of Mao Zedong's articles(Chen Ying 2000,89). <br /> <br /> Another example is “Из искры возгорится пламя” in Russian. It was first written by Decembrists, famous Russian poet, A. I. Odoevsky(А. И. Одоевский) in reply to Pushkin’s support of Decembrists’ revolution, and was later written by Lenin. The application in Iskra is well known and circulated. The Chinese counterpart “星星之火, 可以燎原(A single spark can start a prairie fire)” is widely known and become a proverb because of Mao Zedong's articles(Chen Ying 2000,89). <br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Similarly, &quot;Беда не приходит одна.&quot; and &quot;祸不单行(Misfortune never come alone)(Jia Shufen 1996,6)&quot;, &quot;Сытый голотного не разумеет.&quot; and &quot;饱汉不知饿汉饥(Fatty people do not know hungry people are hungry)(Jia Shufen 1996,378)&quot;, &quot;Близкий сосед лучше дальней родни.&quot; and &quot;distant relatives are not as good as neighbors&quot;, “Одно дерево - не роща, одна птица - нестая” and &quot;孤树不成林，孤鸟不成群(A single tree does not form forests, a lone bird does not form flocks)(Wang Jinhua,Zhang Li 2006,76)&quot;, etc., are completely consistent in image and meaning.<br /> <br /> Similarly, &quot;Беда не приходит одна.&quot; and &quot;祸不单行(Misfortune never come alone)(Jia Shufen 1996,6)&quot;, &quot;Сытый голотного не разумеет.&quot; and &quot;饱汉不知饿汉饥(Fatty people do not know hungry people are hungry)(Jia Shufen 1996,378)&quot;, &quot;Близкий сосед лучше дальней родни.&quot; and &quot;distant relatives are not as good as neighbors&quot;, “Одно дерево - не роща, одна птица - нестая” and &quot;孤树不成林，孤鸟不成群(A single tree does not form forests, a lone bird does not form flocks)(Wang Jinhua,Zhang Li 2006,76)&quot;, etc., are completely consistent in image and meaning.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Partial consistency====<br /> &quot;Partial consistency&quot; means that Russian proverbs are the same or similar in thinking, cultural image or meaning to Chinese proverbs. Such Russian proverbs can find corresponding or related proverbs in Chinese to a certain extent. The large number of such proverbs reflects the differences in the understanding of different things and phenomena between nationss(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114).<br /> <br /> &quot;Partial consistency&quot; means that Russian proverbs are the same or similar in thinking, cultural image or meaning to Chinese proverbs. Such Russian proverbs can find corresponding or related proverbs in Chinese to a certain extent. The large number of such proverbs reflects the differences in the understanding of different things and phenomena between nationss(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114).<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Russian proverb &quot;Расти как грибы после дождя&quot; means &quot;grow like mushrooms after rain&quot;, which means that things develop rapidly. Due to factors such as geographical location and natural environment, Russia is rich in mushrooms, and mushrooms grow rapidly after rain in Russia. In the same way, our country's &quot;雨后春笋(bamboo shoots in spring)&quot; have also grown rapidly, becoming a proverb that expresses the rapid development and emergence of things(Chen Ying 2000,90). This pair of Russian and Chinese proverbs uses the same thinking mode and different cultural images to express the same meaning. <br /> <br /> For example, the Russian proverb &quot;Расти как грибы после дождя&quot; means &quot;grow like mushrooms after rain&quot;, which means that things develop rapidly. Due to factors such as geographical location and natural environment, Russia is rich in mushrooms, and mushrooms grow rapidly after rain in Russia. In the same way, our country's &quot;雨后春笋(bamboo shoots in spring)&quot; have also grown rapidly, becoming a proverb that expresses the rapid development and emergence of things(Chen Ying 2000,90). This pair of Russian and Chinese proverbs uses the same thinking mode and different cultural images to express the same meaning. <br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example is the Russian proverb &quot;Первый блин комом.&quot; It means that the first time you make a cake, you will always make a dough, which means that the first attempt is always easy to fail. The &quot;блин&quot; in the proverb is the unique Russian food &quot;Russian pancake&quot;, which reflects the distinctive national characteristics. In Chinese, the proverb &quot;三脚难踢，开锣的戏难唱(It's hard to kick the first three feet, and it's hard to sing the gongs)&quot; uses images such as &quot;三脚(three feet)&quot; and &quot;开锣的戏(plays with gongs)&quot; to express that things are difficult at the beginning of attempts, and that &quot;万事开头难(everything is difficult at first)&quot; meaning. The two are very similar in their embodied meanings.<br /> Some other examples included in this category are:<br /> <br /> (1)Два медведя в одной берлоте неуживутся. 一个洞穴中不会住两只熊(Two bears in one berlot won't get along)(Lei Yumei 2014,114).<br /> <br /> (2)И Москва несразу строилась. 莫斯科不是一下就建成的(And Moscow was not built immediately)(Chen Ying 2000,89).<br /> <br /> (3)Гром не грянет, мужик не перекрестится. 不打雷，农夫不祷告(Thunder won't strike, the man won't cross)(Yang Min 2017, 202).<br /> <br /> (4)Скарть со стола, и дружба сплыла.桌布一撤，友谊全无 (Scrap off the table and friendship floated away)(Lei Yumei 2014,114).<br /> <br /> Another example is the Russian proverb &quot;Первый блин комом.&quot; It means that the first time you make a cake, you will always make a dough, which means that the first attempt is always easy to fail. The &quot;блин&quot; in the proverb is the unique Russian food &quot;Russian pancake&quot;, which reflects the distinctive national characteristics. In Chinese, the proverb &quot;三脚难踢，开锣的戏难唱(It's hard to kick the first three feet, and it's hard to sing the gongs)&quot; uses images such as &quot;三脚(three feet)&quot; and &quot;开锣的戏(plays with gongs)&quot; to express that things are difficult at the beginning of attempts, and that &quot;万事开头难(everything is difficult at first)&quot; meaning. The two are very similar in their embodied meanings.<br /> Some other examples included in this category are:<br /> <br /> (1)Два медведя в одной берлоте неуживутся. 一个洞穴中不会住两只熊(Two bears in one berlot won't get along)(Lei Yumei 2014,114).<br /> <br /> (2)И Москва несразу строилась. 莫斯科不是一下就建成的(And Moscow was not built immediately)(Chen Ying 2000,89).<br /> <br /> (3)Гром не грянет, мужик не перекрестится. 不打雷，农夫不祷告(Thunder won't strike, the man won't cross)(Yang Min 2017, 202).<br /> <br /> (4)Скарть со стола, и дружба сплыла.桌布一撤，友谊全无 (Scrap off the table and friendship floated away)(Lei Yumei 2014,114).<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> These Russian proverbs correspond to the Chinese &quot;一山不容二虎(The mountain cannot accommodate two tigers)&quot;, &quot;一口吃不成个胖子(You can't make a fat man with one bite)(Chen Ying 2000,90)&quot;, &quot;临时抱佛脚(Temporary holding a Buddha's feet)&quot;, and &quot;人走茶凉(No sooner has the person gone away than the tea cools down)(Lei Yumei 2014,114)&quot;. These sets of corresponding Russian and Chinese proverbs have different cultural images, but the meaning is the same.<br /> <br /> These Russian proverbs correspond to the Chinese &quot;一山不容二虎(The mountain cannot accommodate two tigers)&quot;, &quot;一口吃不成个胖子(You can't make a fat man with one bite)(Chen Ying 2000,90)&quot;, &quot;临时抱佛脚(Temporary holding a Buddha's feet)&quot;, and &quot;人走茶凉(No sooner has the person gone away than the tea cools down)(Lei Yumei 2014,114)&quot;. These sets of corresponding Russian and Chinese proverbs have different cultural images, but the meaning is the same.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Complete inconsistency====<br /> There are some Russian proverbs that have nothing to do with Chinese proverbs either in image or meaning. Such Russian proverbs can be classified as &quot;completely inconsistent&quot;(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114). The Russian and Chinese ethnic groups have their own unique national cultures. The differences in political economy, geographical environment, climate characteristics, vegetation, animals, historical allusions, living customs, religious beliefs, etc. have given birth to a series of ethnic proverbs(Yang Min 2017, 200).<br /> <br /> There are some Russian proverbs that have nothing to do with Chinese proverbs either in image or meaning. Such Russian proverbs can be classified as &quot;completely inconsistent&quot;(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114). The Russian and Chinese ethnic groups have their own unique national cultures. The differences in political economy, geographical environment, climate characteristics, vegetation, animals, historical allusions, living customs, religious beliefs, etc. have given birth to a series of ethnic proverbs(Yang Min 2017, 200).<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the literal translation of the Russian proverb &quot;Дело-табак&quot; is &quot;事关烟草（it's about tobacco.）&quot; What does it mean? It turned out that the boatmen on the Volga River used to hang tobacco bags around their necks to prevent the tobacco from getting wet. This sentence was used to remind people that the water depth is close to the neck. It has now been used to express &quot;things are bad, the situation is not good&quot;. (Chen Ying 2000,90)<br /> <br /> For example, the literal translation of the Russian proverb &quot;Дело-табак&quot; is &quot;事关烟草（it's about tobacco.）&quot; What does it mean? It turned out that the boatmen on the Volga River used to hang tobacco bags around their necks to prevent the tobacco from getting wet. This sentence was used to remind people that the water depth is close to the neck. It has now been used to express &quot;things are bad, the situation is not good&quot;. (Chen Ying 2000,90)<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example is the Russian proverb &quot;Хвалилась синица, что море зажжет.&quot; literally translated as &quot;山雀吹嘘要把大海点燃(The tit boasted to light the sea)&quot;. This proverb comes from an allusion in Krylov’s fable: &quot;The tit yelled everywhere that it was going to burn the sea. The news reached the animals' ears. Everyone ran to see the result, but the sea did not dry up. Everyone ran to see the result, but the sea did not dry up. &quot;This proverb satirizes those who like to brag, but can't get things done. Such ethnic-specific proverbs are sometimes difficult to understand, and it is necessary to trace their roots to understand their meaning(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).<br /> <br /> Another example is the Russian proverb &quot;Хвалилась синица, что море зажжет.&quot; literally translated as &quot;山雀吹嘘要把大海点燃(The tit boasted to light the sea)&quot;. This proverb comes from an allusion in Krylov’s fable: &quot;The tit yelled everywhere that it was going to burn the sea. The news reached the animals' ears. Everyone ran to see the result, but the sea did not dry up. Everyone ran to see the result, but the sea did not dry up. &quot;This proverb satirizes those who like to brag, but can't get things done. Such ethnic-specific proverbs are sometimes difficult to understand, and it is necessary to trace their roots to understand their meaning(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> These three types of Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs have different levels of consistency in content, and the degree of difficulty of understanding also varies. Therefore, in the translation process, it is necessary to select one or a combination of multiple translation methods for translation according to different proverb classifications to achieve the purpose of &quot;prescribe the right medicine&quot;.<br /> <br /> These three types of Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs have different levels of consistency in content, and the degree of difficulty of understanding also varies. Therefore, in the translation process, it is necessary to select one or a combination of multiple translation methods for translation according to different proverb classifications to achieve the purpose of &quot;prescribe the right medicine&quot;.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Chinese translation methods of Russian proverbs===<br /> Chinese and foreign translation theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; to Qian Zhongshu's &quot;Concept of Transcendence&quot;; from Qu Qiubai's &quot;Concept of Equivalence&quot; to &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A•Nidar Or &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. We can see that the central point in their proposition is that the translation should faithfully express the meaning of the original text and reflect the appearance of the original text(Sheng Yichao 2009,110). <br /> <br /> Chinese and foreign translation theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; to Qian Zhongshu's &quot;Concept of Transcendence&quot;; from Qu Qiubai's &quot;Concept of Equivalence&quot; to &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A•Nidar Or &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. We can see that the central point in their proposition is that the translation should faithfully express the meaning of the original text and reflect the appearance of the original text(Sheng Yichao 2009,110). <br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the basis of this important point of view, we analyze the classification of Russian proverbs and apply various methods comprehensively in order to obtain a more perfect translation. Specifically, there are the following methods: translation method, set translation method, literal translation method, free translation method, borrowed translation method, and added word and annotation method(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).<br /> <br /> On the basis of this important point of view, we analyze the classification of Russian proverbs and apply various methods comprehensively in order to obtain a more perfect translation. Specifically, there are the following methods: translation method, set translation method, literal translation method, free translation method, borrowed translation method, and added word and annotation method(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Equivalent translation(对译法)====<br /> &quot;Equivalent translation&quot; is directly using Chinese proverbs corresponding to Russian proverbs for translation. When using this translation method, the information conveyed by the literal and image meanings of Russian and Chinese proverbs should be the same. This translation method can correctly convey the pragmatic information contained in the image of the original language, enhance the readability of the translation, while completely retaining the rhetorical color of the original language, so that readers can understand the original text most accurately(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).<br /> <br /> &quot;Equivalent translation&quot; is directly using Chinese proverbs corresponding to Russian proverbs for translation. When using this translation method, the information conveyed by the literal and image meanings of Russian and Chinese proverbs should be the same. This translation method can correctly convey the pragmatic information contained in the image of the original language, enhance the readability of the translation, while completely retaining the rhetorical color of the original language, so that readers can understand the original text most accurately(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This translation method is applicable to the &quot;completely consistent&quot; Russian proverbs mentioned above. For the Russian proverbs listed in 1.1, the existing proverbs in Chinese proverbs can be directly used as translations, and for example:<br /> <br /> (1)Век живи, век учись. 活到老,学到老。(Live and learn.)<br /> <br /> (2)Капля камень точит. 滴水穿石。(Constant dripping wears away a stone.)<br /> <br /> (3)Куй железо, пока горячо. 趁热打铁。(Strike while the iron is hot.) (Jia Shufen 1996,135)<br /> <br /> This translation method is applicable to the &quot;completely consistent&quot; Russian proverbs mentioned above. For the Russian proverbs listed in 1.1, the existing proverbs in Chinese proverbs can be directly used as translations, and for example:<br /> <br /> (1)Век живи, век учись. 活到老,学到老。(Live and learn.)<br /> <br /> (2)Капля камень точит. 滴水穿石。(Constant dripping wears away a stone.)<br /> <br /> (3)Куй железо, пока горячо. 趁热打铁。(Strike while the iron is hot.) (Jia Shufen 1996,135)<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Corresponding and literal translation====<br /> In the Translatology Dictionary , the translation method “corresponding” is interpreted as the mutual translation of synonymous idioms. If the content, form, and rhetoric color of the target language roughly match the target language, then it is possible to adopt this method(Fang Mengzhi 2003,111). If the images and metaphors are the same or similar, this translation method is more appropriate; while the literal translation method is based on the form of the original text, which retains the metaphor, image and national characteristics of Russian proverbs. These two methods can be used simultaneously in translation practice.<br /> <br /> In the Translatology Dictionary , the translation method “corresponding” is interpreted as the mutual translation of synonymous idioms. If the content, form, and rhetoric color of the target language roughly match the target language, then it is possible to adopt this method(Fang Mengzhi 2003,111). If the images and metaphors are the same or similar, this translation method is more appropriate; while the literal translation method is based on the form of the original text, which retains the metaphor, image and national characteristics of Russian proverbs. These two methods can be used simultaneously in translation practice.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Corresponding” is suitable for the translation of &quot;partially consistent&quot; Russian proverbs introduced in 1.2 of this article. &quot;Partially consistent&quot; Russian proverbs can be found in Chinese with corresponding proverbs with different images but the same or similar meaning. At this time, if the “equivalent translation” is adopted, readers will be misunderstood and the translated language will lose the national characteristics of Russian proverbs. Therefore, when translating such proverbs, the original image should be kept as much as possible and the expression form of Chinese proverbs should be used. In addition to the examples already mentioned above, there are similar ones:<br /> <br /> (1)Ложка дёгтю в бочку мёду. 一勺焦油坏了一桶蜜(A spoonful of tar breaks a bucket of honey), referring to the Chinese proverb &quot;一粒老鼠屎坏了一锅汤(A mouse poop breaks a pot of soup)&quot;(Jia Shufen 1996,145)<br /> <br /> (2) Нет дыма без огня. 无火不生烟(No fire, no smoke)， refers to the Chinese proverb &quot;无风不起浪(No wind, no waves)&quot;(Jia Shufen 1996,240).<br /> <br /> (3) Шила в мешке не устаишь. 口袋藏不住坠子(Pendant cannot be hidden in the pocket）, refers to the Chinese proverb &quot;纸包不住火(Paper cannot keep fire)&quot;(Jia Shufen 1996,303).<br /> <br /> “Corresponding” is suitable for the translation of &quot;partially consistent&quot; Russian proverbs introduced in 1.2 of this article. &quot;Partially consistent&quot; Russian proverbs can be found in Chinese with corresponding proverbs with different images but the same or similar meaning. At this time, if the “equivalent translation” is adopted, readers will be misunderstood and the translated language will lose the national characteristics of Russian proverbs. Therefore, when translating such proverbs, the original image should be kept as much as possible and the expression form of Chinese proverbs should be used. In addition to the examples already mentioned above, there are similar ones:<br /> <br /> (1)Ложка дёгтю в бочку мёду. 一勺焦油坏了一桶蜜(A spoonful of tar breaks a bucket of honey), referring to the Chinese proverb &quot;一粒老鼠屎坏了一锅汤(A mouse poop breaks a pot of soup)&quot;(Jia Shufen 1996,145)<br /> <br /> (2) Нет дыма без огня. 无火不生烟(No fire, no smoke)， refers to the Chinese proverb &quot;无风不起浪(No wind, no waves)&quot;(Jia Shufen 1996,240).<br /> <br /> (3) Шила в мешке не устаишь. 口袋藏不住坠子(Pendant cannot be hidden in the pocket）, refers to the Chinese proverb &quot;纸包不住火(Paper cannot keep fire)&quot;(Jia Shufen 1996,303).<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Such Russian proverbs refer to the expression form of Chinese proverbs. On the basis of retaining the language structure characteristics of Russian proverbs, they do not lose the national cultural characteristics of Russian proverbs. They are successful translations. “Corresponding” uses the expression form of Chinese proverbs to make the translation easier to be accepted by readers. While using the translation method “corresponding”, in fact, the literal translation method is also used. The two are closely combined to maximize the original image and style(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation and loan translation====<br /> The national cultures of China and Russia are quite different. When Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs use completely different figurative images, the figurative images in the literal original text will make the translation difficult to understand and accept, or cause misunderstandings. Using “corresponding” to translate Russian proverbs may cause deviation in understanding. In order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text, free translation can be used for translation at this time. Free translation refers to a translation method that readjusts the structure of the original text on the basis of the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the original text clearly in a new way of expression. <br /> <br /> The national cultures of China and Russia are quite different. When Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs use completely different figurative images, the figurative images in the literal original text will make the translation difficult to understand and accept, or cause misunderstandings. Using “corresponding” to translate Russian proverbs may cause deviation in understanding. In order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text, free translation can be used for translation at this time. Free translation refers to a translation method that readjusts the structure of the original text on the basis of the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the original text clearly in a new way of expression. <br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Russian proverb &quot;Язык до Киева довезёт. 舌头（语言）把你带到基辅。(The tongue (language) brings you to Kiev)&quot; Kiev is an ancient city in the former Soviet Union. In ancient times, Kiev was called the mother city of the Russians and one of the most famous cities (Chen Ying 2000,90). Therefore, as long as you ask for directions, you will find Kiev. Therefore, this Russian proverb actually emphasizes the importance of &quot;язык&quot;. The literal translation will obviously make readers puzzled. However, it can be translated as &quot;有嘴走遍天下（With a mouth to travel all over the world）&quot; through free translation, which is more appropriate and easy to understand(Zhou Changyu 2006,39). <br /> <br /> For example, the Russian proverb &quot;Язык до Киева довезёт. 舌头（语言）把你带到基辅。(The tongue (language) brings you to Kiev)&quot; Kiev is an ancient city in the former Soviet Union. In ancient times, Kiev was called the mother city of the Russians and one of the most famous cities (Chen Ying 2000,90). Therefore, as long as you ask for directions, you will find Kiev. Therefore, this Russian proverb actually emphasizes the importance of &quot;язык&quot;. The literal translation will obviously make readers puzzled. However, it can be translated as &quot;有嘴走遍天下（With a mouth to travel all over the world）&quot; through free translation, which is more appropriate and easy to understand(Zhou Changyu 2006,39). <br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;На воре шапка горит(Jia Shufen 1996,176).&quot; is literally translated as &quot;小偷的帽子着火(The thief's hat is on fire)&quot;. If you don’t understand the source of the proverb, you cannot understand its meaning. This proverb originated from a story: Someone found a thief stealing, so he shouted in the crowd, &quot;The thief's hat is on fire.&quot; When the thief heard it, he involuntarily looked at his head and exposed himself and was arrested. . Through free translation, this proverb can be translated as &quot;the thief has a guilty conscience&quot;, so that the meaning of the original text can be more accurately conveyed to the reader(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).<br /> <br /> &quot;На воре шапка горит(Jia Shufen 1996,176).&quot; is literally translated as &quot;小偷的帽子着火(The thief's hat is on fire)&quot;. If you don’t understand the source of the proverb, you cannot understand its meaning. This proverb originated from a story: Someone found a thief stealing, so he shouted in the crowd, &quot;The thief's hat is on fire.&quot; When the thief heard it, he involuntarily looked at his head and exposed himself and was arrested. . Through free translation, this proverb can be translated as &quot;the thief has a guilty conscience&quot;, so that the meaning of the original text can be more accurately conveyed to the reader(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are always commonalities and individualities in Russian and Chinese national cultures. Therefore, as mentioned in 1.2, there are cases where Russian and Chinese proverbs express the same or similar meanings in different cultural images. In this case, when the differences between Russian and Chinese proverbs are too prominent, you can also consider loan translation to translate, that is, by analyzing the internal meaning of Russian proverbs, borrowing Chinese proverbs with different images but expressing the same meaning for translation(Zhou Changyu 2006,39). E.g:<br /> <br /> (1) Семь раз примерь, один раз отрежь.三思而后行(Jia Shufen 1996,345)。(Look before you leap.)<br /> <br /> (2) Всякая лисица свой хвост хвалит. 王婆卖瓜，自卖自夸(Jiang Xiuhua 1999,166)。(Every cook praises his own broth.)<br /> <br /> (3) Горбатого могила исправит. 禀性难移。(Human nature is hardly changed.)(Ye Fanglai 1987,102)<br /> <br /> There are always commonalities and individualities in Russian and Chinese national cultures. Therefore, as mentioned in 1.2, there are cases where Russian and Chinese proverbs express the same or similar meanings in different cultural images. In this case, when the differences between Russian and Chinese proverbs are too prominent, you can also consider loan translation to translate, that is, by analyzing the internal meaning of Russian proverbs, borrowing Chinese proverbs with different images but expressing the same meaning for translation(Zhou Changyu 2006,39). E.g:<br /> <br /> (1) Семь раз примерь, один раз отрежь.三思而后行(Jia Shufen 1996,345)。(Look before you leap.)<br /> <br /> (2) Всякая лисица свой хвост хвалит. 王婆卖瓜，自卖自夸(Jiang Xiuhua 1999,166)。(Every cook praises his own broth.)<br /> <br /> (3) Горбатого могила исправит. 禀性难移。(Human nature is hardly changed.)(Ye Fanglai 1987,102)<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Using this translation method, the translation is not exactly the same as the original, and the content and form of the two are also very different. This distinguishes the loan translation method from the equivalent translation counterpart translation method and the “corresponding”. In fact, the loan translation method can be regarded as a variant of the free translation method, because the loan translation is actually an expression made by re-adjusting the structure of the original text on the basis of understanding the meaning of the original text. But it should also be distinguished from free translation, because the loan translation method borrows the proverbs already in Chinese. This method has lost the image in the original proverb and cannot be called a perfect translation method. It should be avoided as much as possible(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).<br /> <br /> Using this translation method, the translation is not exactly the same as the original, and the content and form of the two are also very different. This distinguishes the loan translation method from the equivalent translation counterpart translation method and the “corresponding”. In fact, the loan translation method can be regarded as a variant of the free translation method, because the loan translation is actually an expression made by re-adjusting the structure of the original text on the basis of understanding the meaning of the original text. But it should also be distinguished from free translation, because the loan translation method borrows the proverbs already in Chinese. This method has lost the image in the original proverb and cannot be called a perfect translation method. It should be avoided as much as possible(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Addition and annotation====<br /> Addition and annotation are compensatory translation methods, which supplement and reveal the cultural information in the original text.(Wang Yanrong 2013,114), the two explanations in the translatology dictionary are &quot;to add some words according to the needs of semantics, rhetoric or syntax in translation, so as to faithfully and smoothly express the ideological content of the original text.&quot; And a translator's compensation method in order to fully express the original semantics and style in the process of translation is to help achieve the equivalence of translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2003,111)<br /> <br /> Addition and annotation are compensatory translation methods, which supplement and reveal the cultural information in the original text.(Wang Yanrong 2013,114), the two explanations in the translatology dictionary are &quot;to add some words according to the needs of semantics, rhetoric or syntax in translation, so as to faithfully and smoothly express the ideological content of the original text.&quot; And a translator's compensation method in order to fully express the original semantics and style in the process of translation is to help achieve the equivalence of translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2003,111)<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Many Russian proverbs may produce pragmatic failure after literal translation. In order to avoid this failure, we can use the method of adding words or adding notes to introduce the image and cultural background of the original text in the form of annotation. This method makes the translation more vivid and intuitive, while retaining the image of the original text, showing the national characteristics of Russian proverbs(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).<br /> <br /> Many Russian proverbs may produce pragmatic failure after literal translation. In order to avoid this failure, we can use the method of adding words or adding notes to introduce the image and cultural background of the original text in the form of annotation. This method makes the translation more vivid and intuitive, while retaining the image of the original text, showing the national characteristics of Russian proverbs(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Russian proverb &quot;И на солнце есть пятна.&quot; is literally translated as &quot;太阳上也有黑点。(There are black spots on the sun.)&quot; This translation is obviously difficult for readers to accept and understand, but if the Chinese proverb &quot;金无足赤，人无完人(Gold can't be pure and man can't be perfect.)&quot; with the same meaning is added after it to reveal its connotation, “太阳上也有黑点—金无足赤，人无完人。(There are also black spots on the sun—Gold can't be pure and man can't be perfect.)” This form of translation can allow readers to understand the meaning of the proverb clearly and keep the original image in Russian proverbs(Zhou Changyu 2006,40). <br /> <br /> For example, the Russian proverb &quot;И на солнце есть пятна.&quot; is literally translated as &quot;太阳上也有黑点。(There are black spots on the sun.)&quot; This translation is obviously difficult for readers to accept and understand, but if the Chinese proverb &quot;金无足赤，人无完人(Gold can't be pure and man can't be perfect.)&quot; with the same meaning is added after it to reveal its connotation, “太阳上也有黑点—金无足赤，人无完人。(There are also black spots on the sun—Gold can't be pure and man can't be perfect.)” This form of translation can allow readers to understand the meaning of the proverb clearly and keep the original image in Russian proverbs(Zhou Changyu 2006,40). <br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example is &quot;В Тулу со своим самоваром не ездят.&quot; literally translated as &quot;不要带着茶炊去图拉。(Don't take a samovar to Tula.)&quot; This Russian proverb has a strong Russian national color. Tula was once famous throughout the country for the production of samovars, and was the center of Russia's metallurgical industry and metal manufacturing. Taking the samovar to Tula, which is rich in samovars, actually means &quot;make an unnecessary move&quot;. This proverb is very vivid. Russians can naturally understand and understand its meaning, but as Chinese readers who do not understand Russian culture, it may be difficult to understand the literal translation of this proverb. <br /> <br /> Another example is &quot;В Тулу со своим самоваром не ездят.&quot; literally translated as &quot;不要带着茶炊去图拉。(Don't take a samovar to Tula.)&quot; This Russian proverb has a strong Russian national color. Tula was once famous throughout the country for the production of samovars, and was the center of Russia's metallurgical industry and metal manufacturing. Taking the samovar to Tula, which is rich in samovars, actually means &quot;make an unnecessary move&quot;. This proverb is very vivid. Russians can naturally understand and understand its meaning, but as Chinese readers who do not understand Russian culture, it may be difficult to understand the literal translation of this proverb. <br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, this proverb can be translated as &quot;带着茶炊去图拉—多此一举(Bring a samovar to Tula--make an unnecessary move)&quot;, or add a note in brackets: &quot;Tula is famous for making samovars.&quot; In this way, readers can not only understand the meaning of proverbs, but also intuitively feel the cultural elements of Russia. It can said as killing two birds with one stone(Zhou Changyu 2006,40). This translation method is often used in the situations described in 1.3. Examples also include:<br /> <br /> （1）За двумя зайцами погонишься ни одного не поймаешь. 一人追双兔，到头两手空—一心不可二用。(One man chases two rabbits, and in the end two hands are empty--no man can do two things at once.)<br /> <br /> （2）На языке мёд а в сердце лёд. 嘴上甜似蜜,心里冷若冰—笑里藏刀。(Sweet as honey on the mouth, cold as ice in the heart--hide a dagger in a smile.)<br /> <br /> herefore, this proverb can be translated as &quot;带着茶炊去图拉—多此一举(Bring a samovar to Tula--make an unnecessary move)&quot;, or add a note in brackets: &quot;Tula is famous for making samovars.&quot; In this way, readers can not only understand the meaning of proverbs, but also intuitively feel the cultural elements of Russia. It can said as killing two birds with one stone(Zhou Changyu 2006,40). This translation method is often used in the situations described in 1.3. Examples also include:<br /> <br /> （1）За двумя зайцами погонишься ни одного не поймаешь. 一人追双兔，到头两手空—一心不可二用。(One man chases two rabbits, and in the end two hands are empty--no man can do two things at once.)<br /> <br /> （2）На языке мёд а в сердце лёд. 嘴上甜似蜜,心里冷若冰—笑里藏刀。(Sweet as honey on the mouth, cold as ice in the heart--hide a dagger in a smile.)<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The above-mentioned several Chinese translation methods of Russian proverbs have their own advantages and disadvantages. In the practice of Russian proverb translation, we should not be limited to one of them. We should make a specific analysis according to the specific situation, flexibly use different translation methods, and learn from others' strong points, so as to achieve a harmonious translation.<br /> <br /> The above-mentioned several Chinese translation methods of Russian proverbs have their own advantages and disadvantages. In the practice of Russian proverb translation, we should not be limited to one of them. We should make a specific analysis according to the specific situation, flexibly use different translation methods, and learn from others' strong points, so as to achieve a harmonious translation.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Translation strategies of Russian proverbs===<br /> <br /> Russian proverbs are concise in language, rich in meaning, vivid in image, beautiful in rhythm and strong in national color. It is not easy to translate them into Chinese accurately and vividly. In the practice of Russian proverb translation, we should pay attention to the translation strategies in addition to the flexible application of various translation methods.<br /> <br /> Russian proverbs are concise in language, rich in meaning, vivid in image, beautiful in rhythm and strong in national color. It is not easy to translate them into Chinese accurately and vividly. In the practice of Russian proverb translation, we should pay attention to the translation strategies in addition to the flexible application of various translation methods.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Trace the origin and accurately interpret====<br /> There are great cultural differences between Russian and Chinese. When interpreting Russian proverbs, translators are likely to stay on the surface of the text and interpret the meaning from the text, resulting in misunderstanding and translation errors. Therefore, when translating Russian proverbs, especially those with historical or national background, we should carefully examine their allusions, trace back to the source, and accurately interpret the hidden meanings of proverbs.<br /> <br /> There are great cultural differences between Russian and Chinese. When interpreting Russian proverbs, translators are likely to stay on the surface of the text and interpret the meaning from the text, resulting in misunderstanding and translation errors. Therefore, when translating Russian proverbs, especially those with historical or national background, we should carefully examine their allusions, trace back to the source, and accurately interpret the hidden meanings of proverbs.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Russian proverb &quot;Недосол на столе, а пересол на спине.&quot; is literally translated as &quot;菜淡了在桌上，菜咸了在背上。(The dish is light on the table, and the dish is salty on the back.)&quot; This proverb can be traced back to the time of serfdom. Salt was a very valuable thing at that time, and those who wasted salt will be punished. Russians usually have salt shakers on their tables. If the dishes are weak, you can add salt at will, but if they are salty, the cook will be punished by whipping his back. Therefore, the basic meaning of the proverb is that if the dish is cooked, salt can be added, and if the dish is salted, the cook will be beaten. (Ma Weiqun, Zhang Xiaoyun 2008,149)<br /> However, this proverb was once translated as &quot;多一事不如少一事(One thing more is worse than one thing less)&quot; or &quot;宁缺毋滥(It is better to leave a deficiency uncovered than to have it covered without discretion)&quot;. This kind of translation is obviously not appropriate. It is &quot;taking the words too literally&quot; without understanding the historical background(Ye Fanglai 1987,101). <br /> <br /> For example, the Russian proverb &quot;Недосол на столе, а пересол на спине.&quot; is literally translated as &quot;菜淡了在桌上，菜咸了在背上。(The dish is light on the table, and the dish is salty on the back.)&quot; This proverb can be traced back to the time of serfdom. Salt was a very valuable thing at that time, and those who wasted salt will be punished. Russians usually have salt shakers on their tables. If the dishes are weak, you can add salt at will, but if they are salty, the cook will be punished by whipping his back. Therefore, the basic meaning of the proverb is that if the dish is cooked, salt can be added, and if the dish is salted, the cook will be beaten. (Ma Weiqun, Zhang Xiaoyun 2008,149)<br /> However, this proverb was once translated as &quot;多一事不如少一事(One thing more is worse than one thing less)&quot; or &quot;宁缺毋滥(It is better to leave a deficiency uncovered than to have it covered without discretion)&quot;. This kind of translation is obviously not appropriate. It is &quot;taking the words too literally&quot; without understanding the historical background(Ye Fanglai 1987,101). <br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Similar proverbs include &quot;Была бы спина, а то будет вина.&quot; literally translated as &quot;只要有脊背，就会有过错(As long as there is a back, there will be fault)&quot; , this Russian proverb also contains the cultural image of &quot;back&quot;. As mentioned above, whipping the back was a common punishment method at that time. At the same time, since the whipped person violated the discipline, not the law, there was a certain degree of randomness in determining the punishment object and the degree of punishment. (Sheng Yichao 2009,110)<br /> <br /> Similar proverbs include &quot;Была бы спина, а то будет вина.&quot; literally translated as &quot;只要有脊背，就会有过错(As long as there is a back, there will be fault)&quot; , this Russian proverb also contains the cultural image of &quot;back&quot;. As mentioned above, whipping the back was a common punishment method at that time. At the same time, since the whipped person violated the discipline, not the law, there was a certain degree of randomness in determining the punishment object and the degree of punishment. (Sheng Yichao 2009,110)<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, this proverb actually expresses the meaning of &quot;欲加之罪，何患无辞(Give a dog a bad name and hang him)&quot;. If you don't know Russian history, you can't understand the meaning of this proverb. Therefore, it is very important to study the allusions of proverbs and understand their deep cultural meanings.(Sheng Yichao 2009,110)<br /> <br /> Therefore, this proverb actually expresses the meaning of &quot;欲加之罪，何患无辞(Give a dog a bad name and hang him)&quot;. If you don't know Russian history, you can't understand the meaning of this proverb. Therefore, it is very important to study the allusions of proverbs and understand their deep cultural meanings.(Sheng Yichao 2009,110)<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Retain characteristics and respect national culture====<br /> Proverbs are the cultural crystallization of a nation and have distinctive national characteristics. When translating Russian proverbs, attention should be paid to the comprehensive use of multiple translation methods, to maximize the retention of national characteristics, not only to restore the original image and style, but also to reflect the national cultural connotation, while taking into account the reader's understanding and acceptance. At this time, we may use the methods of addition and annotation mentioned above, and try to avoid over-domestication of Russian proverbs, and respect the national culture. We should analyze it in the specific original text and translate it flexibly(Zhou Changyu 2006,42).<br /> <br /> Proverbs are the cultural crystallization of a nation and have distinctive national characteristics. When translating Russian proverbs, attention should be paid to the comprehensive use of multiple translation methods, to maximize the retention of national characteristics, not only to restore the original image and style, but also to reflect the national cultural connotation, while taking into account the reader's understanding and acceptance. At this time, we may use the methods of addition and annotation mentioned above, and try to avoid over-domestication of Russian proverbs, and respect the national culture. We should analyze it in the specific original text and translate it flexibly(Zhou Changyu 2006,42).<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the Russian proverb &quot;Не всё коту масленица, бывает и великий пост.&quot; is literally translated as &quot;a cat does not celebrate the festival of Marriage every day, and it always has a Lent.&quot; Readers who do not understand the Russian national culture may not understand the meaning of this proverb, if you add a comment at this time, “In Russian festivals, the 7-day Maslenitsa can best reflect the traditions of the Russian nation. (Sheng Yichao 2009,110)<br /> <br /> For example, the Russian proverb &quot;Не всё коту масленица, бывает и великий пост.&quot; is literally translated as &quot;a cat does not celebrate the festival of Marriage every day, and it always has a Lent.&quot; Readers who do not understand the Russian national culture may not understand the meaning of this proverb, if you add a comment at this time, “In Russian festivals, the 7-day Maslenitsa can best reflect the traditions of the Russian nation. (Sheng Yichao 2009,110)<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The “Ross-Robs Festival” originated from the Orthodox Church. The 40-day fast in the Orthodox During the period, people are forbidden to eat meat and entertainment. Therefore, in the week before the start of Lent, people indulge in joy and every family pay close attention to eating meat to make up for the ascetic life during the fast period.&quot;If the background cultural knowledge contained in the proverb is revealed, readers will be able to more clearly understand the meaning of the proverb &quot;good times will not last long, and a feast is hard to come by&quot;.(Sheng Yichao 2009,110)<br /> <br /> The “Ross-Robs Festival” originated from the Orthodox Church. The 40-day fast in the Orthodox During the period, people are forbidden to eat meat and entertainment. Therefore, in the week before the start of Lent, people indulge in joy and every family pay close attention to eating meat to make up for the ascetic life during the fast period.&quot;If the background cultural knowledge contained in the proverb is revealed, readers will be able to more clearly understand the meaning of the proverb &quot;good times will not last long, and a feast is hard to come by&quot;.(Sheng Yichao 2009,110)<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example is the proverb &quot;Не учи рыбу плавать. 不要教鱼儿游泳(Don't teach fish to swim)&quot;. Some people have translated the proverb as &quot;不要班门弄斧(Don't go to teach hewing to the God of Carpenters)&quot;. This translation borrowed and translated the image in the original text into a well-known allusion(“班门弄斧”) image in Chinese people. The distortion of the cultural connotation in proverbs is excessive domestication, so it is not appropriate.(Zhou Changyu 2006,42)<br /> <br /> Another example is the proverb &quot;Не учи рыбу плавать. 不要教鱼儿游泳(Don't teach fish to swim)&quot;. Some people have translated the proverb as &quot;不要班门弄斧(Don't go to teach hewing to the God of Carpenters)&quot;. This translation borrowed and translated the image in the original text into a well-known allusion(“班门弄斧”) image in Chinese people. The distortion of the cultural connotation in proverbs is excessive domestication, so it is not appropriate.(Zhou Changyu 2006,42)<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Pay attention to expression and focus on language use====<br /> <br /> On the one hand, as a unique language form, proverbs are popular among the people, and they are a kind of spoken language style with the characteristics of spoken language style. Therefore, in the translation of Russian proverbs, the characteristics of easy to understand and easy to speak should also be reflected in the translation; On the other hand, as the famous Russian linguist A. A. Potebnya（А. А. Потебня） said, proverb “is a short literary work”. Proverbs are also a kind of folk literature, which is actually a literary form. We should pay attention to the aesthetic characteristics of proverbs in translation(Zhou Changyu 2006,43).<br /> <br /> On the one hand, as a unique language form, proverbs are popular among the people, and they are a kind of spoken language style with the characteristics of spoken language style. Therefore, in the translation of Russian proverbs, the characteristics of easy to understand and easy to speak should also be reflected in the translation; On the other hand, as the famous Russian linguist A. A. Potebnya（А. А. Потебня） said, proverb “is a short literary work”. Proverbs are also a kind of folk literature, which is actually a literary form. We should pay attention to the aesthetic characteristics of proverbs in translation(Zhou Changyu 2006,43).<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if the proverb “Не учи рыбу плавать.” mentioned above is translated as “不要教鱼儿游泳(Don’t teach fish to swim)”, obviously the literal translation method will accurately retain the original metaphorical image while retaining the colloquial nature of the proverb. It is easy to understand and the translation of &quot;不要班门弄斧(Don't go to teach hewing to the God of Carpenters)(“班门弄斧”is an Chinese allusion)&quot; is blunt and overly written(Zhou Changyu 2006,43). <br /> <br /> For example, if the proverb “Не учи рыбу плавать.” mentioned above is translated as “不要教鱼儿游泳(Don’t teach fish to swim)”, obviously the literal translation method will accurately retain the original metaphorical image while retaining the colloquial nature of the proverb. It is easy to understand and the translation of &quot;不要班门弄斧(Don't go to teach hewing to the God of Carpenters)(“班门弄斧”is an Chinese allusion)&quot; is blunt and overly written(Zhou Changyu 2006,43). <br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example is &quot;Слово серебро, молчание золото&quot; literally translated as &quot;雄辩是银，沉默是金(eloquence is silver, silence is gold)&quot; to express the phonology in the original text very well and make people read it catchy. If the Chinese proverb &quot;是非只为多开口，烦恼皆因强出头(Right and wrong just for more mouth, worry all because of strong)&quot;, although the meaning is the same, it loses the metaphorical image and popularity of the original text; as for the aesthetic characteristics, the translation of the Russian proverb &quot;Красна птица пером, а человек умом.&quot; &quot;鸟美在羽毛，人美在头脑(The beauty of birds is in the feathers, and the beauty of people is in the mind.)&quot; This translation adopts the method of literal translation, while preserving the original image, it also restores the structure of the original text and the rhetorical symmetry, which conforms to the aesthetic characteristics of the original text(Zhou Changyu 2006,44).<br /> <br /> Another example is &quot;Слово серебро, молчание золото&quot; literally translated as &quot;雄辩是银，沉默是金(eloquence is silver, silence is gold)&quot; to express the phonology in the original text very well and make people read it catchy. If the Chinese proverb &quot;是非只为多开口，烦恼皆因强出头(Right and wrong just for more mouth, worry all because of strong)&quot;, although the meaning is the same, it loses the metaphorical image and popularity of the original text; as for the aesthetic characteristics, the translation of the Russian proverb &quot;Красна птица пером, а человек умом.&quot; &quot;鸟美在羽毛，人美在头脑(The beauty of birds is in the feathers, and the beauty of people is in the mind.)&quot; This translation adopts the method of literal translation, while preserving the original image, it also restores the structure of the original text and the rhetorical symmetry, which conforms to the aesthetic characteristics of the original text(Zhou Changyu 2006,44).<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In short, Russian and Chinese are two very different languages, and the proverbs of the two ethnic groups also have their own characteristics in language form. The translation must take into account the unique style, connotation and meaning of the original text at the same time, while maintaining the fluency of sentences, perfect expression, and achieving the harmony and unity of sound, rhyme and meaning. It is by no means easy, and it is a major test for translators. Translators should not only have a thorough understanding of the original text and the cultural background of the original text, and be proficient in tempering words, but also should flexibly use various translation methods, master translation strategies, and strive to accurately express the profound meaning of Russian proverbs.<br /> <br /> In short, Russian and Chinese are two very different languages, and the proverbs of the two ethnic groups also have their own characteristics in language form. The translation must take into account the unique style, connotation and meaning of the original text at the same time, while maintaining the fluency of sentences, perfect expression, and achieving the harmony and unity of sound, rhyme and meaning. It is by no means easy, and it is a major test for translators. Translators should not only have a thorough understanding of the original text and the cultural background of the original text, and be proficient in tempering words, but also should flexibly use various translation methods, master translation strategies, and strive to accurately express the profound meaning of Russian proverbs.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 07:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===6. 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[The translation method of Russian proverbs]. 安徽文学[Anhui Literature (second half of the month)]114.<br /> <br /> [8] Zhou Changyu.周长雨. (2006).俄语谚语的汉译问题. [Chinese translation of Russian proverbs]. 哈尔滨工业大学.[Harbin Institute of Technology].<br /> <br /> [9] Sheng Yichao.盛义朝.(2009).俄语谚语翻译初探. [A Probe into the Translation of Russian Proverbs]. 吉林省教育学院学报.[Journal of Jilin Province Education College] 110-111.<br /> <br /> [10]Chen Ying.陈颖.(2000).从俄汉谚俗语的对译看民族个性. [Looking at the national personality from the translation of Russian and Chinese proverbs].黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]89-90.<br /> <br /> [11]Wang Jinhua, Zhang Li.王金花,张丽.(2006).俄语谚语翻译中有关问题的探讨 [Discussion on Related Issues in Russian Proverb Translation]. 内蒙古财经学院学报(综合版)[Journal of Inner Mongolia University of Finance and Economics (Comprehensive Edition)]76-78.<br /> <br /> [12]Yu Jun.于军.(2008).浅析俄语谚语及其汉译问题.[Analysis of Russian proverbs and their Chinese translation]. 考试周刊.[Examination Weekly]226-227.<br /> <br /> [13] Ye Fanglai. 叶芳来. 1987.浅谈俄语谚语的翻译.[On the translation of Russian proverbs]. 郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版).[Journal of Zhengzhou University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition)] 99-103.<br /> <br /> [14] Jiang Xiuhua. 姜秀华.(2000). 俄汉语谚语在民族文化方面及修辞特点的对比.[Comparison of Russian and Chinese proverbs in terms of national culture and rhetoric characteristics]. 呼伦贝尔学院学报.[Journal of Hulunbuir University] 66-68. <br /> <br /> [15] Hu Aimin.胡爱民.(1986).也谈俄语谚语和俗语的民族色彩.[Also on the national colors of Russian proverbs and sayings]. 外语与外语教学.[Foreign Languages Teaching]52-54.<br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of Liaison Interpreting from the Perspectives of Reception Aesthetics and Translator-Centered Theory 李璐伊 Li Luyi 202020080612 亚非语言文学==<br /> &lt;center&gt;李璐伊 Li Luyi 202020080612 亚非语言文学 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In a time of increasing intercultural communication, the working scenes of liaison interpreters are increasingly complex, and the role of interpreters are still controversial. From the perspective of aesthetics of reception and translator-centered theory, this paper analyzes the role positioning of liaison interpreters in terms of customers' expectations on the role of interpreters and their own understanding of the role of interpreters, and develops corresponding strategies for different types of liaison interpreters.<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> Liaison Interpreting；Positioning of Interpreter；Reception Aesthetics ；Translator-Centered Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在跨文化交际日益频繁的今天，联络口译译员的工作场景日益复杂，而其角色定位还存在争议。本文拟通过接受美学和译者中心论的视角分别从客户对口译译员的角色期待以及口译译员自身角色认识两方面分析了客户对口译员的角色期待和口译员对自身的角色定位，并针对不同联络口译类型制定了相应的应对策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 联络口译；译员角色定位；接受美学；译者中心论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> 1.1--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 11:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a broad sense, where there is a society, there is intercultural communication, which usually refers to the communication activities carried out by people in different cultural backgrounds. With the acceleration of globalization in recent years, cross-cultural communication has become increasingly frequent and complex. Susan Bassinet once argued that translation is by no means a purely linguistic act, it is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is spoken, and that translation is the communication within or between cultures.<br /> <br /> This view is also reflected in his book ''Translation, History and Culture''“Translators are allowed more liberties on what one might be tempted to call‘the purely linguistic level,’ certainly if the translation is not meant to‘represent’ the original in the translators' culture, but simply to help translators refine their knowledge of their own language.”(Bassnett, Susan; Lefevre, Andre 1996,4). <br /> <br /> As an important bridge in intercultural communication, interpretation is real-time, which requires interpreters to adjust their interpretation strategies in the new era to meet the increasing demand for interpreting.<br /> <br /> Translation studies is a relatively young research field, the current translation studies work an obvious trend to written translation studies, with less attention in the study of interpreting, this is probably due to the earlier tradition of the translation studies -- In the past, people only discussed the translation strategies of literary classics. As for this point, some scholars have proposed before that &quot;in terms of translation theory research itself, only written translation theory research is paid attention to rather than interpretation research, especially the study of specific problems in the process of interpretation by interpreters&quot; (Liu 2014,141- 143).<br /> <br /> Translation studies is a relatively young research field, the current translation studies work an obvious trend to written translation studies, with less attention in the study of interpreting, this is probably due to the earlier tradition of the translation studies -- In the past, people only discussed the translation strategies of literary classics. As for this point, some scholars have proposed before that &quot;in terms of translation theory research itself, only written translation theory research is paid attention to rather than interpretation research, especially the study of specific problems in the process of interpretation by interpreters&quot; (Liu Yingjun, 2014,141-143).--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 12:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.2 --[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 11:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> We believes that the reasons for this situation are as follows: first, the corpus of written translation recorded in the form of words are easier to preserve than the interpreted corpus, and the research is also easier to retrieve the corpus of written translation; Second, Culture-related content is more common in translation than in interpretation. In addition, at present, the entry point of interpretation studies on cultural issues in liaison interpreting is often limited to a specific interpreting scene. For example, Zhao Xiaomei makes an analysis of the role of medical liaison interpreters, and believes that interpreters should abandon the tradition of complete neutrality in the process of interpreting (Zhao, 2020, 105- 108). However, different interpreting scenes have different requirements for interpreters, so the study confined to a specific scene does not accord with the actual situation that interpreters must be in multiple settinfs to interpret.<br /> <br /> We believes that the reasons for this situation are as follows: first, the corpus of written translation recorded in the form of words are easier to preserve than the interpreted corpus, and the research is also easier to retrieve the corpus of written translation; Second, Culture-related content is more common in translation than in interpretation. In addition, at present, the entry point of interpretation studies on cultural issues in liaison interpreting is often limited to a specific interpreting scene. For example, Zhao Xiaomei makes an analysis of the role of medical liaison interpreters, and believes that interpreters should abandon the tradition of complete neutrality in the process of interpreting (Zhao Xiaomei, 2020, 105-108). --[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 12:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)However, different interpreting scenes have different requirements for interpreters, so the study confined to a specific scene does not accord with the actual situation that interpreters must be in multiple settinfs to interpret.<br /> <br /> In addition, many Chinese liaison interpreting studies are practice reports of MTI majors, lacking systematic theoretical discussion. Against such a background of translation studies, it is very necessary to study liaison interpretation from the perspective of receptive aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;. The value of this study lies in: first, it provides a new theoretical perspective for liaison interpretation analysis; Second, it provides coping strategies to solve the cultural barriers of interpreting in intercultural communication.（Wang 2020,39-40/Mao 2020,33-34）<br /> <br /> In addition, many Chinese liaison interpreting studies are practice reports of MTI majors, lacking systematic theoretical discussion. Against such a background of translation studies, it is very necessary to study liaison interpretation from the perspective of receptive aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;. The value of this study lies in: first, it provides a new theoretical perspective for liaison interpretation analysis; Second, it provides coping strategies to solve the cultural barriers of interpreting in intercultural communication.（Wang Shaolong, 2020, 39-40/Mao Zhen, 2020, 33-34)--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 12:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.3--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 11:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, interpretation is divided into consecutive interpretation and simultaneous interpretation according to its working mode, while it is divided into two-way interpretation and one-way interpretation according to the direction of interpretation. The liaison interpretation we discuss here is a typical two-way interpretation. We generally believe that liaison interpretation is a kind of interpretation which is different from conference interpretation and has a variety of working scenes, and it's working mode is mainly consecutive interpretation. Henri van Hoof, when talking about liaison interpretation earlier, described it as an interpreting practice existing in business negotiations (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,12).<br /> <br /> This is the early propositions which business interpretation is equivalent to liaison interpretation, and in the later long period of time has been recognized and widely used, but this description has obvious limitations. With the development of society and the diversification and complexity of interpretation scenes, the connotation of liaison interpretation has been expanded to include various forms of interpretation within the society or within the community. Later, R. Bruce W. Anderson (1976/2002) generically described liaison interpreting as a &quot;tripartite communication&quot; model, which is characterized by the emphasis that liaison interpreting is an activity in which two monolingual speakers communicate through a bilingual interpreter (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,14).<br /> <br /> Of course, this definition is more in line with the current practical understanding of liaison interpreting, but it is also difficult to distinguish the specific forms of liaison interpreting because of the high generality of its description. According to Anderson's point of view and the definition of conference interpretation, liaison interpreting is a &quot;bilateral interpreting&quot; within the society, rather than an international conference interpreting for representatives of several countries. Therefore, not only business interpretation, but also legal interpreting and guide-interpreting should be included in liaison interpretation.<br /> <br /> Based on the &quot;reader-centered theory&quot; of reception aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; of &quot;Eco-translatology&quot;, this paper mainly adopts the method of literature research and takes liaison interpreters as the object to discuss customers' expectations on the role of interpreters and interpreters’ awareness of their own role, so as to seek interpreting strategies in different situations of liaison interpretation.<br /> <br /> The introduction can be divided into several sections to make it more concise. The full name of the author should be written--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 11:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.Reception Aesthetics and Translator-Centered Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.Reception Aesthetics====<br /> Reception aesthetics, also known as reader-centered theory, is a critical approach in literary studies, developed in the 1960s by H.R. Jauss and Wolfgang. Iser. This theory is different from the previous critical method which is centered on author or works. It turns to the critical method which is centered on readers' aesthetic acceptance and aesthetic experience. Phenomenology and modern hermeneutics are the theoretical basis of reader-centered theory, and the term &quot;reception aesthetics&quot; was first introduced in Hans Robert Jauss's essay ''Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory'', which is a manifesto for reception aesthetics to become an independent school.(Jin 2002, 264-267)<br /> <br /> Reception aesthetics, also known as reader-centered theory, is a critical approach in literary studies, developed in the 1960s by H.R. Jauss and Wolfgang. Iser. This theory is different from the previous critical method which is centered on author or works. It turns to the critical method which is centered on readers' aesthetic acceptance and aesthetic experience. Phenomenology and modern hermeneutics are the theoretical basis of reader-centered theory, and the term &quot;reception aesthetics&quot; was first introduced in Hans Robert Jauss's essay ''Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory'', which is a manifesto for reception aesthetics to become an independent school.(Jin Huxiong, 2002, 264-267)--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 12:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Izer once said, &quot;Reception aesthetics advocates the reader's initiative and creative ability. Reading is not a passive perception but an active creative activity. The transformation of the reader's role can be said to be an epoch-making transformation in the development of literature&quot;(Guo，1997，338-339).<br /> <br /> Izer once said, &quot;Reception aesthetics advocates the reader's initiative and creative ability. Reading is not a passive perception but an active creative activity. The transformation of the reader's role can be said to be an epoch-making transformation in the development of literature&quot;(Guo Hongan, 1997, 338-339).--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 11:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are several important concepts in reception aesthetics. The first is the &quot;the horizon of expectations&quot;， which Jauss coined. Jauss believes that due to the complex reasons of individuals and society, readers who are the subject of receiving literature often have established thinking orientation and concepts in their psychology before and during the process of literature reading.(Wang 2020, 198-199)<br /> <br /> There are several important concepts in reception aesthetics. The first is the &quot;the horizon of expectations&quot;， which Jauss coined. Jauss believes that due to the complex reasons of individuals and society, readers who are the subject of receiving literature often have established thinking orientation and concepts in their psychology before and during the process of literature reading.(Wang Tong, 2020, 198-199)--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 12:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second concept is the &quot;response-inviting structure&quot;, which was proposed by Iser. Iser considers the meaning of a text to be indeterminable, so the meaning of a text would never have been generated by itself, but there is a &quot;text blank&quot; in the text that only the reader can fill.(Jin 2002,274)<br /> <br /> The second concept is the &quot;response-inviting structure&quot;, which was proposed by Iser. Iser considers the meaning of a text to be indeterminable, so the meaning of a text would never have been generated by itself, but there is a &quot;text blank&quot; in the text that only the reader can fill.(Jin Huxiong, 2002, 274)--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 12:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;Text blank&quot; can induce the reader to think aesthetically. Reception aesthetics in interpreting is reflected in that the success of a interpretation product largely depends on the response of the recipient to the work and whether the recipient has generated aesthetic pleasure, and the evocation of the text and the satisfaction of the recipient have become the criteria for evaluation of interpretation products. From the perspective of reception aesthetics, interpreting serves the recipient completely.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.Translator-Centered Theory====<br /> The concept of &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; is closely related to &quot;Eco-translatology&quot; put forward by Professor Hu Gengshen. &quot;Eco-translatology&quot; is a new concept, and there are still many controversies and misunderstandings about it among Chinese scholars. In the opinion of Leng Yuhong, &quot;If we want to construct a systematic and complete “Eco-translatology Theory”, the first thing to be overturned must be the 'translator-centered'!&quot; (Leng 2011, 72-73).<br /> <br /> The concept of &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; is closely related to &quot;Eco-translatology&quot; put forward by Professor Hu Gengshen. &quot;Eco-translatology&quot; is a new concept, and there are still many controversies and misunderstandings about it among Chinese scholars. In the opinion of Leng Yuhong, &quot;If we want to construct a systematic and complete “Eco-translatology Theory”, the first thing to be overturned must be the 'translator-centered'!&quot; (Leng Yuhong, 2011, 72-73).--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 12:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> The main reason for his conclusion is that he has a misunderstanding of &quot;translator-centered&quot;. Leng Yuhong believes that the &quot;translator-centered&quot; puts the &quot;translator&quot; above the &quot;original text&quot; and the &quot;recipient&quot;, and takes the translator to an extreme like “translation-center theory”.<br /> <br /> Some other scholars believe that, on the one hand, the &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; fails to break through the dichotomization of subject and object; on the other hand, it is interpreted from the perspective of concrete operation instead of philosophical reasoning. Therefore, it lacks an organic connection with the anti-centrism and equality core contained in the Oriental ecological wisdom.(Luo 2017， 65)<br /> <br /> Some other scholars believe that, on the one hand, the &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; fails to break through the dichotomization of subject and object; on the other hand, it is interpreted from the perspective of concrete operation instead of philosophical reasoning. Therefore, it lacks an organic connection with the anti-centrism and equality core contained in the Oriental ecological wisdom.(Luo Dijiang, 2017, 65)--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 11:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Then professor Hu retorted, the &quot;translator-center&quot; concept, in the process of translation is mainly reveals the &quot;leading&quot; role of the translator in the translation process, specifically refers to the translator in the translation process must first &quot;adapt to&quot; the ecological environment of translation, and then, the translator in according to the ecological environment of translation to decide on the &quot;choice&quot; of translation , which includes the translator &quot;selective adaptation&quot; and &quot;adaptive selection&quot; and so on, all the translation behaviors of translation activity is determined by translator, this is the core and intention of &quot;translator-center theory . In other words, the translation system is pluralistic, and the translator should actively adapt to the environment in the process of translation, instead of destroying the relationship between each subject in the translation system to reach the dominant position. Professor Hu also emphasizes the distinction between &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; and &quot;subjectivity&quot; in order to emphasize the dynamic role that translators can play in translation.(Hu 2013, 208, 218-219)<br /> <br /> Then professor Hu retorted, the &quot;translator-center&quot; concept, in the process of translation is mainly reveals the &quot;leading&quot; role of the translator in the translation process, specifically refers to the translator in the translation process must first &quot;adapt to&quot; the ecological environment of translation, and then, the translator in according to the ecological environment of translation to decide on the &quot;choice&quot; of translation , which includes the translator &quot;selective adaptation&quot; and &quot;adaptive selection&quot; and so on, all the translation behaviors of translation activity is determined by translator, this is the core and intention of &quot;translator-center theory . In other words, the translation system is pluralistic, and the translator should actively adapt to the environment in the process of translation, instead of destroying the relationship between each subject in the translation system to reach the dominant position. Professor Hu also emphasizes the distinction between &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; and &quot;subjectivity&quot; in order to emphasize the dynamic role that translators can play in translation.(Hu Gengshen, 2013, 208, 218-219)--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 12:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Yin shuqiong also believes that ecological paradigm is not a commonality between translation studies and natural ecosystems, but a feature shared by all social science research systems. Hu said that Yin's erroneous conclusion is based on a misunderstanding of the concept of &quot;paradigm&quot;, and that “Eco-translatology” and its &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; are the common beliefs of recent translation scholars, rather than emphasizing that they are unique to translatology and natural ecosystems.(Yin 2017, 56-62/ Hu 2017, 63-68)<br /> <br /> Yin shuqiong also believes that ecological paradigm is not a commonality between translation studies and natural ecosystems, but a feature shared by all social science research systems. Hu said that Yin's erroneous conclusion is based on a misunderstanding of the concept of &quot;paradigm&quot;, and that “Eco-translatology” and its &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; are the common beliefs of recent translation scholars, rather than emphasizing that they are unique to translatology and natural ecosystems.(Yin Suiqiong, 2017, 56-62/ Hu Gengshen, 2017, 63-68)--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 12:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are many arguements about “Eco-translatology” and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; in China, we think that the “translator-centered theory” under the perspective of “Eco-translatology” not mean that &quot;translator&quot; above the &quot;source language&quot; and &quot;recipients&quot;, but hope from the perspective of &quot;translator&quot; thinking about the problems in the translation process and the solution to the problem, emphasizes the &quot;translator&quot; actively adapt to the social scene and positive response to this strategy.<br /> <br /> Then, what is the relationship between the &quot;reader-centered theory&quot; of reception aesthetics and the &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; of Eco-translatology studies? We think that the two are dialectical unity, reception aesthetics require the translator to fully consider the recipient's cultural quality and cognitive levels, but completely according to the requirements of the recipient to make the choice of translation strategy and translation quality evaluation is too biased, because recipient's aesthetic of translation products too subjective and lack of professionalism, and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; advocate that the difficulties encountered in the translation should be solved by translators according to their professional judgment and also encourages translators to seek more change through its own development strategy.<br /> <br /> Of course, &quot;reader-centered theory&quot; and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; are not diametrically opposed, and translator-centered theory also requires translators to consider the needs of recipients of translation products. It can be said that &quot;reader-centered theory&quot; is a reference item of &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;, and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; is a further development of &quot;reader-centered theory&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===3.Positioning of liaison interpreter===<br /> In the field of interpretation, there have always been different opinions on the principle of fidelity of interpretation products: some people believe that &quot;sentence by sentence translation&quot; should be carried out, and interpretation products should be faithful to the original text in form. That is, the interpreter should &quot;be like a megaphone&quot; ; Some people believe that interpreters should take into account the cultural context in which communication takes place, and that interpretation products should be faithful to the &quot;meaning&quot; of the original text, that is, the central meaning expressed by the speaker .(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,153)<br /> <br /> However, there are significantly more supporters of the latter than the former. This is similar to the debate on the principle of translation in translation studies: literal translation v.s. free translation. The discussion of translation principles is generally focused on literature. At present, we generally believe that different translation strategies should be adopted according to different literary genres and themes. It is also similar in the study of interpretation. Liaison interpreters should adopt different interpreting strategies according to different interpretation scenes and themes. The difference between liaison interpretation and translation comes from R. Bruce W. Anderson's &quot;tripartite communication&quot; theory.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,14）<br /> <br /> Liaison interpreters are directly facing customers when interpreting, and their interpreting products will be delivered to customers in a timely manner, so the quality of their translation products depends entirely on customers' judgment at present. So when we think about the role of the liaison interpreters, one of the most important references is what the client expects of the interpreter. In addition, the interpreter acts as a bridge between the two sides in communication, and the role of the liaison interpreter is more prominent than that of other types of interpreters.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the positioning of the interpreters on themselves is also very important. In addition, another characteristic that distinguishes liaison interpreters from other types of translators is that liaison interpretation is often in a dynamic and diversified scene, unlike other translators who are only in a single translation setting. Therefore, analysis of the interpreting setting is also a part that cannot be ignored when discussing the role positioning of the interpreter.<br /> <br /> ====3.1.Client's Expectation of the Interpreter's Role====<br /> From the perspective of reception aesthetics, clients will estimate and expect interpretation products in advance according to their reading experience and aesthetic taste. Donova-Cagigos talked about the measurement and judgment of interpretation quality, and believed that if &quot;faithfulness&quot; could not be quantified, it could only be relevant to specific communicative occasions so the results of the clients expectation investigation, such as the user's preference for the delivery of the main idea over the full translation, can be used as an important criterion for rating accuracy and omission.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010，169)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of reception aesthetics, clients will estimate and expect interpretation products in advance according to their reading experience and aesthetic taste. Donova-Cagigos talked about the measurement and judgment of interpretation quality, and believed that if &quot;faithfulness&quot; could not be quantified, it could only be relevant to specific communicative occasions so the results of the clients expectation investigation, such as the user's preference for the delivery of the main idea over the full translation, can be used as an important criterion for rating accuracy and omission.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,169)--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 11:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This requires the liaison interpreter to adjust his/her role to the client's expectations. Each user's knowledge base, education level and other aspects of the difference will lead to their expectations of liaison interpreters change. We divide clients' expectations on interpreters into two categories: one is that interpreters are expected to interpret faithfully, neutrally and impartially, without mixing their own interpretation with concise output of source language information; The other is to expect interpreters to add their own explanations through omission, addition and other interpreting techniques when interpreting source language information, so as to make interpreting products better understood.<br /> <br /> The role expectations of the above two kinds of clients depend largely on the nature of the clients and the purpose for which the clients accept the interpretation. The first kind of clients who hope interpreter completely follow the principle of &quot;faithfulness&quot; , have a comprehensive understanding of the areas involved in interpretation, they receive interpretation mainly for the purpose of obtaining extended knowledge of known fields or general information, or because of the limitation of interpretation theme requires an interpreter to stay neutral, such as legal interpreting.<br /> <br /> In this regard, Collados Aís studied the requirements on the interpretation quality standards of the interpreting clients who are experts and found that the subjects did not give low marks to the content errors in the &quot;pleasant to hear&quot; interpretation, but scored them according to other standards. The principle of &quot;faithfulness&quot;, which the clients attach most importance to, did not play a corresponding role in the evaluation.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010，171)<br /> <br /> In this regard, Collados Aís studied the requirements on the interpretation quality standards of the interpreting clients who are experts and found that the subjects did not give low marks to the content errors in the &quot;pleasant to hear&quot; interpretation, but scored them according to other standards. The principle of &quot;faithfulness&quot;, which the clients attach most importance to, did not play a corresponding role in the evaluation.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,171)--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 11:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second group of clients expect interpreters to go beyond &quot;translation machines&quot; and become helpers who can answer their own questions and facilitate communication. Such clients generally have little knowledge of the fields involved in the interpreting content, and the purpose of receiving interpreting of them is to understand a completely unfamiliar knowledge field and acquire as much new knowledge as possible.<br /> <br /> In practice, most clients prefer the latter, which is also determined by the nature of liaison interpreting. One characteristic of liaison interpreters is that interpreters often act as &quot;escorts&quot; (Zhan, 2010,3).<br /> <br /> In practice, most clients prefer the latter, which is also determined by the nature of liaison interpreting. One characteristic of liaison interpreters is that interpreters often act as &quot;escorts&quot; (Zhan Cheng, 2010,3).--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As an example, the author accompanied the &quot;Confucius Institute&quot; visiting group of South Korea's Wonkwang University during undergraduate years., for the purpose of cultural communication, the school asked the author with the delegation visit to cultural sites such as Hunan Provincial Museum, the author's main role in the trip is interpreter, but due to the particularity of interpreting theme, the author needs to explain the names of cultural relics and supplement relevant historical knowledge to the delegation members, so while interpreting, the author also plays the role of a tour guide.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.The Interpreter's Position on Themselves====<br /> In the perspective of Foucault's power theory, the interpreter is no longer the traditional &quot;transmitter&quot;, and the subject consciousness of the interpreter is highlighted. In the practice of interpreting, the interpreter's cognition of his/her status, ability and value is an important manifestation of the interpreter's subjectivity (Wang 2019,14). In liaison interpreting, as a person directly involved in communication and proficient in bilingualism, the liaison interpreter must have the advantage of adopting appropriate interpretation strategies according to power distribution in a communication. From the perspective of &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;, liaison interpreters also have the obligation to adapt to different interpreting environments and coordinate the discourse of communication parties. Then the following situations usually occur:<br /> <br /> In order to ensure the quality of their interpretation products and promote the progress of communication, liaison interpreters tend to go beyond the act of interpretation itself and make supplementary explanations of the content of interpretation that may cause communication barriers, either intentionally or unintentionally. Or when the interpretation content is of a strong national or national nature, liaison interpreters will inevitably have a tendency to protect the rights of their own country and nation and increase the discourse power of their own country and nation. <br /> <br /> Of course, in general, interpreters will try their best to follow the principle of &quot;faithfulness&quot; in interpretation, and the ratio of &quot;faithfulness&quot; to &quot;creativity&quot; depends on the &quot;choice&quot; made by the liaison interpreter according to the translation environment.<br /> <br /> ====3.3.The Role of Interpreter under Different Liaison Interpreting Types====<br /> &quot;There is no absolute or unambiguous criterion for determining whether a method of interpretation is' good 'in all respects. Different types of interpretation activities have different target structures, different concerns, needs, expectations, and different levels of participation by all parties involved, which means that there are a variety of requirements for interpreters &quot;.（Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010，172）<br /> <br /> &quot;There is no absolute or unambiguous criterion for determining whether a method of interpretation is' good 'in all respects. Different types of interpretation activities have different target structures, different concerns, needs, expectations, and different levels of participation by all parties involved, which means that there are a variety of requirements for interpreters &quot;.（Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010, 172)--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the author believes that when discussing the role of the liaison interpreter, the role of the interpreter should be analyzed according to the different interpretation types. Next, the author intends to take business interpreting, guide-interpreting and legal interpreting as examples to analyze the roles of interpreters suitable for different interpretation type.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1.Business Interpreting=====<br /> Business interpreting is different from other liaison interpreting. <br /> <br /> First, business interpreting usually takes place in the context of cooperative project negotiation. In communication, the monolingual speakers respectively represent the interests of their enterprises and, usually, the interests of the countries where the enterprises are located.Secondly, the communicative parties usually have the purpose of long-term cooperation. Third, the content of business interpreting usually contains a large number of professional terms and figures; Fourth, business interpreters are usually permanent employees of one side of the communication. Fifthly, advanced diction is usually used in business interpretation. Due to the above characteristics of business interpreting, it is necessary for liaison interpreters to have the following accurate understanding of their role positioning.<br /> <br /> First, business interpreters are channels to convey &quot;meaning&quot;. This is the basic professionalism of an interpreter. Liaison interpreting is also known as bilateral interpretation. The existing bilateral interpretation model is based on the &quot;tripartite communication&quot; model. As one of the three parties, the liaison interpreter, like the Internet connecting two terminals, undertakes the task of processing the communication information between the two parties.<br /> <br /> Second, business interpreters are debaters for the benefit of their clients. Because of the long-standing relationship between liaison interpreters and clients, clients tend to treat the interpreters they hire as their &quot;inside&quot; colleagues.In many business communication situations, clients represent the interests of their own enterprises and are in a fast-changing vanity fair, and the business interpreters employed by them, as bilingual and with certain knowledge of the business, are bound to be the target for clients to seek help.(Zhang 2014，29)<br /> <br /> Second, business interpreters are debaters for the benefit of their clients. Because of the long-standing relationship between liaison interpreters and clients, clients tend to treat the interpreters they hire as their &quot;inside&quot; colleagues.In many business communication situations, clients represent the interests of their own enterprises and are in a fast-changing vanity fair, and the business interpreters employed by them, as bilingual and with certain knowledge of the business, are bound to be the target for clients to seek help.(Zhang Meng, 2014, 29)--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Third, business interpreters are mediators of the negotiation atmosphere. In business negotiations, it is often the case that the two parties in communication fight for their own interests and the negotiation comes to a deadlock. Business interpreters have the obligation to use interpreting strategies and techniques to soften the atmosphere and act as a buffer when both sides are using increasingly extreme language and tone.<br /> <br /> Fourth, a business interpreter is also a professional &quot;business practitioner&quot;. Business interpreters are professional &quot;business practitioners&quot; who are the second most important role besides &quot;interpreter&quot;. This is also based on the first point of the basic role of the interpreter positioning. Sometimes the two sides of communication have different professional terms for the same concept. In order to facilitate the smooth communication between the two sides, usually the interpreter needs to be familiar with the relevant terms and interpret them quickly and accurately. In other words, it requires not only a good command of a foreign language, but also a good knowledge of business.（Zhang 2014，29）<br /> <br /> Fourth, a business interpreter is also a professional &quot;business practitioner&quot;. Business interpreters are professional &quot;business practitioners&quot; who are the second most important role besides &quot;interpreter&quot;. This is also based on the first point of the basic role of the interpreter positioning. Sometimes the two sides of communication have different professional terms for the same concept. In order to facilitate the smooth communication between the two sides, usually the interpreter needs to be familiar with the relevant terms and interpret them quickly and accurately. In other words, it requires not only a good command of a foreign language, but also a good knowledge of business.（Zhang Meng, 2014, 29）--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2.Guide-interpreting=====<br /> In addition to the business interpreting and legal interpreting mentioned by Pǎchhacker in the classification of interpreting, guide-interpreting is also distinguished from other liaison interpreting in that it has the most prominent intercultural characteristics and the emphasis of interpretation is on the inheritance of the culture reflected in the source language. In a sense, the role of a guide-interpreter is similar to that of a diplomat, who not only needs to make tourists understand the history and culture of China, but also needs to answer their questions accurately and timely. As a result, guide-interpreters should pay more attention when making role positioning.(Jia 2017，223/ Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,160-162)<br /> <br /> In addition to the business interpreting and legal interpreting mentioned by Pǎchhacker in the classification of interpreting, guide-interpreting is also distinguished from other liaison interpreting in that it has the most prominent intercultural characteristics and the emphasis of interpretation is on the inheritance of the culture reflected in the source language. In a sense, the role of a guide-interpreter is similar to that of a diplomat, who not only needs to make tourists understand the history and culture of China, but also needs to answer their questions accurately and timely. As a result, guide-interpreters should pay more attention when making role positioning.(Jia Zhiyong, 2017, 223/ Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,160-162)--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> First, guide-interpreters are facilitators of communication. In the tourism-themed interpreting work, the interpreter's duty is to help tourists and tour guides communicate, which is also the embodiment of the interpreter's &quot;bridge&quot; role in the field of tourism. So in some cases, it is necessary for an interpreter to supplement the source language, such as when a Chinese tour guide introduces a mountain to English-speaking tourists and says:“大家现在看到的山远看像一条卧龙，因此取名卧龙山。”and then the interpreter can interpret this sentence as:<br /> 1）*&quot;The mountain you see now looks like a sleeping dragon from a distance, so it was named Wolong Mountain.&quot; <br /> or<br /> 2）&quot;The mountain you see now looks like a sleeping dragon from a distance, so it was named Wolong Mountain. ‘Wolong’ means sleeping dragon.&quot;<br /> <br /> First, guide-interpreters are facilitators of communication. In the tourism-themed interpreting work, the interpreter's duty is to help tourists and tour guides communicate, which is also the embodiment of the interpreter's &quot;bridge&quot; role in the field of tourism. So in some cases, it is necessary for an interpreter to supplement the source language, such as when a Chinese tour guide introduces a mountain to English-speaking tourists and says:<br /> <br /> “大家现在看到的山远看像一条卧龙，因此取名卧龙山。”<br /> and then the interpreter can interpret this sentence as:<br /> <br /> 1）*&quot;The mountain you see now looks like a sleeping dragon from a distance, so it was named Wolong Mountain.&quot; <br /> <br /> 2）&quot;The mountain you see now looks like a sleeping dragon from a distance, so it was named Wolong Mountain. ‘Wolong’ means sleeping dragon.&quot; formatting--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 12:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the first interpreting product does not convey the original intention of the tour guide to the tourists. The tour guide's original intention is to let the tourists know that the name of the mountain has something to do with its appearance. However, if the name of the mountain is transliterated directly without supplementary explanation, the tourists will still not understand the connection between the name of the mountain and its shape.<br /> <br /> Second, tour interpreters are &quot;cultural brokers&quot;. Besides interpreting the words of tour guides to tourists, interpreters should also properly explain some incomprehensible cultural phenomena to tourists. For example, a tour guide introduces the Palace Museum in Beijing to foreign tourists.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,161)<br /> <br /> The Palace Museum in Beijing is a completely symmetrical building built along a central axis. The ancient Chinese, influenced by Confucianism, believed that a completely symmetrical building could foil the majesty of the emperor. If the interpreter only changes the language of the original when interpreting this sentence, it will not make the foreign tourists understand The Chinese Confucian culture correctly. Because the guide as well as Chinese tourists learn at an early age and contact with Confucianism, so the Chinese subconsciously has &quot;symmetrical architecture&quot;, &quot;Confucianism&quot; and &quot;Confucianism&quot; link up without the need for further explanation, but as an interpreter should be aware that foreign tourists are likely to have no contact with Confucianism, also don't know &quot;symmetrical architecture&quot; and &quot;Confucianism&quot;, so when the tour guide has no further explanation, the interpreter is necessary for additional instructions, play the role of a &quot;cultural agent&quot;.<br /> <br /> Third, guide-interpreters are the keepers of the atmosphere. The working scenes of guide-interpreters are informal, such as scenic spots and hotels, so the intonation and wording of interpreters should be in line with the current atmosphere. If the intonation is too plain and the wording is too serious, foreign tourists will find it difficult to adapt to it, and the interpreting products of interpreters will also &quot;reject&quot; the interpreting settings.<br /> <br /> Fourth, guide-interpreters are &quot;experts&quot; in the tourism industry. Similar to a business interpreter, a guide-interpreter requires a comprehensive and detailed knowledge of the relevant field, which is the basis for the interpreter to act as a &quot;culture broker&quot;.<br /> <br /> Fifthly, there is another special case in which a guide-interpreter may be both an interpreter and a tour guide. When the author was an undergraduate, the author acted as an interpreter for the &quot;Confucius Institute&quot; delegation of Wonkwang University in South Korea, mainly following them to various cultural tourist attractions. Since the author had been to relevant scenic spots for many times, the author acted as a dual role of &quot;interpreter&quot; and &quot;tour guide&quot; without employing professional guides.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.3.Legal Interpreting=====<br /> Legal interpreting refers to interpreting under legal settings, including judicial interpreting and quasi-judicial interpreting. Judicial interpreting refers to &quot;interpreting under court settings&quot;, while quasi-judicial interpreting refers to interpreting taken place outside the court and closely related to court procedure (Zhao,Dong 2020,70).<br /> <br /> Legal interpreting refers to interpreting under legal settings, including judicial interpreting and quasi-judicial interpreting. Judicial interpreting refers to &quot;interpreting under court settings&quot;, while quasi-judicial interpreting refers to interpreting taken place outside the court and closely related to court procedure (Zhao Junfeng, Dong Yan, 2020,70).--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In distinguishing between international and community settings, Pǎchhacker points out that court interpreting is &quot;the most obvious binding setting for community interpreting&quot;. (Franz.Pǎchhacker, 2010,177) The author takes courtroom interpreting as an example for analysis. In court interpreting, the situation of interpretation is more serious than that of other types of interpreting, because of the rigor of the law, the interpreter should also be more precise in the wording and sentence construction. The roles of court interpreters are as follows:<br /> <br /> First, an invisible interpreting machine. In most court interpreting, the restrictions imposed by the legal system on interpreters are often contrary to the standards advocated by the interpreting profession (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,178). In order to maintain the rigor of the law, court interpreters are required to be &quot;invisible&quot; and interpret word by word, so the nature of the law gives court interpreters a role positioning that distinguishes them from other types of interpreters -- &quot;artificial intelligence interpreting machine&quot; with high accuracy.<br /> <br /> Second, conflict mediators. This role is due to the large power gap between legal practitioners such as judges and non-legal practitioners such as defendants and plaintiffs in the courtroom. In tense court debates, interpreters often act as conflict mediators in order to keep communication going.<br /> <br /> Third, intercultural agents. In fact, it is not only guide-interpreting, there will be more or less cultural barriers in any intercultural communication, and court interpreting is no exception. There was a famous case in which a Chinese-grandmother who lived in the United States gave &quot;刮痧&quot; to her sick grandson. Her son-in-law mistakenly thought that she had abused the child, so she was brought to court. The grandmother argued in court that it was only &quot;刮痧&quot;, and the interpreter made additional explanations and said：&quot;‘刮痧’is a traditional Chinese medicine therapy&quot; in order to make the American judge understand &quot;刮痧&quot; , and the case was finally dismissed. This example well demonstrates the important role of interpreters as intercultural agents in court interpretation. (Du,Tan 2013,106-107)<br /> <br /> Third, intercultural agents. In fact, it is not only guide-interpreting, there will be more or less cultural barriers in any intercultural communication, and court interpreting is no exception. There was a famous case in which a Chinese-grandmother who lived in the United States gave &quot;刮痧&quot; to her sick grandson. Her son-in-law mistakenly thought that she had abused the child, so she was brought to court. The grandmother argued in court that it was only &quot;刮痧&quot;, and the interpreter made additional explanations and said：&quot;‘刮痧’is a traditional Chinese medicine therapy&quot; in order to make the American judge understand &quot;刮痧&quot; , and the case was finally dismissed. This example well demonstrates the important role of interpreters as intercultural agents in court interpretation. (Du Mengmeng, Tan Jianying, 2013,106-107)--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 12:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Fourth, legal &quot;experts&quot;. In order to ensure the accuracy of the interpreting and the accurate understanding of legal terms by the listener of the TL, interpreters usually need to master a large amount of legal knowledge and relevant vocabulary accurately, and be able to provide basic answers for the listener lacking legal knowledge when necessary.<br /> <br /> To sum up, the role of an interpreter is generally related to the above three aspects. In other words, due to the limitations of client's expectation and interpreter's own knowledge and setting, interpreters need to make &quot;adaptive selection&quot; and &quot;selective adaptation&quot; to different interpreting environments according to client's expectation and interpreter's own knowledge. The role positioning of the interpreter affects the interpreting strategies that the interpreter chooses in the actual interpreting process, so the balance between &quot;reception aesthetics&quot; and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; in different interpreting settings is of vital importance.<br /> <br /> ===4.Interpreting Strategies in Different Interpreting Settings===<br /> ====4.1.The Influence and Application of Reception Aesthetics and &quot;Translator-Centered Theory&quot; on Interpreting Strategies====<br /> As mentioned in the previous section, there are two main types of interpretation customers: those who expect faithful interpreting and those who expect supplementary interpreting. When interpreters fail to communicate with clients in advance and adjust their interpreting strategies according to clients' expectations, they will often produce interpreting products deviating from clients' needs, thus leading to errors in the transmission of interpreting information and resulting in interpreting barriers. The influence of such factors can be largely eliminated by preparation before interpreting.<br /> <br /> In the pre-interpretation preparation stage, interpreters can understand the cultural background of clients in advance or directly communicate with clients to understand their needs. Only by integrating interpretation products with clients' expectations can they be regarded as successful interpreting products. However, in practical interpreting, interpreters also encounter another kind of difficulty, that is, clients have aesthetic expectations of interpreting products and expect interpreters to make detailed explanations of relevant information.<br /> <br /> We know that the aesthetic value of an interpreting product derives from the &quot;places of indeterminacy&quot; of the product. Generally speaking, it is the space to appreciate an interpreting product, similar to the &quot;blank space&quot; in a Chinese painting. A balance should be struck between the degree of supplementary explanation and the degree of artistic &quot;white space&quot; in interpreting, which is difficult to grasp precisely because the clients who often make such requests do not have an accurate definition. In order to deal with this problem, interpreters have to make perceptual judgments based on their rich practical experience. Of course, it is not feasible to develop interpreting strategies based entirely on clients' expectations.<br /> <br /> Lv Jun once put forward, &quot;Every reader has different natural talent, endowment, experience and cultivation, so the works will present different meanings to each reader... If based on such a theory, how can we draw the conclusion of ‘principle of equivalence’?&quot; This is also the paradox between reception aesthetics and Nida's ‘functional equivalence theory’&quot; (Lv 1997，51).<br /> <br /> Lv Jun once put forward, &quot;Every reader has different natural talent, endowment, experience and cultivation, so the works will present different meanings to each reader... If based on such a theory, how can we draw the conclusion of ‘principle of equivalence’?&quot; This is also the paradox between reception aesthetics and Nida's ‘functional equivalence theory’&quot; (Lv Jun, 1997, 51).--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:04, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As interpreters are participants in intercultural communication, their own factors must have a great impact on the quality of interpreting. The author believes that the problem of interpreting obstacles caused by interpreters' own factors can be solved through the &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; in &quot;Eco-translatology&quot;. The &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; requires interpreters to develop themselves, that is, interpreters should change their interpreting circumstances and improve their interpreting ability, so as to obtain freedom of choice to ensure their central position in interpreting activities.(Luo , 2019，219)<br /> <br /> As interpreters are participants in intercultural communication, their own factors must have a great impact on the quality of interpreting. The author believes that the problem of interpreting obstacles caused by interpreters' own factors can be solved through the &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; in &quot;Eco-translatology&quot;. The &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; requires interpreters to develop themselves, that is, interpreters should change their interpreting circumstances and improve their interpreting ability, so as to obtain freedom of choice to ensure their central position in interpreting activities.(Luo Dijiang, 2019, 219)--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:04, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Interpreters can expand their power in interpreting activities by improving their interpreting ability and using interpreting techniques. According to Pǎchhacker, there are two ways to improve interpreting skills: personal qualities and professional skills. Personal quality includes biological individual function and psychological quality. Professional skills mainly refer to bilingual skills. First of all, how to improve personal quality and ability. Apart from the inherent intelligence factor, interpreters should actively improve their psychological quality, which is a necessary guarantee for the smooth progress of interpreting.（Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,181）<br /> <br /> In case of difficulties, interpreters should not be flustered, but should actively take various countermeasures to overcome or temporarily avoid the difficulties to ensure the quality of the overall interpreting products. Zhan Cheng suggested that interpreters could simplify this by seeking help from the speakers (Zhan 2010，153-154).<br /> <br /> In case of difficulties, interpreters should not be flustered, but should actively take various countermeasures to overcome or temporarily avoid the difficulties to ensure the quality of the overall interpreting products. Zhan Cheng suggested that interpreters could simplify this by seeking help from the speakers (Zhan Cheng, 2010, 153-154).--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:04, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, the author believes that the predicament of interpreting can also be solved by &quot;imitation words&quot;， which is a special kind of loanwords. Take Chinese-Korean interpreting for example. In the Hunan Provincial Museum, there is a collection called &quot;纪念木牍&quot;, which is a piece of wood used for writing in ancient China to records the time of some events, a time when the interpreter didn't know its corresponding proper nouns, can according to its pronunciation rules imitate a word - &quot;기년목독&quot;. Since both countries belong to the same cultural cycle of Chinese characters , Koreans learn basic Chinese characters from an early age, so they can understand the meaning and use of the imitated words even if they are not accurate.<br /> <br /> There is also a case in French where the word science-fiction is directly interpreted into English. This is very useful for solving the sudden interpreting obstacles encountered in the process of interpreting.(Munday, J 2014, 80)<br /> <br /> In terms of improving professional skills, before the beginning of interpreting, interpreters should have a systematic system of interpreting notes, which should be as concise as possible to improve the efficiency of interpreting symbols, and should be used to test the practicality of symbols in practice. Interpreters should also accumulate professional knowledge and vocabulary in various fields in daily life, and be familiar with the interpreting content and background knowledge before starting an interpreting.<br /> <br /> At the end of the interpreting work, the interpreter should review the difficulties encountered in the interpreting activities and think positively about the solutions to avoid repeating the past mistakes. With the development and progress of science and technology, modern science and technology have been widely used in the field of interpreting. Using digital recording technology, the interpreters can replace the notes in the interpreting by simply using portable devices such as computers to attach the source words to the digital audio tape and then playing them through headphones (Franz. Pǎchhacker 2010, 186).<br /> <br /> In addition, modern technology can also be used to build artificial intelligence corpus, which can be used to classify corpus according to different translation topics.<br /> <br /> ====4.2.Interpreting Strategies in Different Settings====<br /> Whether it is business interpreting, guide-interpreting or legal interpreting, interpreters are faced with the choice of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;creativity&quot;. However, different types of liaison interpreting have different &quot;interpreting ecological environments&quot;. The author analyzed the interpreting strategies applicable to these three types of liaison interpreting respectively.<br /> <br /> The clients of business interpreting have unclear requirements on interpreting products, which require interpreters not only to profit for the company but also to regulate the atmosphere, while the ecological environment of business interpreting requires interpreters to be both &quot;faithful&quot; and &quot;creative&quot;. Therefore, the interpreter has to adjust the strategy according to the specific interpreting content at any time. When both sides of the communication are negotiating for benefits, the interpreter should adopt the strategy of “faithfulness” rather than “creativity”; when the two sides are chatting, the interpreter should adopt the strategy of “creativity” rather than “faithfulness”; and when the two sides enter into a deadlock, the interpreter should use the &quot;creative&quot; interpreting to ease the atmosphere.<br /> <br /> In guide-interpreting, the interpreter's role as &quot;cultural broker&quot; and &quot;atmosphere maker&quot;, clients are usually expect interpreters interpret products for their own pleasure, so in the interpreting process of the guide-interpreting, interpreters should be as creative as possible through omission or addition, lively tone and appropriate word choice to achieve clients' expectations. At the same time, interpreters should not completely rebel against the principle of &quot;faithfulness&quot; without regard to the content of the SL.<br /> <br /> Although interpreters also play the role of intercultural agents in legal interpreting, their more important role is interpretation machine for legal provisions. The ecological environment of legal interpreting is in a highly tense and rigorous atmosphere, which requires interpreters to adapt to the rigorous atmosphere and try their best to interpret sentence by sentence.<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion===<br /> In this paper，we discussed how interpreters should adapt to the interpreting environment and make correct translation strategies from the perspectives of reception aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;.<br /> <br /> The first part of this paper is an introduction, which introduced the definition of liaison interpreting, the current situation of interpreting studies in translation studies and the significance and methods of this study. The second part introduced the two perspectives of this research -- reception aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;. The third part analyzed the influence of two perspectives on the role positioning of liaison interpreters and the different types of liaison interpreters. The fourth part puts forward how to adjust translation strategies and how to use translation techniques to achieve the balance between &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;creativity&quot;.<br /> <br /> We believes that in the context similar to business interpretation, contact interpreters should adjust the translation strategies of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;creativity&quot; according to the constantly changing interpretation content. In the guide-interpretation, interpreters should pay more attention to the &quot;creativity&quot; of interpretation products on the basis of &quot;faithfulness&quot;, so as to bring tourists more relaxed and pleasant experience. In legal interpretation, due to the rigor and inviolability of the law, interpreters should try their best to interpret &quot;word by word&quot;. Only in certain circumstances can they provide necessary explanations for both sides of communication by adding interpretation content.<br /> <br /> This paper also puts forward other specific strategies. Interpreters can reduce errors in interpreting by communicating with customers in the preparation stage. In the process of interpreting, the translation strategies can be flexibly adjusted by adopting various translation techniques, such as addition and omission. After the end of interpretation, we can reflect on the mistakes and make an interpreting corpus to avoid repeating the mistakes in the future.In a word, interpreters should strike a balance between &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;creativity&quot; by relying on their professional quality and customers' expectations, which is the only way to improve the quality of interpretation products.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1] Bassnett，Susan. Lefevre，Andre.（1992）. ''Translation，History and Culture''[M]. 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(2014).''翻译学导论：理论与应用''[Introducing Translation Studies：Theories and Applications][M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]. 80.<br /> <br /> [15] Wang Tong 汪童.（2020）.从接受美学视域探究《虞美人》英译[The English Translation of ''To the Tune of Yumeiren'' from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics][J].''海外英语'' [Overseas English]. 198-199.<br /> <br /> [16] Wang Shaolong 王邵龙.（2020）.体育赛事中联络口译员的调控角色——2019年佛山迷你篮球世界杯联络口译实践报[Liaison Interpreters Mediating Role in Sports Events: A Report of Liaison Interpreting Practice at the 2019 Mini Basketball World Cup (Foshan)][D].广东外语外贸大学[Guangzhou：Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]. 39-40.<br /> <br /> [17] Wang Xiaoyan 王晓燕.(2019).权力话语理论视角下汉英交传中译员主体性翻译策略研究[A Study of the Interpreter's Subjectivity in C-E Consecutive Interpretation from the Perspective of the Theory of Power and Discourse][D].华侨大学[Xiamen：Huaqiao University]. 14.<br /> <br /> [18] Yin Suiqiong 尹穗琼.（2017）.生态翻译学若干问题探讨——与胡庚申教授就《生态翻译学:建构与诠释》中的部分观点进行商榷[Discussion on Some Issues of Eco-Translatology—Discussion with Professor Hu Gengshen on Some Viewpoints of ''Eco-Translatology: Construction and Interpretation''][J].''天津外国语大学学报''[Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University]. 56-62<br /> <br /> [19] Zhao Junfeng 赵军峰and Dong Yan董燕.(2020).国际法律口译研究的回顾与展望(1995-2019)[International Legal Interpreting Studies (1995-2019)][J].''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]. 70.<br /> <br /> [20] Zhao Xiaomei 赵小妹.（2020）.国际医疗合作背景下医学联络口译中译员主体性研究[A Study on the Subjectivity of Interpreters in Medical Liaison Interpreting in the Context of International Medical Cooperation][J].''锦州医科大学学报 (社会科学版)''[Journal of Jinzhou Medical University（Social Science Edition）]. 105-108.<br /> <br /> [21] Zhan Cheng 詹成.（2010）.''联络口译''[Liaison Interpreting][M].北京：外国语教学与研究出版社[Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]. 3, 153-154.<br /> <br /> [22] Zhang Meng 张梦.（2014）.联络口译译员角色理论及西汉——汉西口译语境中的实证研究[The Role theory of Liaison interpreters and a Empirical Study on the Context of Spanish-Chinese -- Chinese-Spanish Interpreting][D].北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University]. 29.<br /> <br /> =Translation Appreciation=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Study on Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden'' from the Stylistic Perspective 袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi 202020080664==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'' is a classic literary work of Henry David Thoreau, which has become a classic work in the Treasure(treasure不用大写)--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC) house of American literature. The Chinese translator Xu Chi first translated it into China, and since then ''Walden'' has been retranslated and republished for many times. In China, the version of ''Walden'' translated by Xu Chi is the most widely spread and influential one, and has been highly regarded as a classic translation. There hve（have）--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC) been a lot of studies on ''Walden'' both at home and abroad, such as studies on the ecology of the book, studies on birth background and living conditions of the author Henry David Thoreau, and systematic studies on Chinese translation version of ''Walden'' under different theoretical frameworks. However, there are few studies on Chinese translations of ''Walden'' from stylistic perspective. This paper will focus on the lexical, syntactic and rhetorical features of Xu Chi’s translation and analyze their stylistic effects. It is hoped that this study will be of certain value to the translation studies of ''Walden'' and the literary translation criticism from the stylistic perspective.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'', Chinese Translation of ''Walden'' by Xu Chi , Stylistics<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从文体学角度看《瓦尔登湖》徐迟译本<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》是亨利·大卫·梭罗的经典文学作品，已经成为美国文学宝库中的经典之作。中国译者徐迟首先将其译入国内，此后《瓦尔登湖》多次被重译再版。在中国，徐迟翻译的《瓦尔登湖》汉译本流传最广、影响最大，而且一直被推崇为“译文经典”。对于《瓦尔登湖》的研究，在国内和国外有很多，例如对散文涉及生态的研究，对于作者亨利·戴维·梭罗出生背景和生活状况的研究，以及不同的理论框架下对于《瓦尔登湖》中文翻译版本的系统研究。但是从文体学角度研究《瓦尔登湖》中译本的不多。本文着重探讨徐迟译本在词汇、句法、修辞层面上的特征，分析其文体效果。希望本研究对《瓦尔登湖》的翻译研究及从文体学视角开展文学翻译批评具有一定的参考价值。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》、徐迟中译本、文体学<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau and ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a collection of essays written by American writer Henry David Thoreau. Henry David Thoreau was born in 1817 and died in 1862. He was a famous writer, philosopher, representative of Transcendentalism, abolitionist of slavery and naturalist in the United States. He was deeply influenced by Emerson. He advocated returning to original mind and being close to nature. Thoreau created more than 20 first-class prose collections in his whole life. His essays are concise and powerful, simple and natural, full of thought, which hava (have)--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)unique style in American proses in the 19th century. In 1845, he lived in seclusion by Walden lake, two miles away from Concord. He cultivated and ate by himself and experienced a simple and close to nature life. (He cultivates his own land, eats his own food and experiences a life that is simple and close to nature.)--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Thoreau loved, appreciated and immersed in nature. He understood the world through nature and regarded the world as a whole for people to appreciate and enjoy. He advocated simple life, so he abandoned all material enjoyment and pursued spiritual enrichment. With a keen thinking of a philosopher and rigorous spirit of science, Thoreau put himself into the embrace of nature and explored everything around him.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a record of Thoreau's life when he lived alone by Walden lake. ''Walden'' is composed of 18 essays, which record Thoreau's hands-on life by walden lake for two months(years?) --[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)from 1845 to 1847. This book advocates simple life, appeals readers to return to nature, and expresses Thoreau's love for nature. The simple way of life in the book reflects Thoreau’s view of nature.This book has certain philosophical significance as well as artistic and aesthetic value.<br /> ''Walden'' is a Transcendentalist classic and is recognized as the most popular non-fiction work in American literature. After more than 100 years of circulation, the book has become a classic in American literature. So far, it has been published in more than 150 editions and translated into more than 40 languages. <br /> Thoreau's own practice in Walden lake and his works have a consistent proposition, that is, returning to nature. In his works, he constantly pointed out that most of modern people are trapped by family, work and various material needs, thus (they)--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC) lost their spiritual pursuit and lived a materialistic life. Thoreau persisted in the pursuit of spiritual happiness and rejected material comforts. This is why Thoreau lived a simple life by Walden lake, enjoying a life of leisure while his neighbors pursued a life of wealth and material comforts, enslaved by their own desires.<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Xu Chi and His Translation of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi=====<br /> Xu Chi is famous for his poems, essays and reportage. He was once awarded by Mao Zedong's inscription of &quot;poetry expresses ambition&quot;, and he was known as &quot;Contemporary Chinese Goethe&quot; and &quot;Father of Reportage&quot;.Another little-known identity of this famous Chinese writer is being as a translator. He not only wrote poems, essays, reportages, novels and reviews, but also translated and introduced a large number of foreign literary works, with a total of 10 million words in his life (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden''=====<br /> In 1949, Xu translated Walden into Chinese called &quot;华尔腾&quot;, which failed to elicit widespread attention(.Because at that time,)--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC) because at that time, people all over China were immersedin the joy of gaining cmancipation from feudalism and imperialism, so that ''Walden'',promoting tranquility and transcendentalism, was ignored.<br /> <br /> In 1982, Xu Chi retranslated it and titled it &quot;瓦尔登湖&quot;, which was so popular that it was republished for many times since then. Xu's version of ''Walden'' chosen in this study is its second edition, published in 1982, to which Xu Chi added a preface to present information about Thoreau and comments on ''Walden''. To some extent, readers are able to have a glimpse of Xu's own emotions and thoughts in his translation of ''Walden''(Yao Junwei 2005, 145).<br /> Xu Chi usually selected and translated works that were close to his own nature and could move him, because only in this way, he could(倒装could he)--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC) have more resonance with the writers and their works, and reproduced the style of the original author. For Xu Chi, he expressed his own feelings and thoughts through translating these writers'works to a certain extent (Yao Junwei 2005, 146).( For Xu Chi, he expresses his own feelings and thoughts to a certain extent by translating the works of these writers.)--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Only when his soul was in harmony with Thoreau's, did Xu Chi love this book so much and rised to translating this book. It was in the summer of 1949 that Xu Chi began to translate Thoreau's ''Walden''. Because Xu Chi was extremely fond of this book, he spent lots of efforts in translating this famous work. In the first stage of translation, he tried to understand the meaning of the original work, hoping to be able to deeply understand the original work. He confessed that it was a very profound book which is full of translation challenges. He was very busy during the day, so he sometimes couldn't read it.Because this book was too difficult to understand, it seemed that this book was suddenly not so interseting and attractive to him, and it seemed that it was of no benefit to translate it. However, he found that his mood gradually became peaceful after dusk. When he read this book at this time, he suddenly felt (that)--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)the book (was)--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)quite interesting. What he saw was the chapters that could’t be seen in the daytime. The language was amazing, the words were shining, and his heart was touched. When the ningt(night?)--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC) became quiet, the book became not so obscure. Under the recitation, he could not help but be fascinated by it (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).<br /> <br /> His most successful translation is ''Walden'', which he translated first in 1949, then again in 1982 and in 1996. The masterpiece of David Thoreau, a famous American transcendentalist writer, still shines brightly in the vast Chinese translated literature. In recent ten years, there have been more than 20 new translations of ''Walden'', but Xu Chi's translation is still regarded as the best translation and is the first choice for many presses(publishers)--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC) to publish as Chinese translations of ''Walden'' in recent years. Although there are many Chinese translations of ''Walden'', most of them take Xu Chi's translation as a reference , which indicates the authority of Xu Chi's translation (Wang Zhao 2009, 147).<br /> <br /> ====Style and Styllistics====<br /> =====Style=====<br /> Originated from the Latin or Greek word &quot;stile&quot; or &quot;stilus&quot;, &quot;style&quot; originally refers to a sharp instrument made of metal or bone, used as a writing tool, and later symbolizes a way of writing. At first, it was mainly used in writing. As time goes by, its application has been broadened into areas like music, dance, painting, fashion, behavior,literature, architecture and so on. As it has been mentioned in the introduction part, the research object ''Walden'' is a piece of literary work, consequently, this thesis will mainly study literary style (Hu Zhuanglin 2015,374).(The subject of this thesis, ''Walden'', is a literary work, and as such, this thesis will focus on literary style.??)--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Since ancient times, style has always been the object of people's study. Aristotle, Cicero, Demetrius, and Quintilian all used style as an appropriate decoration for thought. This view prevailed throughout the Renaissance, when devices of style could be classified. An essayist or orator needs to construct his or her point of view by means of exemplary sentences and prescribed kinds of &quot;figures&quot; that conform to his or her mode of discourse (Hu Zhuanglin 2015, 375).(引用格式放在句子最末)<br /> <br /> For a long time, the definition of style has remained varied, and different scholars have given different definitions of it. It is unnecessary and impractical here to list them all. Some definitions will be given below to help us understand what style is.<br /> <br /> One of the most successful attempts to define style in a comprehensive way is Leech and Short’s (1981). Although claiming that “unsuccessful attempts to attach a precise meaning” to the term “style” have often resulted in an impoverishment of the subject , they offer a list of the items forming the basis of their own concept of style, which can be summarized as follows:<br /> (a) Style is a way in which language is used; therefore it consists in choices made from the repertoire of the language; <br /> (b) A style is defined in terms of a domain of language use (e.g. what choices are made by a particular author, in a particular genre, or in a particular text);<br /> (c) Literary stylistics is typically concerned with explaining the relation between style and literary or aesthetic function;<br /> (d) Stylistic choice is limited to those aspects of linguistic choice which concern alternative ways of rendering the same subject matter.<br /> <br /> Nida Eugene (1982, 12) defines that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”(1982,12 should be placed after the quoted sentence)So in translation of literary works, the author’s style should be represented through the translator’s style, and the translator’s style should depend on the style of the author. Many translators are good at representing different writers’styles and yet has its own unique translation style.<br /> <br /> The broad view of style includes the elements of linguistic style and non-linguistic style. Among them, the elements of language style mainly include the means of language style, such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structure and rhetorical devices, and the elements of non-language style include the author's emotion factor, the author's imagination factor and the author's intelligence factor. The narrow sense of style only involves the author's means of language style and rhetorical style (Lv Jun &amp; Hou Xiangqun 2001, 320).<br /> <br /> In conclude, translation (especially literary translation) as an across-culture（cross-cultural）--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC) process dose not only focus on the content of source text but also the style which is about how the writers write. Therefore, it is essential for a translator to know how to figure out the style of source text and reproduce it with target language.<br /> <br /> =====Styllistics=====<br /> Stylistics is a comprehensive frontier discipline that studies the characteristics, essence and laws of text forms, and is in the ascendant between linguistics, literature and art, aesthetics, psychology and other disciplines.<br /> It is difficult to determine when stylistics became a field of academic study. It can be argued, however, that it was not until the late 1950s that stylistics began to make significant and measurable progress. This is a young frontier discipline that is growing over time. Stylistics has developed into a well-targeted and technically effective interdisciplinary field of study, which is expected to provide useful insights for literary criticism and literature teaching. It has also been influencing translation criticism. Modern stylistics provides an important theoretical basis for translation studies. As far as the development of the subject of translation is concerned, stylistics has been recognized for its value and function (Hu Zhuanglin 2015, 376).<br /> <br /> Modern stylistics uses the tools of formal linguistic analysis coupled with the methods of literary criticism; its goal is to try to isolate characteristic uses and functions of language and rhetoric rather than advance normative or prescriptive rules and patterns.<br /> <br /> =====Language Style and Stylistic Features of ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a masterpiece of prose style. It is concise, eloquent and profound in thought. Just as he pursues the simplest life, his language style of ''Walden'' can be summarized as plain, natural, concise, powerful, novel and unique. ''Walden'' is also a book aimed (that aims)--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC) directly at the reader. Anyone who read this book feels that they are listening to and sharing Thoreau's ideals.(Anyone who reads this book will feel like they are listening to and sharing Thoreau's ideals.)--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC) This book is not easy for readers to understand, especially those who read it for the first time. Because ''Walden'' are manifested in four aspects:rich vocabulary, complex syntax and various rhetorical devices (Zhang Jianguo 2005, 107).<br /> <br /> So it is helpful for the translator to understand the original text and reproduce the stylistic equivalence in the translation. Therefore, the translator should fully understand his stylistic characteristics, which is the premise of reproducing his style in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===Stylistic Features of ''Walden''===<br /> ====Lexical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Degree of Formality=====<br /> There are a lot of obsolete and old words in ''Walden''and the use of these words makes the book more flavor, solemn and elegant. However, the use of these words will also bring great trouble to the translation at the same time. It is difficult for the translators to grasp these words, so they can not use literal translation but use creative way to make readers feel what the author wants to express in this book.<br /> <br /> In ''Walden'', Thoreau uses concise words to demonstrate his own ideas, natural scenery and cultural customs of Walden Lake. Unlike official documents, regulations, or academic creations, general style of ''Walden'' suggests that Thoreau’s choice of words is less formal. This section aims to analyze the degree of formality of nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the Xu Chi’s translation. In terms of nouns, Xu Chi tends to choose words with literary charm and formal style, which are not suitable for the informal style of the original text.<br /> Example 1：<br /> …；where the washing is not put out, nor the fire, nor the mistress, and perhaps you are sometimes requested to move from off the trap—door; when the cook would descend into the cellar, and learn whether the ground is solid or hollow beneath you without stamping．(Thoreau 2012, 277—278)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：在那罩，洗瀣物不比晒在外面，炉火不熄，女主人也不会生气，也许有时要你移动一下，让厨子从地板门里走下地窖去，而你不用蹬脚就可以知道你的脚下是虚是实。 (徐迟 2009, 270)<br /> <br /> The passage describes part of Thoreau’s dream of a bigger house for more people. The original text provides a natural and causal description of the scenes and activities in Thoreau's dream house. There are five commas and a period in this 47-word sentence with employment of concrete nouns，the structure of the original is loose and casual. As can be seen from the above, &quot;washing&quot; in Xu's translation is loosely understood as “洗涤物” which means the process of eliminating unnecessary ingredients through detergent, which is formal in Chinese.(???)--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC) Xu Chi reproduced the content of‘'the washing’’but he ignored the degree of formality in choosing word, thus falling to deliver the casualness reflected by the original text．<br /> Because ''Walden'' is full of depictions of landscape, adjectives are indispensable in Thoreau's creation of various images and pictures, as well as his insightful comments. Let us look at a example of it.<br /> Example 2：<br /> Often the poor man is not so cold and hungry as he is dirty and ragged and gross．(Thoreau 2012, 85)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：往往是那个穷人，邋遢、褴褛又粗野，但并没有途堡查选。(徐迟 2009, 83)<br /> <br /> The first adjective “poor” is used as an antecedent modifier and the other five adjectives are used as predicates. With the six adjectives being short and plain, the original text is generally of informal style. Xu transfered “cold and hungry” into a four-character noun phrase“冻馁之忧”which means “sufferings from cold and hunger.” However, this phrase is somewhat old-fashioned and is too formal to keep in line with the original style．Besides，it appears uncoordinated with three adjectives“邋遢、褴褛又粗野”being placed before the noun phrase“冻馁之忧”. So, it is not appropriate to reflect the original style.<br /> Verbs are also frequently employed in ''Walden'' to depict the fighting between animals or other activities. The degree of formality marked by verbs is the target of the study here. <br /> Example 3：<br /> I took up the chip on which the three I have particularly described were struggling, carried it into my house，and placed it under a tumbler on my window-sill，in order to see the issue．(Thoreau 2012, 262-263)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation：<br /> 我特别描写的三个战士在同一张木片上搏斗，我把这张木片拿进我的家里，放在我的窗槛上。罩在一个大杯子下面，以便考察结局。(徐迟 2009, 256)<br /> <br /> As we can see from the examples, these verbs are short and common in our everyday(daily)--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC) speech. They come mainly from Anglo-Saxon English and have informal stylistic characteristics. Therefore, the style of the original text is informal and should be preserved in Chinese translation. In this sentence, Thoreau prepared to wait and see with interest how the battle between the ants would go on after a series of arrangements. Xu Chi translated the word “see” into “考察”which sounds serious and formal, because “考察”means carefully checking certain items or situations, and is often used in formal situations, such as “考察人” or “考察情况”. So, Xu's version deviates from the original natural and informal flavor.<br /> <br /> =====Expressive Meaning=====<br /> Roman Jakobson, building on Karl Bühler (1934), coined the term expressive or emotive for one of the functions of language. He describes it as the function focused on the ADDRESSER [speaker], aims a direct expression of the speaker's attitude toward what he is speaking about (Jakobson 1960, 354) and gives interjections as the prime example of this function.<br /> <br /> It is worthy of our attention that differences between words in terms of expressive meaning are not simply equal to a matter of whether an expression of a certain attitude or evaluation is reproduced or not. The same attitude or evaluation may be expressed to widely varying degrees of forcefulness.<br /> Example 4：It is said that a flood-tide, with a westerly wind，and ice in the Neva, would sweep St. Petersburg from the face of the earth. (Thoreau 2012, 22)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：据说，涅瓦河要是涨了水，刮了西风，流来的冰块可以把圣彼得堡一下子大地的表面上冲掉的。 (徐迟 2009, 21)<br /> <br /> According to the Oxford Advanced English-Chinese Dictionary, &quot;sweeping&quot; is the act of sudden movement (of weather, fire, etc.), forcing a movement in an area or in a particular direction. In the original context, the combination of “flood tides, westerly winds, and ice” was destructive and therefore clearly detrimental to St.Petersburg. So the word &quot;sweep&quot; here reflects the speaker's negative attitude toward(towards)--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)the possible outcome. Obviously, the word “冲掉” in Xu Chi’s translation is a neutral term and does not reflect the speaker’s attitude or feelings towards the potential disaster caused by flood tide, westerly winds and snow. Xu ignored the author’s emotional attitude, thus ignoring the influence that these forces may cause, and did not produce systematic equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====Syntactic Features of ''Walden''====<br /> Raffel (1994) points out that &quot;the syntax of prose shows the style of the author, and the reproduction of the original style is the key to prose translation which stresses not only what message says, but also how the message is said.&quot; So, the syntactic features of ''Walden'' should never be ignored.<br /> <br /> In the original text, short sentences in English have neat structure and harmonious rhythm. Xu Chi did not change the original structure in translation, but adopted literal translation. The so-called literal translation is to retain the content and language expression habits of the original text as well as the form and style of the original text under the condition that the target language allows. Since Both Chinese and English are discourse systems and they have something in common, literal translation is a good way to deal with them.<br /> Example 5:<br /> It is no dream of mine, To ornament a line; I cannot come nearer to God and Heaven, than I live to Walden even. I am its stony shore, and the breeze that passes o’er; In the hollow of my hand, are its water and its sand, and its deepest resort Lies high in my thought. (Thoreau 2012, 137) <br /> Xu Chi’s Translation:<br /> 这不是我的梦，用于装饰一行诗;我不能更接近上帝和天堂甚于我之生活在瓦尔登。我是它的圆石岸，飘拂而过的风;在我掌握的一握，是它的水，它的沙，而它的最深邃僻隐处,高高躺在我的思想中。 (Xu Chi 2012, 151)<br /> <br /> The translation of this paragraph has a neat structure, neat antithesis, and pays attention to the regularity and rhythm of the literal. The original is composed of ten verses and the translation retains the original format, which can increase the depth and appeal of the translation, thus producing artistic effect and aesthetic value.<br /> <br /> ====Rhetorical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Metaphor=====<br /> Metaphor means to &quot;shift a word from its original meaning to another word that is generally not interchangeable but similar, and to emphasize its identity, that is, the two are similar but not a simile&quot;.<br /> <br /> Example 6: <br /> Public opinion is a weak tyrant compared with our own private opinion. (Thoreau 2012， 7)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation: 和我们的自知之明相比较，公众舆论这暴戾的君主也显得微弱无力。(徐迟 2009，6）<br /> <br /> The ontology and metaphor in this sentence are &quot;public opinion&quot; and &quot;weak tyrant.&quot; There must be something similar between them. The following statement gives the reason: &quot;Compared to our own private opinions&quot;, which is quite clear. People are used to focusing on themselves in front of others, so public opinion is only slightly weak. The subtle use of metaphor shows Thoreau's wisdom and thorough understanding of human nature. Xu Chi dealt with this metaphor perfectly.<br /> <br /> =====Pun=====<br /> Puns are deliberately declared polysemous words or homonyms created with double meaning in a certain language environment, with implicit, humorous and profound effects. Newmark (2001, 217) points out that &quot;pun translation is unimportant but fascinating&quot;. <br /> <br /> The use of puns in Walden is remarkable.The basic function of pun in ''Walden'' is to express logical relations. Because puns can express two levels of meaning in a word, phrase, or sentence, they are often used as a link between the text before and after it.( Because puns can express two layers of meaning in a word, a phrase or a sentence, they are often used as a link between the preceding and following texts.)--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC) A key problem that haunts the reader when reading ''Walden'' is the lack of connection between the two passages. A clear logical relationship is a prerequisite for expressing other special effects, such as rhetorical and aesthetic effects. Therefore, the improper translation of puns will seriously affect logical coherence and other rhetorical devices.<br /> <br /> Example 7：<br /> If the name was not derived from that of some English locality - Saffron Walden, for instance, one might suppose that it was called originally Walled-in Pond. (Thoreau 2012, 209)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation: 如果这个湖名不是由当地一个叫萨福隆•瓦尔登的英国人的名字化出来的话，——那么，我想瓦尔登湖原来的名字可能是围而得湖。(徐迟 2009, 172)<br /> <br /> This classic example of puns has been discussed many times. Thoreau suggested that &quot;Walden&quot; might come from “Walled-in”. &quot;Walled-in Pond&quot;, as ahomophonic pun, serves as the logic link of the whole paragraph. Xu wisely translates it as “围而得”, retaining not only the similar pronunciation but also the importance of meaning. “围而得” maintains the logical relation of the whole paragraph.It is eye-catching and stimulates readers to think more about Thoreau's intentions to use this word.<br /> <br /> =====Personification=====<br /> Personification refers to &quot;the practice of representing a person, quality, or characteristic as a human being in art and literature.&quot; People subconsciously tend to reflect non-human things with their lives in order to express their feelings and thoughts. In view of the characteristics of human behavior, literary works can vividly express the feelings of the author, and make readers feel that the description of the object is more vivid and appropriate, which makes the article more vivid.<br /> <br /> Example 8：<br /> This further experience also I gained：I said to myself,1 will not plant beans and corn with so much industry another summer，but such seeds, if the seed is not lost, as sincerity, truth, simplicity, faith, innocence, and the like, and see if they will not grow in this soil，even with less toil and manurance，and sustain me, for surely it has not been exhausted for these crops. (Thoreau 2012, 186-187)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation:<br /> 我还获得了下面的更丰富的经验：我对我自己说，下一个夏天，我不要花那么大的劳力来种豆子和玉米了，我将种这样<br /> 这样一些种子像诚实、真理、纯朴、信心、天真等等，如果这些种子并没有失落，看看它们能否在这片土地上生长，能否以较少劳力和肥料；来维持我的生活，因为，地力一定还没消耗到不能种这些东西。 (徐迟 2009, 182)<br /> <br /> Thoreau here is sharing his experience in growing beans and his plans next summer with readers.(Thoreau shares his experience of growing beans and his plans for next summer with readers here.)--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC) As we know, words like &quot;sincerity,truth，simplicity, faith and innocence&quot; usually refer to qualities of human. But here, these words are adopted to describe the characteristics of seeds and humanize these seeds，constructing a vivid personification. Xu Chi reproduce the rhetorical feature of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The language of ''Walden'' is rich in vocabulary, complex and diverse sentence structure, the author's writing is flexible and fluent, and the use of various rhetoric makes the translation work more difficult. <br /> To sum up, Xu Chi's translation appears more formal than the original text and some words of his translation can not reflect the expressive meaning of the original one. It is found that Xu Chi tended to use words with typical features of his time which seem out of date at present. But due to the time he lived in, we believe that Xu Chi's translation satisfied the need or linguistic expectation of the target readers of his time which has its significance. We also find that sentences in Xu's translation follow the syntax of English language. Xu Chi kept the structure beauty of the original work properly, respected the original work and kept the structure orderly, directly conveying Thoreau's thoughts and feelings. And Xu Chi indeed do well in reflecting rhetorical features of the original text, which is refered by many translators later. In general, Xu Chi's translation is close to the original text in style and language characteristics and is a classic translation of ''Walden''.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Leech.G.N. &amp; M. H. Short. (1981). ''Style in Fiction：A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. <br /> <br /> Newmark P. (2001). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> Nida Eugene. (1982). ''Translating Meaning''. Sandimas: English Language Institute. 12.<br /> <br /> Raffe. (1994). ''The Art of Translating Prose''. Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press．<br /> <br /> Roman Jaobson. (1960). ''“Linguistics and Poetry” in Style and Language''. Cambridge: MIT Press.<br /> <br /> Thoreau Henry David. (2012). ''Walden''. New York: W. W. Norton &amp; Company, INC.<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin 胡壮麟. （2015). 语言学高级教程 [Advanced Course in Linguistics]. Beijing：Peking University Press <br /> <br /> Lv Jun &amp; Hou Xiangqun 吕俊,侯向群. (2001) 《英汉翻译教程》[English-chinese Translation Course].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.320.<br /> <br /> Wu Siying &amp; Li Jing 吴巳英,李靖. (2011). 外国文学翻译体例的时代演变——基于《瓦尔登湖》不同译本的比较. [The Time Evolution of Foreign Literary Translation Styles: Based on the Comparison of different versions of Walden]. 湖南农业大学学报（社会科学版) Journal of Hunan Agricultural University (Social Science edition) 12 83-87.(报刊要斜体)--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Xu Chi 徐迟. (2009). 瓦尔登湖. [Walden]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. <br /> <br /> Yao Junwei 姚君伟. (2005). 徐迟与美国文学在中国的译介[Xu Chi and the Translation of American Literature in China]. 外国文学研究 [Study of Foreign Literature] 4 145-149.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jianguo 张建国. (2005). 梭罗《瓦尔登湖》的语言风格探析 [Analysis on language Style of Walden By Thoreau]. 河南商业高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Henan Commercial College] 03 106-107.（报刊格式）--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation. 王美玲 Wang Meiling==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;王美玲 Wang Meiling&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> The Renaissance is the fourth peak in the history of Western translation and a great development in the history of Western literature. During the 16th century and the period following the Renaissance in Europe, translation reached an unprecedented climax in the fields of thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion. At that time, the German translation of the Bible by the Martin Luther is the most well-known one in the whole translation circle, and its influence is unique and long-standing in Germany as well as in the whole Europe continent. Since the Reform and Opening-up, China has gradually stepped into the center of the world arena, and its literary works bearing the quintessence of Chinese culture has become a crucial bridge connecting the rest of the world with China. Despite the rise of machine translation, it can never replace the overwhelming role of human translation in the literary translation. Luther’s translation thoughts have exerted an important influence on the development of Western translation theories, so what sparks can be drawn between his translation principles and Chinese modern culture and literary works? This paper makes a brief comment on the main translation activities of renaissance, then compares the translation thoughts of Luther and Lu Xun, and applies Luther’s detailed translation principles to the actual translation practice. Finally,some thoughts are acquired.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Renaissance; Luther; literary works; translation principles; influence;<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴运动是西方翻译史的第四次高潮，也是西方文学史上的一次大发展。文艺复兴在欧洲普遍开展的16世纪以及随后一个时期，翻译活动达到了前所未有的高峰，深入思想、政治、哲学、文学宗教等各个领域。在整个翻译界，德国马丁·路德的《圣经》德译本是该时期最负盛名的译本，其影响不论是在德国乃至整个欧洲都是独一无二且源远流长的。改革开放以来，中国日益走进世界舞台中央，承载着中华文化精髓的文学作品成为了中国连接世界的重要桥梁。纵然机器翻译兴起，但绝不能替代人工翻译在文学翻译领域的绝对性地位。路德的翻译思想对西方翻译理论的发展产生了重要影响，那么其翻译思想和理论原则与中国当代文化及文学作品又能擦出什么样的火花呢？本文将通过对文艺复兴时期的主要翻译活动进行简评，再对比路德与鲁迅的翻译思想，接着将路德的翻译细则运用到实际的翻译实践中，最后得出一些思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴；路德；文学作品；翻译原则；影响；<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The Protestant Reformation Movement in Germany in the 16th century ushered in a new era of translation and dissemination of Bible. Under the protection of Protestantism, Martin Luther devoted himself to the German translation of the Bible. By the time of 1544 Luther’s death, 430 versions of his Bible translation had been published. In order to make common people more directly understand the meaning of the Bible, Martin Luther translated it in national language. He insisted on his translation thought and fought against the church power and his opponents. He made unremitting efforts in the great project of the Bible translation, which promoted the unification of German language and created a graceful literary language.His translation thoughts are still of great significance to the current translation theory and practice.&quot;First of all, from a historical point of view, translation has two main functions in promoting the birth and development of national culture and the transformation of national culture into world culture: one is to promote cultural exchange; the other is to disseminate ideas.&quot;（Tan Zaixi，2004：10）<br /> <br /> Since the beginning of reform and opening-up, China has gradually stepped onto the world arena. China persists in its cultural development geared to the needs of the world and actively promotes cultural development to the world. Literary works bear the essence of Chinese culture, whose export is an crucial way to spread Chinese culture to the world. Over the years, despite the rise of machine translation, which has a certain practical role, it can not replace the overwhelming role of manual translation in literary translation. So what significance does Luther’s translation thoughts and principles have in guiding modern translation theory and practice, especially in the field of literary translation?<br /> <br /> ===2.Brief Comments on Translation Thoughts in the Period of Renaissance===<br /> <br /> Translations must respect the original text and combine content and form, free translation and literal translation in the translation process. &quot;In the high tide of translation in 16th century France, there were two outstanding contributors, one is Amyot, the King of Translation, and the other is Dolet, the translation theorist.&quot; Amyot believed that the translator must understand the original text thoroughly, and that the translator's task was not only to restore the author's meaning, but also to imitate and reflect the author's style and mood to some extent. He also emphasized the unity of content and form, and of free translation and literal translation; in France, the important figure in translation theory is Dolet. He believed that translators should avoid word-for-word translation because it was detrimental to the conveyance of the original meaning and to the beauty of the language. As we can see, Dolet's translation ideas were quite modern and involved the basic principles and problems of translation commonly raised by later European translation theorists. （Tan Zaixi，2004：68）<br /> <br /> Translations must be faithful to the original text and combine content and form, free translation and literal translation in the translation process. &quot;In the high tide of translation in 16th century France, there were two outstanding contributors, one is Amyot, the King of Translation, and the other is Dolet, the translation theorist.&quot; Amyot believed that the translator must understand the original text thoroughly, and that the translator's task was not only to restore the author's meaning, but also to imitate and reflect the author's style and mood to some extent. He also emphasized the unity of content and form, and of free translation and literal translation; in France, the important figure in translation theory is Dolet. He believed that translators should avoid word-for-word translation because it was detrimental to the conveyance of the original meaning and to the beauty of the language. As we can see, Dolet's translation ideas were quite modern and involved the basic principles and problems of translation commonly raised by later European translation theorists. （Tan Zaixi，2004：68）--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Holland of England was the most outstanding English translator in the 16th century and was regarded as the &quot;Chief Translator&quot; of the Elizabethan era, and he also advocated that the style of the original text must be reflected in the translation in order to make the translation authentic and without foreign accent. Thus, it can be seen that translators from various European countries actively explored new literary fields and brought new ideas to their own countries, inspiring the national consciousness and humanistic thoughts of their own people while trying to explore classical literature.（Tan Zaixi，2004：77-78）<br /> <br /> Translation must convey new ideas on the basis of respecting the original work, that is, being innovative, and seek the style of translation.In his translation of ancient Greek and Roman masterpieces, Amyot put forward the idea of &quot;trying to be comparable to the original work&quot;, and blended the language of the people with the language of scholars, forming a unique style of translation. Thus, some people commented that Amyot adopted the creative meaning; Dolet advocated that translators should not do translations word by word, but must choose the words and adjust the word order as well as use various rhetorical devices to make the style of translation consistent with that of the original text, giving readers a &quot;feeling of beauty&quot;. （Tan Zaixi，2004：68-69）<br /> <br /> leaving readers a &quot;feeling of beauty&quot;.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The English translator North, who had little knowledge of the classical language and whose translations were not translated from the original text of Greek, was able to bring the translation style into full play. The prose style used in his translation of Biography of a Celebrity was new and elegant, which has become an immortal model in the history of English translation. There was another famous English translator, Florio, whose translation of The Tempest was the first to show English readers that prose could exist as a literary genre.(Tan Zaixi，2004：76-77） <br /> <br /> From this, we can see that translators not only respected the cultural works of the classical period, but also gave full play to their own initiative in the translation process and injected humanistic thoughts and spirits into their translations during the Renaissance.Liu Junping said: &quot;In the past years, translators were servants attached to God, but now they have shifted from God to the translator as the center, and their personal developments have become the goal and value of life. &quot;（liu Junping,2009:76）<br /> <br /> Translators focus on the practical spirit of translation.Emphasizing the needs of translations to serve reality, Holland compared his translations to the fruits of conquest and once asked Queen Elizabeth to protect his translations with the hope that his translations would benefit the country. &quot;The translators, with the idea of serving their country, introduced the wisdom of the ancients to their own people through their translations, providing not only serious lessons for the Queen and the statesmen, but also story plots and materials for the dramatists and readers.&quot; (Tan Zaixi，2004：77-78）<br /> <br /> This word profoundly reflects the dialectical relationship among culture, politics,and economy in Marxism: a certain culture is determined by certain economy and politics, and culture，in turn，acts on politics and economy with great influence on politics and economy. The above-mentioned translation ideas indicate the practicality and practical spirit of the practice of translation culture, which originated from the specific social and cultural contexts of the time. Under the guidance of these translation ideas, the translation culture and cultural practice of translators promoted the political and economic development, and laid the ideological foundation for the political and cultural needs of Western European countries.<br /> <br /> In the practice of translation, translation of all national languages achieved parallel and independent development when Latin gradually receded into a tributary.During the Renaissance, national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and linguists recognized the unique style and expressive ability of their own languages, and began to shift the emphasis of translation from the original language to the translated language.(Tan Zaixi，2004：83）<br /> <br /> Finally, Latin was no longer prevalent. These phenomenon were especially prominent in Germany. Under the pressure of the national language and the Reformation, the German translator Luther adopted the language of the people to translate the great work of the Bible, that is, to translate the original text into the authentic German one. Luther's German translation of the Bible not only had a profound influence on German life and religion, but also created a literary language form accepted by the German people, which played an immeasurable role in the development of the unified German language and shook the absolute and unshakable position of Latin in the European language system.(Tan Zaixi，2004：64）<br /> <br /> ===3.Comparison Between Luther’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Thoughts===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction to Luther and Lu Xun====<br /> <br /> Lu Xun was the greatest literary scholar, thinker and revolutionary of modern China, an important participant in the New Culture Movement, who was regarded as &quot;the writer who occupied the largest territory on the cultural map of East Asia in the twentieth century&quot;. Lu Xun also had outstanding achievements in translation, and made a series of superb remarks on translation issues, which had great influence on the whole translation circle at that time and established a monument in the history of Chinese translation theory.(Liu Hongyan,2010:1）<br /> <br /> Martin Luther was a German religious reformer and translator in the 16th century. In his translations, Luther followed the principles of being popular, clear, and acceptable to the public. His translation of the Bible is known as the &quot;first Bible of the common people”and enjoyed the highest reputation in the entire translation community. Luther was a leader in the Reformation movement in the 16th century in Europe, so his translation had a significant impact on Germany and Europe as a whole.(Tan Zaixi，2004：68）<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Different Translation Thoughts====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Lu Xun's &quot;Foreignization&quot;=====<br /> <br /> Lu Xun lived in the period of the May Fourth New Culture Movement，whose translation thoughts and activities were closely connected with his political life. In the period of transition between the old culture and the new one, literary translation was also at its climax. In this regard, Lu Xun put forward the translation concept of &quot;Foreignization&quot; , which preserved the &quot;exoticism&quot;. Moreover,he insisted that the translation should be consistent with the original text as much as possible and put fidelity in the first place and fluency in the second, and exchanged unfluent translation for fidelity. He believed that the translation method of &quot;Foreignization&quot; could introduce foreign sentences to enrich Chinese language and culture. Lu Xun said bluntly, &quot;Like carrying arms for the uprising slaves, translation is directly aimd at servicing the revolution.&quot;（Chen Fukang,2000;286）<br /> <br /> With regard to his translation concept of &quot;Foreignization&quot;, he had such remarks :<br /> <br /> “还是翻译《死灵魂》的事情。……动笔之前，就先得解决一个问题:竭力使它归化，还是尽量保存洋气昵?日本文的译者上田进君，是主张用前一法的。……所以他的疑问，有时就化一句为数句，很近于解释。我的意见却两样的。只求易懂，小如创作，或者改作，将事改为中国事，人也化为中国人。如果还是翻译，那么，首先的目的，就在博览外国的作品，小但移情，也要益智，至少是知道何地何时，有这等事，和旅行外国，是很相像的:它必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也小会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌介神离，从严辨别起来，它算小得翻译。……(Lu Xun,1935:4th Volume)<br /> <br /> From this, we can see that Lu Xun engaged in translation work with the aim to &quot;conveying feelings&quot; and &quot;improving education&quot;, and his translations could facilitate readers to experience foreign customs, history, language and culture, as well as advanced ideology. Lu Xun would enrich these at a deeper level, so as to subvert the outlook on life and values of the whole society at that time and to inspire and educate the young generation to achieve the purpose of saving the country, thus promoting the revolutionary cause.<br /> <br /> From this, we can see that Lu Xun engaged in translation work with the aim to &quot;conveying feelings&quot; and &quot;improving education&quot;, and his translations could facilitate readers to experience foreign customs, history, language and culture, as well as advanced ideology. Lu Xun would enrich these at a deeper level, so as to subvert the outlook on life and values of the whole society at that time and to inspire and educate the young generations to achieve the goal of saving the country, thus promoting the revolutionary cause.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Luther's &quot;Domesticization&quot;=====<br /> <br /> In the context of the Reformation, Martin Luther embarked on the translation of the Bible. As the leader of the German Reformation movement, he could only ensure the eventual victory of the Reformation cause by quickly establishing and growing the Protestantism . Under the pressure of the Reformation and the national language, Luther had to translate the Bible in a way that served a specific audience, not priests and pastors, but the common people. It required that Luther had to do translations in people’s language and that &quot; Translation had to adopt authentic German instead of Latinized German.&quot;<br /> In the A Short History of Translation in the West, Tan zaixi made summary about Luther's translation thoughts：(Tan Zaixi,2004:64-67)<br /> <br /> In the ''A Short History of Translation in the West'', Tan zaixi made summary about Luther's translation thoughts：(Tan Zaixi,2004:64-67)--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;Translation must employ the vernacular language; translation must pay attention to the connection between grammar and meaning; translation must follow seven principles (translators can change the word order of the original text; one can make reasonable use of intonation auxiliaries; translators can add necessary conjunctions; translator may omit word in the original that was not equivalent word in the target language;translator may use phrase to translate a single word;translator may translate metaphorical usage into non-metaphorical usage and vice versa; translator should pay attention to variation from usage and accurate explanation of a word (Wen Jun, 2004:39);Translation must be a brainstorming exercise.&quot;<br /> <br /> Luther insisted on these principles in order to translate the Bible from the reader's point of view on the basis of a grasp of the original meaning and to achieve the greatest possible approximation to the reader's level for the purpose of &quot;naturalization. Generally speaking, Luther advocated translation based on a grasp of the meaning of the sentence. When the original meaning of a sentence could not be well expressed in words, Luther used illustrations to represent it. Luther's German translation of the Bible enabled the common people of Germany to directly quote from the Bible to defend their own class interests, which played an invaluable role in the unification and development of the German language.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Lu Xun's translation principle of &quot;Foreignization&quot;, which preserved &quot;exoticism&quot;, satisfied Chinese readers' curiosity and appreciation of foreign culture and made them experience exoticism, which, to a certain, awakened the thought of common thoughts and stimulated the patriotic consciousness and revolutionary enthusiasm of some youth groups. That was the aim and purpose of Lu Xun's translations, and was also what that volatile age longed for.<br /> <br /> Luther's “Domesticization” thought was based on his recognition that the German people began to value their own national language as a counter to the Church's forced use of Latin. Luther translated the Bible in the language of common people, so that readers who knew neither Hebrew, Greek, nor Latin and had a low level of literacy could understand the Bible in German.<br /> <br /> Translation thoughts between Luther and Lu Xun are rather different, but their translations equally made profound implications and were recognized by the two peoples of their respective countries. Moreover, their audience were both the common people, and they took into full consideration the receptiveness of their readers in the process of translation. Therefore, the dichotomy in translation is only relative, and finitude and infinitude are dialectically unified.(Liu Hongyan，2010:2）<br /> <br /> ===4.The Application of Luther's Translation Principles and Thoughts for Modern Literary Translation Practice===<br /> <br /> Engels praised Luther:&quot;Luther not only cleared the church's Ogias, but also cleared the German language of the Ogis, created modern German prose, and wrote the words and songs of the hymns of the Marseilles with victory and confidence into the 16th century.&quot; (Tan Zaixi，2004:64）In his translation of the Bible, Luther came up with systematic translation thoughts and principles, followed the principles of being popular, clear and acceptable to the public, and created modern German prose. Thus, his translation thoughts and principles have certain significance for us to translate literary works whose language style is “grounded”.<br /> <br /> '''Example one '''<br /> <br /> “You can translate metaphor usage into non-metaphorical usage.”<br /> <br /> “The translator can change the word order of the original text”<br /> <br /> “严闭的心幕，慢慢的拉开了，涌出五年前的一个印象。” （《笑》—— 冰心）<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the original text, the translator finds that this sentence uses metaphor,because the action of &quot;拉开&quot; can only be issued by human beings, and the &quot;心幕&quot; is not a physical object which cannot be &quot;pulled open&quot;. In the process of translation, we find that the action of &quot;拉开&quot; does not have a subject, and the predicate-object pairing of &quot;拉开&quot; and &quot;心幕&quot; is unreasonable, not to mention translated into the passive voice. Therefore, it is not feasible to translate the metaphor usage. The translator chooses to omit this metaphor and the verb &quot;拉开&quot;, which is in line with Luther's sixth principle of translation. The translator finds that the emphasis of the original text is on the second half of the sentence, so we changes the order of the whole sentence and choose&quot;涌出&quot; as the predicate and translated it into the intransitive verb &quot;unveil&quot;. Naturally, the phrase &quot;五年前的一个印象&quot; becomes the subject. scene of five years ago&quot;, and the word &quot;before&quot; was used to show the relationship between “印象” and “心幕”. It is in line with language habit of English, that is, to express the main content clearly and put it in the important position as an important component. Here comes the translation &quot;A scene of five years ago slowly unveiled before my mind's eye.&quot; It is consistent with the first principle of Luther's translation. If translated according to the original word order, it would be translated to &quot;The tight mind's eye was opened slowly, and a scene of five years ago slowly unveiled.”Although its meaning is complete, the sentence structure is incoherent and the relationship between the &quot;心幕&quot; and the &quot;印象&quot; is not highlighted. As a translator, we need to read the original text carefully and then relate it to the context in order to get close to the original style and to achieve the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot;, meanwhile, we should take into account the reading feelings of the audience.<br /> <br /> '''Example Two'''<br /> <br /> “The necessary conjunctions can be added.”<br /> <br /> “作为一个中国人，经书不可不读。我年过三十才知道读书自修的重要。” （《时间即生命》—— 梁实秋）<br /> <br /> After reading the original text, we find that the original text is composed of two sentences. If we do not read it carefully, we will not grasp the key point, that is, the relationship between the two sentences: transition. The translation is“The reading of Chinese classics is a must for all chinese. But it was not until I was over 30 that I came to realize the importance of self-study.”We all know that Chinese sentences are short with more punctuation marks, and that Chinese is a formative language with few conjunctions between sentences.(Zhang Sijie,Zhang Bairan,1998:54)<br /> <br /> Therefore, when doing translation, translators should carefully search for the hidden logical relationship between sentences and fit the language habits of the readers in order to accurately convey the ideas that the author wants to convey and to arouse the emotional resonance between the author and the readers. During the Renaissance, Luther found the characteristics of the readers, German citizens, and grasped their aesthetics. Then he made certain degree of stylistic shaping with the Bible as a benchmark and focused on integrating the spirit of humanism into the translation.<br /> <br /> '''Example Three'''<br /> <br /> The translator can use a phrase to translate a single word.”<br /> <br /> “不过，花草自己会奋斗，我若置之不理，任其自生自灭，它们多数还是会死了的。” （《养花》——老舍）<br /> <br /> Translators find that the original text is inclined to be colloquial and its literal meaning is easy to understand. But for the readers, if they only saw the literal meaning, the central idea of the original text would be not well conveyed,leading to their losing interest in reading the work, then the translator was not much of doing a good translation job. In the original text, the word &quot;奋斗&quot; may be a confusing point for readers, they may wonder how flowers and plants could struggle? When it comes to &quot;奋斗&quot;, the first word that comes to the translator's mind may be &quot;struggle&quot;, &quot;fight&quot;, and &quot;strive&quot;, one of which most translators would choose if they wouldn’t look deeper into the original text and take into account the characteristics and writing style of the original text. The theme of the original text is &quot;raising flowers&quot;, which tells the story of the author and his inner feelings in the process of raising flowers. We should relate to the reality that the &quot;奋斗&quot; of flowers and plants is to resist the wind, rain and sun. Therefore, a good translator will choose to enrich the word &quot;struggle&quot; by using such phrases as &quot;weather through&quot;, &quot;carry on the struggle for existence&quot; to express the real experience of plants and flowers. It is in line with Luther's fifth principle. In translation, the translator should pay attention to the language habits of the readers, because different people of various countries will have rather different interpretations of the same literary work. Although the literal meaning of modern Chinese literature is easy to understand, the literary ideas are between the lines. If the translation does not convey the meaning of the original text properly, readers will not feel the meaning conveyed by the author. This is just as Luther took into account when he translated the Bible, he would create a literary form of language acceptable to the German citizens according to their language habits.<br /> <br /> '''Example Four'''<br /> <br /> “Translation must be a brainstorming exercise”<br /> <br /> In addition to translation principles, Luther also placed great importance on team cooperation. Luther believed that doing a translation on one's own was not enough, especially for a masterpiece like the Bible.As Luther said, &quot;One cannot go it alone in the matter of translation, for the correct and proper translation words won’t always occur to the only him.&quot;（zecher, 1993:12-13) Thus, Luther's later revisions of his New Testament, as well as his translations of the Old Testament and the Apocrypha, were done with the assistance of the Collegium biblicum, an academic translation committee.<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, the professor who teaching me the course Introduction to Translation Studies, also worked with a team in the translation of the great work, Dream of the Red Chamber. It is the first complete German translation of Dream of the Red Chamber. In 2000, Professor Wu set up a workshop consisting of 57 translators, and this team was so strong that the average annual translation volume increases considerably. According to Martina Ulrike Hasse, only 11 new works by Chinese authors were published in Germany in 2011. In recent years, thanks to the efforts of the team, the number of Chinese literature translated into German has increased to 17 per year, which has greatly contributed to the translation and dissemination of Chinese literature in the German-speaking world.<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> In conclusion, the Renaissance saw the independent and parallel development of national languages and the promotion of social changes, thanks largely to the extensive literary translation activities undertaken by key advocates, especially Martin Luther's German translation of the Bible, which ushered in a new era in the development of the German language. Luther's translation principles and thoughts were so influential due to the great success of his German translation of the Bible . When Wlliam Tyndale in England and Reina and Valera in Spain later translated the Bible into English and Spanish respectively, they both referred to and partially adopted the translation principles and thoughts proposed by Luther.(Tan Zaixi，2004：67）<br /> <br /> After carefully reading Tan Zaixi's A Short History of Translation in the West and Chen Fukang's A History of Translation Theory In China, the author has gained a better understanding of Luther's and Lu Xun's translation thoughts and principles, and has gained two insights: first, even though their countries, political environments,translation thoughts are rather different, the nature of translation determines that there must be certain similarities in their translation thoughts; second, even though the age between Luther and the author is so long, his translation thoughts and principles still have implications for the author and other translation learners of her time.<br /> <br /> After carefully reading Tan Zaixi's ''A Short History of Translation in the West'' and Chen Fukang's ''A History of Translation Theory in China'', the author has gained a better understanding of Luther's and Lu Xun's translation thoughts and principles, and has gained two insights: first, even though their countries, political environments,translation thoughts are rather different, the nature of translation determines that there must be certain similarities in their translation thoughts; second, even though the age between Luther and the author is so long, his translation thoughts and principles still have implications for the author and other translation learners of her time.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As an interdisciplinary student, the author lacked a systematic understanding of many translation thoughts and principles at the beginning of this term. After studying in this semester and reading related professional books,the author have benefited a lot and formed her own translation habits and thinking implicitly, and she hopes to improve her translation quality by practicing a lot more.<br /> <br /> ===6.References===<br /> <br /> [1]Eric. W.Gritsch.Luther as Bible translator [J] in Donald K. Mckim ed., The Cambridge Companion of Martin Luther (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2003),62-63.<br /> <br /> [2]Chen Fukang 陈福康.(2000).中国译学理论史稿[A History of Translation Theory in China].<br /> <br /> [3]Liu Hongyan 刘红岩.(2010). 鲁迅与马丁·路德翻译思想对比研究 [A Comparative Study of Lu Xun's and Martin Luther's translation Thoughts]<br /> <br /> [4]Liu Junping 刘军平.(2009).西方翻译理论通史[A General History of Western Translation Theory]<br /> <br /> [5]Lu Xun 鲁迅.(1935).鲁迅全集.[The Complete Works of LU Xun]<br /> <br /> [6]Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(2004).西方翻译简史.[A Short History of Translation in the West]<br /> <br /> [7]Zhang Sijie, Zhang Bairan 张思洁,张柏然.(1998).意合与形合.[Parataxis and Hypotaxis]<br /> <br /> ==Study on Interpreter's Memory and Translation Memory in Interpreting 康浩宇 Kang Haoyu 202070080638 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康浩宇 Kang Haoyu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In interpreting, the translator's memory plays an important role, and the level of memory even determines the quality of interpreting and affects the interpretation results. Memory cognitive ability is one of the comprehensive qualities of interpreters. The exertion of journalists' memory ability is closely related to memory principles, types and mechanisms. With the development of science and technology, translation memory, as a new type of &quot;memory&quot;, appears in front of the public and is widely used in translation field. In the field of interpretation, some interpreters are also doing interpreting with the help of such tools. This paper aims to explore the translator's memory ability and the application of translation memory in the interpretation industry from the principle of memory.<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Memory; Translation Memory; Interpreting<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 在口译中，译者的记忆里发挥着举足轻重的作用，记忆水平的高低甚至决定了口译质量的好坏，影响口译结果。记忆认知能力是口译员的综合素质能力之一。记者记忆能力的发挥与提升和记忆原理，类型，机制等因素息息相关。 随着科学技术的发展，翻译记忆作为一种新型的“记忆”出现在大众面前并在翻译领域广泛使用。 而在口译领域，一些译员也在通过这类工具来协作口译。本文旨在从记忆的原理出发探究译者记忆能力以及翻译记忆在口译行业的运用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 记忆； 翻译记忆； 口译<br /> <br /> ===1 Introduction===<br /> <br /> '''1.1 Background'''<br /> <br /> Memory plays an important role in interpreting and it is a kind of interpreting competence. The information processing in interpreting is complicated. When the information is input, interpreter first recognize and keep the information, which will then be analyzed, encoded, stored and retrieved. And the interpreter finally decode the information into (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)target language.Because of the fast input of information and limited time for pausing, great memory is required for interpreters. Whether a good or poor memory has a direct effect on the quality of interpreting(Wang Jianhua, 2019）. <br /> With the development of science and technology, machine translation and computer aided translation, which is also called CAT, was invented as two effective and efficient(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;efficient can be deleted&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC) ways for translation. In CAT, there is a concept called translation memory. Different from human beings’ memory, translation memory is more likely a database. Nowadays, translation memory of CAT has been put into wide use in translation. And in recent years, translation memory has also been applied as a tool in interpreting. As the technology is not yet mature, there are still some limitation and weakness(Su Mingyang, 2007, 73).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Significance of the Study'''<br /> <br /> There are some studies on the memory of interpreters. But most of them focus on its practical aspects such as how to improve interpreters’ memory or how to make the best of memory in interpreting, instead of substantial facts. The nature of memory and mechanism of memory is also worthy to be studied, so readers can have better understanding and cognition of what is memory and how it works. Therefore, readers can better address our problems in memory of interpreting. The study will fully analyze memory from the aspect of psychology and science. And then it will study on(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC) memory of interpreting in details including systems, mechanism, coding and theories(Li Jun, 2020, 127). <br /> <br /> Translation memory is quite a novel topic as it belongs to a sort of science and technology. As the world stepped into information era, digital era and even Artificial Intelligence era, translation memory has been used more widely than ever before. It really facilitates the translators as it both saves a lot of time and greatly improved(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;improves&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC) the translation efficiency. However, there are few studies on the translation memory application in interpreting field. Actually, in many situations, interpreters also uses this kind of technology to help their interpreting. They study will research on the fact of translation memory in interpreting(Li Jun, 2020, 127).<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Structure of the Study'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be developed in five chapters. <br /> Chapter 1, the introduction part, is initiated by introducing the background, research problems, and significance of the study.<br /> Chapter 2 is functioned to define and categorize the memory.<br /> Chapter 3 will present the memory mechanism and related theories in interpreting.<br /> Chapter 4 will mainly focus on the translation memory technology at present and its application in interpreting.<br /> The concluding chapter generalizes the content of the study and put forward the limitations.<br /> <br /> ===2 Study on Memory===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 The definition of the Memory'''<br /> <br /> Memory has different definitions in different fields. Generally speaking, human memory is a reflection of what the brain has experienced. From the perspective of psychology, memory is the recognition, maintenance, reappearance of experienced things by the human brain, and it is the basis of advanced psychological activities such as thinking and imagination. It is the retention and extraction of past experience by(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;of&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC) human brain. It is a psychological process in which individual experience is accumulated and preserved in the mind. All things that have been perceived can be kept in people's minds, and can be reproduced when necessary. This refers to the process in which the human brain encodes, stores and extracts meaningful information input from the outside world. From the perspective of neurology, human memory is closely related to the changes of chemical composition in hippocampus and brain. All memory that exists in the brain depends on various nerve cells of the brain, which are called neurons. According to information processing theory, memory process is the process of encoding, storing and extracting input information. Only coded information can be remembered. Coding is the process of processing and transforming the input information, and coding is the key stage of the whole memory process(Che Wenbo, 1987, 403).<br /> <br /> '''2.2. Memory Systems'''<br /> <br /> Based on the structure, memory can be categorized into three systems. There are sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. The later two systems are also often referred as STM and LTM. The three memory systems are different from each other but closely related(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1 Sensory Memory'''<br /> <br /> As the shortest memory system, sensory memory is the first channel for human brain to get the information. It has some capacity. According the research in Cognitive Psychology(Wang Su, Wang Ansheng, 1992), People’s visual sensory capacity is(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC) more than 9 chunk while their auditory sensory memory capacity has less capacity, which is about chunk. chunk here are memory units, and the size of chunk varies with people's knowledge and experience. A chunk can be a word, a number, a phrase, a sentence, a word list, etc. Sensory memory works as temporary storage for sensory information. It depends on the physical nature of external stimulus to code the information and it is the real copy and transcription of the external stimulus. Most sensory memory can stay for one to two seconds and then disappear. Only with more attention and focus can the sensory memory be processed and then become short term memory(Bao Gang, 2005). People’s visual sensory memory can just keep for less than one second while their auditory sensory memory can keep for 4 seconds. It is inevitable that information will lose with the disappearance of sensory memory(Bao Gang, 2005, 150). <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2 Short Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Short term memory is the second memory system. Short term memory is based on the neuron network in hippocampus. It keeps the information that has been selected in the hippocampus of human brain. In some cases, part of information will move from the short memory in hippocampus to long term memory in cerebral cortex. In psychology, short term memory can keep for about one minute with the capacity of about 7 chunks. That means that people can memorize seven unrelated numbers or phonemes for about one minute with their short term memory. However, the capacity of short term memory is not decided by the amount of stimulus but by the modes of chunk and coding. Chunks can effectively expand the capacity of short-term memory. When processing information, people can use the knowledge and experience stored in long-term memory to combine several single stimuli into larger information units, which can effectively expand and increase short-term memory span and improve memory efficiency. Moreover, the coding of short-term memory is mainly auditory coding, and there are also visual coding and semantic coding. Instead of chunk and information unit, people can also use retelling to transfer short term memory to long term memory. Retelling refers to the psychological operation process of repeating the materials just memorized by language to consolidate memory. In the case of retelling, the learning materials kept in short-term memory will(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;be transfered&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC) transfer to long-term memory. The content of short-term memory can be transformed into long-term memory by retelling(Bao Gang, 2005, 150). <br /> <br /> There is a special type of short term memory, working memory. The concept working memory was first proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. It is used to describe the process of a person temporarily memorizing the fact and thoughts when addressing problems or working(Baddeley, 2006, 22). In spite of limited resources and storage time, working memory is still different from short term memory in temporary storage of information(Hitch, 2012, 266). Compared with short term memory which store information passively, the working memory process is more dynamic. Generally speaking, there are three differences. First, working memory emphasizes storing and processing information at the same time, while short-term memory only focuses on information storage. Secondly, working memory is a multi-factor system, while short-term memory is a single system. Third, working memory is more important than short-term memory for many advanced brain functions and even almost all human cognitive work(Wang Jianhua, 2019， 76). The disappear(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;disappearance&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)of short term memory is often due to the interruption.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3 Long Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Different from short term memory, long term memory is stored in human’s cerebral cortex where there is more room for storage. Long term memory is very important in keeping information for long time(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;time can be deleted&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC). It can keep information for more than one minute and even for a whole life. Its capacity is unlimited. All the information kept by long term memory has been selected and filtered.According to Tulving, long term memory is stored mainly as two types(Tulving, 1974). They are episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory is about one’s experience of some specific situations. Semantic memory refers to knowledge such as words, concepts, rules and other abstract things.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Memory Mechanism'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, the process of memory includes three key steps. They are memorizing, keeping and recalling. In interpreting, memorizing is related to interpreters’ listening and understanding to what the speaker says, keeping is related to the storage of original information and recalling refers to the output of interpreting(Tulving, 1972, 36).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 Memorizing'''<br /> <br /> Memorizing refers to the process of distinguishing and recognizing the characteristics of things and leaving a certain impression in the mind. Some things can be remembered after one perception, while most of the contents need to be perceived repeatedly, so that the new information can be connected with the existing knowledge structure. As the first step in the memory process, memorization has a very important influence on the memory effect(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;effect can be deleted&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Therefore, understanding and mastering the rules of memorization will help improve memory(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997, 23).<br /> <br /> According to whether memorization has a purpose or not, memorization can be divided into unconscious memorization and conscious memorization(Ma Zhengyu, 2013, 26).<br /> Unconscious memorization refers to (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)memorization that happens naturally without a predetermined purpose and without a certain effort of will. When they are perceived, there is no intention to memorize them, but these contents can reappear in people’s mind in the future naturally. And this is unconscious memorization. The content of unconscious memorization is an important part of experience, and it has great effect on people’s psychological activities and behaviors. Inadvertent experience can do as much help as existing experiences when people consciously face certain situations and deal with certain problems. In daily life, the environment, contact and work will influence people unconsciously in psychology and behavior. Generally speaking, there are two characteristics of unconscious memorization. First, the stimulation acts on people's sensory organs which is of great significance and attracts people's attention. For example, people will never forget new and different things; Second, it is in people's needs, interests and content so that it can produce deeper emotional experience. Unconsciousness plays a positive role in people's acquisition of knowledge and experience(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004, 173).<br /> <br /> Conscious memorization refers to memorizing with a predetermined purpose, which requires a certain amount of will and effort in the process of memorizing. The process of conscious memorization is controlled by the purpose of memorization. The purpose of memorization determines that memorizing process is an active coding process for memorizing content. This coding includes &quot;what to remember&quot; and &quot;how to remember&quot;. &quot;What to memorize&quot; determines the direction and content of memorization, and &quot;how to memorize&quot; is the method to better memorize the content. All people's knowledge and experience are acquired through conscious memorization and unconscious memorization. However, in terms of memorizing effect, conscious memorizing is better than unconscious memorizing(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004, 173).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 Keeping'''<br /> <br /> Keeping refers to the process of remaining and consolidating the memorized materials in brain. It is the process of information storage. Keeping is the middle step which is between memorizing and recalling and it is closely related the quality and effect of recalling(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).<br /> <br /> The effect of keeping is related to whether the materials to be memorized are vivid or not. When brains memorize verbal materials, if the materials are vivid, they can leave a deep impression on people, while the materials with empty contents are easy to be forgotten quickly. Many psychological experiments have also proved the important role of the &quot;image&quot; in the memory of human brain. The memory effect of image materials is generally better than that of words materials, and similarly, the effect of visual memory is generally better than that of auditory memory. This suggests that if interpreters make full use of the image carrier of the source language in interpreting memory, it is possible to improve their information storage of the source language(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).<br /> <br /> Keeping is a dynamic process during which the amount and nature of the stored information could be changed. In the aspect of amount change, the amount of stored information will decrease with time. In other words, this is forgetting. Forgetting is a very natural phenomenon that experienced by every person. Although forgetting is a complex psychological phenomenon, its occurrence and development have certain rules. Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, was the first to do this research. He used meaningless syllables as experimental materials and himself as experimental object. After memorizing the materials, he relearned them at regular intervals, and drew the forgetting curve with the time and times saved by heavy school as the index. Forgetting curve reflects the relationship between (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)forgetting variables and (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)time variables. This curve shows the rule of forgetting: the process of forgetting is unbalanced, and the amount of forgetting is relatively large in the initial period after memorization, and then gradually decreases. That is, the speed of forgetting is fast at first and then slow. After Ebbinghaus, many people have studied the forgetting process and confirmed that Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve is basically correct(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997, 26). <br /> <br /> Keeping is the process of consolidating what have been memorized in people's minds, and it is also the process of storing information. It is not a static and solidified process, but a process of reconstruction(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 Recalling'''<br /> <br /> The final step of memory is recalling. It is the process of retrieving the information that has been stored in people’s brain(Zhang Wei, 2011, 33). <br /> Recalling is the reappearance process of past experiences in the mind under the action of certain inducement. Memories can be divided into two categories: intentional memories and unintentional memories. Intentional recalling is the recalling of past experience under the action of (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)intended purpose. Unintentional memories are memories that happen naturally without a predetermined purpose. Memories can be divided into direct recalling and indirect recalling according to whether there are intermediary factors involved in the recalling process. Direct recalling is the recollection of old experiences directly aroused by current things. Indirect recalling is a kind of recalling with the help of intermediary factors. In terms of difficulty, indirect recalling is more difficult than direct recalling(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 72).<br /> <br /> '''2.4 Primacy Effect and Recency effect'''<br /> <br /> Primacy effect and recency effect are two famous phenomena related to people’s memory. And both of them play a very important role in interpreting(Bao Gang, 2005, 166).<br /> <br /> '''2.4.1 Primacy Effect'''<br /> <br /> The concept “primacy effect” was first proposed by A. S. Lochins, an American psychologist. It refers to the fact that the first impression has a huge effect. Although the first impression may not always be right, but it is most vivid and solid. In primacy effect, information input plays a key role. Experimental psychology research shows that the order of external information input is important in determining the cognitive effect. The first input information plays the most important role, and the last input information also plays a great role. This feature of brain processing information is the internal cause of the primacy effect. When different information is combined, people always tend to attach importance to the former information. Even if people pay attention to the following information, they will think that the following information is non-essential and accidental. More importantly, even if the following information is inconsistent with the former information, people will succumb to the former information.<br /> <br /> '''2.4.2 Recency Effect'''<br /> <br /> Recency effect, also put forward by(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;an&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)American psychologist Lochins, refers to the phenomenon that when people memorize a series of things, the memory effect of the last part is better than that of the middle part. The reason is that the previous information is gradually blurred in memory, while the recent information clearer in short-term memory. Recency effect is contrary to the primacy effect, and recency effect emphasizes that the last received information has the greatest effect. In people's perception, when the information obtained before and after is different, if there is irrelevant work in the middle to separate them, then the latter information plays a greater role in forming the total impression(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 81).<br /> <br /> Obviously, the primacy effect and recency effect are different, or even opposite. The primacy effect emphasizes the information received initially, while recency effect pays more attention to the information that comes into contact later. However, the primary effect and recency effect exist in our society and play their respective functions. Through a large number of experiments, it is found that the primacy effect and recency effect depend on people themselves. Generally speaking, people with relatively simple cognitive structure are prone to produce the primacy effect, while those with complex cognitive structure are prone to produce recency effect(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 82).<br /> <br /> Although the primacy effect and recency effect are different form each other, both of the effects are extremely beneficial to the memory of interpreters, and they can be used in different interpreting situations(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 82).<br /> <br /> ===3 Memory in Interpreting===<br /> <br /> In interpreting, time is very limited for interpreters to do the work and the information of original language is transient. Thus, interpreters are required ton have a good memory. The memory in interpreting is not mechanical. It refers to the processing and coding of (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)original language, and then storage and retrieval of the coded information. The process of language understanding in translation is based on the information stored in memory such as pronunciation, grammar and speech structure(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Memory Mechanism in Interpreting'''<br /> <br /> When interpreters listen to what the speakers says, their brains are receiving stimulus. That means their brains begin to process these information. In interpreting, when the language area of the brain is stimulated, the interpreter will use the brain to process the existing related information by identifying, explaining, inferring and analyzing the pronunciation, and then stores the results in the form of(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC) internal speech, thus completing the information processing in a short time(Xu Han, 2007, 124).<br /> <br /> Only through sensory memory can people obtain external information. Therefore, in a broader sense, the initial stage of memory is sensory memory, not short-term memory. Once the recipient's cells are activated, the information is retained in the sensory storage. Attention should be paid to selecting certain information as pattern cognition, and changing it from sensory memory to (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)short-term memory to obtain its meaning. Therefore, when interpreters listen to the content, they first store all the information in their sensory memory. Then their brain begins to identify which is the important information and pay more attention to it in order to store it in short term memory. For those unnecessary information, it will be forgotten naturally as sensory memory can just be kept for less than one second(Wang Jianhua, 2019,77).<br /> <br /> Short-term memory is the link between sensory memory and long-term memory. On the one hand, it directly accepts the information filtered by sensory memory; On the other hand, through a certain retrieval method, the relevant knowledge can be extracted from the long-term memory, and then combine the two to process and store the discourse information. Short-term memory plays a key role in connecting sensory memory and long-term memory, and functions as a central processing unit. When the information stored in sensory memory has been filtered by interpreters’ brain, then it is stored in short term memory. When interpreters start to interpret, they recall all those information that has been encoded in their short term memory and decode it into target languages. In most cases, these information become useless after the interpreting is finished, so it will soon be forgotten naturally by interpreters as short term memory also has a limitation of time. If there is some necessary and important information such as words or expression that could be useful in the future, interpreters can give it more attention and memorize it repeatedly to encode the information into long term memory(Han Xiaoming, 2004, 156).<br /> <br /> Long-term memory is like an knowledge base of experiences, and the stored information needs to be activated before it can be decoded into (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)short-term memory to participate in the processing of new information. When the speech chain is released, the brain will quickly activate the long-term memory, extract the relevant knowledge stored before, and start the sensory memory and short-term memory to analyze and process the information , so as to fully understand the meaning carried by the speech, thus making the communication proceed effectively. Long-term memory is the basis of interpretation(Ma Yingmai, Sun Changyan, 2004, 78). In the whole process of interpretation, long-term memory has four functions. The first one is information confirmation. That is to identify information consistent with interpretation long-term memory. The second function is information understanding. If the new information to be processed is consistent with the existing old information in long-term memory, its meaning will be accepted. The third function is information anticipation. The activation of knowledge system will bring about the anticipation of future information. The last one is information expression. When the interpreters understands what the original text conveys, they must look for appropriate words or expressions in long-term memory to express their meanings in the target language(Wang Jianhua, 2019,77). Long-term memory, like a database, stores a large amount of information that can be extracted at any time. More importantly, it also has great influence on sensory memory and short-term memory. If there is no information in long-term memory, the receiver will not be able to recognize familiar stimuli, and short-term memory will not be able to encode and store information in chunks, so information will not be able to change from short-term memory to long-term memory. Therefore, long term memory plays a decisive role when interpreters store the content of original language(Bao Gang, 2005, 160).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Deverbalization Mode'''<br /> <br /> In the field of translation, as for the understanding of interpreting thinking process and interpreting memory mechanism, there are four different schools of translation theories, namely, information theory school, cognitive psychology school, neural network school and hermeneutic school. Among them, the most authoritative and influential interpretation theory is the &quot;Deverbalization Mode&quot; theory put forward by the French hermeneutics school(Liu Guiying, 2006, 117).<br /> <br /> &quot;Deverbalization Mode&quot; theory was proposed by the French hermeneutics school, which is represented by French interpreting theorist Seleskovitch. In a language, sense is the content while words and linguistic signs are the shell. In this mode, what the interpreter needs to do is “shell” the language by coding the information. That is to only keep the sense of the language in memory and remove all the other things(Seleskovitch, 1978). According to the theory, the whole process of interpreting is divided into three stages. They are listening, understanding and expressing respectively. Understanding is considered to be the most important part in the process of interpreting(Seleskovitch, Lederer 2003, 41). <br /> <br /> In interpreting, interpreters should first listen to and make clear these linguistic signs and find out the sense and content they express through analysis and understanding. Then the interpreters need to remove the “shell” of the language and forget the linguistic signs and their structure. Only the sense needs to be memorized. The final step for(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC) interpreters is to reconstruct the information of original language. They need to decode these sense with the linguistic signs of target language(Xu Ming, 2010, 6).<br /> <br /> Deverbalization is not just a coding process from original language to target language but also a dynamic process of understanding and expressing. The central idea is that the interpreters should memorize the pure sense of content instead of the language shells. And they then should process these information with the language shell of target language(Xu Han, 2007, 124).<br /> From the perspective of the theory, interpreters’ memory is not mechanical memory of isolated phonetic codes and information symbols of the source language, but the memory of the main meaning and key words of the source language information on the basis of understanding. Moreover, interpreters’ memory is not simply recalling of information stored in the brain, but a storage and extraction of(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC) input information after analyzing, screening, processing and coding. Interpreters must extract the relevant background knowledge stored in the brain by means of &quot;semantic retrieval&quot;, identify, interpret and reason the speech chain, then store the textual meaning in the form of internal speech, and complete the information restoration process in a short time(Xu Han, 2007, 124).<br /> <br /> '''3.3 Memory Strategies for Interpreters'''<br /> <br /> '''3.3.1 Logical Memory''' <br /> <br /> Logical memory means that when the interpreters receive new information, they can fully stimulate the existing schema in their mind according to the main content of the information, get rid of the limitations of the source language, better remember the newly acquired information, and truly achieve the combination of &quot;recalling&quot; and &quot;interpreting&quot;. In interpreting, interpreters use discourse knowledge to logically sort out the internal relations of the source language content and list the framework. In this process, the interpreters’ notes should mainly include the logical relationship between key words and information, and what the interpreters memorize in his brain is the main meaning and connection of the source material, rather than isolated phrases and sentences. In the interpreting stage, the interpreter uses the newly acquired information to activate the related schema in the brain to summarize and edit, so that the known information can reduce the memory burden. This memory method is suitable for(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC) interpreting materials with organized contents and clear priorities(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).<br /> <br /> '''3.3.2 Visual Memory'''<br /> <br /> Visual memory refers to a method in which an interpreter can quickly visualize the source language content in his mind, combine the existing background knowledge schema, and use the imagery thinking established in his brain to remember when he or she hears the interpretation content. Visual information storage tends to be more complete, and its retention time is relatively long. If images can be formed in the brain, it will definitely reduce the memory burden and produce better translations. Using visual memory of (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)information in descriptive or introductory interpreting materials will produce very good results(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).<br /> <br /> For examples, the following is part of President Xi’s, state leader of People’s Republic of China, speech at the 12th BRICS Summit.<br /> <br /> “同时，我们坚信，和平与发展的时代主题没有改变，世界多极化和经济全球化的时代潮流也不可能逆转。我们要为人民福祉着想，秉持人类命运共同体理念，用实际行动为建设美好世界作出应有贡献。”(Xi jinPing, 2020)<br /> <br /> The official translation is given as fallowed from XinHua News Agency.<br /> <br /> “Despite all this, we remain convinced that the theme of our times, peace and development, has not changed, and that the trend toward multi-polarity and economic globalization cannot be turned around. We must keep people’ s welfare close to heart and pursue the vision of a community with a shared future for mankind. Through concrete actions, we will contribute our share to making the world a better place for everyone.”<br /> <br /> From president Xi’s speech, he mentioned the theme of times, world and peace, multi-polarity and economic globalization, people’s well being. Thus interpreters can use visual memory here to imagine peace as a peace bird, globalization as a the picture of earth and people’s well being as a picture of a happy family(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).<br /> <br /> '''3.3.3 Chunk Memory'''<br /> <br /> In the process of memory, individual information is often grouped into larger units, that is, recombined or recoded, which is called chunks. Although people's short-term memory capacity is(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC) only about 7 chunks, the information storage capacity of each chunk can be extended to a certain extent. People can reorganize the information of short-term memory by using the related schema in their minds, and form familiar larger meaning units. Therefore, in interpreting memory training, the translator should actively use the schema in his mind to make information memorized in chunks efficiently. Interpreters should reconstruct the information they hear, get rid of the language form of the original text, and transform it into meaningful information chunks. With the help of schema theory and interpretive theory, several single sentences can be condensed into several meaningful information chunks, thus reducing the memory pressure in interpretation and greatly improving the interpretation effect. Materials with poor logic and consistency are more suitable for this memory method(Miller, 1956, 63).<br /> <br /> There is also a part from President Xi’s speech at the 12th BRICS Summit as followed.<br /> <br /> “环顾全球，疫情使各国人民生命安全和身体健康遭受巨大威胁，全球公共卫生体系面临严峻考验，人类社会正在经历百年来最严重的传染病大流行。国际贸易和投资急剧萎缩，人员、货物流动严重受阻，不稳定不确定因素层出不穷，世界经济正在经历上世纪30年代大萧条以来最严重的衰退。单边主义、保护主义、霸凌行径愈演愈烈，治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字有增无减。”(Xi jinPing, 2020)<br /> <br /> And the official translation is given as followed. <br /> <br /> “Around the world, COVID-19 is posing a grave threat to people’s life and well-being. The global public health system is facing a severe test. Human society is going through the most serious pandemic in the past century. International trade and investment have shrunk considerably. The flow of goods and personnel has been impeded. Factors for uncertainty and instability are numerous. The world economy is witnessing the worst recession since the Great Depression in the 1930s. Unilateralism, protectionism and acts of bullying are becoming rampant, and the deficit in governance, trust, development and peace is widening instead of narrowing.”<br /> <br /> In this part, president Xi mentioned many aspects. They are current situation, public heath, people’s health, economy and politics. Each aspect can function as a chunk. When interpreters hear these information, they can memorize these information in these chunks(Chen Weihong, 2014, 87).<br /> <br /> ===4 Translation Memory in Interpreting===<br /> <br /> '''4.1 Translation Memory'''<br /> <br /> With development of science and technology, translation technology become widely use in translation field such as computer aided translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translators. And translation memory is a tool used in computer aided translation(Shi Yuntao, 2000, 36).<br /> <br /> '''4.1.1 Definition'''<br /> <br /> Translation memory is also called TM. It is different from the psychological memory that has been well elaborated. It is a kind of database to aid the translation. The principle of Translation Memory (TM) technology is that users build one or more translation memories by using existing original texts and translations. In the process of translation, the system will automatically search the same or similar translation resources such as sentences and paragraphs in the translation memories, and give reference translations, so that users can avoid unnecessary repetitive work and only focus on the translation of new content. At the same time, the translation memory keeps learning and automatically storing new translations in the background, which becomes more and more &quot;smart&quot; and more efficient(Lv Lisong, Mu Lei, 2007,36).<br /> <br /> '''4.1.2 Mechanism'''<br /> <br /> The translator first provides a source text to the translation memory, and the program will analyze this text first, and try to find out whether the existing translation section is consistent with the translated text in the past in the database. If matching translation pairs are found, they will be presented to the translator for reference. Translators can choose to accept the old translation, reject it or modify it. If it is modified, the modified version will also be recorded and stored in the database(Wang Jinquan, 2004, 14).<br /> <br /> Some translation memory systems only search for 100% matching words, which means that only the new source that is accurately compared with the database and completely matching data will be presented. There are also other systems that use the fuzzy comparison principle to find similar segments, and present them to translators with special marks to make them easy to recognize. It is very important that the general translation memory system only searches the source language from its database. Text segments that have no match at all will have to be translated manually by the translator. These newly translated text segments will be stored in the database, and future translations may be adopted immediately because the source text appears repeatedly. Translation memory will work well when the repetition of articles is quite high, such as some technical documents or manuals. Translation memory is also very helpful for(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;when&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC) translating a situation where existing documents are gradually added and revised from the past. Generally speaking, translation memory will not be considered in literature or creative documents, mainly because these types of articles have low repeatability. However, some people think that these words with extremely low repeatability are still worth collecting, for example, they can be used in the search of concordance. Other help collected from translation memory can also be helpful in quality verification and proofreading. When the translation memory is continuously used on appropriate words for a period of time, it will save a lot of workload for translators.(Wang Jinquan, 2004, 14)<br /> <br /> '''4.2 Application of Translation Memory in Interpreting'''<br /> <br /> '''4.2.1 Current Situation '''<br /> <br /> Although most translation memory is used in the work of translation, it is also used in interpreting widely in recent years. Translation memory is also used in three stages of a interpreting(Li Jun, 2020, 127). <br /> <br /> The first stage is(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC) pre-interpreting period when interpreters make preparation for the interpreting. If there is script or some new terms and expressions, interpreters can first resort to machine translation to learn how to translate these content and then store these results in translation memory for future use(Li Jun, 2020, 128).<br /> <br /> The second stage is when the interpreters are doing the interpreting. There is a very important technology called voice recognition. The technology can recognize what the speakers said and transcribe it into words. One(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;on&lt;/span&gt;) the one hand, these words can show as subtitles on the screen. Listeners can choose to watch the subtitles or listen to interpreters by themselves. Ont the other hand, these recognized words can also show to interpreters for them to refer to. Thus, it can reduce their stress and burden to some extend. And if the speakers said the terms or words that have been stored in translation memory, they can soon be translated into target languages. The voice recognition technology can transfer speech into words. And then translation plays its role to help interpreters do their interpreting as it saves interpreters a lot of time to remember these words(Li Jun, 2020, 128).<br /> <br /> The third stage is after the interpreting. Interpreters can have a review on their on interpreting by voice recognizing their record. If there is any new words that could appear again in the future, interpreters can store them in their own translation memory. If there are words that have benn stored in translation memory but needs modifying, interpreters can also upgrade them(Li Jun, 2020, 128).<br /> <br /> '''4.2.2 Limitations'''<br /> <br /> Although translation memory has been adapted in interpreting, its has still some limitations. There are mainly two aspects of(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)limitation. They are translation memory and voice recognition.<br /> <br /> As for translation memory, the limitation is that what stored in(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;) translation memory are words and phrases. In most cases, people needs to translate a whole paragraph or text, so the cohesion is very important. Common translation memory uses a sentence as a Translation Unit or a Translation Segment, which makes it easy to translate multiple sentences separately and then combine them. And this makes the translation not as coherent as it’s required. Besides, translation memory is not compatible to all file formats such as words, the one most frequently used(Su Mingyang, 2007, 73).<br /> <br /> As for voice recognition, when there are more than one language in the speech, the effectiveness of the technology could be affected. Besides, it sometimes fails to recognize conditional adverbials and adverbial clause induced by words such as If, every and although is not good. The reason is that the clauses caused by these words can be placed before or after the main sentence, which makes it difficult to recognize and automatically add punctuation marks. Moreover, the results of recognition is greatly affected by the pronunciation and intonation of the speaker and the environment(Li Jun, 2020, 129).<br /> <br /> ===5 Conclusion===<br /> <br /> A good interpreter is required to have a good memory. It doesn’t only mean the ability to memorize many things but also knowing how to use different memory systems and modes of coding to optimize their memory. Moreover, with the development of technology, interpreters should also learn how to use these technology such as translation memory to help them do the interpreting(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;interpretation&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC). However, although translation memory is used in interpreting now, it is still not mature and needs to be improved. Interpreters can use these technology but not rely on it. They must rely on their own memory.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Baddeley, A. D. Working Memory : an Overview[A]. 2006.<br /> <br /> [2]Hitch, G.J. Working Memory[A]. 2012.<br /> <br /> [3]Miller, A. George. The Magic Number Seven Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information[J]. 1956. The Psychological Review, 63(2).<br /> <br /> [4]Seleskovitch, D. &amp; Lederer, M. Pédagogie Raisonnée de l , Interprétation (3 e édition) [M]. Paris: Didier Erudition, 2003.<br /> <br /> [5]Tulving, Organism of Memory[C], New York: Academic Press, 1972.<br /> <br /> [6]鲍刚, 翻译理论概述[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,2005.<br /> <br /> [7]车文博, 心理学原理[M]. 黑龙江：黑龙江人民出版社, 1986.<br /> <br /> [8]陈卫红. 论心理认知和口译记忆[J]. 外语教学理论与实践, 2014: 85-95.<br /> <br /> [9]韩小明. 从记忆机制看口译教学中记忆能力的培养[J]. 重庆工学院学报, 2004: 156-15.<br /> <br /> [10]李俊. 计算机翻译辅助技术在同传中的应用及对同传生态系统的影响[J]. 中国翻译, 2020(4): 127-132.<br /> <br /> [11]刘桂英. 口译的记忆心理学基础[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2006: 116-118.<br /> <br /> [12]刘颖, 苏巧玲. 医学心理学[M]. 北京：中国华侨出版社, 1997.<br /> <br /> [13]吕立松, 穆雷. 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[J]. 外语世界, 2007: 35-43.<br /> <br /> [14]马英迈, 孙长彦, 口译中的记忆与理解[J]. 宁夏大学学报, 2004: 78-79.<br /> <br /> [15]施韵涛. 全新翻译解决方案 ——翻译记忆[J]. 中国科技翻译, 2000.<br /> <br /> [16]苏明阳. 翻译记忆系统的现状及其启示[J]. 外语研究, 2007: 70-74.<br /> <br /> [17]王建华. 口译过程认知研究[M]. 北京：中国人民大学出版社, 2019.<br /> <br /> [18]王金铨. 翻译记忆 ( TM)—— 计算机翻译技术的新发展[J]. 现代图书情报技术, 2004: 13-16.<br /> <br /> [19]徐翰. 口译记忆认知与记忆策略探索[J]. 南昌大学学报(人文社会科学版), 2007: 124-126.<br /> <br /> [20]许明. 口译认知过程中“deverbalization”的认知诠释[J]. 译论研究, 2010: 5-11<br /> <br /> [21]张威. 口译认知研究：同声传译和工作记忆的关系[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 2011.<br /> <br /> == The Subtile Translation of Movie from the Perspective of Multimodal Discourse Analysis 王轩 Wang Xuan==<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> Mankind has entered the era of multimedia, so the language as a mono-modal form has been unable to fully express the meaning of communication. Thus we need some other modals to enhance, in order to fully express the meaning and reach the aim of communication, such as sound, visual image, color and so on. Thus the term Multimodality aroused linguist’s interest and attention. <br /> The thesis is based on the Multimodal Discourse Analysis theory as the foundation, aims to analyze the following three areas under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis: 1. The embodiment of Multimodality in the film “Benjamin Button”, then aims to analyze how does the subtitle and Multimodality combining to constructed the whole meaning under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis.2. The second goal is to discuss the relationship between the movie’s subtitles and other modals, and the relationship between different modals. 3. By discussing the analysis of the movie subtitle expression function in the process of overall significance, this thesis attempts to put forward some suggestions on the movie subtitle translation. <br /> <br /> Mankind has entered the era of multimedia, so the language as a mono-modal form has been unable to fully express the meaning of communication. Thus we need some other modals to enhance in order to fully express the meaning and reach the aim of communication, such as sound, visual image, color and so on. Thus the term Multimodality aroused linguist’s interest and attention. <br /> The thesis is based on the Multimodal Discourse Analysis theory as the foundation, aims to analyze the following three areas under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis: 1. The embodiment of Multimodality in the film “Benjamin Button”, then aims to analyze how does the subtitle and Multimodality combining to constructed the whole meaning under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis.2. The second goal is to discuss the relationship between the movie’s subtitles and other modals, and the relationship between different modals. 3. By discussing the analysis of the movie subtitle expression function in the process of overall significance, this thesis attempts to put forward some suggestions on the movie subtitle translation. --[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Multimodal Discourse Analysis；Audio-visual Product；Subtitle Translation<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 人类已经进入多媒体时代，语言作为一种单一的模态形式已经无法充分表达交际的意义。因此，我们还需要一些其他的情态手段加以加强，以充分表达意义，达到交际的目的，如声音、视觉形象、色彩等。因此，多模态一词引起了语言学家的兴趣和关注。<br /> 本文以多模态话语分析理论为基础，旨在在多模态话语分析理论框架下分析以下三个方面：1。多模态在电影《本杰明·巴顿》中的体现，则旨在分析在多模态话语分析的理论框架下，字幕和多模态如何结合起来构建整体意义。第二个目标是讨论电影字幕与其他情态动词的关系，以及不同情态动词之间的关系。三。通过对电影字幕在翻译过程中的整体意义的分析，本文试图对电影字幕翻译提出一些建议。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 多模态语篇分析；视听产品；字幕翻译<br /> <br /> === Chapter One Multimodal Discourse Analysis Theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 1.1 The Emergence And Development Of Multimodality '''<br /> <br /> At present, experts and scholars have entered the stage of multimodal discourse analysis. This is not an accidental phenomenon, but inevitable, because they think that discourse or discourse is a unit of meaning, but the expression of meaning is not only through a single language, on the contrary, it can be constructed by many other symbol systems besides language. <br /> Therefore, it is not comprehensive and specific to analyze discourse or discourse from the linguistic level, so multimodal discourse analysis comes into being. Multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in foreign countries, and has been widely studied and explored. However, it is still in its infancy in China, and has attracted much attention in recent years. <br /> In the early 1950s, American linguist Harris put forward the theory of discourse analysis for the first time. Since then, discourse analysts all over the world have been working hard to analyze and study, and have put forward many theories and methods of discourse analysis, and analyzed them through a large number of examples. <br /> <br /> At present, experts and scholars have entered the stage of multimodal discourse analysis. This is not an accidental phenomenon, but inevitable, because they think that discourse is a unit of meaning, but the expression of meaning is not only through a single language, on the contrary, it can be constructed by many other symbol systems besides language. <br /> Therefore, it is not comprehensive and specific to analyze discourse or discourse from the linguistic level, so multimodal discourse analysis comes into being. Multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in foreign countries, and has been widely studied and explored. However, it is still in its infancy in China, and has attracted much attention in recent years. <br /> In the early 1950s, American linguist Harris put forward the theory of discourse analysis for the first time. Since then, discourse analysts all over the world have been working hard to analyze and study, and have put forward many theories and methods of discourse analysis, and analyzed them through a large number of examples. --[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> <br /> However, almost all the theories and methods of discourse analysis focus on language and ignore other forms of meaning expression, such as image, music, color and so on. Therefore, the research on discourse analysis at that time was not comprehensive and had great limitations. In the 1990s, multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in western countries, which overcomes the limitations of discourse analysis to a certain extent. Therefore, once multimodal discourse analysis was proposed, it immediately attracted the attention of linguists and once became a hot topic. Especially in recent years, linguists at home and abroad have carried out extensive research and Exploration on multimodal discourse analysis. <br /> In foreign countries, R. Barthes is the first French scholar to systematically analyze multimodality. As a famous semiotician, R. Barthes adopts the semiotic perspective to study multimodality. Therefore, multimodal discourse has been analyzed with semiotics from the very beginning. Multimodal discourse analysis breaks through the shackles of traditional single language information, and integrates more research in other fields, such as psychology, cognitive science and sociology. R. Barthes discussed the interaction and relationship between image and language in the expression of meaning. Based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed a relatively perfect grammatical framework for the analysis of visual images, thus providing theoretical basis and analytical methods for multimodal discourse analysis. They believe that multimodality is a major feature of various discourses in modern society. In the digital age, these different modes play the same role in meaning reproduction. In addition, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed an image analysis framework based on three pure functions in image reading, namely reproduction, interaction and composition.. In a word, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen's multimodal communication theory mainly focuses on the symbolic resources and their use. <br /> <br /> However, almost all the theories and methods of discourse analysis focus on language and ignore other forms of meaning expression, such as image, music, color and so on. Therefore, the research on discourse analysis at that time was not comprehensive and had great limitations. In the 1990s, multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in western countries, which overcomes the limitations of discourse analysis to a certain extent. Therefore, once multimodal discourse analysis was proposed, it immediately attracted the attention of linguists and once became a hot topic. Especially in recent years, linguists at home and abroad have carried out extensive research and exploration on multimodal discourse analysis. <br /> In foreign countries, R. Barthes is the first French scholar to systematically analyze multimodality. As a famous semiotician, R. Barthes adopts the semiotic perspective to study multimodality. Therefore, multimodal discourse has been analyzed with semiotics from the very beginning. Multimodal discourse analysis breaks through the shackles of traditional single language information, and integrates more research in other fields, such as psychology, cognitive science and sociology. R. Barthes discussed the interaction and relationship between image and language in the expression of meaning. Based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed a relatively perfect grammatical framework for the analysis of visual images, thus providing theoretical basis and analytical methods for multimodal discourse analysis. They believe that multimodality is a major feature of various discourses in modern society. In the digital age, these different modes play the same role in meaning reproduction. In addition, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed an image analysis framework based on three pure functions in image reading, namely reproduction, interaction and composition.. In a word, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen's multimodal communication theory mainly focuses on the symbolic resources and their use. --[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> <br /> In China, there are also in-depth and extensive research on multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Li Zhanzi analyzes multimodal discourse from the perspective of social semiotics, while Hu Zhuanglin, a professor of Peking University, studies multimodal semiotics in theory and practice, and proposes multimodal language teaching and research in social semiotics. Zhu Yongsheng has made an in-depth study on multimodality and summarized the theoretical basis and research methods of multimodal discourse analysis. Zhang Delu made a preliminary exploration on the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Zhang Delu pointed out that multimodal discourse refers to the use of hearing, vision, touch and other senses, through language, images, sounds, movements and other means and symbol resources for communication. This phenomenon is very common, which is mainly reflected in the following aspects. For example, in order to better understand poetry, people find that it can be attached with pictures, that is, it is attractive People's interest has reached the purpose of helping people understand. In addition, people can often add some auxiliary gestures or actions, and use different tone and tone when speaking, which is also a form of multimodality. However, multimodal discourse analysis has not been paid enough attention. Only in the study of modern linguistics, some linguists have paid attention to multimodality and started to study it from the perspective of non-verbal features and linguistic features. However, it is only studied as an auxiliary expression system of language, but not as a mode of meaning expression. Although multimedia discourse analysis came into being, it was not until recent years that scholars gradually realized the importance of multimedia discourse analysis. It can be seen that multimodality has attracted a large number of linguists in China and achieved fruitful results.<br /> <br /> In China, there are also in-depth and extensive research on multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Li Zhanzi analyzes multimodal discourse from the perspective of social semiotics, while Hu Zhuanglin, a professor of Peking University, studies multimodal semiotics in theory and practice, and proposes multimodal language teaching and research in social semiotics. Zhu Yongsheng made an in-depth study on multimodality and summarized the theoretical basis and research methods of multimodal discourse analysis. Zhang Delu made a preliminary exploration on the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Zhang Delu pointed out that multimodal discourse refers to the use of hearing, vision, touch and other senses, through language, images, sounds, movements and other means and symbol resources for communication. This phenomenon is very common, which is mainly reflected in the following aspects. For example, in order to better understand poetry, people find that it can be attached with pictures, that is, it is attractive People's interest has reached the purpose of helping people understand. In addition, people can often add some auxiliary gestures or actions, and use different tone and tone when speaking, which is also a form of multimodality. However, multimodal discourse analysis has not been paid enough attention. Only in the study of modern linguistics, some linguists have paid attention to multimodality and started to study it from the perspective of non-verbal features and linguistic features. However, it is only studied as an auxiliary expression system of language, but not as a mode of meaning expression. Although multimedia discourse analysis came into being, it was not until recent years that scholars gradually realized the importance of multimedia discourse analysis. It can be seen that multimodality has attracted a large number of linguists in China and achieved fruitful results.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> <br /> ''' 1.2 The Theoretical Framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis '''<br /> <br /> Linguists have found that systemic functional linguistics can be used as the basic theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. The five levels are: (1) cultural level, including ideology as the main form of culture and genre as the potential choice of discourse mode. (2) The context level includes the context configuration composed of discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. (3) The meaning level includes discourse meaning and conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning. (4) At the formal level, there are different formal systems to realize meaning, including lexical grammar system of language, visual ideographic form and visual grammar system, auditory ideographic form and auditory grammar system, tactile ideographic form and tactile grammar system, etc., as well as the relationship between the grammar of various modes. (5) Media level is the material form of discourse in the material world, including linguistic and non-verbal. Systemic functional linguistics provides a relatively ready-made theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis. On this basis, Professor Zhang Delu proposed a comprehensive theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis: (1) cultural level, (2) context level, (3) content level, (4) expression level<br /> <br /> Linguists have found that systemic functional linguistics can be used as the basic theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. The five levels are: (1) cultural level, including ideology as the main form of culture and genre as the potential choice of discourse mode. (2) The context level, including the context configuration composed of discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. (3) The meaning level includes discourse meaning and conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning. (4) At the formal level, there are different formal systems to realize meaning, including lexical grammar system of language, visual ideographic form and visual grammar system, auditory ideographic form and auditory grammar system, tactile ideographic form and tactile grammar system, etc., as well as the relationship between the grammar of various modes. (5) Media level is the material form of discourse in the material world, including linguistic and non-verbal. Systemic functional linguistics provides a relatively ready-made theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis. On this basis, Professor Zhang Delu proposed a comprehensive theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis: (1) cultural level, (2) context level, (3) content level, (4) expression level--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> <br /> ''' 1.3 The Forms and Relations of Multimodal Discourse '''<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse forms include: language, picture sense, sound sense and feeling. The typical multimodal discourse mode is a kind of modal discourse, which can not fully express its meaning, or can not express its full meaning. It needs to be supplemented by another one. The relationship between these modes is called &quot;complementary relationship&quot;, while the other is called non-complementary relationship. <br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse forms include: language, picture sense, sound sense and feeling. The typical multimodal discourse mode is a kind of modal discourse, which can not fully express its meaning, nor express its full meaning. It needs to be supplemented by another one. The relationship between these modes is called &quot;complementary relationship&quot;, while the other is called non-complementary relationship. --[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> <br /> Complementary relationship can be divided into strengthening relationship and non strengthening relationship. Reinforcement relationship means that one mode is the main form of communication, while another or more forms strengthen it. For example, when expressing meaning, if language is the main form of communication, then other body movements such as gestures will strengthen the language. On the contrary, language may also be a reinforcement to other ways of communication. Strengthening relationship includes three kinds of relations: prominent, primary and secondary, and expanding. Non reinforcement refers to the relationship between two modes which are indispensable and complementary to each other. For example, in the process of watching a movie, the visual and auditory modes are combined with each other. There are also three forms of non strengthening relations: coordination, union and intersection. In the coordination relationship, different modes construct the whole meaning together, and the lack of any mode will be incomplete. Play the video at the same time, for example. The two modes of image and sound are both necessary and difficult to understand without one communication. In this case, the relationship between image and sound is harmonious. The joint relationship refers to the combination of different types of media in the same mode to express the meaning. For example, in the typical multimodal discourse form of film, the sound matched with the scene animation and the voice of interpretation are combined to reflect the meaning of auditory construction. The last one is the phenomenon of cross embodiment of meaning. For example, teachers do experiments while they are in the experimental class. At this time, the text is still unimodal. However, if you are talking with your friends about whether the weather is snowing, the size and shape of snow, and so on, the scene of snow, including the process and mode of snow, will directly participate in the overall meaning you want to express. At this time, your discourse has a strong situational dependence. A large part of the meaning of your speech is reflected by the situation, although the scene does not actively participate in it In your verbal communication. Therefore, context dependent discourse communication is multimodal.<br /> <br /> Complementary relationship can be divided into strengthening relationship and non-strengthening relationship. Reinforcement relationship means that one mode is the main form of communication, while another or more forms strengthen it. For example, when expressing meaning, if language is the main form of communication, then other body movements such as gestures will strengthen the language. On the contrary, language may also be a reinforcement to other ways of communication. Strengthening relationship includes three kinds of relations: prominent, primary and secondary, and expanding. Non reinforcement refers to the relationship between two modes which are indispensable and complementary to each other. For example, in the process of watching a movie, the visual and auditory modes are combined with each other. There are also three forms of non strengthening relations: coordination, union and intersection. In the coordination relationship, different modes construct the whole meaning together, and the lack of any mode will be incomplete. Play the video at the same time, for example. The two modes of image and sound are both necessary and difficult to understand without one communication. In this case, the relationship between image and sound is harmonious. The joint relationship refers to the combination of different types of media in the same mode to express the meaning. For example, in the typical multimodal discourse form of film, the sound matched with the scene animation and the voice of interpretation are combined to reflect the meaning of auditory construction. The last one is the phenomenon of cross embodiment of meaning. For example, teachers do experiments while they are in the experimental class. At this time, the text is still unimodal. However, if you are talking with your friends about whether the weather is snowing, the size and shape of snow, and so on, the scene of snow, including the process and mode of snow, will directly participate in the overall meaning you want to express. At this time, your discourse has a strong situational dependence. A large part of the meaning of your speech is reflected by the situation, although the scene does not actively participate in it In your verbal communication. Therefore, context dependent discourse communication is multimodal.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> <br /> === Chapter Two Film subtitle translation theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 2.1 Film Works and Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> With the advent of the multimedia digital era, foreign film and television works continue to flow into China, so subtitle translation is becoming more and more important. More and more people use subtitles to obtain foreign related information, understand foreign cultures and even learn foreign languages. Subtitling affects people's cognition of things, and subtitle translation has become a professional auxiliary form to facilitate the audience to understand multimedia works. Gottlieb defines subtitle translation as &quot;a kind of written, additional and synchronous translation type for instantaneous and multi symbolic texts&quot;. (Gottlieb, 1997:309) in China, film and television translation started relatively late, and large-scale film and television translation began after the 1980s. <br /> Although the number of mass media translation has greatly increased, subtitle translation has not attracted enough attention of the academic community, and the research results on subtitle translation are few. In recent years, subtitle translation, as a field of translation, has attracted more and more attention from experts and scholars all over the world. Subtitles have two major functions: first, to deepen the audience's impression of some film content; second, to assist the lack of listening. There are two kinds of subtitles: the first is intralingual subtitle, the second is interlingual subtitle. Intralingual subtitle translation does not need to translate one language into another, but only converts the discourse into text. &quot;Interlingual subtitle refers to the translation of the source language into the target language and superimposed on the bottom of the screen while retaining the original sound of the film and television, which is commonly referred to as subtitle translation.&quot; (Li Yunxing, 2001:38)<br /> <br /> With the advent of the multimedia digital era, foreign film and television works continue to flow into China, so subtitle translation is becoming more and more important. More and more people use subtitles to obtain foreign related information, understand foreign cultures and even learn foreign languages. Subtitling affects people's cognition of things, and subtitle translation has become a professional auxiliary form to facilitate the audience to understand multimedia works. Gottlieb defines subtitle translation as &quot;a kind of written, additional and synchronous translation type for instantaneous and multi symbolic texts&quot;. (Gottlieb, 1997:309) in China, film and television translation started relatively late, and large-scale film and television translation began after the 1980s. <br /> Although the number of mass media translation has greatly increased, subtitle translation has not attracted enough attention of the academic community, and the research results on subtitle translation are few. In recent years, subtitle translation, as a field of translation, has attracted more and more attention from experts and scholars all over the world. Subtitles have two major functions: first, to deepen the audience's impression of some film content; second, it can help to assist the lack of listening. There are two kinds of subtitles: the first is intralingual subtitle, the second is interlingual subtitle. Intralingual subtitle translation does not need to translate one language into another, but only converts the discourse into text. &quot;Interlingual subtitle refers to the translation of the source language into the target language and superimposed on the bottom of the screen while retaining the original sound of the film and television, which is commonly referred to as subtitle translation.&quot; (Li Yunxing, 2001:38)--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ''' 2.2 The Characteristics Of Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> Film subtitles are an important part of the film, and together with the visual image to construct the meaning, film subtitles can help the audience to understand the characteristics of the characters in the film, to master the character's character and to be familiar with the plot of the film. Film subtitle translation has the following characteristics: <br /> Firstly, colloquialism. Subtitle translation in movies is mainly the translation of dialogues between the characters in the film. Therefore, subtitle translation should be as colloquial as possible and conform to the expression characteristics of the characters. On the premise of ensuring the coherence and smoothness of the context, the subtitle translation should be as close to life as possible so as to achieve natural and realistic effect. <br /> <br /> Film subtitles are an important part of the film, and together with the visual image to construct the meaning, film subtitles can help the audience to understand the characteristics of the characters in the film, to master the character's character and to be familiar with the plot of the film. Film subtitle translation has the following characteristics: <br /> Firstly, colloquialism. Subtitle translation in movies is mainly that of dialogues between the characters in the film. Therefore, subtitle translation should be as colloquial as possible and conform to the expression characteristics of the characters. On the premise of ensuring the coherence and smoothness of the context, the subtitle translation should be as close to life as possible so as to achieve natural and realistic effect. --[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> Secondly, the characters in the film have their own unique personalities, which are often reflected by different language styles. Therefore, the second feature of film subtitle translation is to conform to the characters' personalities. <br /> Thirdly, emotional, emotional help the audience better understand the plot, so the film subtitle translation should reflect the true feelings, the translation should be able to put oneself in the position and into the role, to achieve the artistic effect of sincere.<br /> Fourthly, oral form is a typical feature of film subtitle translation, which is also the most obvious difference between film subtitle translation and literature translation. The basic task of translation is to provide a blueprint for dubbing. Therefore, the translation of subtitles should be consistent with the mouth shape of the characters as much as possible, and the accuracy and vividness of the translation should be guaranteed. <br /> Fifthly, popularization means popularization. Popularization means that the translation can be understood by the audience on the premise of smoothness, so as to achieve the purpose of clear understanding and appreciation of both refined and popular tastes. The ultimate goal of popularization is to serve the audience and make the translation a bridge for effective communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the characters in the film have their own unique personalities, often reflected by different language styles. Therefore, the second feature of film subtitle translation is to conform to the characters' personalities. <br /> Thirdly, emotional, emotional help the audience better understand the plot, so the film subtitle translation should reflect the true feelings, the translation should be able to put oneself in the position and into the role, to achieve the artistic effect of sincere.<br /> Fourthly, oral form is a typical feature of film subtitle translation, which is also the most obvious difference between film subtitle translation and literature translation. The basic task of translation is to provide a blueprint for dubbing. Therefore, the translation of subtitles should be consistent with the mouth shape of the characters as much as possible, and the accuracy and vividness of the translation should be guaranteed. <br /> Fifthly, popularization means popularization. Popularization means that the translation can be understood by the audience on the premise of smoothness, so as to achieve the purpose of clear understanding and appreciation of both refined and popular tastes. The ultimate goal of popularization is to serve the audience and make the translation a bridge for effective communication between different cultures.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> <br /> ''' 2.3 Strategies Of Film Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.1 Pay Attention To The Artistry Of Language '''<br /> <br /> It is said that film is the seventh art after literature, music, dance, drama, painting and sculpture. As a young art, the only one who knows his birthday, film appeared as a popular art from the very beginning. Film is an art form with unique means of expression, and the artistry of its language is the basic element of film. Although Goethe once said: art should never be the same as reality, and it is impossible to embody art. But it turns out that film is not only a popular art, and it is the most popular art, which is called a kind of popular culture. From the point of view of the film itself, most of the films are for people to watch, and the audience of the film comes from different social strata, so their education level is also different. Therefore, the language in the subtitle of film translation must be in line with the audience's acceptance ability and actual level, so as to make the translation understood by the audience, more clearly, and achieve both refined and popular tastes. However, the vulgarization and popularization of the target language does not mean the vulgarization and generalization of the language. The language of film is rich in expressive force, and the language of subtitle translation must be accurate, natural and vivid. Therefore, in the film subtitle translation, we should not only retain the language characteristics of the source language and absorb the characteristics of foreign language expression, but also abide by the language tradition of our own culture, and use words with cultural color of the target language to translate the original text, so as to truly achieve the purpose of translation.<br /> <br /> It is said that film is the seventh art after literature, music, dance, drama, painting and sculpture. As a young art, film appeared as a popular art from the very beginning. Film is an art form with unique means of expression, and the artistry of its language is the basic element of film. Although Goethe once said: art should never be the same as reality, and it is impossible to embody art. But it turns out that film is not only a popular art, and it is the most popular art, which is called a kind of popular culture. From the point of view of the film itself, most of the films are for people to watch, and the audience of the film comes from different social strata, so their education level is also different. Therefore, the language in the subtitle of film translation must be in line with the audience's acceptance ability and actual level, so as to make the translation understood by the audience, more clearly, and achieve both refined and popular tastes. However, the vulgarization and popularization of the target language does not mean the vulgarization and generalization of the language. The language of film is rich in expressive force, and the language of subtitle translation must be accurate, natural and vivid. Therefore, in the film subtitle translation, we should not only retain the language characteristics of the source language and absorb the characteristics of foreign language expression, but also abide by the language tradition of our own culture, and use words with cultural color of the target language to translate the original text, so as to truly achieve the purpose of translation.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.2 Literal Translation And Free Translation Should Be Audience-Centered '''<br /> <br /> The characteristics of film subtitle translation, i.e. instantaneity and popularity, determine its translation strategies. Subtitle translation must refer to the picture and sound of the film and television. Usually, the subtitle appears in front of the audience together with the original picture, so that the audience can not only enjoy the picture, but also have time to read the subtitle. This is the duality of subtitle translation. When the audience accepts the sound, picture and subtitle information of the original text, they are integrated, complementary and contradictory. Therefore, subtitle translation must consider that subtitle is not an independent mode, it includes the creation process and the reception process. In a word, both literal translation and free translation should focus on the audience. Literal translation can absorb new foreign factors and information, and can reflect foreign culture and sentiment. Free translation is easier to be accepted by the target language audience. Film subtitle translation must take into account the audience's language level and education, and take the audience of the target language as the center and adopt correct translation strategies.<br /> <br /> The characteristics of film subtitle translation, i.e. instantaneity and popularity, determine its translation strategies. Therefore, subtitle translation must refer to the picture and sound of the film and television. Usually, the subtitle appears in front of the audience together with the original picture, so that the audience can not only enjoy the picture, but also have time to read the subtitle. This is the duality of subtitle translation. When the audience accepts the sound, picture and subtitle information of the original text, they are integrated, complementary and contradictory. Therefore, subtitle translation must consider that subtitle is not an independent mode, it includes the creation process and the reception process. In a word, both literal translation and free translation should focus on the audience. Literal translation can absorb new foreign factors and information, and can reflect foreign culture and sentiment. Free translation is easier to be accepted by the target language audience. Film subtitle translation must take into account the audience's language level and education, and take the audience of the target language as the center and adopt correct translation strategies.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.3 Processing Of Cultural Information '''<br /> <br /> As an intermediary of cultural exchange, the translator's main purpose is to promote the exchange of different cultures and reduce the cultural gap. Because the film subtitle in the process of translation is subject to many restrictions, for example, there are a large number of words with strong cultural color and some special language forms, and there are many gaps in the culture of different languages and nations and can not be replaced, so it increases the difficulty of film translation. For example, when translating puns, word games and proverbs, translators usually have to give up, which is actually a treason to the original film. <br /> There are three strategies to deal with cultural information in Subtitle Translation: first, the principle of cultural compensation. The principle of cultural compensation aims to preserve and introduce the cultural characteristics of foreign countries, so that the audience can understand the films of different languages and cultures. Second, adopt the principle of cultural transplantation. This principle can make subtitles more vivid, authentic and vivid. Translators need to discard the cultural characteristics of the source language and abide by the native language, so that subtitles can be easily understood and accepted by the target language audience. When neither of the two strategies is desirable, we can only use the third strategy, namely the principle of cultural coordination, which inevitably leads to the loss of cultural information in the source language and the target language. When dealing with the cultural information in subtitle translation, translators should pay attention to the combination of these three strategies with the film picture, and give full play to the illustrative and explanatory nature of the pictures, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.<br /> <br /> As an intermediary of cultural exchange, the translator's main purpose is to promote the exchange of different cultures and reduce the cultural gap. Because the film subtitle in the process of translation is subject to many restrictions. For example, there are a large number of words with strong cultural color and some special language forms, and there are many gaps in the culture of different languages and nations and can not be replaced, so it increases the difficulty of film translation. For example, when translating puns, word games and proverbs, translators usually have to give up, which is actually a treason to the original film. <br /> There are three strategies to deal with cultural information in Subtitle Translation: first, the principle of cultural compensation. The principle of cultural compensation aims to preserve and introduce the cultural characteristics of foreign countries, so that the audience can understand the films of different languages and cultures. Second, adopt the principle of cultural transplantation. This principle can make subtitles more vivid, authentic and vivid. Translators need to discard the cultural characteristics of the source language and abide by the native language, so that subtitles can be easily understood and accepted by the target language audience. When neither of the two strategies is desirable, we can only use the third strategy, namely the principle of cultural coordination, which inevitably leads to the loss of cultural information in the source language and the target language. When dealing with the cultural information in subtitle translation, translators should pay attention to the combination of these three strategies with the film picture, and give full play to the illustrative and explanatory nature of the pictures, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> <br /> === Chapter Three Subtitle Translation Of &quot;Benjamin Button&quot; From The Perspective Of Multimodal Discourse Analysis ===<br /> <br /> ''' 3.1 A Brief Introduction of 'Benjamin Button' '''<br /> <br /> 'Benjamin Button', directed by the famous director David Finch is adapted from Fitzgerald's novel of the same name; the film tells the story of a strange Benjamin Barton who violates the laws of nature and is born in the image of an ancient and rare old man. As time goes by, he even lives more and more young. It is a story about the reversal of life.<br /> The following part will analyze the characteristics of subtitles and the translation strategies that should be adopted in the expression of the film from the cultural level, context level, content level and expression level of the multimodal theoretical framework.<br /> <br /> 'Benjamin Button', directed by the famous director David Finch is adapted from Fitzgerald's novel of the same name; the film tells the story of a strange Benjamin Barton who violates the laws of nature and is born in the image of an ancient and rare old man. As time goes by, he even lives more and more young. It is a story about the reversal of life.<br /> The following part will analyze the characteristics from the cultural level, context level, content level and expression level of the multimodal theoretical framework of subtitles and the translation strategies that should be adopted in the expression of the film.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2 Multimodal Translation in Movie Subtiles '''<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.1 On Cultural Level '''<br /> <br /> Under the influence of thinking patterns and habits, people have gradually formed a specific form of expression in which language can understand each other in communication. Therefore, it is particularly important whether the cultural factors in films are properly translated. Zhang Delu believes that &quot;the cultural level is the key level to make communication possible&quot;. In some cases, the source language and the target language can not be translated literally. Therefore, in the process of translating movie subtitles, we should not only keep the original features, that is, faithfulness, but also take into account the habitual language awareness of the target audience, that is, free translation strategies should be adopted to make the translation smooth and consistent Cultural characteristics of the target language.<br /> The English title of the film is ‘The Curious Case of Benjamin Button’, and a version is ‘本杰明·巴顿奇事’, but the translation of ‘返老还童’ has a larger audience. First of all, there is an English name in the title of Benjamin Button, which makes people feel the obscurity of the literal translation of foreign words. In Chinese, four character idioms or five or seven character quatrains or metrical poems are more catchy and easy to be accepted; Secondly, the title of &quot;rejuvenate&quot; is very suitable for the protagonist's inverted and retrograde life trajectory. In a word, it is very brilliant; Finally, the idiom ‘返老还童’ comes from ancient legends, which expresses people's desire for immortality and rejuvenation. Although it is a legend, modern people also want to be young and energetic, so the title of ‘返老还童’ can attract more audiences.<br /> In this film, there are many translation notes added to the translation, which will explain the cross-cultural ambiguity clearly. Although there are many translations, it is the best way to make the audience accept accurate information.<br /> <br /> Under the influence of thinking patterns, people have gradually formed a specific form of expression in which language can understand each other in communication. Therefore, it is particularly important whether the cultural factors in films are properly translated. Zhang Delu believes that &quot;the cultural level is the key level to make communication possible&quot;. In some cases, the source language and the target language can not be translated literally. Therefore, in the process of translating movie subtitles, we should not only keep the original features, that is, faithfulness, but also take into account the habitual language awareness of the target audience, that is, free translation strategies should be adopted to make the translation smooth and consistent Cultural characteristics of the target language.<br /> The English title of the film is ‘The Curious Case of Benjamin Button’, and a version is ‘本杰明·巴顿奇事’, but the translation of ‘返老还童’ has a larger audience. First of all, there is an English name in the title of Benjamin Button, which makes people feel the obscurity of the literal translation of foreign words. In Chinese, four character idioms or five or seven character quatrains or metrical poems are more catchy and easy to be accepted; Secondly, the title of &quot;rejuvenate&quot; is very suitable for the protagonist's inverted and retrograde life trajectory. Finally, the idiom ‘返老还童’ comes from ancient legends, which expresses people's desire for immortality and rejuvenation. Although it is a legend, modern people also want to be young and energetic, so the title of ‘返老还童’ can attract more audiences.<br /> In this film, there are many translation notes added to the translation, which will explain the cross-cultural ambiguity clearly. Although there are many translations, it is the best way to make the audience accept accurate information.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> <br /> When Daisy, the heroine, is old, she lies on the hospital bed and introduces the name of the Watchmaker: “they had the best clock maker in all of the south to build that glorious clock. His name was Mr. gateau Mr. Cake.”<br /> The translation is: “还请来整个南方最好的钟表匠建了那座雄伟的大钟。那人叫盖图先生……蛋糕先生” (盖图/Gateau 在法语中是蛋糕之意)<br /> There is such a narration at the foundation laying ceremony of clocks and clocks: “Papa said there were people everywhere. Even Teddy · Roosevelt came.”<br /> The translation is: “爸爸说，那天人山人海。连泰迪·罗斯福也来了( 西奥多·罗斯福，昵称泰迪美国第26任总统)”<br /> In the above two examples, the comments added to the translation itself are in brackets. In the former example, &quot;Mr. cake&quot; suddenly appears. In the latter example, how President Roosevelt called &quot;Teddy Roosevelt&quot; will make the target language audience very puzzled. Although the use of annotations makes translation numerous, it is the best way for the audience to quickly obtain accurate information. The audience knows that gateau means &quot;cake&quot; in French, and Roosevelt has a nickname of &quot;Teddy&quot;.<br /> <br /> When Daisy, the heroine in the movie, becomes a senior, she lies on the hospital bed and introduces the name of the Watchmaker: “they had the best clock maker in all of the south to build that glorious clock. His name was Mr. gateau Mr. Cake.”<br /> The translation is: “还请来整个南方最好的钟表匠建了那座雄伟的大钟。那人叫盖图先生……蛋糕先生” (盖图/Gateau 在法语中是蛋糕之意)<br /> There is such a narration at the foundation laying ceremony of clocks and clocks: “Papa said there were people everywhere. Even Teddy · Roosevelt came.”<br /> The translation is: “爸爸说，那天人山人海。连泰迪·罗斯福也来了( 西奥多·罗斯福，昵称泰迪美国第26任总统)”<br /> In the above two examples, the comments added to the translation itself are in brackets. In the former example, &quot;Mr. cake&quot; suddenly appears. In the latter example, how President Roosevelt called &quot;Teddy Roosevelt&quot; will make the target language audience very puzzled. Although the use of annotations makes translation numerous, it is the best way for the audience to quickly obtain accurate information. The audience knows that gateau means &quot;cake&quot; in French, and Roosevelt has a nickname of &quot;Teddy&quot;.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.2 On Context Level '''<br /> <br /> In a specific context, communication is constrained by contextual factors (Zhang Delu, 2009). The context level elaborated by Zhang Delu includes discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. In order to express meaning or transmit information, subtitle and context jointly promote the development of film plot. Subtitle translation should be subject to context. In order to make subtitle translation not appear fault phenomenon, the film plot will advance naturally, and subtitle translation should also play a role of connecting the preceding and the following. In this way, in the process of translation, the translator should consider the contextual factors and pay attention to the smoothness and coherence of the translation within the sentence itself and between the sentences in the text.<br /> When describing Queenie's fertility problem, Queenie sees Benjamin's heart full of love. Her husband, Mr. Weathers, said: I know you ain't got all the parts it takes to make one of your own, but this ain't your to keep. At first it was certainly hard to understand the meaning of this sentence, but as the plot developed, Queenie prayed to the pastor for a son. After her pregnancy, she announced happily: “I had a miracle happen. The Lord saw fit to answer my prayer.” <br /> <br /> In a specific context, communication is constrained by contextual factors (Zhang Delu, 2009). The context level elaborated by Zhang Delu includes discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. In order to express meaning and transmit information, subtitle and context jointly promote the development of film plot. Subtitle translation should be subject to context. In order to make subtitle translation not appear fault phenomenon, the film plot will advance naturally, and subtitle translation should also play a role of connecting the preceding and the following. In this way, in the process of translation, the translator should consider the contextual factors and pay attention to the smoothness and coherence of the translation within the sentence itself and between the sentences in the text.<br /> When describing Queenie's fertility problem, Queenie sees Benjamin's heart full of love. Her husband, Mr. Weathers, said: I know you ain't got all the parts it takes to make one of your own, but this ain't your to keep. At first it was certainly hard to understand the meaning of this sentence, but as the plot developed, Queenie prayed to the pastor for a son. After her pregnancy, she announced happily: “I had a miracle happen. The Lord saw fit to answer my prayer.” --[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> Little Daisy explained here: “ ‘I had a miracle happen’ means pregnancy.” （她有孩子了） In this way, the words said by Mr. Weathers was interpreted as: “我知道你没法有自己的孩子，可你也不能抚养这个。” Using free translation strategy, it is clear and faithful to the meaning of the source language, which makes the target language audience quickly know that Queenie likes children's characteristics and cares for Benjamin, an ugly ‘monster’.<br /> When Benjamin and Daisy are reunited in New York, Benjamin said: “I thought I'd come here and sweet you off your feet or something.” The phrase &quot;sweep you off your feet&quot; means &quot;to make you fall suddenly and deeply in love with you&quot;（让你倾倒）. Benjamin and Daisy were separated from each other for many years at that time. Daisy, who was living in the dance circle, was popular and desirable there. Benjamin went to New York to find daisy after burying his father. He was in a mixed mood. In fact, he wanted to find a friend to express his melancholy. Therefore, Benjamin did not go to find Daisy to &quot;fall in love&quot; with her but &quot;I thought I'd give you a big surprise when I came suddenly&quot;(我本以为我突然过来找你会给你一个大惊喜), which is very brilliant. This sentence is more suitable for the protagonist's situation by using free translation strategy.<br /> <br /> Little Daisy explained here: “ ‘I had a miracle happen’ means pregnancy.” （她有孩子了） In this way, the words said by Mr. Weathers was interpreted as: “我知道你没法有自己的孩子，可你也不能抚养这个。” Using free translation strategy, it is clear and faithful to the meaning of the source language, which makes the target language audience quickly realize that Queenie likes children's characteristics and cares for Benjamin, an ugly ‘monster’.<br /> When Benjamin and Daisy are reunited in New York, Benjamin said: “I thought I'd come here and sweet you off your feet or something.” The phrase &quot;sweep you off your feet&quot; means &quot;to make you fall suddenly and deeply in love with you&quot;（让你倾倒）. Benjamin and Daisy were separated from each other for many years at that time. Daisy, who was living in the dance circle, was popular and desirable there. Benjamin went to New York to find daisy after burying his father. He was in a mixed mood. In fact, he wanted to find a friend to express his melancholy. Therefore, Benjamin did not go to find Daisy to &quot;fall in love&quot; with her but &quot;I thought I'd give you a big surprise when I came suddenly&quot;(我本以为我突然过来找你会给你一个大惊喜), which is very brilliant. This sentence is more suitable for the protagonist's situation by using free translation strategy.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.3 On Content Level '''<br /> <br /> The content level of Zhang Delu's expression includes discourse meaning level and form level. Discourse meaning is the conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning conveyed in language expression. In the film, subtitle is the narrator's narration and dialogue content. Film discourse requires the translator to accurately express the subtitle meaning to the audience. In the process of subtitle translation, some gas words, names and address terms can be omitted, which still does not affect the expression of discourse meaning.<br /> “Well, I know I don't have much to show for myself.”（我知道自己没有什么才能。） The omission of &quot;well&quot; does not affect the translation, but is more concise and can be understood more quickly.<br /> “You know, you may've got a few more years out of it, but you choose to do something so special and unique that there were only a short window of time you could do it.” Daisy was in the dance business, but she had an accident later. Some expressions here such as “a few more years out of it” ( 跳几年舞), “something so special and unique”( 事业太与众不同), “a short window of time” （几年黄金时间) have been dealt more concrete, so the whole sentence is translated as: “也许，你能多跳几年舞，可你的事业太与众不同了，只有几年的黄金时间可以发展。” <br /> <br /> The content level of Zhang Delu's expression includes discourse meaning level and form level. Discourse meaning is the conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning conveyed in language expression. In the film, subtitle is the narrator's narration and dialogue content. Film discourse requires the translator to accurately express the subtitle meaning to the audience. In the process of subtitle translation, some gas words, names and address terms can be omitted, which still does not affect the expression of discourse meaning.<br /> “Well, I know I don't have much to show for myself.”（我知道自己没有什么才能。） The omission of &quot;well&quot; does not affect the translation, but is more concise.<br /> “You know, you may've got a few more years out of it, but you choose to do something so special and unique that there were only a short window of time you could do it.” Daisy was in the dance business, but she had an accident later. Some expressions here such as “a few more years out of it” ( 跳几年舞), “something so special and unique”( 事业太与众不同), “a short window of time” （几年黄金时间) have been dealt more concrete, so the whole sentence is translated as: “也许，你能多跳几年舞，可你的事业太与众不同了，只有几年的黄金时间可以发展。” --[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> As for its form, the formal features of different modes are interrelated and reflect the discourse meaning together (Zhang Fulu, 2009). The film system includes animation, pictures, music, language and other auditory and visual modes. Therefore, subtitles, together with listening and visual modes, work together to promote the expression of film meaning.<br /> For example, Benjamin and Daisy finally met and got together. They whispered in the yellow-glowed room:<br /> Daisy: “Will you still love me when my skin grows old and saggy?” ( 我要是成了黄脸婆你还会爱我吗?)<br /> Benjamin: “Will you still love me when I have acne? When I wet the bed? When I'm afraid of what's under the stairs?” ( 等我老到脸上长满青春痘，老到尿床，老到连楼梯下有什么都怕，你还会爱我吗?)<br /> The pictures, music and language all revealed the happy and loving life of the two people. In general, the film is based on the narration of a diary. In the film, the dialogue between the present and the narration in the diary is carried out alternately. In addition, the old pictures, the statement of time and the voice change of the narrator are used to make the past and the present change clearly and naturally, and they are applied in the formal level.<br /> <br /> As for its form, the formal features of different modes are interrelated and reflect the discourse meaning together (Zhang Fulu, 2009). The film system includes animation, pictures, music, language and other auditory and visual modes. Therefore, subtitles, and listening and visual modes, work together to promote the expression of film meaning.<br /> For example, Benjamin and Daisy finally met and got together. They whispered in the yellow-glowed room:<br /> Daisy: “Will you still love me when my skin grows old and saggy?” ( 我要是成了黄脸婆你还会爱我吗?)<br /> Benjamin: “Will you still love me when I have acne? When I wet the bed? When I'm afraid of what's under the stairs?” ( 等我老到脸上长满青春痘，老到尿床，老到连楼梯下有什么都怕，你还会爱我吗?)<br /> The pictures, music and language all revealed the happy and loving life of the two people. In general, the film is based on the narration of a diary. In the film, the dialogue between the present and the narration in the diary is carried out alternately. In addition, the old pictures, the statement of time and the voice change of the narrator are used to make the past and the present change clearly and naturally, and they are applied in the formal level.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.4 On Expression Level '''<br /> <br /> Zhang Fulu believes that the expression level can be divided into language media and non-verbal media. In the language media level, he thinks that the main forms of meaning communication are sound symbols and writing symbols. For films, subtitles and subtitle translation belong to writing symbols. In the process of translating subtitles, translators should fully consider the media characteristics such as voice size, intonation strength, tone, font size and layout, which play a very important role in the expression of films. The subtitles of the film are at the bottom of the screen. Except for the notes, the translation takes up a little bit more space, and most of the subtitles in the source language and the target language occupy one line, which ensures that the audience has enough time to read the information. Non verbal media include communicators' body and nonverbal means (mainly tools and environment). Nowadays, with the progress of science and technology, movies can be played in cinemas, networks and various electronic media, and the media for appreciation is rich.<br /> <br /> Zhang Fulu believes that the expression level can be divided into language media and non-verbal media. In the language media level, he thinks that the main forms of meaning communication are sound symbols and writing symbols. As for films, subtitles and subtitle translation belong to writing symbols. In the process of translating subtitles, translators should fully consider the media characteristics such as voice size, intonation strength, tone, font size and layout, which play a very important role in the expression of films. The subtitles of the film are at the bottom of the screen. Except for the notes, the translation takes up a little bit more space, and most of the subtitles in the source language and the target language occupy one line, which ensures that the audience has enough time to read the information. Non verbal media include communicators' body and nonverbal means (mainly tools and environment). Nowadays, with the progress of science and technology, movies can be played in cinemas, networks and various electronic media, and the media for appreciation is rich.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> Throughout the film, the dying old Daisy's tone is slow and strenuous on the bed. With the development of the story, light or heavy, a TV beside the bed broadcast the change of Hurricane weather activity, and the weather change also reflects Daisy's condition at that time.<br /> Finally, Daisy hugged Benjamin, a baby in her arms, and watched him invert the end of her life. The dying Daisy dictated in a low voice and intermittent tone: &quot;he looked at me and Iknow that he knew who I was.&quot;. (他看着我，那一刻，我知道他认出来了) The sound of the hurricane alarm suddenly sounded, sharp and obvious, and the picture of the staff of the hospital of traditional Chinese medicine was flustered, symbolizing that Benjamin's reversal clock was also washed away, and Daisy finally passed away. The sound, picture and words of the whole film are closely linked. It tells the story of eternal love, though limited in time, which is extremely shocking and thought-provoking.<br /> <br /> Throughout the film, the dying old Daisy's tone is slow and strenuous. With the development of the story, light or heavy, a TV beside the bed broadcast the change of Hurricane weather activity, and the weather change also reflects Daisy's condition at that time.<br /> Finally, Daisy hugged Benjamin, a baby in her arms, and watched him invert the end of her life. The dying Daisy dictated in a low voice and intermittent tone: &quot;he looked at me and Iknow that he knew who I was.&quot;. (他看着我，那一刻，我知道他认出来了) The sound of the hurricane alarm suddenly sounded, sharp and obvious, and the picture of the staff of the hospital of traditional Chinese medicine was flustered, symbolizing that Benjamin's reversal clock was also washed away, and Daisy finally passed away. The sound, picture and words of the whole film are closely linked. It tells the story of eternal love, though limited in time, which is extremely shocking and thought-provoking.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> === Chapter Four Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> The translator of the film tries his best to translate various modes such as discourse, picture, sound and music. The translation strategy is mainly free translation, and the subtitle processing is simple and appropriate, so that the audience can have a good understanding of the limited time in the film, only the eternal knowledge of love. Taking the film subtitle of &quot;rejuvenation&quot; as an example, this paper analyzes the characteristics of subtitle translation from the aspects of culture, context, content and expression, hoping to better understand multimodal discourse analysis and free translation strategies in film subtitle translation.<br /> <br /> The translators of the film tries their best to translate various modes such as discourse, picture, sound and music. The translation strategy is mainly free translation, and the subtitle processing is simple and appropriate, so that the audience can have a good understanding of the limited time in the film, only the eternal knowledge of love. Taking the film subtitle of &quot;rejuvenation&quot; as an example, this paper analyzes the characteristics of subtitle translation from the aspects of culture, context, content and expression, hoping to better understand multimodal discourse analysis and free translation strategies in film subtitle translation.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> [1] Barthes, R. Image-Music-Text [M]. London: Fontana, 1977. <br /> <br /> [2] Baldry, A. &amp; P. J. Thibault. Multimodal Transcription and Text Analysis[M]. London: Equinox Publishing, 2006. <br /> <br /> [3] Forceville. Multimodal Transcription and Text Analysis: A Multimedia Toolkit and Coursebook [J]. Journal of Pragmatics, 2007, 1235-1238. <br /> <br /> [4] Edgar Bernad-Mechó. Multimodal Discourse Analysis of Link⁃ ing Metadiscursive Elements in Two Opencourseware Lectures (MOOCs)[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences.2015, 61-66. <br /> <br /> [5] Aylanda Dwi Nugroho. The Generic Structure of Print Adver⁃ tisement of Elizabeth Arden’s INTERVENE: A Multimodal Discourse Analysis [J]. DOAJ.2009, 70-85.<br /> <br /> [6] Feng Xia封霞.文化翻译视角下的电影字幕翻译——以《哈利·波特》 系列电影为例 [Film subtitle translation from the perspective of cultural translation] [J]. 才智.2016. <br /> <br /> [7] 刘金菁. 多模态话语分析对高中英语词汇教学的启示 [The Enlightenment of multimodal discourse analysis on senior high school English Vocabulary Teaching] [J]. 教育教学论坛.2014. <br /> <br /> [8] Liu Xiuli刘秀丽; 张德禄; 张宜波.外语教师多模态话语与学生学习积极性的关系研究 [Zhang Yibo. A study on the relationship between multimodal discourse of foreign language teachers and students' learning enthusiasm] [J]. 外语电化教学.2013. <br /> <br /> [9] Kan Feng阚凤.模态话语分析视角下的电影字幕翻译——以电影《哈 利·波特与混血王子》为例 [Film subtitle translation from the perspective of modal discourse analysis: a case study of Harry Potter and the Half Blood Prince] [J].理论观察,2014. <br /> <br /> [10] Shen Guorong沈国荣.论《哈利·波特》电影字幕翻译 [On the subtitle translation of Harry Potter] [J].电影文学,2013. <br /> <br /> [11] Sun Yi孙毅.多模态话语意义建构——以2011西安世界园艺博览 会会徽为基点 [Sun Yi. The construction of multimodal discourse meaning -- Based on the emblem of 2011 Xi'an International Horticultural Exposition] [J]. 外语与外语教学.2012.<br /> <br /> [12] Xu Xie徐协.中国元素广告的多模态话语分析 [Multimodal discourse analysis of Chinese element advertising] [J]. 当代传播.2013. <br /> <br /> [13] Yao Qun姚群. 基于态度系统的《哈利·波特》字幕与配音翻译研究 [A study on the subtitle and dubbing translation of Harry Potter based on attitude system] [A]. 北京交通大学.2017.<br /> <br /> [14] Zhang Delu张德禄.多模态话语分析综合理论框架探索 [On the comprehensive theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis] [J].中国外语, 2009. <br /> <br /> [15] Zhou Shan周姗.多模态视角下的俄语公益广告话语分析[Discourse analysis of Russian public service advertisements from the perspective of multimodality] [A]. 北京外国语大学.2014.<br /> <br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory - A Case Study of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company 陈永相 Chen Yongxiang 英语笔译 202070080582==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈永相 Chen Yongxiang 英语笔译 202070080582&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine (hereinafter referred to as TCM), the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, boasts the favorable curative effect and a good reputation across the world. With the smooth development of &quot;The Belt and Road Initiative&quot; and national economy, TCM has been playing an increasingly significant role in the international trade, attracting more attention of foreign medical experts and consumers. <br /> <br /> As the essential attachment of a medicine, medicine instructions belong to the genre of practical writing, characterized by the unique language structure and stylistic features. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in the international trade. Due to the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, however, many problems appear on the C-E translation of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> According to Adaptation Theory proposed by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation involves language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so on between the source language and the target language, and to adapt with different contexts, mentalities, cultures, etc. so as to achieve the ideal goal, from which the Adaptation Theory can be applied exactly into the study of translation. This paper will apply Adaptation Theory, therefore, as the theoretical framework, to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, tring to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine instruction translation; Adaptation Theory; Yulin Pharmaceutical Company <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 中药是我国医药文化的瑰宝，有着良好的疗效和口碑。随着“一带一路倡议”的稳步推进和中国经济的平稳发展，中药药品在国际贸易中所占比重日益增加，得到了国外许多医疗专家和消费者的关注。<br /> <br /> 药品说明书作为药品的重要附件，是一种实用文体，有其自身的语言结构和文体特点。而中医药品说明书英译作为中医英译的一个重要组成部分，其英译质量决定了药品能否被医生和患者正确理解和使用，以及中医药产品的国际贸易繁荣。然而，由于英语和汉语之间存在着不可避免的语言和文化差异，中医药品说明书英译依然存在着较大问题。<br /> <br /> 比利时语用学家维索尔伦提出的语言顺应论认为，语言的使用是一个不断作出选择和顺应的动态过程。翻译作为一项跨文化交际活动，需要在源语与目的语之间，就用词、翻译策略等方面进行选择，对不同语境、心理、文化等层面作出顺应。可见顺应论适用于翻译研究。因此本文以顺应论作为理论依据，通过对广西玉林制药公司中医药品说明书英译进行分析研究，进一步探讨如何更好地翻译中医药品说明书。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 中医药品说明书翻译；顺应论；玉林制药公司<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Research Background of the Study====<br /> <br /> As the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, TCM has been through a profound history in China. Since &quot;The Belt and Road Initiative&quot; proposed for the first time, TCM has tapped the potential of development opportunity to boost its reform so as to better make inroads into the international market. (Luo Haiyan, 2016)<br /> <br /> As one of China's Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a renowned TCM pharmacy enterprise mainly engaging in R&amp;D, production and sales of TCM. In 2015, Consun Pharmaceutical Group Lt. has successfully brought partial share of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, which, in return, brought opportunities for the IPO and industrialization of the company. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)<br /> <br /> As the essential attachment of TCM medicine, the instructions guide doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicine correctly, which closely relates to consumers' safety and are of great significance. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in the international trade. The quality translation of TCM instructions will accelerate TCM to enter into the international market, to occupy more competitive market share, and to better popularize the excellent TCM culture. (Luo Haiyan, 2016)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Significance and Purpose of the Study==== <br /> <br /> It is noticed that studies and researches on TCM at home and abroad have boomed since the ancient Silk Road period. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from experts. Because of the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, a lot of problems appear on the translation of TCM instructions. And against such a backdrop, there are no settled rules or translation standards to be applied and favored in the translation of TCM instructions, hence the necessity to touch upon the area of C-E translation of TCM instructions in a more comprehensive and systematic way so as to find out more effective methods and strategies for the instruction translation. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)<br /> <br /> Adaptation Theory is proposed by Jef Verschueren, who thinks that language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation is a type of language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so forth between the source language and the target language. (Yuan Binye, 2009)<br /> <br /> A good translation version of TCM instructions can appropriately guide both doctors and patients to understand the pharmacological functions, usage and dosage, actions and indications, and contraindications of medicines. Therefore, the quality of instruction translation has a direct impact on whether TCM can be favored and obtained a good reputation among the foreign medical industry and consumers. This paper studies the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, trying to take the Company as a case study to further discuss how to translate TCM instructions in a better way. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)<br /> <br /> ===2. Features of TCM Instructions===<br /> <br /> Being the essential attachment of a medicine, the instruction contains important information that explains what the medicine is, how to take it and the effects after taking it, guiding doctors and patients to understand and use medicines properly. It closely relates to consumers' safety. Thus, TCM instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. However, the information covered in most TCM instructions is drug name, ingredients, actions and indications, usage and dosage, while adverse effects, precautions, pharmacological effects, drug interaction, contraindications etc. are quite simple, even without any description of these items, failing to meet the requirement of international standards. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are gaps and non-equivalence between TCM and Western Medicine. Most TCM instruction translations apply technical terms from Latin in terms of ingredients, but adopt simple words and phrases for describing actions and indications because the TCM language with Chinese characteristics finds no match in English. Ordinary people, as well as translators, who do not have the professional knowledge may have great difficulty in understanding and translating them. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)<br /> <br /> What's more, due to the profound history of TCM developed in China, most of the unique TCM languages derive from the abstract philosophical concepts of ancient times. The peculiar traits of TCM language, and the technical terms, directly or indirectly, come from the abstract medical concepts of TCM. The classical style or semi-classical style used in ancient times remains. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)<br /> <br /> The four-character structure is concise but comprehensive in meaning, implying the extensive and abstract medical concepts of TCM. The tradition of using it to describe the symptoms and ways of treatment in TCM hasn't been changed over time but continued to be applied and advocated in modern society. The four-character structure, vagueness and ambiguity of the language in Chinese can find no equivalence in English, hence the difficulty in translating them into English. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)<br /> <br /> ===3. Introduction of Adaptation Theory=== <br /> <br /> Adaptation Theory was firstly proposed in 1987 by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, the secretary general of International Pragmatics Association. And then it has been developed and modified for several times over years, attracting a lot of attention in the linguistics community with its integrated system and solid philosophical foundation. In the book, ''Understanding Pragmatics'', Verschueren describes that &quot;language use must consist of the continuous making of linguistic choice, consciously or unconsciously, for language-internal and/or language-external reasons.&quot; (Verschueren, 1999) <br /> <br /> In other words, when making linguistic choices, language users are influenced by the internal structure of language and the external factors. Verschueren attaches great importance to the adaptation of linguistic structures and contexts, and takes communication as a conscious language choice-making process and dynamic adaptability. The essence of communication and expression is a dynamic process, and the context will change along with communication, thus, language forms and strategies should be taken into consideration so as to comply with the context and achieve effective communication. (Verschueren, 1999) <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Three Properties of Language==== <br /> <br /> According to Verschueren, there are three properties in language: variability, negotiability and adaptability, and it is the reason why we can make choices during language usage. &quot;These three properties are inseparable with one another, variability and negotiability being the foundation, the ultimate purpose and core is adaptability.&quot; (Verschueren, 2000)<br /> <br /> Variability provides a large number of linguistic choices during the process of language usage, and lays a basic foundation for the realization of negotiability and adaptability. Negotiability means language users will go through negotiation with themselves when choosing the most appropriate forms and strategies so as to make adaptation and fulfil the communicative intention. As the core of language property, adaptability enables language users to make linguistic choices provided by variability, and then negotiate to decide which choice to be made in accordance with different language contexts. (Verschueren, 2000)<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, these three properties are inseparable with one another. Variability and negotiability make it possible and available for language users to choose the proper form and strategy of a language when making adaptation to a specific language context. (Verschueren, 2000)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Four Aspects of Investigation====<br /> <br /> Based on the guidance of Adaptation Theory, Verschueren advocates four aspects of investigation in linguistic research, namely, contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability, dynamics of adaptability and salience of adaptation process. (Verschueren, 2000)<br /> <br /> Contextual correlates of adaptability &quot;potentially includes all the ingredients of the communicative context with which linguistic choices have to be inter-adaptable.&quot; These ingredients include language users, the physical world, the social world (such as social relations, culture, social status and social settings), and the mental world (personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations or intentions, etc.). Since it entails the objective and subjective factors and both sides of language users (utterer and interpreter), making adaptation to the context is of great significance. (Verschueren, 2000)<br /> <br /> Structural objects of adaptability happens at all levels of the linguistic structures, ranging from codes and styles, words and clauses, to sentences and prepositional structures. In order to adapt to different cultures and linguistic structures, language users need to choose the most appropriate structure so as to build up the logical relationship and improve the readability and credibility in target language. (Verschueren, 2000)<br /> <br /> Dynamics of adaptability means &quot;the development of adaptability processes over time.&quot; It is created by the changes and development of language contexts and structures over time. And different words and translation strategies adopted in different contexts show the dynamic adaptability in language use. (Verschueren, 2000)<br /> <br /> Salience of adaptation process refers to the various degree of consciousness in the process of making choices. The continuous making of linguistic choice, consciously or unconsciously, covers exactly different levels of salience. (Verschueren, 2000)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, as the indispensable parts in linguistic analysis, the four aspects of investigation are the necessary factors to explain and describe any given linguistic phenomenon. <br /> <br /> ===4. Adaptation Theory Applied in Traditional Chinese Medicine Instruction Translation of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company===<br /> <br /> From what has been mentioned above, as the important attachment of TCM, the instructions provide the correct and detailed medical information to doctors and consumers, guiding them to take medicine scientifically and properly, therefore, the medicine instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. As one of China's Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a famous brand in the whole country. Through observation of the C-E translation instructions of TCM for foreigners and export, there are some instructive significance for the translation of TCM instructions. (Xiao Qiong, 2014)<br /> <br /> Because of the special characteristics of TCM instructions and the limited information included in the instructions of the company, this part tries to analyze the C-E translation instructions from the perspective of Adaptation Theory, mainly employing the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. (Verschueren, 2000)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contextual Correlates of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation====<br /> <br /> As introduced earlier, according to Verschueren, the ingredients of contextual correlates of adaptability largely include the physical world, social world, and mental world. However, the author will mainly concentrates on the adaptation to the mental world and the social world due to the limited materials collected. (Verschueren, 2000)<br /> <br /> =====4.1.1 Adaptation to the Mental World=====<br /> <br /> Regarding the mental world, it involves the personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations, intentions and so on of both sides of language users. In the translation process, translators should take target readers' mind into account, not just concentrating on personal mental world or literally translating the original text from one language to another language without any adaptation. (Verschueren, 2000)<br /> <br /> Basically, consumers of drugs tend to rely on more renowned brands when facing a bunch of medicines displayed on the shelves. The key to attract their attention not only counts on the high quality of TCM, but also on the instructions with rigorous standards, concise specification and overall comprehensibility, which gives a sense of authority and credibility. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)<br /> <br /> To begin with, the name of drugs is the most direct information delivered to consumers. Thus, a good name of the TCM can catch the eyes of buyers in the very beginning. &quot;正骨水&quot; is the most famous and important product of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, however, the translation of its name in the instruction simply applies transliteration and Chinese Pinyin, namely, &quot;Zheng Gu Shui&quot;, which fails to adapt with the mental world of target readers. Apparently, Pinyin isn't the way of expression that they are familiar with. Translators should consider their mental expectation and make adaptation with their familiar ways of expression. In that point, &quot;Bone-setting Liquor&quot; would be a better name for the medicine. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)<br /> <br /> &quot;Bone-setting&quot; means the medicine is effective for the symptoms of bone problems, and &quot;liquor&quot; implies alcohol and other irritating ingredients of the medicine. Consumers can be aware of the precautions and avoid using it on fragile mucous membranes and anabrotic wounds when seeing its name. <br /> <br /> Also, the same type of medicine can apply the same way of translation, such as, &quot;金装正骨水&quot; can be translated to &quot;Golden Bone-setting Liquor&quot;, and &quot;极品正骨水&quot; is rendered as &quot;Superb Bone-setting Liquor&quot;. Such a name conveys the correct medical information to consumers and better adapt to their thinking patterns. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)<br /> <br /> Another example, &quot;睡安胶囊&quot;, the translation is &quot;Shui'an Jiaonang&quot;. Obviously, it will confuse foreigners since they don't recognize Chinese Pinyin in their cognitive levels. Translators should at least use &quot;capsule&quot; to indicate the type of this medicine. (Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, 2018)<br /> <br /> A well-recognized name will arouse the attention and interest among consumers, attracting them to purchase the medicine. In order to adapt with their mental expectation and intention, as Ouyang advocates, naturalization or domesticating translation can be applied in translation. &quot;Sleep Mate&quot; or &quot;Insomnia Killer&quot; can better attract their attention and adapt with their beliefs and cognitive levels. In English, &quot;mate&quot; is a common word, which will be more acceptable and natural in such combination, and &quot;killer&quot; combined with &quot;insomnia&quot; implies the meaning of solving the insomnia problems, which is also more suitable and adaptable with their emotions and motivations. (Ouyang Lifeng, 2002)<br /> <br /> =====4.1.2 Adaptation to the Social World=====<br /> <br /> According to Verschueren, there is no principle limit to the range of social factors because linguistic choices are inter-adaptable. Basically, social settings and cultures play a significant role in the process of translation. What distinguishes TCM from Western Medicine mainly lies on the cultural differences. Language is the carrier of culture, and the cultural differences can be embodied in different languages, and then shown and reflected in society. Instruction translation, as the cross-cultural communication activity, is influenced largely by cultural differences in different social worlds. Followings are the very typical translation examples to illustrate the point: (Verschueren, 2000)<br /> <br /> Example 1 (感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> Source Text (ST): 用于感冒或流感发热，头痛鼻塞, 伤风咳嗽，咽痛，肢痛<br /> <br /> Target Text (TT): Used for the treatment of cold, flu and fever, headache and nasal congestion, wind damage cough, angina and melalgia<br /> <br /> Revised Text (RT): Used for cold, flu, fever, headache, snuffle, cough, sore throat and pain in muscles<br /> <br /> Traditionally, &quot;伤风&quot; in Chinese means getting cold because of the invasion of &quot;风&quot; into the human body. &quot;风&quot; is actually one of the six exogenous pathogenic factors according to the medical theory of TCM, which cannot be explained from the perspective of Western Medicine. In western society, people have no concept that the natural phenomenon, say, &quot;风&quot; or &quot;火&quot;, will cause diseases in the human body. So the revised text deletes this term with TCM characteristics to avoid ambiguity and makes it more natural and understandable in English. <br /> <br /> In addition, most common patients who seek to buy medicines in pharmacies might not have the specific knowledge of medical field due to different social settings and backgrounds, thus, &quot;angina&quot; and &quot;melalgia&quot; might be beyond recognition and acceptance. Western world highlights the importance of brevity and conciseness in their society, and they place emphasis on simplification and efficiency, seldom using the very technical terms in their lives. Such social settings and cultural differences must be considered so as to make adaptation when translating. <br /> <br /> Besides, &quot;nasal congestion&quot; is the word-for-word translation and may cause misunderstanding among foreigners. The revised text, therefore, adopts &quot;snuffle&quot; and &quot;sore throat&quot; to indicate the meaning of &quot;鼻塞&quot; and &quot;咽痛&quot;. The same goes to &quot;肢痛&quot;, using &quot;pain in muscles&quot; to replace the word of &quot;melalgia&quot;, hence the adaptation with cultural differences in different social worlds.<br /> <br /> Example 2 (治咳枇杷露)<br /> <br /> ST: 治疗儿童伤风呃逆，咳嗽痰盛<br /> <br /> TT: Used for children's wind-damage hiccup, cough and exuberant phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Used for cold, hiccup, cough and sputum in children<br /> <br /> Similarly, example 2 also translates &quot;伤风&quot; into &quot;wind damage&quot;, which is not appropriate in such description. As mentioned above, additions and deletions, if necessary, can be applied to make adaptation in translation. So the revised text deletes &quot;wind damage&quot; and &quot;exuberant phlegm&quot;, adopting noun coordination and making it more readable and adaptable to the social world of target readers. <br /> <br /> Literal translation of instructions is not always the first option in the C-E translation of instructions. For translators, the first thing they should consider is to be faithful to the original meaning of the text, not the text itself. They need to make adaptation to the target readers’ social world, for instance, social status, social settings, social background, cultural differences, etc., striving to make the translation concise and easy to understand in their society. Amid such different social worlds, translators must bear in mind to render localization of different cultures to make adaptation without causing ambiguity and misunderstanding while successfully keeping and delivering the implied meanings as much as possible.<br /> <br /> Literal translation of instructions is not always the first option in the C-E translation of instructions. For translators, the first thing they should consider is to be faithful to the original meaning of the text, not the text itself. They need to make adaptation to the target readers’ social world, for instance, social status, social settings, social background, cultural differences, etc., striving to make the translation concise and easy to be understood in their society. Amid such different social worlds, translators must bear in mind to render localization of different cultures to make adaptation without causing ambiguity and misunderstanding while successfully keeping and delivering the implied meanings as much as possible.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Structural Objects of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translationn====<br /> <br /> According to Verschueren, linguistic choice-making takes place at all levels of structure that shows variability of any kind (2000:15). As indicated in Part two, for the reason of limited information covered in the TCM instructions, the materials collected from the company would be more meaningful if concentrating on the lexical level of the actions and indications of the instructions, which exactly features the typical four-character structure and language traits of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> According to Verschueren, linguistic choice-making takes place at all levels of structure that shows variability of any kind (2000:15). As indicated in Part two, for the reason of limited information covered in the TCM instructions, the materials collected from the company would be more meaningful if concentrating on the lexical level of the actions and indications of the instructions, which exactly features the typical four-character structure and language traits of TCM instructions. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Adaptation to the Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> Differences in lexical level between TCM and Western Medicine largely reflect on terminologies and descriptions of diseases. The four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning. Currently, most translation versions of instructions are literally word-for-word translation and transliteration, failing to deliver the correct meanings implied in those TCM terminologies and words and lacking readability and authenticity. Here are some typical translation examples of the actions and indications of the medicines in Yulin Pharmaceutical Company:<br /> <br /> Differences in lexical level between TCM and Western Medicine largely reflect on terminologies and descriptions of diseases. The four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning. Currently, most translation versions of instructions are literally word-for-word translation and transliteration, failing to deliver the correct meanings implied in those TCM terminologies and words and lacking readability and authenticity. Here are some typical translation examples of the actions and indications of the medicines in Yulin Pharmaceutical Company:--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Example 3 (蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 小便频数<br /> <br /> TT: Frequent urination<br /> <br /> Example 4 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 祛风除湿 <br /> <br /> TT: Dispel wind and eliminated dampness<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve rheumatic pain<br /> <br /> Example 5 (珍黄丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 消肿止痛<br /> <br /> TT: Ease a swelling and relieve pain<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve swelling pain<br /> <br /> Chinese four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning, and most of them are the causal relationship. &quot;祛风除湿&quot; is a typical example. “风湿” is a disease caused by the invasion of “风” into the human body, if &quot;风邪&quot; cannot be removed from the body soon, &quot;湿&quot; will appear and gather together near the joints, causing diseases and pains in joints according to the medical theory of TCM. So, &quot;祛风&quot; is actually the result of &quot;除湿&quot;, and vice versa. And the example of “消肿止痛”, it is usually can be explained that pain is caused by swelling as the result of illness or injury. Once the swelling disappears, so does the pain. According to the example 3, &quot;小便频数&quot; is translated into “Frequent urination”, using the structure of &quot;adjective+noun&quot; in English, which is concise in form and easy to understand. So the revised text of example 4 and 5 can also adopt such structure and translate into &quot;Relieve rheumatic pain&quot; and &quot;Relieve swelling pain&quot;, not only implying the causal relationship between the lines, concise and simple, but also avoiding translating repetitive meaning. <br /> <br /> Chinese four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning, and most of them are the causal relationship. &quot;祛风除湿&quot; is a typical example. “风湿” is a disease caused by the invasion of “风” into the human body, if &quot;风邪&quot; cannot be removed from the body soon, &quot;湿&quot; will appear and gather together near the joints, causing diseases and pains in joints according to the medical theory of TCM. So, &quot;祛风&quot; is actually the result of &quot;除湿&quot;, and vice versa. And the example of “消肿止痛”, it is usually can be explained that pain is caused by swelling as the result of illness or injury. Once the swelling disappears, so does the pain. According to the example 3, &quot;小便频数&quot; is translated into “Frequent urination”, using the structure of &quot;adjective+noun&quot; in English, which is concise in form and easy to understand. So the revised text of example 4 and 5 can also adopt such structure and translate them into &quot;Relieve rheumatic pain&quot; and &quot;Relieve swelling pain&quot;, not only implying the causal relationship between the lines, concise and simple, but also avoiding translating repetitive meaning. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Example 6 (感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> ST: 止咳化痰<br /> <br /> TT: Suppress cough and transform phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve cough and sputum<br /> <br /> Example 7 (乌军治胆片)<br /> <br /> ST: 疏肝解郁 <br /> <br /> TT: To course the liver and resolve depression<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve Qi stagnation in liver<br /> <br /> From the above two examples, &quot;止咳化痰&quot; is translated into &quot;Suppress cough and transform phlegm&quot;, and &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is “To course the liver and resolve depression”. It is noticed that simply employing the literal meaning of words to translate TCM instructions doesn’t work, especially in such medical context. Translators cannot ignore the relationship between the words and the context then make translation of words in isolation. &quot;化痰' means the symptom of sputum would be relieved and cured soon after taking the medicine, and hence here, the key words are &quot;咳&quot; and &quot;痰&quot;, not the verbs. So the translation of &quot;Relieve cough and sputum&quot; would be more comprehensible and readable. And the example of &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is actually another one that can be evidenced the casual relationship in TCM language. &quot;疏&quot; and &quot;解&quot; deliver the same meaning in such context, and &quot;肝郁&quot; is not the meaning of &quot;depression of liver&quot; but the irregular circulation and stagnation of the abstract &quot;Qi&quot; in liver from the perspective of TCM. So translating into &quot;Relieve Qi stagnation in liver&quot; retains the original meaning of Chinese and makes it more acceptable. <br /> <br /> From the above two examples, &quot;止咳化痰&quot; is translated into &quot;Suppress cough and transform phlegm&quot;, and &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is “To course the liver and resolve depression”. It is noticed that simply employing the literal meaning of words to translate TCM instructions doesn’t work, especially in such medical context. Translators cannot ignore the relationship between the words and the context and then make translation of words in isolation. &quot;化痰' means the symptom of sputum would be relieved and cured soon after taking the medicine, and hence here, the key words are &quot;咳&quot; and &quot;痰&quot;, not the verbs. So the translation of &quot;Relieve cough and sputum&quot; would be more comprehensible and readable. And the example of &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is actually another one that can be evidenced the casual relationship in TCM language. &quot;疏&quot; and &quot;解&quot; deliver the same meaning in such context, and &quot;肝郁&quot; is not the meaning of &quot;depression of liver&quot; but the irregular circulation and stagnation of the abstract &quot;Qi&quot; in liver from the perspective of TCM. So translating it into &quot;Relieve Qi stagnation in liver&quot; retains the original meaning of Chinese and makes it more acceptable. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Summary=====<br /> <br /> Despite of the characteristics of four-character structure in TCM language, the phenomenon of repetitive meaning implied between the lines is quite common. For translators, they should fully understand what meanings indicated between those words and phrases prior to translating them into another language. According to Adaptation Theory, language has the properties of variability, negotiability and adaptability. Facing abundant choices of words in English, translators should choose the most appropriate words and expressions after negotiation to make adaptation to the lexical level, the structure, the context, etc. preferred in English.<br /> <br /> Despite of the characteristics of four-character structure in TCM language, the phenomenon of repetitive meaning implied between the lines is quite common. For translators, they should fully understand what meanings indicated between those words and phrases prior to translating them into another language. According to Adaptation Theory, language has the properties of variability, negotiability and adaptability. Facing abundant choices of words in English, translators should choose the most appropriate words and expressions after negotiation to make adaptation to the lexical level, the structure, the context, etc. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, translators should make linguistic choices not just at the lexical level, but also the syntactic level, textual level, rhetorical level etc. literally all levels of linguistic structures. Due to the limited information contained in TCM instructions of the company, this part mainly develops from the adaptation of lexical level, finding out that most translations apply literal translation with abusive usage of words, failing to deliver the correct meaning implied in TCM language and lacking readability and authenticity.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, translators should make linguistic choices not just at the lexical level, but also the syntactic level, textual level, rhetorical level, etc. literally all levels of linguistic structures. Due to the limited information contained in TCM instructions of the company, this part mainly develops from the adaptation of lexical level, finding out that most translations apply literal translation with abusive usage of words, failing to deliver the correct meaning implied in TCM language and lacking readability and authenticity.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> With the great progresses of TCM over years, Yin(阴) and Yang(阳), Wuxing(五行) and Qi(气), these basic concepts in TCM have been accepted and recognized among foreigners. It can be adopted directly when translating the TCM instructions. With regard to the verbs in TCM language, literal translation sometimes might arouse skepticism and confusion of target readers and fail to deliver the correct meaning and the effectiveness of medicines. Translators should adapt the wording preference in target language and try to naturalize the translation but avoid abusive usage of words. Thus translators in this field should be equipped with excellent bilingual ability, sufficient background knowledge of TCM and Western Medicine, and the understanding of linguistics.<br /> <br /> With the great progresses of TCM over years, Yin(阴) and Yang(阳), Wuxing(五行) and Qi(气), these basic concepts in TCM have been accepted and recognized among foreigners. It can be adopted directly when translating the TCM instructions. With regard to the verbs in TCM language, literal translation sometimes might arise skepticism and confusion of target readers and fail to deliver the correct meaning and the effectiveness of medicines. Translators should adapt the wording preference in target language and try to naturalize the translation but avoid abusive usage of words. Thus translators in this field should be equipped with excellent bilingual ability, sufficient background knowledge of TCM and Western Medicine, and the understanding of linguistics.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Dynamics of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation====<br /> <br /> As stated above, translation is a process of dynamic adaptation and involves the process of structural reconstruction and meaning regeneration. According to Verschueren (2000:157) “...strategies are always involved in any type of communication.” It means not just linguistic choices, but also translation strategies are dynamic because of different time, context and structure of both sides of language usage and each of them varies in line with relative factors when language users make choices. <br /> <br /> As stated above, translation is a process of dynamic adaptation and involves the process of structural reconstruction and meaning regeneration. According to Verschueren (2000:157) “...strategies are always involved in any type of communication.” It means not just linguistic choices, but also translation strategies are dynamic because of different time, context and structures of both sides of language usage and each of them varies in line with relative factors when language users make choices. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> The dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation can be embodied from different words, phrases and translation strategies, even different languages applied in the medicine instructions. As for the part of ingredients, the instructions of the company employ Latin to indicate each TCM, for instance: Radix Notoginseng (三七), Herba Artemisiae Scopariae (茵陈), Fructus Lycii (枸杞), Poria (茯苓), Radix Codonopsis (党参), Rhizoma Dioscoreae (山药). It is usually the part where doctors and experts who have the specific knowledge of this field would be interested in, and using Latin to translate the TCM is the international standard of naming medicines, hence it is a way of adaptation. While next to the part of actions and indications, it resorts to different words and phrases in English to describe the indications of each medicine. English is apparently a better option for its universality and compatibility that common people can easily understand what the medicine is, and how to take it. Such adaptation to each part of the instruction in language shows the dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation. Following are some examples to show the dynamics of adaptability in translation: <br /> <br /> The dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation can be embodied from different words, phrases and translation strategies, even different languages applied in the medicine instructions. As for the part of ingredients, the instructions of the company employ Latin to indicate each TCM, for instance: Radix Notoginseng (三七), Herba Artemisiae Scopariae (茵陈), Fructus Lycii (枸杞), Poria (茯苓), Radix Codonopsis (党参), Rhizoma Dioscoreae (山药). It is usually the part where doctors and experts who have the specific knowledge of this field would be interested in, and using Latin to translate the TCM is the international standard of naming medicines, hence it is a way of adaptation. While next to the part of actions and indications, it resorts to different words and phrases in English to describe the indications of each medicine. English is apparently a better option for its universality and compatibility that common people can easily understand what the medicine is, and how to take it. Such adaptation to each part of the instruction in language shows the dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation. The Following are some examples to show the dynamics of adaptability in translation:--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 8 (正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To remove obstruction from collateralls and channels and relieve muscular contracture<br /> <br /> Example 9 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To relax and activate tendons<br /> <br /> As for the translation of “舒筋活络”, example 8 and example 9 employ different words to deliver the meaning. The former is detailed and elaborated, delivering the original meaning implied in the lines while the latter is relatively simple, only using “tendons” to express the meaning of “筋络”. Besides the different specifications of “正骨水” and “金装正骨水”, the ingredients of these two medicines also show a wide difference, contributing to the different words and methods adopted in the same description of indications. From the above examples, it can be noticed, to some extent, that translators go through negotiation and then make dynamic adaptation with regard to different medicines. <br /> <br /> As for the translation of “舒筋活络”, example 8 and example 9 employ different words to deliver the meaning. The former is detailed and elaborated, delivering the original meaning implied in the lines while the latter is relatively simple, only using “tendons” to express the meaning of “筋络”. Besides the different specifications of “正骨水” and “金装正骨水”, the ingredients of these two medicines also show a wide difference, contributing to the different words and methods adopted in the same description of indications. From the above examples, it can be noticed, to some extent, that translators go through negotiation and then make dynamic adaptation with regard to different medicines. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Example 10 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 旺盛局部血液循环, 增强细胞活力<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen partial blood circulation and improve vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 11 (筋骨王)<br /> <br /> ST: 改善局部血液循环，增强细胞活力。<br /> <br /> TT: To accelerate local blood circulation, increase vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 10 and example 11 are actually delivering the same meaning, but they change the words and phrases to adapt with two different medicines. With the variability and adaptability of language, the meaning of “增强” can be expressed by “improve” and “increase”, and translators employs “partial” and “local” to express the meaning of “局部”. As for the similar actions and indications, the translations of which vary in different medicines, demonstrating that translation is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. <br /> <br /> Example 10 and example 11 are actually delivering the same meaning, but they change the words and phrases to adapt with two different medicines. With the variability and adaptability of language, the meaning of “增强” can be expressed by “improve” and “increase”, and translators employ “partial” and “local” to express the meaning of “局部”. As for the similar actions and indications, the translations of which vary in different medicines, demonstrating that translation is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Example 12 (睡安胶囊)<br /> <br /> ST: 清心除烦<br /> <br /> TT: To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation<br /> <br /> Example 13 (蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 壮阳益肾<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney<br /> <br /> Example 12 and example 13 apply free translation to deliver the meaning of actions and indications of these two medicines. “清心除烦” is rendered into “To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation”, and “To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney” is more like the paraphrase of “壮阳益肾”. Both the translations are much easier to understand and adapt to consumers’ mind in a better way. Unlike the others, the above translations avoid literal translation, which will be too demanding and abstract for both sides of translators and target people, and they resort to free translation to convey the correct pharmacological actions, simplifying the instructions and making adaptation with the translation strategies to better resolve the cultural differences. <br /> <br /> Example 12 and example 13 apply free translation to deliver the meaning of actions and indications of these two medicines. “清心除烦” is rendered into “To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation”, and “To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney” is more like the paraphrase of “壮阳益肾”. Both the translations are much easier to be understood and adapt to consumers’ mind in a better way. Unlike the others, the above translations avoid literal translation, which will be too demanding and abstract for both sides of translators and target people, and they resort to free translation to convey the correct pharmacological actions, simplifying the instructions and making adaptation with the translation strategies to better resolve the cultural differences. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Translating a TCM instruction can never be a mechanical activity of making translation from one language to another; rather, it entails dynamic adaptation to the differences between source language and target language. According to the Adaptation Theory, language use is a dynamic process of linguistic choice-making, which should adapt to contextual correlates and structural objects of language. As a type of more complex language use related to different languages, C-E translation of TCM instructions is a dynamic process of adaptation to different contexts and linguistic structures. However, the dynamic linguistic choices require language users to go through negotiation with themselves when facing abundant choices to eventually choose the most appropriate forms and strategies in accordance with different contexts and linguistic structures so as to fulfill the communicative intention. In other words, translators should avoid abusive usage of variability and adaptability of language, being faithful to the original meaning of texts to meet the standard of translation as much as possible.<br /> <br /> Translating a TCM instruction can never be a mechanical activity of making translation from one language to another; rather, it entails dynamic adaptation to the differences between source language and target language. According to the Adaptation Theory, language use is a dynamic process of linguistic choice-making, which should adapt to contextual correlates and structural objects of language. As a type of more complex language use related to different languages, C-E translation of TCM instructions is a dynamic process of adaptation to different contexts and linguistic structures. However, the dynamic linguistic choices require language users to go through negotiation with themselves when facing abundant choices to eventually choose the most appropriate forms and strategies in accordance with different contexts and linguistic structures so as to fulfill the communicative intention. In other words, translators should avoid abusive usage of variability and adaptability of language, and be faithful to the original meaning of texts to meet the standard of translation as much as possible.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Being a significant carrier of TCM information, the instruction is a bridge that links the excellent TCM theories and effectiveness to the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative”, TCM will be learned and used across the world at a much larger scale. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, this paper employs the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, mainly concentrating on the adaptation to the mental world, social world, and the adaptation to the lexical level to study the C-E translation of the TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. <br /> <br /> Being a significant carrier of TCM information, the instruction is a bridge that links the excellent TCM theories and effectiveness to the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative”, TCM will be learned and used across the world at a much larger scale. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, this paper employs the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, mainly concentrating on the adaptation to the mental world, social world, and the adaptation to the lexical level to study the C-E translation of the TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn that the C-E translation of TCM instructions of the Company is not that satisfactory after research. It doesn’t deal with the cultural differences between TCM and Western Medicine properly. Literal translation and abusive usage of words frequently appear in the C-E translation of instructions, failing to deliver the correct meaning and lacking readability and credibility, having a bad impact on the brand image. While at same time, there are some places worthy to be praised from the perspective of Adaptation Theory. It shows the dynamics of adaptability in the C-E translation of TCM instructions, which can be demonstrated through the various words, phrases, strategies applied in the process of translation. Still, much work has to be done to improve the quality of translation and make it more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn that the C-E translation of TCM instructions of the Company is not so satisfactory after research. It doesn’t deal with the cultural differences between TCM and Western Medicine properly. Literal translation and abusive usage of words frequently appear in the C-E translation of instructions, failing to deliver the correct meaning and lacking readability and credibility, having a bad impact on the brand image. While at same time, there are some places worthy to be praised from the perspective of Adaptation Theory. It shows the dynamics of adaptability in the C-E translation of TCM instructions, which can be demonstrated through various words, phrases, strategies applied in the process of translation. Still, much work has to be done to improve the quality of translation and make it more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, as a way of language use, translation involves the continuous making of linguistic choices. Not only words, language forms and structures, but also strategies should be taken into consideration when translating. Translators should adapt with the differences between English and Chinese, and meanwhile, pay attention to the features of TCM instructions, avoiding some obvious mistakes to achieve the ultimate goal of keeping the original meaning of TCM while delivering the accurate and rigorous medical information to foreigners. So the author advocates that adaptation is required during the process of translation, combined with transliteration and literal translation for some simple and basic concepts in TCM that have been well-recognized by foreigners, free translation and domesticating translation should be adopted with regard to the cultural differences in translation, if necessary, additions and deletions are also appreciated on the basis of being faithful to the original meaning of texts. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, as a way of language use, translation involves the continuous making of linguistic choices. Not only words, language forms and structures, but also strategies should be taken into consideration when translating. Translators should adapt with the differences between English and Chinese, and meanwhile, pay attention to the features of TCM instructions, avoiding some obvious mistakes to achieve the ultimate goal of keeping the original meaning of TCM while delivering the accurate and rigorous medical information to foreigners. So the author advocates that adaptation is required during the process of translation, combined with transliteration and literal translation for some simple and basic concepts in TCM that have been well-recognized by foreigners, free translation and domesticating translation should be adopted with regard to the cultural differences in translation, and if necessary, additions and deletions are also appreciated on the basis of being faithful to the original meaning of texts. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Unfortunately, due to the limited materials collected and the incompetence of the author, the analysis of this paper only applies the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability of Adaptation Theory, failing to study in a more comprehensive way. In addition, this paper only conducts the research in studying the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, failing to reach at a larger scale. Last but not least, there are still some drawbacks and imperfections in Adaptation Theory, which the author fails to touch upon for lacking of knowledge and experience. Still, the author is willing to take all comment and advice.<br /> <br /> Unfortunately, due to the limited materials collected and the incompetence of the author, this paper only applies the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability of Adaptation Theory, failing to study in a more comprehensive way. In addition, this paper only conducts the research in studying the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, failing to reach at a larger scale. Last but not least, there are still some drawbacks and imperfections in Adaptation Theory, which the author fails to touch upon for lacking of knowledge and experience. Still, the author is willing to take all comment and advice.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> As Homby. (2014). ''Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary''. ''The Commercial Press, Oxford University, extended eighth edition''. <br /> <br /> Bhatia, V. K. (1993). Analyzing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings. ''Longman''. <br /> <br /> Carl James. (2003). Error in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> Fischbach, Henry. (1998). Translation and Medicine. American Translators Association Scholarly ''Monograph Series''. <br /> <br /> Nigel Wiseman. (2000). Translation of Chinese medicine terms: A source oriented approach. University of Exeter. <br /> <br /> Verschueren J. (1987). Pragmatic as a Theory of Linguistic Adaptation. ''International Pragmatic Association''. <br /> <br /> Verschueren J. (2000). ''Understanding Pragmatics''. ''Edward Arnold Ltd.'', Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. <br /> <br /> Cao Qing 曹情. (2011). 中文药品说明书的翻译[Translation of Chinese Drug Instructions]. Hunan: University of South China 南华大学. <br /> <br /> Fu Wei 傅微. (2006). 语篇视点理论在中药说明书翻译中的运用[Application of Discourse Perspective Theory in Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions]. Guangxi: Guangxi University 广西大学. <br /> <br /> Luo Haiyan 罗海燕. (2009). 功能主义翻译理论关照下的中药说明书的翻译[Translation of Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Functionalist Translation Theory]. Jiangxu: Nanjing University Of Chinese Medicine 南京中医药大学. <br /> <br /> Li Zhaoguo 李照国. ( 2008). 中医基本名词术语英译国际标准化研究[Research on International Standardization of English Translation of Basic Terminology of Traditional Chinese Medicine]. 上海科学技术出版社. <br /> <br /> Ma Bangxin 马邦新. (1998). 英文药品说明书的翻译[Translation of English Medicine Instructions]. ''中国科技翻译'' (1998), (3)16-18. <br /> <br /> Ni Zhishou, Liu Cuiwei 宁之寿, 刘翠微. (1997). 也谈药品说明书的翻译[On the Translation of Medicine Instructions]. ''上海科技翻译'' (1997), (2)31-33. <br /> <br /> Ouyang Lifeng 欧阳利锋. (2002). 中医药说明书的英译[English Translation of TCM instructions]. ''中国科技翻译'' (2002), 15(2)17-20. <br /> <br /> Xiao Qiong 肖琼. (2008). 中医药说明书的翻译[Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions]. 广东外语外贸大学.<br /> <br /> Yuan Binye 袁斌业. (2009). 语言顺应论对翻译的启示[Enlightenment of Linguistic Adaptation Theory on Translation]. ''四川外国语学院院报'' (2009), (9)111-113. <br /> <br /> Zhang Mengjing 张梦井. (1995). 药品说明书的英译问题[Problems of English Translation on Medicine Instructions]. ''中国科技翻译'' (1995), (2)6-9. <br /> <br /> Zhou Shumei 周书梅. (2013). 顺应论视角下的翻译研究[Translation Studies from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory]. ''山东省农业管理干部学院学报'' (2013), 30(5)138-140. <br /> <br /> --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Machine Translation=<br /> ==Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602 MTI 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;莫玲 Mo Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Science and technology constitutes a primary productive force. In the contemporary era, with the continuous development of science and technology, artificial intelligence has shown more and more mighty strength, and machine translation has also prospered in the field of translation. In this regard, many people are beginning to worry that machine translation will one day replace human translation. When it comes to me, science and technology is people-oriented, and the continuous development of it aims at servimg mankind in a better standard. Therefore, it is not realistic to separate science and technology from humanities. The appropriate way to solve this dilemma is to integrate the two to achieve the perfectly qualitative change of &quot;1 + 1 &gt; 2&quot;. This paper will first analyze the cons and pros of human translation and machine translation, and then explore the development of computer-aided translation based on the combination of the two types above and the progress should be made in different sectors among our society.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Human Translation, Machine Translation, CAT, Compatibility<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 机器翻译会取代人工翻译吗？<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 科技是第一生产力。在当代，随着科学技术的不断发展，人工智能展现出越来越强大的实力，在翻译领域也相应地衍生出了机器翻译。对此许多人都开始担心机器翻译终有一天会取代人工翻译。在笔者看来，科技以人为本，科学技术的不断发展是为了更好的为人类服务。因而将科技与人文割裂开来的观点是并不现实的，最好的解决办法应是将二者结合起来，实现1+1＞2的完美质变。本文将分析人工翻译与机器翻译各自的优势和劣势，进而探讨二者相结合的后的计算机辅助翻译的发展和社会各个层面应该做出的改进。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 人工翻译，机器翻译，计算机辅助翻译，融合<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> In these years, artificial intelligence has experienced a skipping development and more and more advanced technologies have been applied in our daily life. For example, many factories have introduced some robots to replace the repetitive works done by ordinary workers before. In addition, some restaurants have adopted robots to send the dishes to guests, etc. More and more cases in our life demonstrate the gigantic strength of science and technology.(He Liutao 2018,17)<br /> <br /> Panicked by this reality, a constantly growing number of people are worrying that they will lose their job one day when the artificial intelligence are more practical than them. This anxiety is also quite common in translation industry. In this field , human translation and machine translation are the two main kinds of translation methods. The former merely relies on human to do tranlation, while the latter is based on the vast corpus and developed technique.(Liang Jie 2020,18)<br /> <br /> Since this enormous contrast, some people put forward a question that “Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation?” Toward this doubt, The answer is absolutely “no”. Actually, these two approaches are not incompatible. Instead, they both have their own advantages and disadvantages and through analysis,we can find that they can remedy their shortbacks by learning the valuable aspects from the other so as to form a “perfect pitch”. In other words,they are complementary to each other.(Pang yingyu 2019,164)<br /> <br /> Based on these viewpoints, first of all , the pros and cons of human translation and machine translation will be displayed one by one and then the new type of translation---computer-aided translation will be analyzed in detail. At last,confronted with the constantly changing world there are somes personal suggestions for those who work in the translation industry or those who are preparing to march into this field as well as government, colleges and universities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Pros and Cons of Human Translation and Machine Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Human Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 The Advantages =====<br /> <br /> As the traditional main force of translation, mankind own some irreplaceable edges.Firstly, they master a sordid foundation about the translation work, including extensive vocabularies, complex grammars, the construction of sentences and so on and so forth. Therefore, it’s hardly for them to make such mistakes.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)<br /> <br /> Secondly, due to the advanced education they have received, a great number of them have an encyclopedic knowledge. Furthmore, during the years of learning foreign languages, they have acquired not only the language knowledge but also the histories and cultures of these countries so that they are able to handle with the problems of cultural differences in translation very well.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, people have a capacity of rich emotion and thoughtful mind. When facing with some obscure translation materials, at the beginning they will make a transformation about it and then translate it with their understanding yet maintaining the main idea of the original texts.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Disadvantages=====<br /> <br /> However, the volume of brain is limited and it is impossible for mankind to memorize all the things in the world. Sometimes, they may forget what they have translated and in result it causes a repetition of the same work they have done before.It is shown from some data that the output of human translation is 2000 words per person in eight hours. Actually that speed is a little bit slow especially when there are strenuous tasks waiting for them. Besides, editors have to check and revise their translations which is quite time-wasting.(Chen Yi 2018,30)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most translators work for governments, institutions, companies or some rich indivuduals. And right now in the translation market ,the standard price are several hundred Yuan per thousand characters. And the wage of intepreting is even more expensive. As a result, ordinary people won’t bother to hire a private translator. Under some circumstances, human translation can’t give a hand to the needed immediately. For instance, when Chinese people are travelling in the foreign countries, they can’t understand the words of those foreigners. At that time, an opportune and cheap translation tool is more desirable.(Pang yingyu 2019,164)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Machine Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Superiorities=====<br /> <br /> In the condition mentioned above, machine translation can meet tourists' needs perfectly. There are many translation applications in the app store, just like Baidu Translation, Google Translation, Youdao Translation, Hujiang Translation and so on. All of them are free for using and able to translate the language you input in just 1 second. And these applications have covered dozens of foreign languages so as to be the optimum choice for many people.（Zhu Chaowei 2018,102）<br /> <br /> Besides the adoption in daily life, machine translation has also been utilized in some important conferences. &quot;Translation headset&quot; is one of the most popular translation tools. It is usually combined with a smartphone application to translate the foreign language it heard to users. &quot;After decades of research, we have created an algorithmic framework to recognize language patterns in the same way as the human brain (neural network),&quot; said Andrew Ochoa, CEO of Waverly labs. By combining it with speech recognition technology, we have greatly improved the accuracy of translation. &quot; Therefore, Wearable translation machines made by companies like Waverly labs are really popular at conferences(Global Collections 2020,17).<br /> <br /> With the development of science and technology as well as the artificial intelligence, the system of machine translation has been polished step by step. Nowadays, it has developed a huge corpus which contains tens of millions of storations, and translation with high accuracy can be available in some non-literary texts.(Luo Huazhen,Fan Zhengqin,Yi Yongzhong 2017,21)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 The Inferiorities=====<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, a lot of noticeable defects still remain in machine translation. When it comes to the literary genres just like proses, poems and ancient essays, machine translation is not familiar with the language habits of these genres so as to incline to a failure in comprehending the latent meaning of the words thus nor it can work out an outstanding translation.(Liang Jie 2020,17)In most cases it will adopt the method of literal translation, which can not express the idea of source language and the images in it can be missed. Take the following poem for example:<br /> <br /> 江雪<br /> <br /> 唐 柳宗元<br /> <br /> 千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br /> <br /> 孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。<br /> <br /> '''Version of Baidu Translation'''<br /> <br /> River Snow<br /> <br /> Birds flying away,<br /> <br /> The trail of thousands of people;<br /> <br /> A lone boat with a straw hat,<br /> <br /> Fishing alone in cold river snow.<br /> <br /> '''Version of Xu Yuanchong'''<br /> <br /> Fishing in snow(Xu Yuanchong,2000)<br /> <br /> From hill to hill no bird in flight,<br /> <br /> From path to path no man in sight;<br /> <br /> A lonely fisherman afloat<br /> <br /> Is fishing snow in lonely boat.<br /> <br /> Between these two versions, we can easily identify which one is better. In Xu’s translation, he translates “鸟飞绝” &amp;“人踪灭”into “no bird in flight” and “no man in sight”, which get rid of the form of the original text, not only expressing the deep meaning, but also conforming to the English expression habit. In addition, due to the repetition of two sentences in the same pattern, readers can feel a strong sense of monotony. And The most splendid point is the rhyme of first two sentences and last two sentences, which makes the whole poem cathy and add the musical beauty of the translation. On the contrast, the first version by machine is inferior in that it fails to express the artistic conception of the poem. People can’t feel the beauty described in the poem. What’s worse, some readers may be puzzled about its imcomplete images and incoherent sentences!(Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao 1996, 56)<br /> <br /> Nor is this all, machines can’t grasp the rich emotions of mankind. Thus they incline to misundersand of tone and deep meanings of the words(Liang Jie 2020,18). Nay, China has a broad and profound civilization and there are numerous of polysemous words in Chinese.Just like “意思”and “方便”.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> <br /> When Zhang San is sending money to his leader, an interesting dialogue occurs between them. Please pay attention to the different meanings of “意思”in the following sentences.(Luo Huazhen,Fan Zhengqin,Yi Yongzhong 2017,22)<br /> <br /> 领导(leader)：“你这是什么意思？”(Why do you send me money?)<br /> <br /> 张三(Zhang San)：“没什么意思，意思意思。”(No special purpose, just a small gift.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这就不够意思了。” (Why don’t you tell me your true purpose?)<br /> <br /> 张三：“小意思，小意思。”(Not a big deal.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这人真有意思。” (It’s so interesting of you.)<br /> <br /> 张三：“其实也没有别的意思。”(I don’t have other special intentions on you.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“那我就不好意思了。”(Well, since that, I will accept your money.)<br /> <br /> Apparently, it may even be difficult for some people to get the deep meaning behind this dialogue let alone the senseless machine. Machine translation derived from science and technology is always under the control of human beings, they are always working under the manipulation of humanbeings. Mankind possess an intelligible brain and they can cteate new things according to their needs and imaginations. While machine can not achieve the rich creativity as human brain.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)<br /> <br /> From all the analysis above, it can be easily seen that human translation and machine translation are strongly complementary. Thus, the best way is to combine them together to learn from the other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)<br /> <br /> ====3. Computer-Aided Translation====<br /> <br /> To meet the constantly-increasing demand of the market, a new type of translation method named Computer-aided translation (CAT) emerges at the right moment. It is the combination of the two translation methods mentioned above and can help translators complete the translation work with high quality, efficiency and ease. Different from the previous machine translation software, it does not rely on the automatic translation of the computer, but accomplishes the whole translation process with the participation of human beings. Besides, its translation speed can be twice of the human translation, with the quality being the same standard or better. CAT makes a change from the arduous human translation to a half-automatic process, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of translation.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Preponderance of This Method====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Translation Memory=====<br /> <br /> Translation memory system, the main tool of computer-aided translation, is a &quot;language database storing the original text and its translation&quot;. During the time when people are working out a translation, CAT is also constructing a translation memory corpus in the backstage. The corpus can automatically store all the translated content. What contributes to our great convenience is that the translation memory system will automatically search the contents in the translation memory database in the later translation.(Chen Yi 2018,31)<br /> <br /> The system will automatically output the translation results if the contents are the same as the sentences and language fragments in the memory corpus; and if the structures or vocabularies of the materials are similar to the sentences in the translation memory database, it will also produce corresponding translation references and suggestions. In a word, translation memory system can benifit translators to utilize the contents of previous translation effectively and avoid repeated work, thus greatly improving the speed and quality of translation and saving translation time. According to the statistics, the application of translation memory system can increase the average productivity by 30%, and reduce the translation cost by 15-30%(Chen Yi 2018,31).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Terminology Database=====<br /> <br /> After stepping into the translation industry and becoming a professional translator,it is inevitable that people will be confronted with materials from various fields, just like iatrology, law and science. All of these industries have a great number of terminologies. While human’s brain are limited that they can’t remember all the terms. Under this condition, a ready-made terminology database can be extremely helpful.(Chen Yi 2018,31)<br /> <br /> Terminology management system provides a shortcut for translators to automatically search for terms appearing in the translation materials by displaying terms in the interface window of translation memory database or using hotkeys to search the entries in terminology database. Some programs have other hotkey combinations that enable translators to add new terms to the terminology database at the same time during translation.(Global Encyclopedia) <br /> <br /> Some more advanced systems allow translators to check interactively or in batch if the correct source / target word combination is used within and between translation memory fragments of a given project. There is also an independent term management system, which can provide workflow functions, visual taxonomy, and be used as a term Checker (similar to a spelling checker to mark terms that are not used correctly), and can also support other types of multilingual term categories, such as pictures, videos or sounds(Global Encyclopedia).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Revise and Automatic Alignment=====<br /> <br /> After translators finish their task on CAT system, it will scan the translation and figure out the number of mistakes including spelling, punctuation and so on. This proofreading can make one’s translation more accurate. In addition, the aligner can divide the source text and the target text into multiple fragments and make sure the right match of them so as to build a translation memory database or other reference resources. Many aligners also enable translators to manually realign mismatched fragments (Global Encyclopedia).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Current Situation====<br /> <br /> Right now, due to the tremendous market demand, CAT steps into the golden era of development. There are several popular CAT softwares such as Trados、Déjà V、TransStar、IBM Translation Manager、WordFisher、Wordfast，OmegaT, among which the most famous is the first one. Theses softwares have experienced a long period of development and are relatively mature. They make the translation progress much more convenient than before.(Hua Fuwei 2015.8.5,Douban)<br /> <br /> However, CAT is not yet a consummate system right now. It has a few drawbacks to be solved. To begin with, CAT is insufficient in the construction of the corpus. Right now, most domestic CAT softwares only store hundreds of thousands of entries in the database, which is far from enough to meet the needs of translators. In a result, many people gradually emerge an idea that CAT is not workable. People still have to rely on themselves to search the complicated documents and their work are not able to decrease as they want.(He Liutao 2018,18)<br /> <br /> Nor is this all, sometimes it can be hard for people to extract the terms they need becauese of the failure of identification and although some easy mistakes can be found out, it may be difficult for the system to check out the sophisticated errors, and thus people have to spend more time to tackle with the problems in person.(Yao Li 2020,202) <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Prospect====<br /> <br /> Despite of the insufficiency of CAT right now, the defects can’t obscure the virtues. CAT has greatly emancipated the productivity of translation industry. Not only that, it has played an important role in reducing translation time, cutting down labor costs, standardizing translation documents, maintaining terminology consistency and ensuring translation quality, etc. In the near future, it is bound to become the main trend of translation development with its wide application all over the world and the functional improvement of various translation softwares. And the problems mentioned above can be effectively polished with the advancement of science and technology.(Chen Yi 2018,32)<br /> <br /> ===4. Suggestions===<br /> <br /> Facing with the unstoppable trend of artificial intelligence and CAT, should mankind repulse it or accept it? Apparently, the second attitude is more reasonable. For one thing, we can’t hinder the unstoppable trend. For another thing, this is a good opportunity for people to utilize the tool to improve themselves.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)<br /> <br /> So, first and foremost, people should set up an open attitude, accepting CAT with an embracing mentality. There is no need to be afraid that machine will surpass human. Instead mankind is always the master of science and technology. Putting oneself on a pedestal is not a good way to make progress. And holding fast to one’s established ideas will eventually be sifted out by the era.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,108)<br /> <br /> In Qing Dynasty(1636-1912), the emperor and even the whole country praised the nation as the great kingdom. Since ancient time, China was abundant in natural resources and they were self-sufficient and self-contained. Thus the government constantly pursued a policy of “cutting off the country from the outside world”.(Qiu Cui, Chen Xue 2012,8)<br /> <br /> At that time, the Western countries were going on an unprececedentedly industrial revolution. Through the renovation, the westerners immensely improved their productive forces and their countries got a rapid development. When the trend were heard by the Chinese emperors, they disdained to learn from the technology and regarded it as a diabolic trick.(Qiu Cui &amp; Chen Xue 2012,8) <br /> <br /> In this way, the gap between the East and the West was larger and larger. It was not until the outbreaking of the Opium War that Chinese people realized they had lagged behind a lot. Once a country was backward, it would be insulted by anyone else. After that, the Qing government was constantly forced to sign treaties of humiliating the country and forfeiting its sovereignty. The citizens were plunged into dire suffering. Under this circumstance, social conflicts were intensified. Finally, the Revolution of 1911 broke out and overthrew the Qing Dynasty. A feudal dynasty of more than 200 years fell down.(Qiu Cui,Chen Xue 2012,8-9) <br /> <br /> Since the principle that lagging behind leaves one vulnerable to attacks is even applicable to a country, let alone the ordinary people. There is an old saying that “He who goes with the tide prospers, and he who goes against it dies”. The power of science and technology should never be looked down upon. The original purpose of this technology is to benifit the mankind rather than overthrow us. It is a powerful tool to help us scale new heights. If tranlators refuse to acquire the new skill, they will one day be weeded out by the industry.(Liang Jie 2020,18）<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of market, the quality of translation talents should be improved accordingly. The span for talent training of translation majors in China is relatively short that it has only been 10 years since the establishment of Bachelor of Translation and Interpreting(BTI) and Master of Translation and Interpreting(MTI) in colleges and universities across the country. The current situation of translation technology education in the cultivation of translation professionals is not optimistic either.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106) <br /> <br /> First of all, compared with foreign universities and domestic universities in Hongkong, Macao and Taiwan, there is still a long way to open translation technology courses in domestic universities. According to the research by Lv Lisong and Mu Lei(2007,37), universities in Hong Kong and Taiwan of China work closely with translation companies to provide translation technology teaching for students. Similarly Manchester, London University, Ottawa University of Canada and other foreign universities have established a developed system in terms of machine translation, terminology management, translation technology training curriculum, personnel training mode and translation testing, and formed an effective model.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, many domestic colleges and universities still do not pay enough attention to translation technology education, which leads to the deficiency of translation technology education courses in some colleges and universities. A survey of 12 universities in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Chongqing, Liaoning, Jilin, Henan, Hebei, Hubei, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Sichuan and other provinces and universities found that 11 of the 43 universities (a large part of which are &quot;985&quot; universities and &quot;211&quot; universities) with MTI have not yet opened translation technology courses, accounting for 25%. If the scope of the survey is extended to the secondary and tertiary institutions, the situation may be even worse.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106)<br /> <br /> In this regard, the education of Chinese mainland is a little bit backward. There are several reasons for this phenomenon. To begin with, the perception of the educators and education system are rather outdated. The existing education system pays much attention to the translation and interpreting ability of students. This is a common pattern in many middle schools, high schools and even colleges and universities.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15) <br /> <br /> As an English major student, the writer has the personal experience. During the university period, most of our courses still focus on the cultivation of the basic skills of students. Although there are translation and interpreting classes every week, the normal model is that at first teachers will teach some translation theories or techniques, and then there will be some exercises for students to practice. Students are almost inaccessible to CAT courses.(Lv Lisong &amp; Mu Lei 2007,37) <br /> <br /> This may resulted from the lack of appropriate funds for education. China is a nation with a great number of population, and its population growth rate is also fast. As a result, the pressure on education has been relatively high. The commonly used index to measure whether a country's financial education funds are sufficient or not is the proportion of financial education funds in Gross Domestic Product(GDP). In China, this proportion has been at a low level for a long time. Although the education funds have been increasing with the continuous development of China's economy after the Reform and Opening up, yet the fact is that “There are too many monks and too little gruel.”---the funds allocated to each school are still far from enough.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15)<br /> <br /> In the year of 2000, China's financial education funds accounted for 2.87% of GDP, which failed to reach the target of 4% of GDP in 2000 as proposed in the outline of China's education reform and development. In 2003, the GDP of Hunan Province was 463.4 billion yuan, and the national financial expenditure on education was 11.179 billion yuan, accounting for 2.44% of GDP, an increase of 0.01 percentage points over the previous year. However, in 2004, the proportion of national financial education expenditure in GDP decreased to 2.34%, which is still far from the target of 4%.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15)<br /> <br /> In response to this problem, the writer deems that government and universities should both make some changes. As for government, they should carry out a policy that encourages the cultivation of computer skills; when it comes to the colleges and universities, they are supposed to enlarge the investment in the multimedia intelligent classrooms, and more teachers who are sufficient in the operation of CAT should be enrolled. So far, Peking University has opened a major named CAT, which is aimed to cultivate the professional talents to meet the needs of market.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106-108)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Will machine translation replace human translation or not? Toward this question, the answer is an absolute “No”. As far as I am concerned, both the human tranlation and machine translation have their pros and cons.(Pang yingyu 2019,165) <br /> <br /> Human beings are able to comprehend the complex emotions in the texts and handle it with flexible expressions. In this aspect, machine can’t reach the human standard just like examples of “《江雪》”and “意思”mentioned above. Besides, mankind is familiar with the differences between various of countries so as to minimize the rate of committing a blunder.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)<br /> <br /> While the machine doesn’t have a brain like human’s. Their work is to translate the materials according to the superficial meanings. However, machine owns a huge volume (much more larger than human brain)which can store numerous materials and its working speed is hundreds of times of human’s(Pang Yingyu 2019,165). <br /> <br /> In the contemporary era, translators should first of all polish their translation skills and improve their ability to flexibly use various translation strategies and skills(Yao Li 2020,201-202). The old saying goes that “It takes a good blacksmith to make steel.” By the time, people are still the main force in the translation industry and machine translation stays in an auxiliary position. Human should not rely on machine to do all the works. The translators should improve their competitiveness through sordid multi-lingual knowledge, translation practice as well as stronger learning capacity and so on and so forth. <br /> <br /> At the same time, translators are also supposed to adopt an embracing attitude to acquire the computer-aided translation skills. After all, with the further advancement of science and technology, the trend is inevitable. Actually, human translation and machine translation are highly compatible, which can greatly improve the translation efficiency and reduce people’s workload. Thus, the combination of the two methods is highly appreciated and the new type of CAT is bound to become the tide of the future.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Yi,Fan Jiaolian. 陈谊,范姣莲.(2018). 计算机辅助翻译——新世纪翻译的趋势[Computer-Aided Translation-the Trend of Translation in the New Era] 中国现代教育装备[China mordern educational equipment] 30-32.<br /> <br /> Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao. 董务刚,薛家宝.(1996). 评许渊冲诗《江雪》[Appreciation of Xu Yuanchong's Translation &quot;Fishing in Snow&quot;] 盐城师专学报[Journal of Yancheng Normal School] 56.<br /> <br /> He Liutao. 何刘涛.(2018) 人工智能背景下计算机辅助翻译在中国发展的思考[On the Development of Computer-aided Translation in China Under the Background of Artificial Intelligence] 英语广场[English Square], 17.<br /> <br /> 计算机翻译会取代人工翻译吗？[Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not?] (2020) 环球采风[Globe Collections] 17.<br /> <br /> Liang Jie. 梁洁.(2020). 人工智能对翻译行业的影响[The Influence of Artificial Intelligence on Translation Industry] 家庭科技[Family Science and Technology] 17-18.<br /> <br /> Luo Huazhen,Fan Zhengqin,Yi Yongzhong. 罗华珍,潘正芹,易永忠. (2017) 人工智能翻译的发展现状与前景分析[Analysis of the Development and Prospect of Artificial Intelligence Translation] 电子世界[Electronics World], 21.<br /> <br /> Lv Lisong,Mu Lei. 吕立松,穆雷.(2007) 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[Technique of Translation-Aided Translation and Translation Education] 外语界[The Field of Foreign Language] 37.<br /> <br /> Pang Yingyu. 庞盈羽. (2019) 谈机器翻译与人工翻译的关系—从机器翻译与计算机辅助翻译的发展角度[Analysis of the Relationship Between Machine Translation and Human Translation--From the Perspective of the Development of Machine Translation and Computer-Aided Translation]. 科学大众·科学教育[Scientific Masses·Scientific Education] 164-165.<br /> <br /> 计算机辅助翻译[Computer-aided translation].(2020). 全球百科[Global Encyclopedia] https://vibaike.com/.<br /> <br /> Qiu Cui,Chen Xue. 仇萃, 陈雪. (2012) 浅析中国的闭关锁国政策[On China's closed door policy] 现代物业[Modern property Management],8.<br /> <br /> Wu Sheng. 吴晟.(2016) 湖南省省属普通高校财政拨款体制研究[Research on the Financial Allocation System of Provincial Colleges and Universities in Hunan Province] 湖南师范大学[Hunnu Normal University] 14-16.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong. 许渊冲. (2000) 唐诗三百首[Translation of Three Hundred Tang Poems].<br /> <br /> Yaoli. 姚莉.(2020) 机器翻译时代,译者应该坚持技能与技术的融合[Translators Should Keep the Compatibility Between Skills and Technique in the Era of Machine Translation]. 科技经济导刊[Technology and Economic Guide] 201-202.<br /> <br /> Zhu Chaowei. 祝朝伟.（2018）机器翻译要取代作为人的译者了吗？—兼谈翻译人才培养中科技与人文的关系[Is Machine Translation Going to Replace Human Translators? -On the relationship between science and technology and Humanities in the cultivation of translation talents]. 外国语文[Foreign Literature] 102-108.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation 袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi==<br /> <br /> '''浅析汉语公示语的英译'''<br /> <br /> 英语笔译 袁天翼<br /> <br /> 摘 要：在这个经济全球化、政治多极化、文化全球化、科技现代化、信息共享化的时代，全球经济纵深发展，人类命运共同体日趋形成，人与人、国家与国家间的联系日益密切，这时，汉语公示语的英译问题便被提上了议程。尽管中国汉语公示语的英译翻译员越来越多，但是汉语公示语的英译问题层出不穷。本文简析了汉语公示语定义，例举了生活中常见的一些汉语公示语的英译典型问题，并针对此给出了一些翻译方法与策略，并进行了未来展望。<br /> <br /> 关键词：汉英翻译；公示语；翻译策略<br /> <br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': In this economic globalization, political polarization, cultural globalization, technological modernization and informative sharing age, the global economy is deeply developing, and the human community with a shared future is coming into shape day by day. The relations among people and among countries are increasing day by day. At this time, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation become the topic of us. Though the number of Chinese-English public sign translators in China grows daily, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation emerge endlessly. This passage offers a brief analysis of the definition of Chinese-English public sign, points out some typical problems in Chinese-English public sign translation we see in daily life, analyzes some methods and strategies of Chinese-English public sign translation, and gives some outlooks on the future of Chinese-English public sign translation. <br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': In an age of economic globalization, political polarization, cultural globalization, technological modernization and informative sharing, the global economy is spreading in depth, and the human community with a shared future is coming into shape day by day. The relations among people and among countries are increasingly interconnected with each passing day. Therefore, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation become a subject of heated discussion in such an era. Though the number of Chinese-English public sign translators in China grows incesantly, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation never stop popping up here and there. By offering a brief analysis of the definition of Chinese-English public sign, this passage points out some typical problems in its translation we see in daily life, analyzes some applicable methods and strategies, and gives some outlooks on the future of Chinese-English public sign translation. . --[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''Key Words''': Chinese-English translation; public sign; translation strategies<br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> '''I. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> &quot;The public sign is a specially applied literary form that was formed in modern times, which has a long history. It is used in public places and seen by the masses thus realizing unique communicative purposes. The public sign has become a crucial link in the communication between China and other countries in the international community. In the meantime, there are increasingly more experts and scholars paying attention to the translation of Chinese public signs into English.&quot; (Reiss 2004,12). <br /> <br /> &quot;The public sign, developed modern times with a long history, is a kind of applied literary form. It is used in the public and appreciated by the masses to realize its unique communicative purposes. The public sign has become a crucial link in the interchange between China and other countries in the international community. Meanwhile, there are an increasing experts and scholars paying attention to the English translation of Chinese public signs.&quot; (Reiss 2004,12). --[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 03:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;As an important tool for international communication, Chinese-English public sign translation plays an extremely important role in foreign friends’ understanding of Chinese culture&quot;.（Wang Huili 2019,31） Its applied range is so wide that nearly covers every aspect of our daily life, including: Introductions of tourism trips, propaganda languages, warning languages, road signs, shop signs and advertising boards. It is mostly used on public infrastructure: Subway, airport, taxi, pier, tourist spot, park, street, community, shop, supermarket, restaurant, bank, hotel, cinema, hospital and etc. It uses simple words or sentences, or pictures only, or combines words and pictures to pass useful information to the masses, which not only serves Chinese people, but also is shown to the foreigners, which can help foreigners in China study, work and live. <br /> <br /> &quot;As an important tool for international communication, Chinese-English public sign translation plays an vital role in facilitating foreign friends’ understandings of Chinese culture&quot;.（Wang Huili 2019,31） Its applied domain is so wide that every aspect of our daily life is covered, including: Introductions of tourism trips, propaganda languages, warning languages, road signs, shop signs and advertising boards. It is mostly used on public infrastructures: Subway, airport, taxi, pier, tourist spot, park, street, community, shop, supermarket, restaurant, bank, hotel, cinema, hospital and etc. It uses simple words or sentences, or pictures only, or combines words and pictures to pass useful information to the masses, which not only serves Chinese people, but also foreigners who study, work and live in China. --[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 03:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''II. The Current Situation of Chinese-English Public Sign'''<br /> <br /> Public signs are an art of convincing others through effective verbal means, which are also components of language activities. They, in essence, belong to a special kind of communication. The object is for all the people with social behaviors in the place, regardless of gender, age, class or education level. Public signs belong to “one-way communication”, and its binding force or influence will not be as big as direct communication, but it is also used to act with words and deeds, and affects the behavior of the audience with a clear purpose. &quot;Public signs have become a natural window for Chinese and other languages in various economic, trade and cultural activities.&quot;（Yang Yang 2020, 34）<br /> <br /> Public signs work as an effective verbal art to convince others to do or not to do some activities. Therefore, they belong to a special kind of communication in essence. Their target is the social behaviors of all people at the place, regardless of gender, age, social class or education level. Public signs are “one-way communication”, and its binding force or influence will not be as powerful as direct communication, but it is also used to standardize words and deeds, and affects the behavior of the audience with a clear purpose. &quot;Public signs have become a natural window for Chinese and other languages in various economic, trade and cultural activities.&quot;（Yang Yang 2020, 34）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 03:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Public signs are everywhere, so what are their functions? &quot;Their functions can be divided into showing, warning, profiting, encouraging and eulogizing such five functions. (Zhou Shuxia 2017,239)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the public sign that has showing function offers all-round information about service, order, or informing service. Such as “Car Rental” and “Children and Senior Citizens Free”.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the public sign that has warning function comes up with restrictive or obligatory demands to typical people, which is often used through order, ban, information or persuasion tones. Such as: “Stand in Line” , and “Thieves Beware”. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the public sign that has profiting function promotes consumption, thus realizing enterprises’ economic profits. Such as: “Daily Special”, “Daily Service”. <br /> <br /> Fourthly, the public sign that has encouraging function calls for or encourages people to take actions for certain goals or tasks. Such as: “One Family, One Child”, and “Working together, we can make a world of difference”. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, the public sign that has eulogizing function gives wishes and chants to certain events or people to reach the goals of propaganda or education. Such as: “One World, One Dream”. &quot;<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (Eugene Nida 2004, 15) said, &quot;Chinese-English translation of public signs embraces the conversion of two different languages and two different cultures, which is not only to achieve the language equivalence, cultural equivalence, but also to enhance the possibility of understanding and the reading of Chinese-English translation of public signs.&quot;<br /> <br /> However, there are many problems in Chinese-English public sign translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In 2003, Clive W. J. Granger, a Nobel Economics Prize Winner talked of the settings and problems of public signs in Beijing when he was interviewed by a program of Beijing TV Station. He said: “Foreigners will feel a little bit nervous when they come to China, because they can not understand public signs in China. ” Clive’s comment extremely shows current problems in Chinese-English public sign translation .&quot;(Lv Hefa 2005,38)<br /> <br /> “The language and character industry of China is expanding from ‘striving to promote and normally use the national common language, scientifically protecting every nation’s language and character’ to ‘managing social foreign language use and improving foreign language service quality’. ” The national standard of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service is the standard of English translation and writing quality in public service fields, which stipulates the English translation principles, methods and requirements in thirteen service fields. &quot;Nowadays, public signs are often bilingual to meet the needs of international communication.&quot;(Wang Xunian 2020,69)<br /> <br /> To sum up, there are still many major problems in China’s public sign translation, common and ubiquitous, which make foreign experts comment like that and the government use national force to normalize translation standards. &quot;Whether the translation of public signs in scenic spots into English is harmonious and unified has a great influence on cross-cultural communication &quot;.(Pinkham John 2000, 156)<br /> <br /> '''III. The Causes of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> '''3. 1 The Basic Linguistic Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> To be a proficient Chinese-English public sign translator, one must, fundamentally, grasp basic linguistic rules of English and Chinese, otherwise he or she must make stupid mistakes, and some even primary learners will not make. &quot;There are many problems in the translation of public signs from English to Chinese, which should not be limited to the translation of the original text, but should pay attention to the context of public signs.&quot;(Chen Daobin 2020, 9)<br /> <br /> To be a proficient Chinese-English public sign translator, one must, fundamentally, grasp basic linguistic rules of English and Chinese, otherwise he or she will make stupid mistakes, and even very simple one. &quot;There are many problems in the translation of public signs from English to Chinese. Translators should not be limited to the translation of the original text, but should pay more attention to the context of public signs.&quot;(Chen Daobin 2020, 9)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[File:No.1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.1<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3684466622,1422277554&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.1 is a public sign put on a glass wall in a mall, the Chinese reads“全年无休(QUAN NIAN WU XIU)”, and it tries to use English to express that “This business runs the whole year”, so the precise translation should be “NO REST DAY ALL YEAR”. But there, we can see it was translated as“365DAY SA TEAR”, which does not belong to the grammatical law of English. So this is a big mistake.<br /> <br /> Only one who understands Chinese can understand. But for ordinary foreigners, they can not. So, when translating Chinese-English public sign, the translator must be clear about the target language, and know the basic grammatical venation, then begin to translate, instead of randomly putting some letters together and finishing. Otherwise, the translator will make a big mistake like this picture.<br /> <br /> Only one who understands Chinese can guess the meaning of this translation. But for ordinary foreigners, they can not. So, when translating Chinese-English public sign, the translator must be proficient in the target language, and know the basic grammatical venation before starting doing translation, rather than randomly putting some letters together. Otherwise, the translator will make big mistakes like this in picture.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A public sign in Haichang Ocean Park of Chengdu City, Sichuan Province reads &quot;Jellyfish Museum, the 2th floor&quot;. More specifically, it is a floor direction sign. Here, the correct English for the second floor should be “2nd”, not “2th”. Apparently that the translator has poor knowledge of English vocabulary, which led he or she to make such a ridiculous mistake. <br /> <br /> Apparently owing to carelessness or a poor knowledge of English vocabularies, the translator make such a mistake which should be avoided. --[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Actually, in English language, if there is a number contains “11”, “12”or “13”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “11th”, “12th” or “13th” respectively; And if there is a number contains“1”, “2”or “3”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “1st”, “2nd” or “3rd” respectively. For example, “101st”, “111th”, “201st”, “211th” and etc. <br /> <br /> Actually, in English language, if a number contains “11”, “12”or “13”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “11th”, “12th” or “13th” respectively; And if a number contains“1”, “2”or “3”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “1st”, “2nd” or “3rd” respectively. For example, “101st”, “111th”, “201st”, “211th” and etc. --[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> No.3 is a warning sign of a tourist spot, reads &quot;The rockery danger, pleases no climb&quot;, whose Chinese meaning is “There stands a rockery, it is dangerous to climb, every one is forbidden from climbing it. ” The Chinese meaning is alright. But, when it was translated into English, a big mistake occurred: “The rockery danger Pleases no climb.”<br /> <br /> No.3, a warning sign from a tourist spot, reads &quot;The rockery danger, pleases no climb&quot;, whose Chinese meaning is “There stands a rockery, it is dangerous to climb, every one is forbidden from climbing it. ” The Chinese meaning is alright. But, when it was translated into English, a big mistake occurred: “The rockery danger Pleases no climb.”--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> First, there should be “climbing” after “no”, not “climb”, this is just English grammar knowledge that can be learned in primary school; And the “Please” is followed by a “s”, why does the translator use third person singular at the top of a imperative sentence? Second, if the translator wants to tell the tourists that the rockery is dangerous and mustn’t be climbed, he or she should write: “The rockery is dangerous. Please don’t climb” or “Dangerous rockery. No climbing” or just “No climbing”. Unless the foreigners who see this sign have supreme understanding ability, they will not easily make sense of it. <br /> <br /> First, there should be “climbing” after “no”, not “climb”, this is very basic English grammar knowledge that can be learned in primary school; And the “Please” is followed by a “s”, why does the translator use third person singular at the top of a imperative sentence? Second, if the translator wants to tell the tourists that the rockery is dangerous and mustn’t be climbed, he or she should write: “The rockery is dangerous. Please don’t climb” or “Dangerous rockery. No climbing” or just “No climbing”. Unless the foreigners who see this sign have supreme understanding ability, they will not easily figure out its meaning. --[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3. 2 The Tendency Towards Chinglish and Mechanical Translation<br /> <br /> Knowing a little about English, then begin to translate public sign. This is ridiculous, which is definitely going to cause obvious mistakes. Especially when translating, there is a high probability that the translator will make Chinglish errors, or tend to seek for mechanical translation, which are the most common public sign translation problems in mainland China. With regard to the tendency towards Chinglish, it only proves that the translator’s basic skills of English are not so proficient, and he or she does not fit for translation work. For the tendency towards mechanical translation, on the one hand, it demonstrates that the translator is lazy, who is not willing to think about how to translate.&quot;Some common mistakes in public signs translation in daily life have brought a very bad impact on the image of the city; What's more, it will affect China's international image.&quot;(Zheng Yuguo 2020,138)<br /> <br /> Barely scratching the surface of English, one begins to translate public signs. This is ridiculous and bound to cause obvious mistakes. Especially in translating, there is a high probability that the translator will make Chinglish errors, or tend</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_2&diff=116465 2020-12-20T11:41:47Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Chinese Marriage Customs Mo Ling 莫玲 202070080602 【专业 is missing】 */</p> <hr /> <div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br /> *Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br /> <br /> '''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br /> *You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like &quot;Longevity Noodles&quot;) or Text B (&quot;Mooncakes&quot;), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title (&quot;Festival Meals&quot;) and arrange it accordingly.<br /> *In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br /> *For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br /> *Add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Please also add a list &quot;Terms and Expressions&quot;.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Questions&quot; section.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Answers&quot; section.<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Red Culture - Kang Haoyu 康浩宇, 202070080638 English Interpreting==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康浩宇 Kang Haoyu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Red Culture===<br /> Chinese red culture is unique in the world. As a very important cultural resource, it has both tangible and intangible culture. Red culture in China refers to the advance(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;advanced&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC) culture with Chinese characteristics created by party and people in revolutionary years.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)<br /> <br /> ====1. Development====<br /> <br /> China has brilliant history and splendid civilization in ancient times. However, with the Opium War of 1840, China was plunged into the darkness of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression. Despite of all efforts that countless dedicated patriots had made, they still failed to change the plight. The October Revolution in Russia brought Marxism-Leninism. With Communism as the the highest ideal and ultimate goal, the Communist Party of China shouldered the historic(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;historical&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC) mission of national rejuvenation. With the firm leadership of the party, Chinese people embraced national independence, people's liberation, national reunification and social stability, and stepped into a new era of prosperity and happiness.(Xi Jinpin 2017)<br /> <br /> Red culture is condensed by the Communist Party of China in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. It is an advanced Marxism culture that was inherited and developed in the new period of socialist construction. It's a collectivism culture of bravery, sacrifice and devotion that seeks happiness for the Chinese people and(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rejuvenation for the Chinese nation.Red culture is embodied in the aspects of ideal belief, value pursuit and spiritual outlook, and is integrated into material remains, mechanism behaviors and cultural and artistic forms.(Luo Liling, Pu Qingpin 2018, 45)<br /> <br /> First of all, red culture is a revolutionary culture, which was formed by the Chinese Communist Party in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. After the founding of(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC) People's Republic of China, the Communist Party of China led the Chinese people to inherit and carry forward the revolutionary culture. In the new period of socialist construction and reform and opening up, a vigorous and advanced socialist culture was formed, which enriched and developed the connotation of red culture. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture, and are the core value and spiritual subject of contemporary Chinese culture. As for Chinese red culture, Among them, Marxism is the soul, the common ideal of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the theme, the national spirit and the spirit of the times are the essence, and the socialist concept of honor and disgrace is the foundation. These four aspects influence, infiltrate and interact with each other, revealing the essential characteristics of red culture scientifically and completely.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)<br /> <br /> ====2. Symbols====<br /> <br /> The word “red” in “red culture” has many symbols. Chinese people have “red” complex since ancient time. Red represents authority. For, example, official documents are also called red heading documents. Red represents courage. Red is the color of Chinese national flag. Chinese military strategists and generals have a deep understanding of the role of red in war, so they use red flags to unite their morale, inspire their fighting and their courage, and summon the spirit of going forward bravely and not fearing sacrifice. Red represents honor and auspiciousness. For instance, the places are always adorned with red for conference and ceremony. People are awarded with red flower and red certificates. Red represents revolution. When Marx was asked about &quot;favorite color&quot; in his early years, he clearly answered &quot;red&quot;. In 1864, First International was founded, and its logo was red. The first army of (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Communist Party of China was named Red Army, and Ruijin, the first revolutionary base area, was called Red Capital. There were also red boats in South Lake and red flags in Jinggangshan.(Chen dongwang, Huang Weiliang 2006, 19)<br /> <br /> ====3. Values====<br /> <br /> Red culture has many values. Red culture has the value of history. It witnesses the early development history of the Communist Party of China. It shows the inevitability of the socialist road in China. And it is an important weapon to guide the success of Chinese revolution. Besides, red culture has the value of civilization. Carrying forward the red culture is an urgent need to cultivate a new national spirit. Red culture is important for the construction of socialism culture and ideology. Moreover, red culture has the value of economy. Red culture is a powerful driving force for the development of (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)socialist market economy. It is an important medium of economic development under the new historical conditions. The red cultural industry has become a new economic growth point.(Wang Yidi 2007, 149)<br /> <br /> ====4. Red Culture in Nanchang====<br /> <br /> Nanchang is the capital city of Jiangxi Province and it is where August 1st uprising took place. Nanchang is renowned as the cradle of Chinese revolution and the place where the military flag rose. Because in August 1st uprising, (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)communist party of china formed its first army in Nanchang. There are lots of red culture resources in Nanchang. <br /> <br /> Bayi Square is at the center of Nanchang city. It was built to memorize August 1st uprising. Bayi Square highlights the theme of &quot;Bayi History and Culture&quot; in all directions. The memorial area, cultural area, reminiscence area and leisure area of Bayi Square show Bayi Uprising in different forms. The landmark in the square is Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower. Besides, Nangchang August 1st Memorial Hall is a special memorial hall established to commemorate(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Nanchang Uprising.（Peng Bo, Zhang Li, Li Jiangyuan 2006, 58）<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] 程东旺, 黄伟良. “红色文化”的价值形态与德育功能探析[J]. 现代教育科学, 2006: 19-21.<br /> <br /> [2] 罗丽琳,蒲清平. 红色文化的思想政治教育基因及其时代价值[J].新疆师范大学学报, 2018: 45-52<br /> <br /> [3] 彭波, 张丽, 李江源. 整合红色资源,提升江西文化力[J]. 江西崛起策论, 2006:58-60.<br /> <br /> [4] 王以第. “红色文化”的价值内涵[J]. 文化论苑, 2007:149-150.<br /> <br /> [5] 习近平, 决胜全面建成小康社会 夺取新时代中国特色社会主义伟大胜利——在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告,人民日报,2017.<br /> <br /> [6] 朱桂莲,李晶. 德育视角下的中国红色文化研究综述[J]. 研究综述, 2010:87-89.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> red culture 红色文化<br /> <br /> Opium War 鸦片战争<br /> <br /> red heading documents 红头文件<br /> <br /> red army 红军<br /> <br /> August 1st uprising 八一起义<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1. What is the historical background of the birth of red culture?<br /> <br /> 2. What are two major components of red culture?<br /> <br /> 3. How many symbols dose the word &quot;red&quot; in red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 4. How many values dose red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 5. What is the landmark in Bayi Square?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1. In modern China, Communist Party of China led the Chinese revolution and led people to fight against suppression.<br /> <br /> 2. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture<br /> <br /> 3. Four. Authority, courage, honor and revolution.<br /> <br /> 4. Three. History value, civilization value and economic value.<br /> <br /> 5. Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower<br /> <br /> ==The Ancient Tea Horse Road - Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆, 202070080593 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===The Ancient Tea Horse Road===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. It originated from the ancient southwest frontier of the tea horse mutual market, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and most prosperous in the middle and late World War II. The Tea Horse Road was listed by the State Council as the seventh batch of national key cultural relics conservation units on March 5, 2013.(Zou Jingyi , Zhang Yimei 2018,131)<br /> <br /> The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. It originated from the ancient southwest frontier of the tea horse mutual market, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties and in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and prospered（改） in the middle and late World War II. The Tea Horse Road was listed by the State Council as the seventh batch of national key cultural relics conservation units on March 5, 2013. 空格 (Zou Jingyi , Zhang Yimei 2018,131) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Historical Routes====<br /> China’s ancient tea horse road is divided into:<br /> 1.Shanxi-Gansu tea horse road is the main route for tea to travel westward in mainland China and exchange for horses. It is one of the main routes of the ancient Silk Road.<br /> 2. Shanxi - Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road), began in the Han Dynasty, formed by the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse each other. Due to the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government control of tea trafficking, tea trafficking sub-regional, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road.(Kang Yuming, Li Jinfeng2020,281)<br /> <br /> 1.(点号后空格)Shanxi-Gansu tea horse road is the main route for tea to travel westward in mainland China and exchange for horses. It is one of the main routes of the ancient Silk Road.<br /> 2. Shanxi - Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road), began in the Han Dynasty, formed by the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse each other. 这句话意思不太理解。During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government controlled（改） tea trafficking, and the tea trafficking sub-regional, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road. 空格 (Kang Yuming, Li Jinfeng2020,281) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.The ancient Yunnan-Tibet Tea Horse Road was formed in the late sixth century AD .It is in the south of Yunnan's main tea producing areas. It is an important trade channel between ancient China and South Asia.<br /> 4. Sichuan-Tibet Tea Horse Road is a part of the Shan-Kang-Tibet Tea Horse Road. It is an essential bridge and link between ancient Tibet and the interior. It is in the east of Yazhou edge, west to Lhasa, Tibet, and finally through to Bhutan, Nepal and India, a total length of nearly four thousand kilometers, .(Kang Yuming, Li Jinfeng2020,282)<br /> <br /> 3. (点号后空格)The ancient Yunnan-Tibet Tea Horse Road was formed in the late sixth century AD. (句点空格) It is in the south of Yunnan's main tea producing area. It is an important trade channel between ancient China and South Asia.<br /> 4. Sichuan-Tibet Tea Horse Road is a part of the Shan-Kang-Tibet Tea Horse Road. It is an essential bridge and link between ancient Tibet and the interior. It is in the east of Yazhou edge, west to Lhasa, Tibet, and finally through to Bhutan, Nepal and India, a total length of nearly four thousand kilometers(逗号删掉).(Kang Yuming, Li Jinfeng2020,282) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> There are three main routes of the ancient tea-horse road: The Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line. Among the three ancient tea-horse roads, the Qinghai-Tibet line was established in the Tang Dynasty and developed earlier, while the Sichuan-Tibet line was the most influential and well-known later. These three routes are closely related to Chengdu, among them, the Yunnan-Tibet route and the Sichuan-Tibet route must pass through Chengdu, and their development is closely related to the tea-horse trade. (Kang Yuming,Li Jinfeng2020,283)<br /> <br /> There are three main routes of the ancient tea-horse road: The Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line. Among the three ancient tea-horse roads, the Qinghai-Tibet line was established in the Tang Dynasty and developed earlier, while the Sichuan-Tibet line was the most influential and well-known later. These three routes are closely related to Chengdu, and among them, the Yunnan-Tibet route and the Sichuan-Tibet route （改） pass through Chengdu, and their development is closely related to the tea-horse trade. (句点后空格) (Kang Yuming,Li Jinfeng2020,283) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Historical Values===<br /> 1.The Golden Road of Tourism<br /> The ancient tea-horse road tour has unique scenery, profound cultural connotation, exclusive resources and is unparalleled in the world.<br /> <br /> 1. 点号后空格 The Golden Road of Tourism<br /> The ancient tea-horse road tour has unique scenery, profound cultural connotation and exclusive resources and is unparalleled in the world. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2. Ancient Roads for the Propagation of Civilization<br /> The ancient Tea Horse Road was not only an important migration corridor for the ancient ancestors between Wei-Tibet and present Sichuan and Yunnan, but also an important aperture for the spread and exchange of ancient civilizations between present Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet.(Ji Jing2016,354)<br /> <br /> 2. Ancient Roads for the Propagation of Civilization<br /> The ancient Tea Horse Road was not only an important migration corridor for the ancient ancestors between Wei-Tibet and present Sichuan and Yunnan, but also an important aperture for the spread and exchange of ancient civilizations between present Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet. 句点后空格 (Ji Jing2016,354)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.Migration Corridor of National Cultures<br /> On this ancient road, which stretches for more than 10,000 miles, Chinese, Tibetan, Yi, Naxi, Lisu, Hani, Kino, Qiang, Pumi, Bai, Nu, Jingpo, Achang and other ethnic groups have flourished here for thousands of years, highlighting the diversity and original form of ethnic culture in southwest China.<br /> <br /> 3. 点号后空格 Migration Corridor of National Cultures<br /> On this ancient road, which stretches for more than 10,000 miles, Chinese, Tibetan, Yi, Naxi, Lisu, Hani, Kino, Qiang, Pumi, Bai, Nu, Jingpo, Achang and other ethnic groups have flourished here for thousands of years, highlighting the diversity and original form of ethnic culture in southwest China. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 4. The Path of National Spirituality<br /> You can't talk about the ancient tea-horse road without mentioning the horse gangs. The horse gangs have formed a unique cultural carrier in the course of thousands of years. Their spirit is attached to this ancient road, and become part of the Chinese national spirit.(Ji Jing2016,355)<br /> <br /> 4. The Path of National Spirituality<br /> We can't talk about the ancient tea-horse road without mentioning the horse gangs. The horse gangs have formed a unique cultural carrier in the course of thousands of years. Their spirit is attached to this ancient road, and becomes a part of the Chinese national spirit. 句点后空格 (Ji Jing2016,355)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 5.The Road of National Unity and Integration<br /> The ancient tea-horse road is like a huge net in southwest China, through which people of all nationalities strengthen their ties and communication, promote political, economic and cultural interaction, development and integration among all nationalities, and enhance the emotional ties between them.<br /> <br /> 5. 点号后空格 The Road of National Unity and Integration<br /> The ancient tea-horse road is like a huge net in southwest China, through which people of all nationalities strengthen their ties and communication, promote political, economic and cultural interaction, development and integration among all nationalities, and enhance the emotional ties between them. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 6.The Road of Securing the Borders<br /> The expansion of the ancient tea-horse road and the flourishing of the tea-horse trade contributed to the stability and consolidation of China's southwest frontier.<br /> <br /> 6. 空格 The Road of Securing the Borders<br /> The expansion of the ancient tea-horse road and the flourishing of the tea-horse trade contributes to the stability and consolidation of China's southwest frontier. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 7.The road to economic development<br /> The Thousand-Year Tea Horse Trail contributed to the formation of many towns in the region through the tea and horse trade, which greatly contributed to the economic development of the region.(Ji Jing2016,355)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 7. 空格 The road to economic development<br /> The Thousand-Year Tea Horse Trail contributed to the formation of many towns in the region through the tea and horse trade, which greatly contributed to the economic development of the region. 空格 (Ji Jing2016,355)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road(茶马古道)<br /> <br /> 2.Sichuan-Tibet Line（川藏线）<br /> <br /> 3.Yunnan-Tibet line（滇藏线）<br /> <br /> 4.wade ancient road（蹚古道）<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What is the ancient tea horse road ?<br /> <br /> 1.What is 多了个空格 the ancient tea horse road ? --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.How many main routes does the ancient tea-horse road conclude?<br /> <br /> 2.How many main routes 多了个空格 does the ancient tea-horse road include? --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.What is the historical value?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the historical value of the ancient tea-horse road? --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. <br /> <br /> 2.There are three main routes, including the Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line.<br /> <br /> 3.The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Zou Jingyi, Zhang Yiqing邹怡情,张依玫. (2018). 作为文化线路的茶马古道遗产保护研究[ A Study on Heritage Conservation of Ancient Tea Horse Road as a Cultural Route].<br /> ''北京规划建设 BeiJing Planning Review''(04)131-140.<br /> <br /> Kang Yuming, Li Jinfeng康昱明,李金峰.(2020).甘肃茶马古道文化线路遗产探究[ A Study on Cultural Route Heritage of Ancient Tea Horse Road in Gansu Province].''农村经济与科技Rural Economy and Science'' 31(11)281-283.<br /> <br /> Li Gang, Li Wei李刚,李薇.(2011).论历史上三条茶马古道的联系及历史地位[ On the Connection and Historical Status of Three Ancient Tea Horse Roads in History].''西北大学学报Journal of Northwestern University'' 41(04):113-117.<br /> <br /> Ji Ji纪静.(2016.)茶马古道的兴起及其价值研究 [ A Study on the Rise and Value of Ancient Tea Horse Road ].''福建茶叶 Tea In Fujian'' 38(07):354-355.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Literature, Novels - Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪 学号missing 英语口译==<br /> <br /> ===Four satirical novels in ancient China===<br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.<br /> <br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.[Please add your quotation]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 15:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ==== Nie Hai Hua====<br /> Nie Hai Hua was written by Zen Pu (1872-1935).A total of 35 chapters.it is a novel of condemnation, historical fiction and political fiction. In the novel, Jin yun (wen qing) is the main character.After won the scholarship, he took a famous courtesan, Fu Caiyun, as his concubine in Suzhou.He was then ordered to travel to Russia, Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands. After returning to China, Jin Wenqing died of illness in Beijing, and Fu Caiyun left the Jin family to resume her old profession in Shanghai, changing her name to Cao Menglan then went to Tianjin to work as a prostitute, calling herself Sai Jinhua.<br /> The novel takes the story of Jin Wenqing and Fu Caiyun as the main line, vividly describes the historical and cultural changes as well as political and social changes from Tongzhi to Guangxu more than 30 years, exposing the decay and decline of the rulers, criticizing the feudal system of imperial examination, satirizing the officials, truly reflecting their spiritual life and cultural mentality. at the same time also enthusiastically glorifies Feng Zicai, Liu Yongfu and other war heroes and Sun Yat-sen and so on. The revolutionary activities of the Democratic Revolutionaries express the author's patriotic thoughts against the feudal dictatorship and advocate national democratic revolution. In specific writing, the author adopts the modern popular block novel structure combined with the traditional mesh novel structure to unfold the plot, with ups and downs, twists and turns, touching and orderly, always around the main line.<br /> As a historical novel, Nie Hai Hua draws on the spirit of the ancient &quot;good history&quot; of China to portray its characters. At the same time, it draws on the satirical approach of &quot;The History of Confucianism&quot; in which &quot;the fair-minded accuse the evils of the times&quot;, commenting on events and weighing characters in a realistic manner. In terms of art, Nie Hai Hua also has many shortcomings.However, it is a skillful structure and outstanding novel at that time.<br /> <br /> Nie Hai Hua was written by Zen Pu (1872-1935).A total of 35 chapters.it is a novel of condemnation, historical fiction and political fiction. In the novel, Jin yun (wen qing) is the main character.After won the scholarship, he took a famous courtesan, Fu Caiyun, as his concubine in Suzhou.He was then ordered to travel to Russia, Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands. After returning to China, Jin Wenqing died of illness in Beijing, and Fu Caiyun left the Jin family to resume her old profession in Shanghai, changing her name to Cao Menglan then went to Tianjin to work as a prostitute, calling herself Sai Jinhua.<br /> The novel takes the story of Jin Wenqing and Fu Caiyun as the main line, vividly describes the historical and cultural changes as well as political and social changes from Tongzhi to Guangxu more than 30 years, exposing the decay and decline of the rulers, criticizing the feudal system of imperial examination, satirizing the officials, truly reflecting their spiritual life and cultural mentality. at the same time also enthusiastically glorifies Feng Zicai, Liu Yongfu and other war heroes and Sun Yat-sen and so on. The revolutionary activities of the Democratic Revolutionaries express the author's patriotic thoughts against the feudal dictatorship and advocate national democratic revolution. In specific writing, the author adopts the modern popular block novel structure combined with the traditional mesh novel structure to unfold the plot, with ups and downs, twists and turns, touching and orderly, always around the main line.<br /> As a historical novel, Nie Hai Hua draws on the spirit of the ancient &quot;good history&quot; of China to portray its characters. At the same time, it draws on the satirical approach of &quot;The History of Confucianism&quot; in which &quot;the fair-minded accuse the evils of the times&quot;, commenting on events and weighing characters in a realistic manner. In terms of art, Nie Hai Hua also has many shortcomings.However, it is a skillful structure and outstanding novel at that time.[Quotation missing]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 15:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ==== the Travels of an Old Man====<br /> The Travels of an Old Man was written by Liu E (1857-1909) and a total of 20 chapters. Liu E was an entrepreneur and scholar, not a professional writer, but his reputation as a literary figure was far greater than that of an entrepreneur and scholar. This novel is an unfinished work of his that was written in his later years with an autobiographical nature.<br /> The novel takes a bell-ringing mountebank, Lao can (Tie Ying), as its main character, and narrates his experiences and activities during his travels in northern China, exposing the decadence and darkness of the Qing government, the brutality and lethargy of the officials, and the poverty and oppression of the people, especially attacking the abusive behavior of those &quot;Qing officials&quot; who are actually cruel officials, and expressing the author's strong views on the perilous reality of society and the country. <br /> The artistic achievement of the novel is very high. The first is the superb descriptive skills, whether it is a description, a landscape, or a narrative, can be vividly depicted, such as the scenery of Thousand Buddha Mountain, Daming Lake etc., which makes people have a sense of being in the real world. Secondly, its psychological description and psychological analysis, with appropriate language, can brilliantly show the inner world of the characters. Thirdly, the exquisite structural art. The novel is in the form of a Travel Journal, with travel as a clue,and organic combined of what he see, hear, think and do along the way forms a unique structural feature of the novel.<br /> <br /> The Travels of an Old Man was written by Liu E (1857-1909) and a total of 20 chapters. Liu E was an entrepreneur and scholar, not a professional writer, but his reputation as a literary figure was far greater than that of an entrepreneur and scholar. This novel is an unfinished work of his that was written in his later years with an autobiographical nature.<br /> The novel takes a bell-ringing mountebank, Lao can (Tie Ying), as its main character, and narrates his experiences and activities during his travels in northern China, exposing the decadence and darkness of the Qing government, the brutality and lethargy of the officials, and the poverty and oppression of the people, especially attacking the abusive behavior of those &quot;Qing officials&quot; who are actually cruel officials, and expressing the author's strong views on the perilous reality of society and the country. <br /> The artistic achievement of the novel is very high. The first is the superb descriptive skills, whether it is a description, a landscape, or a narrative, can be vividly depicted, such as the scenery of Thousand Buddha Mountain, Daming Lake etc., which makes people have a sense of being in the real world. Secondly, its psychological description and psychological analysis, with appropriate language, can brilliantly show the inner world of the characters. Thirdly, the exquisite structural art. The novel is in the form of a Travel Journal, with travel as a clue,and organic combined of what he see, hear, think and do along the way forms a unique structural feature of the novel.[Quotation missing]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 15:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ==== The Records of Officialdom Exposure====<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure by Li Baojia (1867-1906), five editions and a total of 60 chapters. This is the first long chapter novel in China's modern era that was published serially in newspapers and magazines and achieved a social sensation, creating a culture of critical reality in modern fiction.<br /> The novel consists of more than 30 relatively independent bureaucratic stories linked together,involving the Qing government from the emperor, down to the minor officials and so on,and these various bureaucrats of all kinds of evil behavior were exposed:They embezzled public funds, corrupt and pervert the law or the named &quot;expedition bandits&quot;, but is harmful to the people. The work is like a scroll of the officialdom at the end of the feudal society, touching on the main contradictions of that time.<br /> The novel's writing method is modelled on &quot;The Scholars&quot; and has been developed, making full use of exaggeration, comic style and satirical techniques. only a few strokes will outline the character's voice and physical appearance. And the author also good at describing the details, so that the characters are vivid and evocative, with a strong artistic impact. Therefore, the subsequent imitation of the work is quite a lot, it become a great view.<br /> <br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure by Li Baojia (1867-1906), five editions and a total of 60 chapters. This is the first long chapter novel in China's modern era that was published serially in newspapers and magazines and achieved a social sensation, creating a culture of critical reality in modern fiction.<br /> The novel consists of more than 30 relatively independent bureaucratic stories linked together,involving the Qing government from the emperor, down to the minor officials and so on,and these various bureaucrats of all kinds of evil behavior were exposed:They embezzled public funds, corrupt and pervert the law or the named &quot;expedition bandits&quot;, but is harmful to the people. The work is like a scroll of the officialdom at the end of the feudal society, touching on the main contradictions of that time.<br /> The novel's writing method is modelled on &quot;The Scholars&quot; and has been developed, making full use of exaggeration, comic style and satirical techniques. only a few strokes will outline the character's voice and physical appearance. And the author also good at describing the details, so that the characters are vivid and evocative, with a strong artistic impact. Therefore, the subsequent imitation of the work is quite a lot, it become a great view.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 15:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ==== 20 years witness strange present situation====<br /> The Strange Situation Witnessed in Twenty Years was written by Wu Woyao(1866-1910), A total of 60 chapters. This is a long novel with autobiographical flavor.it through nearly 200 short stories that the protagonist hears and witnesses from the death of his father to his failure in business. it outlines the strange realities of late Qing society during the 20 years from the Sino-French War to the beginning of the 20th century.<br /> The scope of social life is much broader than The Records of Officialdom Exposure. In addition to describing the officialdom, there are also involving the shopping malls, foreign markets, science fields, medical and astrological practices. It exposes the political situation, moral outlook, social customs, and human conditions of the increasingly colonized Chinese feudal society, and is of high cognitive value in helping readers to see the irreparable historical destiny of the late Qing society and feudal system.<br /> The novel adopts the first-person narrative story, structured in a way that makes the reader feel intimate and trustworthy, setting a precedent in the history of Chinese fiction. The structure is also very clever: &quot;nine deaths and a lifetime&quot; is not only the narrator of the book story, but also the backbone of the structure of the book, and at the same time uses flashbacks, interpolations and other methods, combining it organically together, making the whole book complex and simple appropriate, muddle together.<br /> <br /> The Strange Situation Witnessed in Twenty Years was written by Wu Woyao(1866-1910), A total of 60 chapters. This is a long novel with autobiographical flavor.it through nearly 200 short stories that the protagonist hears and witnesses from the death of his father to his failure in business. it outlines the strange realities of late Qing society during the 20 years from the Sino-French War to the beginning of the 20th century.<br /> The scope of social life is much broader than The Records of Officialdom Exposure. In addition to describing the officialdom, there are also involving the shopping malls, foreign markets, science fields, medical and astrological practices. It exposes the political situation, moral outlook, social customs, and human conditions of the increasingly colonized Chinese feudal society, and is of high cognitive value in helping readers to see the irreparable historical destiny of the late Qing society and feudal system.<br /> The novel adopts the first-person narrative story, structured in a way that makes the reader feel intimate and trustworthy, setting a precedent in the history of Chinese fiction. The structure is also very clever: &quot;nine deaths and a lifetime&quot; is not only the narrator of the book story, but also the backbone of the structure of the book, and at the same time uses flashbacks, interpolations and other methods, combining it organically together, making the whole book complex and simple appropriate, muddle together.[Quotation missing]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 15:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ==== Conclution====<br /> As a result of the bourgeois reformists and democratic revolutionaries strongly advocated, the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty got unprecedented development, and a large number of influential novels emerged, forming a prosperous situation of the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty.The emergence of the &quot;Four satirical novels&quot; in the late Qing Dynasty is an important sign that The creation of Chinese novels has entered another prosperous period.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> *[1]https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E6%99%9A%E6%B8%85%E5%9B%9B%E5%A4%A7%E8%B0%B4%E8%B4%A3%E5%B0%8F%E8%AF%B4/702907?fr=aladdin<br /> *[2]二十年目睹之怪现状[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 吴趼人, 2012<br /> *[3]老残游记[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 刘鹗, 2012<br /> *[4]官场现形记[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 李宝嘉, 2012<br /> *[5]孽海花[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 曾朴, 2012<br /> *[6]四大谴责小说政治批判手法研究[J].李辉东,2017<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure 《官场现形记》<br /> <br /> The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years 《二十年之目睹怪现象》<br /> <br /> the Travels of an Old Man 《老残游记》<br /> <br /> Nai Hai Hua 《孽海花》<br /> <br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty 晚清四大谴责小说<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1、what are The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty ?<br /> <br /> 2、which novel is modeled the &quot;The Scholars&quot;?<br /> <br /> 3、what’s the common characteristic of these four novels? <br /> <br /> 4、what other satirical novels do you know?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1、They are Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua.<br /> <br /> 2、The Records of Officialdom Exposure<br /> <br /> 3、The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time.<br /> <br /> 4、E.g.The Scholars<br /> <br /> ==Shadow Play - Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> ===Shadow Play Li Lili No.202070080594 MTI===<br /> 大标题+小标题+名字拼音+汉字+学号+专业，大标题应该涵盖小标题，比如文学，《红楼梦》...(可以直接在最上面一栏写哦，不必再写一栏）--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 15:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Origin of Shadow Play====<br /> Shadow play has a long history from the written records. Legend has it that Madame Li, the wife of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, died of illness. Emperor Wu's yearning for her was so intense that he was in a trance and ignored the government's affairs all day. Minister Li Shaoweng went out one day when he came across a child playing with a doll in his hand, with its shadow being vivid，so he came up with an idea that he could cut the image of Mrs. Li from cotton and silk, painted it with color, and installed wooden poles on her hands and feet. After seeing it, Emperor Wu was glued to it and couldn't put it down. This love story is considered to be the earliest origin of shadow play. (Wei Liqun 2018,13) <br /> <br /> Shadow play has a long history according to the written records. Legend has it that Empress Xiaowu, the wife of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, died of illness. Emperor Wu missed her so strongly that he was in a trance and ignored the government's affairs all day. One day, Minister Li Shaoweng went out and came across a child playing with a doll in his hand. The shadow of the doll was so vivid that he came up with an idea to cut the Mrs. Li's image out of cotton and silk, painted it, and installed wooden poles on its hands and feet. When Emperor Wu looked at it, it was like a treasure that he could not put down for a long time. This love story is considered to be the earliest origin of shadow play.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are also some views that shadow play originated in Xi'an of Tang Dynasty, however, it is worth discussing that although there were an variety of operas in the Tang Dynasty, yet there were no any records of shadow play mentioned in the Tang Dynasty. Up to now, the earliest shadow play we can see is recorded in Song Dynasty. Its rise and development is closely related to Bianjing’s (the capital of Northern Song Dynasty) superior geographical environment, the development of commodity trade and good commercial transportation at that time. (Wei Liqun 2018,14-15)<br /> <br /> There are also some views that shadow play originated in Xi'an during the Tang Dynasty. However, it is worth discussing that although there were various operas in the Tang Dynasty, there is no record of any shadow plays in the Tang Dynasty. Up to now, the earliest record of shadow play that we can see is in Song Dynasty. Its rise and development were closely related to the superior geographical environment, the development of commodity trade and good commercial transportation at that time in Bianjing (the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty).--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> 可以复制别人图片的格式，修改名字和来源即可--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> [[File:shadow play.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> <br /> In Chinese ancient society, Chinese began to give performances using puppets against an illuminated screen. This is “shadow puppets”, also known as “lamp and shadow play”. It is considered as “precursor of movie” because it was the earliest moving part of form dubbed with human voice in the world. During a play, puppeteers hide behind the white screen and move puppets, while narrating the story, usually through singing. Performances are accompanied by musicians playing percussion and stringed instruments. A shadow puppet can perform actions such as “serving drinks”, “waving a sword and a spear,” or even “smoking” by puppeteer holding and moving manipulating rods on its body. (Wang Yexia 2012,1-2)<br /> <br /> In ancient Chinese society, the Chinese people began to perform with puppets against a luminous screen. This was &quot;shadow puppets&quot;, also known as &quot;light and shadow play&quot;. It is considered the “predecessor of movie” because it was the earliest physical moving part in the world to be dubbed with human voices. In the play, puppeteers hide behind a white screen and move puppets while narrating the story, usually through singing. The performances are accompanied by musicians playing percussion and stringed instruments. Shadow puppets can perform actions such as “serving wine”, “waving a sword and dancing a spear,” and even “smoking” by the puppeteer holding and moving joysticks on its body.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Typically, a shadow puppet has three rods, some may have five or seven rods. It can create rich designs such as shadow puppets, animals and stage props, for example, buildings, imperial palaces, chariots, tables and chairs as well as weapons. It is so rich that it includes almost everything under the sun. It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools. The well-known ones include Tangshan Shadow Play in Hebei Province, Beijing Shadow Play as well as Shaanxi, Shanxi and Hunan Shadow Play. etc. (Wang Yexia 2012,2-3)<br /> <br /> Typically, a shadow play has three poles, and some may have five or seven. It can create a rich variety of designs, for example shadow puppets, animals and stage props such as buildings, imperial palaces, chariots, tables and chairs as well as weapons. It is so rich that it includes almost everything under the sun. It incorporates traditional Chinese modeling and performing arts as well as the arts of painting, paper-cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the essence of local operas and folk songs and formed many genres. The well-known ones include Tangshan Shadow Play in Hebei Province, Beijing Shadow Play as well as Shaanxi, Shanxi and Hunan Shadow Play, etc.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> So how to make a puppet? First. Draw pictures of the various parts of the shadow puppets; second, finish carving with a knife and a hard board underneath the design; third, color the puppet with watercolor pens; forth, paint the body parts with a brush dipped in oil. This can make the puppet transparent and better reflect colors under the light.; fifth, connect joint sections with the cotton thread; sixth, make the manipulating rods; finally, attach the manipulating rods to the shadow puppet with cotton thread. Thanks to different manipulating rods moves, the shadow puppet has a life, and can show happiness, anger, sorrow and gladness. (Wang Yexia 2012,29-35)<br /> <br /> So how do you make a puppet? Firstly, draw a picture of each part of the shadow puppet; secondly, finish the carving with a knife and put the hard board underneath the designed pattern; thirdly, color the puppet with watercolor pens; fourthly, paint the body parts with a brush dipped in oil paint. It can make the puppet transparent and better reflect colors under the light; fifthly, connect the joint sections with the cotton thread; sixthly, make the joysticks; finally, attach the joysticks to the shadow puppet with cotton thread. Due to the different movements of the joysticks, the shadow puppet has a life and can express joy, anger, sorrow and happiness.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The eyes and the eyebrows of a shadow puppet’s five facial features represent different personalities. The good and positive people are typical of a benevolent and kind countenance, with nice-looking eyebrows and eyes, while the villain or the general are ferocious look, with sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes. And the former are often concealed teeth and the latter are revealed teeth. The middle-aged people are short beard, but the elderly men are long beard. (Wang Yexia 2012,10-11)<br /> <br /> The eyes and the eyebrows of the shadow puppet’s five facial features represent different personalities. A good and upright person is typically benevolent and kind with nice-looking eyebrows and eyes, while a villain or general is ferocious and evil-looking with sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes. And the former tends to hide their teeth and the latter show their teeth. The middle-aged people have short beards, while the elderly men have long beards.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The decorative designs on the shadow puppets are so important that they must match the character’s social status. In a shadow play, female characters are usually decorated with patters such as flowers, grass, clouds and phoenix, while male characters are often decorated with dragons, tigers, water and clouds. Shadows puppets look colorful under the light. To achieve a better visual effect, the translucent puppets need to be painted on both sides. The head of color can also represent different characters’ personalities. The red is symbol of a heroic and upstanding character and the representative is Guan Yu. The black is a sign of a just, honest and selfless personality and the representative is Zhang Fei. The yellow shows a brave and irascible character and are often used in fantasy plays to represent people with magic power. (Wang Yexia 2012,13-16)<br /> <br /> The decorative patterns on the shadow puppets are so important that they must match the social status of characters. In a shadow play, female characters are usually decorated with patters such as flowers, grass, clouds and phoenixes, while male characters are often decorated with patterns such as dragons, tigers, water and clouds. The shadows puppets look colorful under the light. To achieve a better visual effect, translucent puppets need to be painted on both sides. The different colors of heads can also represent different characters’ personalities. Red is a symbol of heroic and upright character and the representative is Guan Yu. Black indicates a fair, honest and selfless character and the representative is Zhang Fei. Yellow shows a brave and irascible character and is often used in fantasy plays to represent people with magic powers.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Present Situation of Contemporary Shadow Play====<br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, shadow play, as an art form, has undergone a series of reforms under the guidance of the Party's principles, including the organization of theatrical troupes, the compilation and creation of plays, the drawing and performing forms of shadow play. With the advent of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, the prosperity of shadow play came to an abrupt end. The troupe was disbanded, the repertoire was banned, and the artists were transferred to other fields. A large number of precious shadow puppet props and documents were damaged. This situation, except for some places, lasted until 1976. (Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）<br /> <br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, shadow play, as an art form, has undergone a series of reforms under the guidance of the Party's principles, including the organization of theatrical troupes, the compilation and creation of scripts, the painting and performing forms of shadow play. With the advent of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, the prosperity of shadow play came to an abrupt end. The troupe was disbanded, the repertoire was banned, and the artists were transferred to other fields. A large number of precious shadow puppet props and documents were damaged. This situation, with the exception of a few places, lasted until 1976.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After the end of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, shadow puppet art revived rapidly, However, with the economic development being put in the first place of social activities and the popularity of television and the richness of artistic forms, shadow play is declining day by day with an irresistible trend, because shadow play arts are unable to keep pace with the times and get the appreciation from the audience. As a result, the prospect of shadow play art is becoming increasingly bleak. （Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）<br /> <br /> After the end of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, the art of shadow puppet was rapidly revived. However, as economic development was placed at the forefront of social activities with the popularity of television and the enrichment of art forms, shadow play is declining with an irresistible trend, because the art of shadow play are unable to keep pace with the times and be appreciated by the audience. As a result, the future of shadow play is becoming increasingly bleak.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In order to inherit Chinese excellent culture and protect the ancient art forms such as shadow play. On May 20, 2006, it was approved by the State Council to be included in the first part of national intangible cultural heritage list. On November 27, 2011, UNESCO put Chinese shadow play on the &quot;list of representative works of human intangible cultural heritage&quot;.（baidubaike）引用不规范--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In order to inherit Chinese excellent culture and protect the ancient art forms such as shadow play. On May 20, 2006, it was approved by the State Council to be included in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage list. On November 27, 2011, UNESCO included Chinese shadow play in the &quot;Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity&quot;.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 02:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Wang Yexia 王业霞.(2012). 《皮影戏》 [Shadow Play] 北京：高等教育出版社 Beijing: [Higher Education Publishing House] <br /> *Wei Liqun 魏力群.(2018). 《小书大传承-皮影》[&quot;Small Book, Big Heritage - Shadow Play&quot;] 重庆：重庆出版社 Chongqing: [Chongqing Publishing House]<br /> *Zhu Hengfu 朱恒夫.(2020) 中国皮影戏的历史，现状与剧目特征[The History, Current Situation and Repertoire Characteristics of Chinese Shadow Theatre] 浙江艺术职业学院学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Arts Vocational College]<br /> *https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%9A%AE%E5%BD%B1%E6%88%8F/23224?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> ===Words and Expressions===<br /> *shadow puppet皮影戏 <br /> *paper cutting 剪纸<br /> *ventriloquism 口技<br /> *manipulating rod 操纵杆<br /> *five facial features 五官<br /> *sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes 尖眉杏眼<br /> *Cultural Revolution 文化大革命<br /> *intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> *1.When is the earliest shadow puppet’s record? <br /> *2.What art of forms do shadow play use?<br /> *3. What does a red head stand for in a play?<br /> *4.When is it put on the list of intangible cultural heritage&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> *1.Song dynasty.<br /> *2.It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools.<br /> *3.The red is symbol of a heroic and upstanding character.<br /> *4. On November 27, 2011.<br /> <br /> ==Confucian Culture - Li Liqin 李丽琴 Student No.202070080595 MTI ==<br /> <br /> === Confucian Culture ===<br /> <br /> <br /> ==== Introduction ====<br /> <br /> Confucian school is an academic school founded by Confucius, developed by Mencius, and composed by Xunzi. Today, it still retains a certain vitality. Confucian school takes Confucianism as its guiding ideology whose central ideas are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 31)<br /> <br /> Confucian school was on an equal footing with the other hundred schools in the pre-Qin period. After the First Emperor of Qin, also called Qin Shihuang, burned books and buried scholars alive, the development of the Confucian school suffered a serious defeat. Then, in order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's advice of &quot;banishing other schools of thought and worshiping Confucianism only&quot; and imposed restrictions on thought, which led to the revival of Confucian school. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 20) The concepts of &quot;Confucian school&quot;, &quot;Confucianism&quot;, and &quot;Confucian Religion&quot; should be distinguished since Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism a social stratification, and Confucian religion belief. (Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 2017, 60-61)<br /> <br /> Laozi founded Chinese Taoist school; Confucius started Chinese Confucian school; Sun Tzu initiated Chinese military strategist school; Mozi was the founder of Mohism in the early Warring States. Confucianism contributes to guiding the code of conduct and constructing social order; Taoism focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalism serves the system construction of national political management; the concepts of Universal Love and utilitarianism are two cornerstones for the Mohism. The General Unity idea of Confucianism has played an important role in the unification of a nation, the enhancement of national cohesion and the integration of cultural values. (Tan Su 2012, 68) <br /> <br /> After more than two thousand years of development and evolution, Confucian culture has built up a complete ideological system, involving politics, education, morality, ethics, code of conduct, life skills and other aspects. It has cultivated the wisdom and soul of the Chinese people throughout the history, and formed deep-rooted set patterns of thinking, psychology and survival. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42-43)<br /> <br /> After more than 2,000 years of development and evolution, Confucian culture has built up a complete ideological system, covering politics, education, morality and ethics, codes of conduct, life skills and many other aspects.It has long nurtured the wisdom and mind of the Chinese people and formed a fixed modes of thinking, psychology and survival, which are deeply rooted in the nation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Analysis of Confucian Culture ====<br /> <br /> ===== Intelligence Development =====<br /> <br /> Confucius is a great educator, as well as a pioneer and practitioner of mass education. After Confucianism was established as a dominant culture, both the rulers and the public respected the teachings of the sage and attached great importance to education. In this context, a basic requirement is to stay highly cultured and steeped in propriety. After the Emperor Wen initiated the imperial examination system in the Sui Dynasty, those who are good scholars could make an official, which inspired students of poor families to change their lives by studying hard and diligent. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 19) <br /> <br /> Confucius is a great educator, as well as a pioneer and practitioner of mass education. After Confucianism was established as the dominant culture, both the rulers and the public respected the teachings of the sage and attached great importance to education, and '''being educated and sensible''' became a basic requirement. After the Emperor Wen initiated the imperial examination system in the Sui Dynasty, those who are good scholars could make an official, which inspired students of poor families to change their lives by studying hard and diligent. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 19)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For generations, the Chinese people have attached great importance to the education of their children, which is conducive to the improvement of the thinking ability of the whole nation. However, the corrupt of bureaucracy and the darkness of officialdom in metaphase and anaphase made many literati feel despairing about official career and discredit about the concept. In addition, the Four Books and Five Classics were the main learning content of Confucianism. Apart from government-run schools, private schools and self-study can hardly meet the requirements of the Six Classical Arts. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 21) Therefore, the Four Books and Five Classics were the focus of students, while the Six Classical Arts were not highly valued.<br /> <br /> =====Spiritual Guidance =====<br /> <br /> In terms of spirit, Confucianism contends that &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.&quot; (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 86) Benevolent people love each other, which reflects the essence of “Unity of Man and Nature” and also the most brilliant connotation of Confucianism. This philosophy calls for people’s active contributions to the society. It is still alive in modern times, and is the fundamental requirement of people's spiritual orientation in the future. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32)<br /> <br /> =====Order Construction =====<br /> <br /> In the age of barbarism and backwardness, a common feature was that a small number of people used power and force to suppress and enslave the majority, thus resulting in labor division and unfair distribution of wealth and generating corresponding social hierarchy and concepts. Given the fact that Confucianism developed in the transitional period of feudal society, the thoughts of Confucius and Mencius were rooted in the idealist view of destiny and did not break the shackles of social hierarchy. In addition, they even advocated the distinguish between the noble and the humble and highlighted the importance of hierarchy division. (Li Fangping 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> In this context, the benevolence they advocated had great limitations in political management. The public could not be treated equally in terms of political status. Instead, the so-called benevolence calls for improvement of the living conditions of the public and more benefits from the ruling class. However, its purpose was to maintain social order and reconcile social contradictions. This is also the root cause of feudal rulers’ favoring of Confucianism. In essence, Confucianism did not promote social equality, instead, it worked to maintain the unequal feudal hierarchy that aggravated servitude. In fact, after a long history of feudal rule, the sense of hierarchy would be part of the national psyche. With the progress of times and civilization, the view of destiny and the thought of social order have become psychological shackles of the Chinese people. (Li Fangping 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> In this context, the benevolence they advocated had great limitations in political management. The public could not be treated equally in terms of political status. Instead, the so-called benevolence calls for improvement of the living conditions of the public and more benefits from the ruling class. However, its purpose was to maintain social order and reconcile social contradictions. This is the fundamental reason why Confucianism was so popular with the feudal rulers, <br /> Instead of promoting social equality, it worked to maintain an unequal and slavish feudal hierarchy. Indeed, after a long period of feudal rule, the sense of hierarchy would enslave the national psyche. With the progress of times and civilization, Confucianism's view of the Mandate of Heaven and the ruling ideology of social order have becme a psychological yoke that enslaved the people.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 04:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After eliminating the ideology of feudal hierarchy and formalism, some philosophies of Confucianism still generate positive effects on modern society. Specifically, the spirit of benevolence and universal love is conducive to cultivate people’s spirits; the concept of “the country belongs to the public” reflects a sense of social responsibility to make contributions for society, which can be expanded into a sharing social and political philosophy for different countries. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 33)<br /> <br /> Filial piety and brotherhood increase the harmony and stability of family; Loyalty, faithfulness, propriety and forgiveness are conducive to the relationship between different countries, societies and people. &quot;Loyalty&quot; means that people should stay loyal to the country and people; &quot;Friendliness&quot; and &quot;forgiveness&quot; play an important role in resolving various contradictions and animosities; when it comes to &quot;filial piety&quot; and &quot;propriety&quot;, many redundant forms inherited from feudal society should be eradicated and be more practical. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-41)<br /> <br /> ====The Contemporary Value of Confucian Culture ====<br /> <br /> Today, Confucian culture is still of great significance. We must explore the value of Confucian culture on the basis of the excellent tradition of the Chinese nation and by combining the characteristics of the times with and the actual situation. The Confucian culture has affected Chinese more than two thousand years and gone deep into each aspect of Chinese society. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39)<br /> <br /> =====Ideological and Political Education =====<br /> <br /> Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy, and it places a high priority on human value and dignity. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 51-57) Over the years, the Chinese nation has been influenced by this excellent philosophy. On this occasion, its behavioral pattern and psychological structure are endowed with uniqueness, which is mainly manifested in two aspects. One is to respect yourself, learn how to love and care yourself. Moreover, gain dignity and achieve the development of human value through the continuous improvement of moral cultivation. Second, respect others and show respect for others' personality by respecting, understanding and caring for others. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-40)<br /> <br /> ===== Modern Economic Construction=====<br /> <br /> Under today’s circumstance, some ideological contents are still alive and produce positive effects on promoting the economic construction of modernization and fostering modern patriotism emotion of the Chinese people. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65)<br /> <br /> First of all, Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of &quot;benevolence&quot; and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65) <br /> <br /> Since Confucian culture reflects a collectivist view on life, individuals are full of sense of duty and responsibility towards others and groups. In this context, their self-cultivation targets at regulating the family, country and the world. Thus, the value of individual is closely linked with the rise and fall of the country, so they have a strong sense of responsibility. &quot;Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country&quot; has been a common belief for thousands of years. Such a social responsibility will give rise to a huge driving force for the development of the country and society. (Tan Su 2012, 68)<br /> <br /> Second, the consciousness of &quot;self-improvement&quot; and the proposition of &quot;seeking truth&quot; in the Confucian culture strengthen the national spirit and provide a source power for China’s economic modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 66) <br /> <br /> Yi Zhuan put forward: &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection.’’ It means that continuous development is the law of nature and that a gentleman should pursue progress and be strong, unyielding resilient and positive. For thousands of years, the Chinese nation has formed a fine tradition of working hard and striving for strength under the influence of these thoughts. Today, we carry forward the spirits of “self-improvement” and &quot;seeking truth&quot; in ways that further enhance national spirits and provide a strong driving force for the socialist modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 67)<br /> <br /> Third, the &quot;reform and innovation&quot; concept in Confucian culture is conducive to the expansion of the reform and opening up and the acceleration of China's socialist modernization. On the basis of admitting the fact that the continuous development is the universal law of nature, Confucian culture puts forward the &quot;innovation idea&quot;. The Book of Rites said, &quot;If you can in one day renovate yourself; do so from day to day and let there be daily renovation.&quot; The Book of Changes said, &quot;Reform refers to destroy the old, while innovation means to establish the new.” (Li Chengzong 2002, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept is not only serves as the theoretical basis for reform and innovation throughout the history, but also provides valuable lessons for the reform in socialist economic and political systems today. Domestically, promoting the innovative spirits can greatly enhance the reform consciousness of the Chinese people. Externally, it is conducive to advancing the opening up by leveraging the global influence of Confucian culture. (Li Chengzong 2002, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept '''has not only served''' as theoretical basis for reformers in the past, but also provides valuable lessons for the reform in socialist economic and political systems today. Domestically, '''by promoting the &quot;innovative&quot; spirit of Confucianism''', we can greatly enhance the reform consciousness of the Chinese people; externally, by using the influence of Confucianism in the world, we can help promote opening up to the outside world.(Li Chengzong 2002, 67)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 06:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===== Legal Construction =====<br /> <br /> Confucian culture places a high priority on personal cultivation, while a highly civilized society under the rule of law must be composed of highly educated citizens. Confucian school, a school with thousands of years of history in China, has become an integral part of the Chinese culture. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32-33) <br /> <br /> Nowadays, since China has called for the policy of combining the rule of virtue with the rule of law, it is the time for Confucian culture to find its historical position and fully play its role. Exploring the influence of Confucian culture on the construction of contemporary Chinese rule by law, not only can we help us more deeply understand the traditional culture, but also can promote the process of building the rule of law in contemporary China. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32-33)<br /> <br /> The rule by virtue thought is an important part of Confucian culture and it emphasizes the importance of moral education. It is a national strategy pursued by ancient Chinese rulers and a method of national governance embodying reference significance in today’s China. (Wei Na 2014, 1-2) <br /> <br /> In terms of national governance, Confucianism emphasizes the importance of morality, believing that national governance should not mainly rely on harsh punishment, instead, moral education should be applied to reform people. Confucius said, &quot;By governing with virtue, rulers will be loved by the public, just like stars surround the North Star.&quot; By comparing rulers to the North Star and people to the stars, Confucius emphasized the importance of moral governance. (Wang Jie 2004, 77)<br /> <br /> How to rule by virtue? First of all, rulers should pay attention to their personal cultivation and develop good moral characters, so that they can set a good example for the public. Only when officials and common people obey the ruler sincerely, can a good social atmosphere be formed. Secondly, since Confucianism takes &quot;benevolence&quot; as its core and calls for the rule of virtue, many people subconsciously believe that Confucianism denies the role of criminal law and that Confucian culture does not call for the rule of law. (Wang Jie 2004, 82-83) <br /> <br /> How to rule by virtue? First of all, rulers should pay attention to their personal cultivation and develop good moral '''qualities in order to play an exemplary and leading role'''. Only when officials and common people obey the ruler sincerely, can a good social atmosphere be formed. Secondly, since Confucianism takes &quot;benevolence&quot; as its core and calls for the rule of virtue, many people subconsciously believe that Confucianism denies the role of criminal law and that Confucian culture does not call for the rule of law. (Wang Jie 2004, 82-83) --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 04:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, this is not the case. While Confucianism advocates the rule of virtue, it also emphasizes the supplementary role of rule of law. Confucius said, &quot;Sages believe that national governance must combine the rule of virtue and law.&quot; That is to say, if people are governed by systems and laws, they seek for impunity but lack of conscience; however, if they are guided by morality and etiquette, they will have a sense of right and wrong and will impose strict requirements on themselves. (Wang Jie 2004, 83)<br /> <br /> In a word, we should clearly realize that, although Confucian culture is an excellent traditional culture in China, it was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. Under this circumstance, we must analyse Confucian culture dialectically and explore the value of Confucian culture. At the same time, we should discard the bad habits and unfavorable factors left by it, so as to better carry forward our traditional culture and accelerate the construction of the rule of law in contemporary China. (Wang Jie 2004, 83)<br /> <br /> ====The Confucius Institute ====<br /> <br /> With the improvement of China's international status and the increasingly extensive international exchanges, Chinese culture has won wider foreign attention and the world is more eager to learn and understand the Chinese culture. The Confucius Institute project, founded in 2004, emerges in response to the call of the times. Today, Confucius Institutes have spread throughout Asia, Africa, The Americas, Europe and Oceania. (Wang Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 30) <br /> <br /> As China's international status continues to rise and international contacts become more widespread, Chinese culture is gaining more and more attention overseas. The demand for Chinese language learning and understanding of Chinese culture has grown dramatically around the world. The Confucius Institute project, founded in 2004, emerges in this context. Today, Confucius Institutes have spread throughout Asia, Africa, The Americas, Europe and Oceania. (Wang Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 30)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Fundamentally speaking, its is conducive to the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture since language is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is of positive significance to the construction of China's national image, the promotion of China's international influence, the realization of wider international communication. (Wang Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 30) <br /> <br /> The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Today, countries are committed to spreading their own language and culture, so there is a fierce competition in international cultural promotion. In addition, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 31)<br /> <br /> At present, Confucius Institutes are prevalent all over the world, but the promotion strategy seeking for quantity and speed results in a serious shortage of teachers capable of teaching Chinese as a foreign language. According to statistics, there is a global shortage of at least five million TCSL teachers. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 31) <br /> <br /> Secondly, the lack of high-quality and localized teaching materials for Chinese has also become a bottleneck for the development of Confucius Institutes. The shortage of Chinese textbooks affects the depth of cultural communication of Confucius Institutes directly. Thirdly, Confucius Institutes are not capable of spreading the ideological depth of the Chinese culture. Although the textbooks are rich in content, they mainly focus on promoting folk culture by introducing Chinese food, tea and wine, traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts. Meanwhile, they rarely involve the ideological essence of traditional Chinese culture and the modern value of Chinese culture. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 32)<br /> <br /> The Confucius Institutes should fully explore the modern significance of Confucianism and cast the quintessence of Chinese culture, and strengthen the spread of the core idea of Chinese culture and its modern cultural value. The connotation of Chinese culture is very rich. What Confucius Institutes should spread is not all the contents of Chinese culture, but the contents with universal value that are different from other countries and represent the essence of Chinese culture. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions ====<br /> <br /> 儒家 Confucian school<br /> <br /> 儒学 Confucianism<br /> <br /> 儒教 Confucian religion <br /> <br /> 兼爱 Universal love<br /> <br /> 恕、忠、孝、悌、勇 forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage<br /> <br /> 仁、义、礼、智、信 benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith<br /> <br /> 学而优则仕 A good scholar will make an official<br /> <br /> 四书五经 the Four Books and Five Classics<br /> <br /> 天行健，君子当自强不息；地势坤，君子以厚德载物。As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.<br /> <br /> 天下兴亡，匹夫有责 Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country<br /> <br /> ====Questions ====<br /> <br /> 1. What’s the central ideas of Confucian culture?<br /> <br /> 2. What’s the difference among Confucian school, Confucianism and Confucian religion?<br /> <br /> 3. What do you think of the relationship between Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school, Legalist school?<br /> <br /> 4. What’s the Six Classical Arts?<br /> <br /> 5. What you think of the ancient influence of Confucianism?<br /> <br /> 6. Do you think Confucian culture still has its contemporary values in China? And why?<br /> <br /> 7. What do you think of the current situation of the development of the Confucian institute?<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1. The central ideas of Confucian culture are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith.<br /> <br /> 2. Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism is a social stratification, and Confucian is a religion belief.<br /> <br /> 3. Confucian school emphasizes the code of conduct and the social order construction; Taoist school focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalist school serves the system construction of national political management; Mohist school emphasizes Universal Love and utilitarianism. Although Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school and Legalist school are different schools with different theories, they are not completely antagonistic. <br /> <br /> 4. The Six Classical Arts refers to propriety(礼), music（乐）, archery（射）, riding（御）, writing（书） and arithematic（数）. <br /> <br /> 5. The ancient influence of Confucianism should be analysed from a historical perspective. It was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. While contributing to intelligence development, spiritual guidance and order construction to some extent, it has also led to some negative effects in the long run. For example, it called for rigid feudal hierarchy and resulted in spiritual constraints. <br /> <br /> 6. Yes. Although Confucian culture has a history of thousands of years, it still has contemporary values in today's society. For instance, Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy and places a high priority on human value and dignity, which is still of profound significance; Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of &quot;benevolence&quot; and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy.<br /> <br /> 7. The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Nowadays, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. Joint efforts of all social sectors should be made to achieve the sustainable development of it. <br /> <br /> ====References====<br /> <br /> Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 陈智斌, 杜艾红. (2017). 儒学、儒家、儒教之异同 [The Differences and Similarities of Confucian School, Confucianism and Confucian Religion]. ''审计月刊'' Audit Monthly. '''[The pages are not given]'''<br /> <br /> Li Chenzong 李承宗. (2002). 论儒家文化对培养现代爱国主义情感的积极作用 [On the Positive Effects of Confucian Culture on Cultivating Patriotism]. ''廊坊师范学院学报'' Journal of Langfang Teachers College. '''[The pages are not given]'''<br /> <br /> Li Fangping 李芳萍. (2013). 儒家思想对中国文化的影响研究 [A Study on the Influence of Confucianism on Chinese Culture]. ''前沿'' Forward Position.'''[The pages are not given]'''<br /> <br /> Li Xiaoyu 李晓愚. (2010). 儒家仁爱思想的当代诠释 [Contemporary Interpretation of Benevolence]. ''郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Zhengzhou University. '''[The pages are not given]'''<br /> <br /> Tan Su 谭苏. (2012). 论春秋战国时期的百家争鸣 [On the Competition of Ideas in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period]. ''兰台世界'' Lantai World. '''[The pages are not given]'''<br /> <br /> Wang Jie 王杰. (2004). 为政以德: 孔子的德治主义治国模式 [Rule of Virtue: Confucian’s Model of Governance]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C. '''[The pages are not given]'''<br /> <br /> Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 吴瑛, 提文静. (2009). 孔子学院的发展现状与问题分析 [The Development Status and Problems of Confucius Institute]. ''云南师范大学学报 (对外汉语教学与研究版)'' Journal of Yunnan Normal University. '''[The pages are not given]'''<br /> <br /> Xiang Chunling 向春玲. (2008). 儒家文化的现代意义 [On Modern Significance of Confucian Culture]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C． '''[The pages are not given]'''<br /> <br /> Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (1990). ''中国儒学思想史'' [The History of Chinese Confucianism]. 陕西：陕西人民出版社 Shaanxi: Shaanxi People’s Publishing House. '''[The pages are not given]'''--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 04:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ch'ien Chung-shu - Liu Liu刘柳， 202070080596 MTI==<br /> <br /> ====Ch'ien Chung-shu====<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu (1910-1998), a well-known scholar, writer, translator and literary researcher, was born into an education family in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province. In Chinese academic circles, Qian was ranked with Rao Zongyi, a master in academic circles, and both were called &quot;South Rao and North Qian&quot;. He was admitted to Tsinghua University in 1929 and got to know Yang Jiang in 1932. Qian became famous soon after the enrolment, not only for the 15 mark of his mathematics, but for his excellent Chinese and English, especially full marks in English.(360 Encyclopedia)<br /> <br /> Qian had an engagement with Yang the year after their acquaintance and went to study at Oxford University in England along with her. In 1937, he obtained the bachelor's degree from Oxford with the treatise ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries'', and his daughter Qian Yuan was born the same year. He wrote a great many profound literary works in his lifetime. When it comes to Ch'ien Chung-shu, people would think of his representative work ''Fortress Besieged'', which was published in 1947.(360 Encyclopedia)<br /> <br /> As a realistic satirical novel, ''Fortress Besieged'' is known as &quot;The New Scholars&quot; in the 1940s. The novel is centralized on Fang Hongjian,who returned from studying abroad at the beginning of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression. It depicts the struggles in love, marriage,career and life of a group of intellectuals who were far away from the times and the people during the War of Resistance against Japanese Agression. It reveals their inner poverty, emptiness and lowliness, criticizes the dark reality of the Kuomintang-controlled areas, and reveals the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life.(Qian Zhongshu 1947) <br /> <br /> In the preface of the book, Qian said that, &quot;In this book I intended to write about a certain segment of society and a certain kind of people in modern China. In writing about these people, I didn’t forget they are human beings, still human beings with the basic nature of hairless, two-legged animals. &quot;The novel is like an X-ray mirror that reveals the deformed characters and ugly souls of those &quot;hairless and two-legged animals&quot; and analyzes the cultural matrix which is responsible for the deformed characters and ugly souls of these &quot;latest style&quot; literati.(Qian Zhongshu 1947)<br /> <br /> Yang Jiang said, &quot;The main connotation of ''Fortress Besieged'' is that those who are besieged by the city want to escape, while those outside want to rush in. This is what most people wish for in life, whether in marriage or career. &quot;The meaning of &quot;fortress besieged&quot; is also stated several times in the novel. It tells people that life is a besieged city everywhere, people have marriage and divorce, divorce and marriage in endless succession,with everlasting confusion and dilemma. The questions that Qian raised in the novel refer to a question of universal significance, which is the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life as a whole. In December 1990, the television series ''Fortress Besieged'' was broadcast on China Central Television(CCTV) and enjoyed great popularity.quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu has made significant achievements in literary research and literary creation. In particular, it is of great significance to carry forward and deny traditional Chinese culture scientifically and learn from foreign culture selectively. He has wrote the collection of essays ''Written in the Margins of Life'' (1941), the collection of short stories ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts'' (1946), and the novel ''Fortress Besieged'' (1947). <br /> <br /> Both his essays and novels are wise and meaningful. Qian has read Chinese history, philosophy and literary classics in depth and has studied western old and new literature, philosophy and psychology. Many of his works, such as ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideaas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', have enjoyed high reputation in academic circles both at home and abroad.<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu viewd China and the world with a cultural criticism spirit. Based on his profound knowledge of Chinese and world culture, Qian has always shown a clear mind and a deep insight when observing Chinese and Western culture. He didn't reject any theories or doctrines, nor did he blindly follow any authorities. He devoted his life to promoting Chinese literature and art to the world. <br /> <br /> To this end, he not only explicated the profound meaning and unique value of Chinese culture in depth, but also pointed out its historical and regional limitations. He not only criticized the Chinese for their arrogance towards the local culture due to certain illusions, but also mercilessly eliminated the Westerners' prejudice centered on European and American culture due to ignorance. It is Ch'ien Chung-shu who has promoted cultural communication between China and other countries.<br /> <br /> November 21st,2020 is the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu. People often call him a well-informed scholar, but he is more of a down-to-earth writer and scholar. He was indifferent to fame and wealth and alaways took a rigorous and serious attitude towards academic research. We feel ourselves in an entirely new world when we read the subtle metaphors in ''Fortress Besieged'', while we read ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', we are amazed at Qian's erudition. People all over the world admire his talent, but in fact,it is his meticulous and diligent reading spirit that makes him a well-informed scholar.(Wang Shuizhao 2020) <br /> <br /> Many of his life experiences and the question of whether his scholarship was systematic or not have attracted much attention. Wang Shuizhao, professor of Chinese Department of Fudan University, who has studied and worked with Ch'ien Chung-shu for a long time, has recently published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'', in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements based on the first-hand historical data, his personal experiences and his own understanding of academia, and gives answers to the questions discueesed widely, such as Qian's experience of being falsely accused, whether there exists system in his scholarship and the collision of viewpoints between Qian and Chen Yinke.(Wang Shuizhao 2020)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries'' 《十七十八世纪英国文学中的中国》<br /> <br /> ''Fortress Besieged'' 《围城》<br /> <br /> Kuomintang-controlled areas 国统区<br /> <br /> ''Written in the Margins of Life'' 《写在人生边上》<br /> <br /> ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts'' 《人·兽·鬼》<br /> <br /> ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' 《管锥编》<br /> <br /> ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'' 《谈艺录》<br /> <br /> the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu 钱钟书诞辰110周年纪念日<br /> <br /> ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu '' 《钱锺书的学术人生》<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.What is Ch'ien Chung-shu's representative work? When was it published?<br /> <br /> 2.When was the TV series ''Fortress Besieged'' broadcast?<br /> <br /> 3.Do you know other works about Ch'ien Chung-shu? Can you list some of them?<br /> <br /> 4.Which book did Wang Shuizhao publish in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu? What does he talk about in this book?<br /> <br /> 5.Which sentence is your favoriate in ''Fortress Besieged''? <br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Ch'ien Chung-shu's representive work is ''Fortress Besieged''. It was published in 1947.<br /> <br /> 2.It was broadcast in December 1990.<br /> <br /> 3.''Patchwork:Seven Essays on Art and Literature''（《七缀集》） and ''Poetic Remains of an Ephemeral Life''（《槐聚诗存》）.<br /> <br /> 4.Wang Shuizhao published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'' in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu, in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements.<br /> <br /> 5.&quot;I want to be able to occupy the whole life of the man I love. Before meeting me, he would have had no past and would be waiting for me with a clean slate.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu.钱钟书.(1947).''围城''.[Fortress Besieged].上海晨光出版公司[Shanghai Chenguang Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Wang Shuizhao.王水照.(2020).''钱锺书的学术人生''.[Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu].中华书局[Zhonghua Book Company,Ltd.].<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> == ''' Crosstalk''' Liu Ou 刘欧， 202070080597，MTI==<br /> 大标题+小标题+名字拼音+汉字+学号+专业--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘欧 Liu Ou &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===The Development of Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> Crosstalk, in the ancient time was known as onomatopoeia, originally refers to imitate others’ voices. It was evolved and further developed from the folk opera in North China, and integrated with imitating oral skills and other folk art forms. It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty. It’s a folk vocal art that uses jokes or funny questioning and answering to make the audience laugh. In the early years of the Republic of China (1912-1949), crosstalk gradually developed from one-person ventriloquism to one person stand-up talk, and the name changed to cross talk. Later, it developed into stand-up crosstalk, dual crosstalk, and group crosstalk. And become a veritable form of art. After years of development, dual crosstalk has finally become the most popular form of crosstalk among audiences.In the late Qing Dynasty, crosstalk formed its modern features and styles. The language uses in crosstalk is mainly Beijing dialect, however, there are also “dialect crosstalk” in other regions of China. (360 Encyclopedia)<br /> <br /> Crosstalk, in the ancient time known as onomatopoeia, originally refers to imitate others’ voices. It was evolved and further developed from the folk opera in North China, and integrated with imitating oral skills and other folk art forms. It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty. It’s a folk vocal art that uses jokes or funny questioning and answering to make the audience laugh. In the early years of the Republic of China (1912-1949), crosstalk gradually developed from one-person ventriloquism to one person stand-up talk, and the name changed to cross talk. Later, it developed into stand-up crosstalk, dual crosstalk, and group crosstalk. And it becomes a veritable form of art. After years of development, dual crosstalk has finally become the most popular form of crosstalk among audiences. In the late Qing Dynasty, crosstalk formed its modern features and styles. The language uses in crosstalk is mainly Beijing dialect, however, there are also “dialect crosstalk” in other regions of China. (360 Encyclopedia)夹注应在句号前。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> <br /> Crosstalk is a original folk art in China, with a long historical tradition, deeply loved by the majority of the people. The once-dead crosstalk art has been reborn and developed very rapidly especially since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. It is no longer confined to several cities in the north, nor spread only within the citizens, but also spread from the north to the whole country, from the city to the countryside, and from the citizens to all strata. (Hou Baolin, 1982:01)<br /> <br /> Crosstalk is a original folk art in China, with a long historical tradition, deeply loved by the majority of the people 这句话语法错误--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC) . The once-dead crosstalk art has been reborn and developed very rapidly especially since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. It is no longer confined to several cities in the north, nor spread only within the citizens, but also spread from the north to the whole country, from the city to the countryside, and from the citizens to all strata 这句话关联词不完整， spread主谓注意一致，注意逗号的使用以及夹注在句号前。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Hou Baolin, 1982:01)<br /> <br /> ===Four Basic Skills in Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> Speaking, imitating, teasing and singing are the four basic artistic skills of crosstalk. “Speaking” means to tell jokes, stories, lantern riddles, drinking games, etc; “imitating” is to imitate all kinds of birds and animals, hawking, singing and the sound of different languages, etc; “teasing” is to gag and tease; “sing” means to sing Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity, so they are called Taiping) (1982:194), opera lyrics and songs. Crosstalk artists regard “speaking, imitating, teasing and singing” as their “four compulsory lessons”. For example, by saying “tongue twisters” or “reciting classical repertoires” to grasp the rhythm in language and correct the pronunciation. By learning all kinds of sounds to gain the ability to imitate. To practice singing skills by singing “Taiping lyrics” , opera lyrics and songs. (Hou Baolin, 1982:11)<br /> <br /> Speaking, imitating, teasing and singing are the four basic artistic skills of crosstalk. “Speaking” means to tell jokes, stories, lantern riddles, drinking games, etc; “imitating” is to imitate all kinds of birds and animals, hawking, singing and the sound of different languages, etc; “teasing” is to gag and tease; “sing” means to sing Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity, so they are called Taiping) (1982:194)作者？--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC), opera lyrics and songs. Crosstalk artists regard “speaking, imitating, teasing and singing” as their “four compulsory lessons”. For example, by saying “tongue twisters” or “reciting classical repertoires” to grasp the rhythm in language and correct the pronunciation 不是一个完整的句子。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). By learning all kinds of sounds to gain the ability to imitate不是一个完整的句子。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). To practice singing skills by singing “Taiping lyrics” , opera lyrics and songs不是一个完整的句子。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Hou Baolin, 1982:11)<br /> <br /> ===Characteristics of Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> First of all, crosstalk is the art of “speaking”, which belongs to the art of “performing with words”, it is different from drama that “performing with body movements” 出现了两个句子，无连接词。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). This kind of performance has a close relationship between the actors and the audience and shortened the distance between the stage and the audience. The actors directly communicate with the audience and perform with the audience's cooperation and tacit understanding to obtain artistic effect. In this sense, crosstalk is a collective performance of actors and audiences. From the perspective of the audience, they are not standing on the opposite side of the actors and appreciating the stage performance passively and objectively, but creating artistic images with the actors. (Hou Baolin. 1982:02)<br /> <br /> First of all, crosstalk is the art of “speaking”, which belongs to the art of “performing with words”, it is different from drama that “performing with body movements” 出现了两个句子，无连接词。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). This kind of performance has a close relationship between the actors and the audience and shortened the distance between the stage and the audience. The actors directly communicate with the audience and perform with the audience's cooperation and tacit understanding to obtain artistic effect. In this sense, crosstalk is a collective performance of actors and audiences. From the perspective of the audience, they are not standing on the opposite side of the actors and appreciating the stage performance passively and objectively, but creating artistic images with the actors. (Hou Baolin. 1982:02)参考格式(Liu Miqing 2010, 17) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, crosstalk is the art of laughter. Crosstalk uses laughter as a weapon to expose contradictions, shape characters and evaluate life. Without laughter, it can constitute any other arts, but not crosstalk and comedy. In other words, crosstalk has the characteristics of humor and satire. It reflects that life is not flat, but exaggerated and even deformed. China has a long tradition of satirizing emperors or high rank officials, its written record could be traced back to the Zhou (1046BC-256BC) and Qin (221BC-207BC) Dynasties. Satire is the product of class oppression. China has been in a feudalistic society for a long time, without political democracy and freedom of speech, the people often take circuitous methods to fight against the ruling class. Satirical art is like a weed under a boulder. Only through deformation and roundabout can this kind of art maintain to exist. (Hou Baolin. 1982:03)<br /> <br /> Secondly, crosstalk is the art of laughter. Crosstalk uses laughter as a weapon to expose contradictions, shape characters and evaluate life. Without laughter, it can constitute any other arts, but not crosstalk and comedy. In other words, crosstalk has the characteristics of humor and satire. It reflects that life is not flat, but exaggerated and even deformed. China has a long tradition of satirizing emperors or high rank officials, its written record could be traced back to the Zhou (1046BC-256BC) and Qin (221BC-207BC) Dynasties 没有连接词--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Satire is the product of class oppression. China has been in a feudalistic society for a long time, without political democracy and freedom of speech, the people often take circuitous methods to fight against the ruling class没有连接词--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Satirical art is like a weed under a boulder. Only through deformation and roundabout can this kind of art maintain to exist. (Hou Baolin. 1982:03)<br /> <br /> <br /> “Speaking” and “laughing” constitute the basic outline of cross talk art, which is a language performance art with comedy style. “Speaking”, as a kind of rap art, establishes the mode of crosstalk art, which is distinguished from drama art. “Laughing” is the artistic characteristics of crosstalk, which distinguishes it from other rap art forms. These two characteristics are interdependent and complementary. (Hou Baolin. 1982:04)<br /> <br /> Crosstalk belongs to the art of drama, but it is different from comedy. In comedy, the laughter of audience mainly comes from plot and comic characters, while in crosstalk it mainly comes from “baofu” (jokes). Sometimes it relies on the plot, sometimes it is not needed, but win the applaud of audience by the charm of language. “Baofu” must be expressed in the way of “dialogue” and “chatting” between the actors . (Hou Baolin. 1982:04)<br /> <br /> ===Famous Artists of CrossTalk===<br /> <br /> In Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) and Emperor Guangxu (1875—1908) periods, Zhu Shaowen (stage name “Qiong Bupa, which means not afraid of poverty”) was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art. Other famous crosstalk artists including Hou Baolin(1917-1993), a pioneering master of crosstalk. In his 60 years of art career, he has devoted himself to the research and development of crosstalk art and brought laughter to the audience. Under his leadership and promotion, crosstalk art has really entered thousands of households and reached a remarkable artistic peak. His crosstalk works including Drama Talks, Drunkenness and etc. Ma Sanli (1914-2003) is the son of the crosstalk actor Ma Delu. Ma Sanli devoted himself to the exploration of long-term artistic practice, and created the unique “Ma’s Style of Crosstalk”. He was the oldest, most experienced and most accomplished crosstalk leader in the cross-talk circle at that time. So was deeply loved and respected by all walks of life and the audience. Ma's cross talk enjoys wide popularity among the people. In Tianjin, it was a saying that “no branches of crosstalk did not learn from Ma”. His representative works including “Eating Yuanxiao(dumpling)”, “Selling Tickets” and “the Yellow Crane Tower” . Other famous crosstalk artists include Zhang Yongxi, Liu Baorui, Hou Yaowen, Jiang Kun, Feng Gong, Niu Qun and Guo Degang. (Baijiahao, 2018 )<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> speaking, imitating, teasing and singing 说学逗唱<br /> <br /> Taiping lyrics 太平歌词<br /> <br /> Baofu 包袱<br /> <br /> Drama Talks 《戏剧杂谈》<br /> <br /> Drunkenness 《醉酒》<br /> <br /> Selling Tickets 《卖挂票》<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.When did crosstalk form its format?<br /> <br /> 2.What is Taiping lyrics?<br /> <br /> 3.Who was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art ?<br /> <br /> 4.What are the four basic skills of crosstalk?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty.<br /> <br /> 2.Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity) is the content to be sang in the crosstalk.<br /> <br /> 3.Zhu Shaowen.<br /> <br /> 4.They are speaking, imitating, teasing and singing.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> 1.Hou Baolin,Xue Baokun,侯宝林,薛宝坤.(1982)，《相声溯源》，People's Education Press<br /> <br /> 2.https://cul.sohu.com/20090619/n264630449.shtml<br /> <br /> 3.https://baike.so.com/doc/1925383-2037001.html<br /> <br /> 4.https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1590742532351773378<br /> <br /> 注意参考文献格式：<br /> Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> Go 围棋--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:04, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===GO - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI===<br /> Go is an adversarial game with the objective of surrounding a larger total area of the board with one's stones than the opponent[1]. As the game progresses, the players position stones on the board to map out formations and potential territories. Contests between opposing formations are often extremely complex and may result in the expansion, reduction, or wholesale capture and loss of formation stones.[2]<br /> <br /> Go is an adversarial game with the objective of surrounding a larger total area of the board with one's stones than the opponent[1]. As the game progresses, the players position stones on the board to map out formations and potential territories. Contests between opposing formations are often extremely complex and may result in the expansion, reduction, or wholesale capture and loss of formation stones.[2](NRICH Team, Going First, 2007)--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board. One or more liberties enclosed within a group is called an eye, and a group with two or more eyes cannot be captured, even if surrounded.[3] Such groups are said to be unconditionally alive.<br /> <br /> A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board. One or more liberties enclosed within a group is called an eye, and a group with two or more eyes cannot be captured, even if surrounded.[3] (Iwamoto, Kaoru,1977)Such groups are said to be unconditionally alive.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The general strategy is to expand one's territory, attack the opponent's weak groups (groups that can be killed), and always stay mindful of the &quot;life status&quot; of one's own groups. The liberties of groups are countable. Situations where mutually opposing groups must capture each other or die are called capturing races, or semeai. In a capturing race, the group with more liberties (and/or better &quot;shape&quot;) will ultimately be able to capture the opponent's stones. Capturing races and the elements of life or death are the primary challenges of Go.<br /> <br /> Players may pass rather than place a stone if they think there are no further opportunities for profitable play. The game ends when both players pass or when one player resigns. In general, to score the game, each player counts the number of unoccupied points surrounded by their stones and then subtracts the number of stones that were captured by the opponent. The player with the greater score (after adjusting for komi) wins the game.<br /> <br /> In the opening stages of the game, players typically establish positions (or &quot;bases&quot;) in the corners and around the sides of the board. These bases help to quickly develop strong shapes which have many options for life (self-viability for a group of stones that prevents capture) and establish formations for potential territory. Players usually start in the corners because establishing territory is easier with the aid of two edges of the board. Established corner opening sequences are called &quot;joseki&quot; and are often studied independently.<br /> <br /> &quot;Dame&quot; are points that lie in between the boundary walls of black and white, and as such are considered to be of no value to either side. &quot;Seki&quot; are mutually alive pairs of white and black groups where neither has two eyes. A &quot;ko&quot; (Chinese and Japanese: 劫) is a repeated-position shape that may be contested by making forcing moves elsewhere. After the forcing move is played, the ko may be &quot;taken back&quot; and returned to its original position. Some &quot;ko fights&quot; may be important and decide the life of a large group, while others may be worth just one or two points. Some ko fights are referred to as &quot;picnic kos&quot; when only one side has a lot to lose. The Japanese call it a hanami (flower-viewing) ko. <br /> <br /> Playing with others usually requires a knowledge of each player's strength, indicated by the player's rank (increasing from 30 kyu to 1 kyu, then 1 dan to 7 dan, then 1 dan pro to 9 dan pro). A difference in rank may be compensated by a handicap—Black is allowed to place two or more stones on the board to compensate for White's greater strength. There are different rule-sets (Korean, Japanese, Chinese, AGA, etc.), which are almost entirely equivalent, except for certain special-case positions.<br /> <br /> Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, there are essentially only two rules in Go:<br /> • Rule 1 (the rule of liberty) states that every stone remaining on the board must have at least one open &quot;point&quot; (an intersection, called a &quot;liberty&quot;) directly orthogonally adjacent (up, down, left, or right), or must be part of a connected group that has at least one such open point (&quot;liberty&quot;) next to it. Stones or groups of stones which lose their last liberty are removed from the board.<br /> • Rule 2 (the &quot;ko rule&quot;) states that the stones on the board must never repeat a previous position of stones. Moves which would do so are forbidden, and thus only moves elsewhere on the board are permitted that turn.<br /> Almost all other information about how the game is played is a heuristic, meaning it is learned information about how the game is played, rather than a rule. Other rules are specialized, as they come about through different rule-sets, but the above two rules cover almost all of any played game.[4]<br /> <br /> Almost all other information about how the game is played is a heuristic, meaning it is learned information about how the game is played, rather than a rule. Other rules are specialized, as they come about through different rule-sets, but the above two rules cover almost all of any played game.[4](British Go Association,2007)--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Although there are some minor differences between rule-sets used in different countries, most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules, these differences do not greatly affect the tactics and strategy of the game.<br /> <br /> Except where noted, the basic rules presented here are valid independent of the scoring rules used. The scoring rules are explained separately. Go terms for which there is no ready English equivalent are commonly called by their Japanese names.<br /> <br /> The two players, Black and White, take turns placing stones of their colour on the intersections of the board, one stone at a time. The usual board size is a 19×19 grid but for beginners, or for playing quick games, the smaller board sizes of 13×13 and 9×9 are also popular.[5] The board is empty to begin with. Black plays first, unless black is given a handicap of two stones or more (in which case, white plays first). The players may choose any unoccupied intersection to play on, except for those forbidden by the ko and suicide rules (see below). Once played, a stone can never be moved and can be taken off the board only if it is captured. A player may also pass, declining to place a stone, though this is usually only done at the end of the game when both players believe nothing more can be accomplished with further play. When both players pass consecutively, the game ends and is then scored.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Go 围棋 heuristic 启发式的<br /> adversarial game 对抗性游戏 intersection 交叉点<br /> board 棋盘 black 黑棋<br /> formation 阵型 white 白棋<br /> move 走棋 scoring rule 计分规则<br /> liberty 自由度 player 棋手<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1, What’s the basic principle of Go?<br /> <br /> <br /> 2,Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, What are other two essential rules in Go？<br /> <br /> <br /> 3, What countries have the most notable scoring rules differences?--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1, A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board.<br /> <br /> 2,The rule of liberty and the &quot;ko rule&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3, Most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Matthews, Charles (2004). Teach Yourself Go. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-142977-1.<br /> <br /> [2]NRICH Team, Going First, University of Cambridge, retrieved 2007-06-16<br /> <br /> [3]Iwamoto, Kaoru (1977). Go for Beginners. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 978-0-394-73331-9.<br /> <br /> [4]British Go Association, Comparison of some go rules, retrieved 2007-12-20<br /> <br /> [5]Kim, Janice; Jeong, Soo-hyun (1997). Learn to Play Go. Five volumes (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Good Move Press. ISBN 978-0-9644796-1-6.<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜,202070080598 MTI 标题 is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:21, 14 December 2020 (UTC)==<br /> <br /> ===The Four Most Handsome men in Ancient China===<br /> It is said that there were four most beautiful women in ancient times, and corresponding to that, it is worth mentioning that there were four most attractive men at that time.Despite that we consider these four men as attractive, this refers to more than just their appearance. They have a common feature: it proves that while their appearance is marvelous, they are also outstanding in literature. Namely, as a Chinese saying goes, they are endowed with both beauty and talent.<br /> <br /> These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> The allusion of “throwing fruit to fill a carriage” originates from Pan An, which resembles movie fans nowadays to see their idols. There is a comment on Pan An’s appearance: &quot;No more and no less.&quot; The history books also describe Pan An with three words “good-looking, well-mannered, and graceful”. Although these did not describe Pan An’s appearance in details, such as eyebrows and eyes or lips, from these side descriptions, we can know that Pan An’s appearance is far above ordinary people, and even his styles draw imitation from others. <br /> <br /> At the same time, Pan An is known as “the flower of a county in Heyang”, and he is also one of the few men who are compared with flowers to be praised for excellent appearance. The beauty of exterior only fails to last long in this world. Pan An's talent and temperament and the devotion to his wife are also often eulogized. Pan Yue showed his unusual talent since he was a child, and he was called a child prodigy by the villagers. In his early years, he was appreciated by an official and recommended as a scholar. <br /> <br /> Later, served as the magistrate of Heyang (now Meng County, Henan), he was diligent in political affairs, and advocated the people to plant more fruits and trees. The county was full of trees and peaches and plums everywhere, known as “Flower County”. During his administration, his political achievements were remarkable. Besides, Pan An holds a special place in the history of literature. <br /> <br /> He was good at composing verse and orders, expatiation, and skilled in the choice of words and building of sentences, which fully reflects the characteristics of Taikang literature that pays attention to the beauty of form. He was expert in composing Ci lyric of sorrow and admonishment, and his current works such as Widow's Fu, Mourning Poem and other famous works are all known for their narration and empathy. Pan An can be described as both internally and externally blessed.（Liu Xixue 2003,63-64）<br /> <br /> Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. There is a very popular legend about King Lanling. It's believed that King Lanling was a brave and supremely skilled general. However, because he looked very sweet and it seemed hard to frighten the enemy, he often wore a half-mask when fighting, which sounds very fairytale. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the beauty of King Lanling is beyond doubt and otherworldly. Book of Northern Qi Dynasty described that he was friendly looking and mentally strong, with beautiful voice and appearance.King Lanling spent half his life in military affairs, and made great achievements. While this gave him glory, it also brought bad luck. There is an old Chinese saying that the glow of a inferior from massive achievements will overshadow his superior. <br /> <br /> Although the King Lanling did not have the idea of usurping the throne, but the incumbent felt threatened because of his existence itself. In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> Song Yu (about 322 BC-298 BC), as it is widely rumored, a student of Qu Yuan, was born in the capital city of Song Dynasty during the Warring States Period (now Shangqiu, Henan). Song Yu was a writer of Ci lyric of State Chu in the late Warring States period, adept in Ci lyric and even acclaimed as a great poet after Qu Yuan' reputation. Later generations often referred to them as “Qu Song”. Rumors circulate that there are many Ci lyrics from him, and Book of Han records about 16 works, but many of them are lost today.<br /> <br /> His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on. He was the first to write about sadness from Autumn and to write about women. His description of women's nature exerts a great influence on later generations such as Cao Zhi. The goddess in Song Yu's The Fu poetry of Goddess embodies the essence of pre-Qin female beauty, recounting the beauty of the goddess of Wushan Mountain in details so much so that later generations have coveted for it for thousands of years.<br /> <br /> 16 works survived, among which Nine Discriminations is believed to be truly composed by him. It is equivalent to Qu Yuan's Li Sao or A lament in the history of Chinese literature. Both poets can be called the two shining pearls in Ci lyric at their times.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> <br /> Wei Jie (286-June 20, 312), a metaphysician and an official of the Jin Dynasty. Wei Jie was a noted talker and metaphysicist during the Wei and Jin Dynasties. He was appointed as an assistant of the prince in the matter of politics. In the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Yongjia(AD310), Wei Jie died at the age of 27. Both ancient books and ancients commented on Wei Jie's appearance. Wang Ji reckoned that, “A jade is on my side, and I feel like I am nobody”; “Wandering with Jiu is like sauntering with a pearl on the side, with him shining brightly.”<br /> <br /> History Retold as a Mirror for rulers authored by Sima Guang goes into detail: &quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot; Wei Jie not only have a mere marvelous exterior, but also he can discern metaphysics from his perspective. Wei Jie’s views always amaze the concerned parties. <br /> <br /> It is said that even three sons of the Wang family, are not as good as the first son of the Wei family, and the three sons of the Wang family were all well-known scholars at that time, and the Wei Jie could be regarded as unmatchable compared with the three in family background, appearance, and talents.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Pan An 潘安<br /> <br /> King Lanling 兰陵王<br /> <br /> Ji Kang 嵇康 <br /> <br /> Wei Jie 卫玠 <br /> <br /> throwing fruit to fill a carriage 掷果盈车<br /> <br /> scholar 秀才<br /> <br /> expatiation 铺陈<br /> <br /> Book of Northern Qi Dynasty 《北齐书》<br /> <br /> the Warring States Period 战国时期<br /> <br /> Book of Han 《汉书》<br /> <br /> Nine Discriminations 《九辨》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Wind 《风赋》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Goddess 《神女赋》<br /> <br /> the goddess of Wushan Mountain 巫山神女<br /> <br /> metaphysician 玄学家<br /> <br /> a noted talker 清谈名士<br /> <br /> History Retold as a Mirror for rulers 《资治通鉴》<br /> <br /> Widow's Fu 《寡妇赋》<br /> <br /> Mourning Poem 《悼亡诗》<br /> <br /> 英文书名要用斜体--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1.Who are the four most handsome men at ancient time in China?<br /> <br /> 2.Who is Gao Changgong?<br /> <br /> 3.How did Lanlin King die?<br /> <br /> 4.What works did Song Yu compose?<br /> <br /> 5.Who are the two shining pearls in Ci lyric according to the passage?<br /> <br /> 6.What History Retold as a Mirror for rulers comment on Wei Jie?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.<br /> <br /> 2.Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. <br /> <br /> 3.In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King. <br /> <br /> 4.His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on.<br /> <br /> 5.Qu Yuan and Song Yu<br /> <br /> 6.&quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]刘细学.古代四大美男[J].文史天地,2003(06):63-64.<br /> <br /> [2]王真波.四大美男都是怎么死的[J].青年文学家,2008(11):59-60.<br /> <br /> 参考文献格式错误--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lo, Minh Thao==<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Mogao Grottoes--Lou Cancan 娄灿灿 student no.202070080599 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Mogao Grottoes===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The Mogao Grottoes, known as the Thousand Buddhas Caves, were built on the eastern cliff of Mingsha Mountain, 25 kilometers to the southeast of Dunhuang city. There are 492 caves (well preserved) today, containing over 2,400 painted clay statues and 45,000 square meters of murals and 5 timber structures on the cliff of the southern district. There are also more than 300 caves used as both living room and burying place for monks and painters on the cliff of the northern district. Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). (Fan Jinshi 2010，170) <br /> <br /> Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes,so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes. From the 4th until the 14th century, caves were constructed by monks to serve as shrines with funds from donors. The major caves were sponsored by patrons such as important asclergies, local ruling elites, foreign dignitaries, as well as Chinese emperors. Other caves may have been funded by merchants and other local people such as women's groups. (Sha Wutian 2020, 122)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes]]====<br /> <br /> ===History===<br /> <br /> Mogao Grottoes were not built in one day. According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff. Later, monk Faliang（法良）came here and joined him cultivating in caves. Since then more and more caves have been excavated over a thousand year. (Whitfield 1990, 8) <br /> <br /> Mogao Grottoes were not built in one day. According to relevant records in the Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff. Later, monk Faliang（法良）came here and joined him cultivating in caves. Since then more and more caves have been excavated over a thousand year. (Whitfield 1990, 8) --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 16:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> By the time of Northern Liang, small community of monks had formed at this site. The caves initially served only as a place of meditation for hermit monks. Later, they were developed to serve the monasteries that sprang up nearby. Members of the ruling families of Northern Wei and Northern Zhou constructed many caves here, and it flourished in the short-lived Sui Dynasty. By the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Mogao Caves had become a place of worship and pilgrimage for the public. In the Sui Dynasty, Hexi Corridor was controlled by central authority. The emperors were pious followers of Buddhism and they ordered to build stupas across the country. Therefore, more than 100 caves were excavated in Mogao Grottoes within 37 years. (Fan Jinshi 2010，175-178) <br /> <br /> By the Tang Dynasty, the number of caves had reached over a thousand. During this period, Dunhuang became the main hub of commerce of the Silk Road and a major religious center. A large number of the caves were constructed during this era, including the two large statues of Buddha at the site, the largest one constructed in 695 following an edict a year earlier by Tang Empress Wu Zitian to build giant statues across the country. The site escaped the persecution of Buddhists ordered by Emperor Wuzong in 845 as it was then under Tibetan control. As a frontier town, Dunhuang had been occupied at various times by other non-Han Chinese people. After the Tang Dynasty, the site went into a gradual decline, and construction of new caves ceased entirely after the Yuan Dynasty. In the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, Mogao Grottoes were preserved and kept by Cao Yijin（曹议金). (MA Shichang 2010, 303) After that, his later generations governed Dunhuang Prefecture and constructed multiple family caves such as Cave 55. (Gao Xiujun 2016, 9) <br /> <br /> During the Ming Dynasty, the Silk Road was finally abandoned and Dunhuang slowly became depolulated and was forgotten by the outside world. Most of the Mogao caves were abandoned. The site, however, went back to a place of pilgrimage and worship by local people at the beginning of the twentieth century. On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings. Since then, Dunhuang has become well known throughout the world. Both Chinese and foreign scholars have made extensive studies on the findings.(Stein 1912, volume 2)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Taoist Wang Yuanlu.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Taoist Wang Yuanlu]]====<br /> <br /> ===Art===<br /> <br /> The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture and they vary from dynasty to dynasty. There are mainly three types of structural forms of Mogao Grottoes: Vihara, Chaitya and Hall with inverted funnel shaped ceiling. A Chaitya with a central pillar is the main form of the caves in the early period of the Sixteen States, with Northern Wei, Western Wei and Northern Zhou Dynasties included. The murals may be divided into seven sorts:Buddhist figures, Sutra illustration, Buddhist stories, Buddhist historical pictures, Chinese mythologies, donors and decorative designs. Buddhist stories in the murals can be divided into three types: Jataka（佛本生), Buddha’s life and fate story. A Jataka is a narrative which tells of the good deeds performed by Sakyamuni during his perious existence such as prince Sudanda giving up his body to feed the hungry tigers. As to sculptures, they were constructed on a wooden frame, padded with reed, then modelled in clay stucco and finished with paint.（Duan Wenjie 1994, 163) <br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Chaitya with a Central Pillar.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Chaitya with a Central Pillar]]==== <br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body]]====<br /> <br /> The artistic styles in the Sixteen States, which gradually turned away from being primitive and simple to an easy and graceful styles in the Northern Wei, manifested in figures with well-chiseled builds and emaciated looks. In Northern Zhou, the styles of figures show that Chinese art combining the influence of foreign and native styles gradually became more nationalized. ( Fan Jinshi 2010, 174) <br /> <br /> The artistic styles in the Sixteen States, which gradually turned away from being primitive and simple to an easy and graceful styles in the Northern Wei, manifested in figures with well-chiseled builds and emaciated looks. In the Northern Zhou, the styles of figures show that Chinese art combining the influence of foreign and native styles gradually became more nationalized. ( Fan Jinshi 2010, 174) --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 16:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs. The caves become spacious and more suited for large paintings, such as the Sutra illustrations and huge pictures of Buddha expounding sermons. Bold and vigorous, brush work was painted with intricate and flowing lines. For example, Lotus Sutra on the ceiling of Cave 420 displays a lot of episodes of mountains, forests, rivers, buildings and so on in a limitated space. The theme and art in the Sui Dynasty show an important devdelopment in traditional art and indicate a comimg glorious new era. （Duan Wenjie 1994, 164)<br /> <br /> The characteristics of the statues in the Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs. The caves become spacious and more suited for large paintings, such as the Sutra illustrations and huge pictures of Buddha expounding sermons. Bold and vigorous, brush work was painted with intricate and flowing lines. For example, Lotus Sutra on the ceiling of Cave 420 displays a lot of episodes of mountains, forests, rivers, buildings and so on in a limitated space. The theme and art in the Sui Dynasty show an important devdelopment in traditional art and indicate a comimg glorious new era. （Duan Wenjie 1994, 164)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 16:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In Tang Dynasty, the caves are large with an inverted funnel shaped ceiling. The murals consist mostly of huge paintings of stories from Buddhist Sutras with well-regulated scenes and well-balanced composition. The figures at that time have round and plump faces and curved eyebrows which expresses the aesthetical taste of the people living in Tang. The mural in Cave 220 contains vivid portraits of the Emperor and his ministers listening to a sermon. The ministers attending to Emperor are each bestowed with differrent appearances and expressions. Some are natural and graceful and some cautious. The well-proportioned painted statues were made with more consummate care and attention to the detail, showing us the solemn Buddha. ( Fan Jinshi 2010, 174) <br /> <br /> In the Tang Dynasty, the caves are large with an inverted funnel shaped ceiling. The murals consist mostly of huge paintings of stories from Buddhist Sutras with well-regulated scenes and well-balanced composition. The figures at that time have round and plump faces and curved eyebrows which expresses the aesthetical taste of the people living in Tang. The mural in Cave 220 contains vivid portraits of the Emperor and his ministers listening to a sermon. The ministers attending to Emperor are each bestowed with differrent appearances and expressions. Some are natural and graceful and some cautious. The well-proportioned painted statues were made with more consummate care and attention to the detail, showing us the solemn Buddha. ( Fan Jinshi 2010, 174) --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 16:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In addition, very tall and colossal statues of Buddha began to be made. The outstanding one is an early Tang Dynasty statue 34 metres high in Cave 96. In 781-848A.D, Hexi region fell into the Tibetan. Hence, there was an interesting changes: the king of the Tibetan took the place of central-plain emperors in the wall-painting.( Fan Jinshi 2010, 175) <br /> <br /> In addition, very tall and colossal statues of Buddha began to be made. The outstanding one is an early Tang Dynasty statue 34 metres high in Cave 96. In 781-848A.D, Hexi region fell into the Tibetan. Hence, there was an interesting change: the king of the Tibetan took the place of central-plain emperors in the wall-painting.( Fan Jinshi 2010, 175) --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 16:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 251 in Northern Wei.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 251 in Northern Wei]]====<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty]]====<br /> <br /> <br /> By the time of the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, the grottoes carved in this period are very large and different in form and layout. The subject and style of the statues and murals remain the influence from Tang Dynasty, but the use of colours and the drawing techniques show a simple folk style. From the 9th century to 12th, the Uygur had been in Dunhuang. The artistic styles bear the imprint of both Han and Uygur. The Uygur murals are generally characterized by the simplicity of the subject, the looseness of the arrangement, the direct and rough brush strokes. (Rong Xinjiang 1999, 248)<br /> <br /> The human figures have features of certain minority groups. In the Western Xia Dynasty(1036-1227), most of caves were repaired and renovated, and only 10 caves were built because of the limited cliffs. Compared to the Yulin Grottoes at the same time, painting of Dunhuang display the Pure-land Sutra, containing simpler content. Only 27 caves are extant in Yuan times(1227-1372). The murals in Cave 3, however, still remain the Tang and Song techniques, namely using different types of drawing to depict different parts of human figures such as iron-wire lines, orchid-leaf strokes and broken-reef strokes, etc. Since the 15th century, the Mogao Grottoes had gradually fallen into neglect in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. (Rong Xinjiang 1999, 248)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty]]====<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> hermit 隐士<br /> <br /> stupas 舍利塔<br /> <br /> Emperor Wuzong ofTang Dynasty 唐武宗<br /> <br /> Vihara 精舍<br /> <br /> Chaitya 支提窟<br /> <br /> stucco 灰泥<br /> <br /> Sakyamuni 释迦牟尼<br /> <br /> Sutras 佛经<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What do Dunhuang Grottoes refer to?<br /> <br /> 2.Who built the first cave and when?<br /> <br /> 3.In 1900, who found the treasure-house in Mogao Grottoes and what were stored in it?<br /> <br /> 4.How many aspects does the art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of and what are they respectively?<br /> <br /> 5.What are the characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes, so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes.<br /> <br /> 2.According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff.<br /> <br /> 3.On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings.<br /> <br /> 4.The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture.<br /> <br /> 5.The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Fan Jinshi 樊锦诗.(2010). ''敦煌石窟'' [The Caves of Dunhuang]. Gansu: The Dunhuang Academy 敦煌研究院. <br /> <br /> Gao Xiujun 高秀军.(2016). ''敦煌莫高窟第55窟研究'' [Research on the 55th Grotto of Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang].Lanzhou University 兰州大学.<br /> <br /> MA Shichang.(2010). Buddhist Cave-temples and the Cao Family at Mogao Ku, Dunhuang. MA Shichang,27(2),303-317.<br /> <br /> Rong Xinjiang 荣新江. (2010).'' 敦煌藏经洞的性质及其封闭原因'' [The Nature of the Dunhuang Library Cave and the Reasons for Its Sealing]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Sha Wutian 沙武田. (2020). 佛教供养与政治宣传——敦煌莫高窟第156窟供养人画像研究 [Buddhist offerings and Political Propaganda -- A Study on the Portrait of the Patron of the 156th Grottoes in Dunhuang].''中原文物'' Cultural Relics in Central Plain, No.215,118-128.<br /> <br /> Stein, M. Aurel. Ruins of Desert Cathay.(1912). Personal Narrative of Explorations in Central Asia and Westernmost China, volume 2. London: Macmillan.<br /> <br /> Suemori Kaoru. (2020).&quot;Thousand-Buddha images in Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes: Religious spaces created by polychromatic patterns&quot;. Kyoto: Hozokan. <br /> <br /> DuanWenjie. (1994). Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie. Abhinav Publications. p. 163.<br /> <br /> Whitfield, Roderick and Farrer, Anne, Caves of the Thousand Buddhas. (1990). Chinese Art from the Silk Route, British Museum Publications. P . 5-20.<br /> <br /> https://books.google.ru/books?hl=zh-CN&amp;lr=&amp;id=vYPNqlAMZWAC&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PP7&amp;dq=info:9v6pr21oST8J:scholar.google.com/&amp;ots=s-uXhnyDBp&amp;sig=u3H7MAh_OpGRS6Iwxoqx0rC5_fo&amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false<br /> <br /> https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogao_Caves<br /> <br /> https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=zh-CN&amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;q=mogao+grottoes&amp;oq=<br /> <br /> ==Four State-level Cultural Relics Luo Weijia 罗维嘉 Student No.202070080600 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ===Four State-level Cultural Relics===<br /> <br /> China, home to one of the world’s most ancient civilizations, abounds in cultural relics, from ancient tombs, architecture, instruments to handicrafts, historical books and so on. They embody rich information about history and culture and vividly display the process of Chinese cultural development. The astounding artistic and technological levels shown in those relics continue to impress people today.<br /> <br /> China, home to one of the world’s most ancient civilizations, abounds in cultural relics, from ancient tombs, architecture, instruments to handicrafts, historical books and so on. They embody rich information about history and culture and vividly display the process of Chinese cultural development. The astounding artistic and technological levels shown in those relics continue to impress people today.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Simuwu Ding====<br /> <br /> [[File:Simuwu Ding.png|200px|thumb|left|Simuwu Ding]] <br /> <br /> In ancient China, ding was a symbol of imperial power. Therefore, ding is often used in phrases and expressions in the Chinese language to imply authority (Anna, 2015). For instance, wending, literally “enquiring about ding”, means plotting to usurp political power, yiyan juiding, literally “One word of promise is equal to nine dings”, means a decisive comment(Lv Shuxiang, 2016).<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding was a very precious cultural relic, found in 1937 in Anyang of Henan Province. It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago. This square-shaped ding is the largest existing bronzeware in the ancient world. It is now housed in the National Museum of China in Beijing (Li Weiming, 2015). <br /> <br /> Ding was a cooking vessel probably used to boil or cook food in the primitive society. At that time, dings were made of clay. During the Shang and Zhou (11th century-771 BC) dynasties, bronze cast technology reached a very high level in China. Therefore, people used bronze to cast ding. However, dings were no longer cooking utensils in ordinary people’s life but an object for important ceremonies to offer sacrifices (Anna, 2015). <br /> <br /> Ding was a cooking vessel probably used to boil or cook food in the primitive society. At that time, dings were made of clay. During the Shang and Zhou (11th century-771 BC)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Is this time correct? 11th century? '''&lt;/span&gt; dynasties, bronze cast technology reached a very high level in China. Therefore, people used bronze to cast ding. However, dings were no longer cooking utensils in ordinary people’s life but an object for important ceremonies to offer sacrifices (Anna, 2015).--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding was cast by Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty as a ritual object for a ceremony to offer sacrifices to his mother. The three characters simuwu form an inscription on the inside of the sidewall. According to archeologists, si means sacrificial ceremony and muwu is the name of the emperor’s mother. Later on, Simuwu became the name of this huge ding (Li Weiming, 2015).<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding is 1.33m high, 1.10m long and 0.78m wide, weighing 832.84kg. At that time, it needed 1000kg of metal and two to three hundred workers to produce it. This ding is solid in build, magnificent in appearance and was made with fine craftsmanship. The four pillar legs are thick and powerful. Each side has a blank space in the middle, surrounded by a band of decoration featuring taotie (animal faced creatures) and kuilong (one-legged dragons), symbolic of harvest and auspiciousness. Simuwu Ding represents the highest level of bronze cast technology in the Shang and Zhou dynasties (Li Weiming, 2015).<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding is 1.33m high, 1.10m long and 0.78m wide, weighing 832.84kg. At that time, it needed 1000kg of metal and two to three hundred workers to produce it. This ding is solid in build, magnificent in appearance and was made with fine craftsmanship. The four pillar legs are thick and powerful. Each side has a blank space in the middle, surrounded by a band of decoration featuring taotie&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''(animal faced creatures) 饕餮：其状如羊面人身，眼在腋下，虎齿人手，最大特点是能吃。 '''&lt;/span&gt; and kuilong (one-legged dragons), symbolic of harvest and auspiciousness. Simuwu Ding represents the highest level of bronze cast technology in the Shang and Zhou dynasties (Li Weiming, 2015).<br /> <br /> ==== The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi ====<br /> <br /> [[File:The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi.png|200px|thumb|left|The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi]] <br /> <br /> The chime bells, or bianzhong, are a kind of percussion musical instrument made of bronze. China is the earliest country to manufacture and use such instrument. Chime bells were divided into groups according to their size, temperament, pitch and were hang on a rack. A small hammer or wooden club is used to hit the bell to make a resonant and agreeable sound (Hubei Museum, 2015).<br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are the largest and the most complete ancient chimes existing today in China. They were unearthed from the tomb of Yi, the Marquis of Zeng, a small state of the Warring States Period (475 BC- 221 BC), in 1978. When they were found, all bells were still hanging on their rack. They are now preserved in Hubei Museum (Hubei Museum, 2015). <br /> <br /> There are altogether 65 bells hung in eight groups on wooden or bronze bars. The rack, 10.79m long, 2.67m high, is made of three bars, namely, the upper, middle and lower bars, held up by six bronze warriors and a few round, wooden posts. The 65 bells weigh over 2500kg. The largest bell is 1.52m in height and weighs more than 203.6kg. The smallest bell is about 20cm in height and weighs 2.4kg. It is extremely rare to see a set with so many bells of such weight and size (Wan Quanwen, 2020). <br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are exquisitely cast and look very elegant. To help artists to perform music, there are instructions on each bell with 3700 characters in all (Wan Quanwen, 2020). There are also words about the hanging indication and musical temperament that are called the “valuable music theory work”. The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi show that, as early as the Warring States Period, China already had a very rich musical culture. The chime bells still could produce a pure and accurate note after unearthed. The tone is excellent and the timbre is pure. <br /> <br /> After excavation of the chime, Chinese musicians created a melody entitled Bianzhong Yuewu (music and dance accompanied by chime bells), to once again demonstrate the charm of ancient Chinese music (Zhou Yi, 2016). <br /> <br /> ==== Jade Suit with Gold Thread ====<br /> <br /> [[File:Jade Suit with Gold Thread.png|200px|thumb|left|Jade Suit with Gold Thread]] <br /> <br /> Ordinarily, the texture of clothes is cotton, flax or silk. However, there were suits made of gold and jade, that is “Jade Suit with Gold Thread”(Wang Jing, 2008).<br /> <br /> The emperors of the Han Dynasty believed that jade could prevent their corpses from decaying, and they regarded jade as full of dignity and nobility. Therefore, they used jade suits as their grave clothes. Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade separately that are called Jade Suit Sewn with Gold Thread, Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread and Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread (Wang Jing, 2008).<br /> <br /> The two sets of jade suits of the Han Dynasty tomb unearthed in Mancheng of Hebei Province in 1968 revealed to the world the real features of such grave clothes (Li Yawen,2019). Their owners were Liu Sheng, Prince Jing of Zhongshan, and his wife, Dou Wan, of the Western Han Dynasty(206 BC-25 AD). <br /> <br /> In appearance, a jade suit follows the shape of a human body. It consists of five parts, i.e., head mask, coat, trousers, gloves and shoes. Each part is made of pieces of jade. The size and shape of each jade piece was designed according to its position. Most jade pieces are shaped in square or rectangular form, but there are a few in trapezoid, triangle or multi sided shapes. Each jade piece is perforated at its corners, through which a gold thread goes through to sew the pieces together. Liu Sheng’s jade suit is rather large, 1.88m long and made up of 2498 pieces. The gold thread used for this suit is about 700g in weight (Li Yawen, 2019). <br /> <br /> Such refined suits made some 2000 years ago in the Han Dynasty indicate the high design level and excellent craftsmanship of that time. In fact, of course, the rulers’ dream of preventing their corpses from decaying could never be realized. The practice of wearing jade suits was banned during the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280) (Wang Jing, 2008).<br /> <br /> ==== Bronze Galloping Horse ====<br /> <br /> [[File: Bronze Galloping Horse.png|200px|thumb|left| Bronze Galloping Horse]] <br /> <br /> In 1969, a galloping horse in bronze was unearthed in an Eastern Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) tomb in Wuwei, Gansu Province in western China. The bronze statue is a famous representative sculpture of the Han Dynasty. Wuwei County leapt to fame with the discovery of this national treasure (Li Xiaohu &amp; Zhao Jing, 2019).<br /> <br /> The 34.5 cm-high bronze horse, covered with spots of verdigris, has a full and robust body. The prancing legs, flying tail, slightly dilated nostrils portray a galloping horse. What is ingenious about it is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow. That means the galloping horse is faster than a flying swallow (Wang Qian, 2020). The positioning of its four legs strictly conforms to that of a living horse and is highly praised by many local and foreign archeologists and artists. <br /> <br /> In this work, Chinese ancient artists combined realism and romanticism, and ingeniously integrated galloping horse and flying swallow through rich imagination, original conception and skillful craftsmanship (Wang Qian:10-11). The swift flying swallow sets off the amazingly fast speed of the galloping horse. According to analysis of its mechanics, Bronze Galloping Horse finds a center of gravity in the swallow to give the statue its stability. The romantic image of the swallow sets off the power and strength of the horse, providing a rich imaginative experience for viewers (Li Xiaohu &amp; Zhao Jing, 2019). <br /> <br /> Bronze Galloping Horse is believed to be a portrayal of the &quot;heavenly steed&quot; of Chinese legend. It is of high craftsmanship, fully expressive of the horse-breeding culture of China's western regions. It has become a symbol of Chinese tourism and a representative work that brings forth the time-honored cultural tradition of the Chinese nation and the oriental aesthetics to the world. The cultural relic is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum(Wang Qian, 2020).<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding 司母戊鼎<br /> <br /> Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty 商王武丁<br /> <br /> taotie 饕餮<br /> <br /> National Museum of China 中国国家博物馆<br /> <br /> chime bells/bian zhong 编钟<br /> <br /> Marquis Yi 曾侯乙<br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi 曾侯乙编钟<br /> <br /> Bianzhong Yuewu 《编钟乐舞》<br /> <br /> Hubei Museum 湖北省博物馆<br /> <br /> Jade Suit with Gold Thread 金缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread 银缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread 铜缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Bronze Galloping Horse 铜奔马/ 马踏飞燕<br /> <br /> Gansu Provincial Museum 甘肃省博物馆<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1. What does ding symbolize?<br /> <br /> 2. When was Houmuwu Ding produced?<br /> <br /> 3.How many bells do the chime bells of Marquis Yi contain?<br /> <br /> 4.What is the size of the largest bell?<br /> <br /> 5.What kind of thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade?<br /> <br /> 6.When did the Jade Suit with Gold Thread unearth?<br /> <br /> 7.What is ingenious about the Galloping Horse?<br /> <br /> 8.Where is Bronze Galloping Horse preserved now?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Ding was a symbol of imperial power. <br /> <br /> 2.It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago. <br /> <br /> 3.They contain 65 bells.<br /> <br /> 4.The largest bell exceeds 1.5m in height and weighs more than 200kg.<br /> <br /> 5.Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade.<br /> <br /> 6.It unearthed in 1968.<br /> <br /> 7.It is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow. <br /> <br /> 8.It is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Anna 安娜.(2015).中国人的鼎文化. 科学大观园(15),72-73.<br /> <br /> Hubei Museum 湖北省博物馆.(2015).曾侯乙编钟. 中华文化论坛(11),2.<br /> <br /> Li Xiaohu &amp; Zhao Jing 李小虎 &amp; 赵静.(2019).青铜雕塑“马踏飞燕”的艺术解读. 艺术教育(09),170-171.<br /> <br /> Li Weiming李维明.(2015-06-19).司母戊鼎研究历程初览(上).中国文物报,006.<br /> <br /> Li Weiming李维明.(2015-07-03).司母戊鼎研究历程初览(中).中国文物报,006.<br /> <br /> Li Weiming李维明.(2015-07-31).司母戊鼎研究历程初览(下).中国文物报,006.<br /> <br /> Li Yawen 李雅雯.(2019)浅说满城汉墓中的金缕玉衣 .文物鉴定与鉴赏 (03):38-39.<br /> <br /> Lv Shuxiang 吕叔湘.(2016)现代汉语词典 (第七版)[M]. 北京:商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王静.(2008).汉代玉衣研究(硕士学位论文,河北师范大学).<br /> <br /> Wang Qian 王倩.(2020).青铜雕塑“马踏飞燕”的研究.艺术品鉴, (26):10-11.<br /> <br /> Wan Quanwen 万全文.(2020).曾侯乙编钟.文史知识 (11):1-2.<br /> <br /> Zhou Yi 周仪.(2016).“八音合鸣 乐舞齐容”——大型乐舞作品《编钟乐舞》述评. 戏剧之家(19),66-67+79.<br /> <br /> == Architecture and Gardens, The Forbidden City Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴 Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> ===The Forbidden City===--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 08:30, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====I.Introduction==== <br /> The Forbidden City (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng) is a palace complex in Dongcheng District, Beijing, China, and with a total area of 720,000 square meters (180 acres). It lies in the center of Beijing's central axis. Today, the Forbidden City houses the Palace Museum, and was the former Chinese imperial palace and residence of the Emperor of China from the Ming dynasty (since the Yong Le Emperor) to the end of the Qing dynasty, between 1420 and 1924. The Forbidden City served as the home of Chinese emperors and their households and was the ceremonial and political center of the Chinese government.(Barmé, Geremie R 2018,26)<br /> The Forbidden City is a national AAAAA tourist attraction and was listed as the first batch of key cultural relics under national protection in 1961. What’s more, it was declared a world cultural heritage in 1987, and listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.(UNESCO,2007)<br /> ====[[File:A Panorama view of the Forbidden City.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A Panorama view of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====II.The Name of the Forbidden City====<br /> The common English name &quot;Forbidden City&quot; is a translation of the Chinese name Zijin Cheng (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng; English: Purple Forbidden City). The name Zijin Cheng first formally appeared in the period of Jia Jing. (Li Xieping1997, (04)29-31) In ancient China, the planning concept of &quot;harmony between man and nature&quot; was emphasized. The stars in the sky were used to correspond with the capital planning to highlight the legitimacy of the regime and the supremacy of imperial power. “ Zi ”, or &quot;Purple&quot;, refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star, The emperor of heaven lived in Ziwei palace, while the human emperor claimed to be the &quot;son of heaven&quot; who was ordered by heaven. His residence should be a symbol of Ziwei palace to correspond to the heaven emperor. “Jin” means that this splendid palace symbolizes supreme power and status of the royal family. In that case, this palace was forbidden, no one could enter and leave the palace without the emperor’s permission. Cheng means a city. Today, the site is most commonly known in Chinese as Gùgōng (故宫), which means the &quot;Former Palace&quot;. The museum which is based in these buildings is known as the &quot;Palace Museum&quot; (Chinese: 故宫博物院; pinyin: Gùgōng Bówùyùan).<br /> <br /> The common English name &quot;Forbidden City&quot; is the translation of the Chinese name Zijin Cheng (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng; English: Purple Forbidden City). The name Zijin Cheng first formally appeared in the period of Jia Jing. (Li Xieping1997, (04)29-31) In ancient China, the planning concept of &quot;harmony between man and nature&quot; was emphasized. The stars in the sky were used to correspond with the capital planning to highlight the legitimacy of the regime and the supremacy of imperial power. “ Zi ”, or &quot;Purple&quot;, refers to the North Star, which was called the Ziwei Star in ancient China. The emperor of heaven lived in Ziwei palace, while the human emperor claimed to be the &quot;son of heaven&quot; who was ordered by heaven. His residence should be a symbol of Ziwei palace to correspond to the heaven emperor. “Jin” means that this splendid palace symbolizes supreme power and status of the royal family. In that case, this palace was forbidden, and no one could enter and leave the palace without the emperor’s permission. Cheng means city. Today, the site is most commonly known in Chinese as Gùgōng (故宫), which means the &quot;Former Palace&quot;. The museum which is based in these buildings is known as the &quot;Palace Museum&quot; (Chinese: 故宫博物院; pinyin: Gùgōng Bówùyùan).--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====III.The History of the Forbidden City====<br /> <br /> When Hongwu’s son Zhu Di became the Yong Le Emperor, he moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, and construction began in 1406 on what would become the Forbidden City. Construction lasted 14 years and required more than a million workers. From 1420 to 1644, the Forbidden City was the seat of the Ming dynasty. (Yu Zhuoyun1984,18)In April 1644, it was captured by rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. He set fire to parts of the Forbidden City in the process of retreating to Shannxi. By October, the Manchus had achieved supremacy in northern China, and a ceremony was held at the Forbidden City to proclaim the Emperor Shunzhi as ruler of all China under the Qing dynasty. (Guo Moruo 1944,3.14) In the 22nd year of Kangxi's reign (1683), the reconstruction of the rest of the destroyed buildings of the Forbidden City was started, and it was basically completed in 1695.After being the home of 24 emperors – 14 of the Ming dynasty and 10 of the Qing dynasty – the Forbidden City ceased being the political centre of China in 1912 with the abdication of Puyi, the last Emperor of China. In 1933, the Japanese invasion of China forced the evacuation of the national treasures in the Forbidden City. Part of the collection was returned at the end of World War II, but the other part was evacuated to Taiwan in 1948 under orders of Chiang Kai-shek.After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, some damage was done to the Forbidden City as the country was swept up in revolutionary zeal. During the Cultural Revolution, however, further destruction was prevented when Premier Zhou Enlai sent an army battalion to guard the city.( Xie Mengyin&amp;Qu Wanlin2006, 11.7)<br /> <br /> When Hongwu’s son Zhu Di became the Yong Le Emperor, he moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, and construction began in 1406 on what would become the Forbidden City. Construction lasted 14 years and cost more than a million workers. From 1420 to 1644, the Forbidden City was the seat of the Ming dynasty. (Yu Zhuoyun1984,18)In April 1644, it was captured by rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. He set fire to parts of the Forbidden City in the process of retreating to Shannxi. By October, the Manchus had achieved supremacy in northern China, and a ceremony was held at the Forbidden City to proclaim the Emperor Shunzhi as ruler of all China under the Qing dynasty. (Guo Moruo 1944,3.14) In the 22nd year of Kangxi's reign (1683), the reconstruction of the rest of the destroyed buildings of the Forbidden City was started, and it was basically completed in 1695. After being the home of 24 emperors – 14 of the Ming dynasty and 10 of the Qing dynasty – the Forbidden City ceased being the political centre of China in 1912 with the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor of China. In 1933, the Japanese invasion of China forced the evacuation of the national treasures in the Forbidden City. Part of the collection was returned at the end of World War II, but the other part was evacuated to Taiwan in 1948 under orders of Chiang Kai-shek. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, some damage was done to the Forbidden City as the country was swept up in revolutionary zeal. During the Cultural Revolution, however, further destruction was prevented when Premier Zhou Enlai sent an army battalion to guard the city.( Xie Mengyin&amp;Qu Wanlin2006, 11.7)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====IV.The Structure of the Forbidden City==== <br /> Firstly, The Forbidden City is a rectangle and symmetric in its layout. Its palaces are arranged along a north-south axis, on which the three main halls, the rear three palaces and the imperial garden are all located. This central axis not only runs through the Forbidden City, but also reaches Yongding Gate in the south, Drum Tower and bell tower in the north, and runs through the whole city.(Xie Li 2005,(03)100-102)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Forbidden City is divided into two parts, the Outer Court and Inner Court. The Outer Court is the place where the emperor deals with political affairs. There are mainly three halls: the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony, and the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The Inner Court or Back Palace includes the northern sections, and was the residence of the Emperor and his family, and was used for day-to-day affairs of state. The inner court takes Palace of Heavenly Purity, Hall of Union and Palace of Earthly Tranquility as its center with six palaces in the east and six palaces in the west.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Forbidden City is a rectangle and symmetric in its layout. Its palaces are arranged along a north-south axis, on which the three main halls, the rear three palaces and the imperial garden are all located. This central axis not only runs through the Forbidden City even the whole city, but also reaches Yongding Gate in the south, Drum Tower and bell tower in the north.(Xie Li 2005,(03)100-102)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Forbidden City is divided into two parts, the Outer Court and Inner Court. The Outer Court is the place where the emperor deals with political affairs. There are mainly three halls: the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony, and the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The Inner Court or Back Palace includes the northern sections, and was the residence of the Emperor and his family, and was used for day-to-day affairs of state. The inner court takes Palace of Heavenly Purity, Hall of Union and Palace of Earthly Tranquility as its center with six palaces in the east and six palaces in the west.(????????quotation)<br /> --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====[[File:The layout of the Forbidden City.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The layout of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====VI The Collections of the Forbidden City==== <br /> The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925, whose extensive collection of artwork and artifacts were built upon the imperial collections of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Part of the museum's former collection is now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. Both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.(Li Wei &amp; Wang Shuo 2005,6-22) <br /> <br /> The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925, whose extensive collection of artwork and artifacts were built upon the imperial collections of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Part of the museum's former collection is now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. Both museums were descended from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.(Li Wei &amp; Wang Shuo 2005,6-22)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The collections of the Palace Museum are based on the Qing imperial collection, including paintings, ceramics, seals, steles, sculptures, inscribed wares, bronze wares, enamel objects, etc. According to latest audit, it has 1,863,404 pieces of art. They are numbered by &quot;Gu&quot;, &quot;Xin&quot; and &quot;Shu&quot;. Except for the ancient books and documents, all the other collections are labeled with &quot;Gu&quot; and &quot;Xin&quot;. The number of ordinary cultural relics begins with the word &quot;Zi&quot;, and the ceramic specimens begin with the word &quot;Biao&quot;. The general catalogue is divided into 25 categories, and the numbers in each category are sorted from small to large. Many collections once lost and was brought to the Palace Museum, For example, Han Banquet map. And there are some exquisite collections like Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer, Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems and Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.(Website:The Collection of the Palace Museum )In addition, The Palace Museum has one of the largest collections of mechanical timepieces of the 18th and 19th centuries in the world, with more than 1,000 pieces. (Meng Fuxia 2012, (21) 73-74)<br /> <br /> The collections of the Palace Museum are based on the Qing imperial collections, including paintings, ceramics, seals, steles, sculptures, inscribed wares, bronze wares, enamel objects, etc. According to latest audit, it has 1,863,404 pieces of art. They are numbered by &quot;Gu&quot;, &quot;Xin&quot; and &quot;Shu&quot;. Except for the ancient books and documents, all the other collections are labeled with &quot;Gu&quot; and &quot;Xin&quot;. The number of ordinary cultural relics begins with the word &quot;Zi&quot;, and the ceramic specimens begin with the word &quot;Biao&quot;. The general catalogue is divided into 25 categories, and the numbers in each category are sorted from small to large. Many collections once lost and was brought back to the Palace Museum later, for example, Han Banquet map. And there are some exquisite collections like Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer, Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems and Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.(Website:The Collection of the Palace Museum )In addition, The Palace Museum has one of the largest collections of mechanical timepieces of the 18th and 19th centuries in the world, with more than 1,000 pieces. (Meng Fuxia 2012, (21) 73-74)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====[[File:Han Banquet map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Han Banquet map]]====<br /> ====[[File:Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance]]====<br /> ====[[File:Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems]]====<br /> ====[[File:Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women]]====<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions==== <br /> palace complex 宫殿群<br /> <br /> central axis 中心轴<br /> <br /> the Palace Museum故宫博物院<br /> <br /> the Yong Le Emperor 永乐皇帝<br /> <br /> key cultural relics under national protection 国家重点文物保护单位<br /> <br /> world cultural heritage 世界文化遗产<br /> <br /> harmony between man and nature 天人合一<br /> <br /> the imperial garden 御花园<br /> <br /> the Hall of Supreme Harmony 太和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Central Harmony 中和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Preserving Harmony 保和殿<br /> <br /> Palace of Heavenly Purity (乾清宮)<br /> <br /> Hall of Union 交泰宫<br /> <br /> Palace of Earthly Tranquility 坤宁宫<br /> <br /> Han Banquet map 韩熙载夜宴图<br /> <br /> Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer陶彩绘女舞俑<br /> <br /> Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems十二生肖镜<br /> <br /> Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women画珐琅西洋人物鼻烟壶<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> 1. What’ s the meaning of “Zi” in the Chinese name Zijin Cheng?<br /> <br /> 2. When was the Forbidden City listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.<br /> <br /> 3.How many emperors have been lived in the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 4.How long did it take to build the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 5.Why some parts of national treasures are in the National Palace Museum in Taipei now.<br /> <br /> 6. What two parts can the Forbidden City be divided into?<br /> <br /> 7.When was the Palace Museum established?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.“Zi” refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star<br /> <br /> 2.In 1897.<br /> <br /> 3.24 emperors.<br /> <br /> 4.14 years.<br /> <br /> 5.Because both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.<br /> <br /> 6.They are the Outer Court and Inner Court.<br /> <br /> 7.The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Barmé, Geremie R(2008). The Forbidden City. Harvard University Press.26.<br /> <br /> UNESCO(2007). &quot;UNESCO World Heritage List: Imperial Palaces of the Ming and Qing Dynasties in Beijing and Shenyang&quot;.<br /> <br /> Li Xieping 李燮平. (1997) &quot;紫禁城&quot;名称始于何时[When did the name of the Forbidden City come into being?]. 紫禁城Forbidden City, (04) 29-31.<br /> <br /> Yu Zhuoyun(1984), Palaces of the Forbidden City, New York: Viking Press,p18.<br /> <br /> Guo Moruo 郭沫若.(1994) 甲申三百年祭[Commemorating 300th Anniversary of the Jia-Sheng Year]. 新华日报 New China Daily, 3.19.<br /> <br /> Xie Li 谢丽.(2005) 北京中轴线上的十七座门[Seventeen doors on the central axis of Beijing].紫禁城 Forbidden City, (03)100-102.<br /> <br /> Meng Fuxia 孟福霞. (2012)北京故宫空间布局构思探源——论中国古代宫殿建筑的美学精神[On the Origin of the Space Layout of the Palace Museum in Beijing--On the Aesthetic Spirit of Ancient Chinese Palace Architecture]大众文艺Popular Literature and Art, (21) 73-74. <br /> <br /> Li Wei&amp;Wang Shuo 刘薇,王硕.2005故宫文物南迁路线图揭秘[Unveiling the Route Map of the Cultural Relics of the Imperial Palace to the South] 华夏经纬网Jinwei Network, 6.22 http://www.huaxia.com/wh/gjzt/2005/00333230.html <br /> <br /> The Collection of the Palace Museum 故宫博物院馆藏https://www. dpm.org.cn /Home.html<br /> <br /> Xie Mengyin &amp; Qu Wanlin 谢荫明,瞿宛林. (2006) “文化大革命” 中谁保护了故宫 [Who protected the Forbidden City in the Cultural Revolution? ].人民网People’s Daily Online,11,7. http://history.people.com.cn/n/2014/0811/c372327-25441615.html<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Marriage Customs Mo Ling 莫玲 202070080602 MTI 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 莫玲 Mo Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Marriage Customs===<br /> <br /> China is an ancient country of rites. When it comes to the most important thing in one’s life---marriage, Chinese people have developed a set of unique and grand ceremonies. Generally speaking, weddings in ancient China needed to be approved by parents and arranged by parents.(Zhou Dandi,Yue Shufa 2012,12) <br /> <br /> ====Six Procedures====<br /> <br /> There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> Na Cai is the begining of all the marriage procedures. It refers to a practice that if a boy intends to marry a girl, firstly his family must invite a matchmaker to the girl's home to propose marriage. After obtaining the consent of the girl's family , the boy's family should entrust the matchmaker to make a proposal formally with some gifts. Usually, the most common gift is wild goose, which represents fidelity. Besides, mandarin ducks and sheep are also frequently-used gifts.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235) <br /> <br /> Wen Ming means that the boy's family asks the matchmaker to fetch the girl's name and date of birth. There are two purposes of this step: the one is to prevent the marriage of close relatives with the same surname; the other is to assure the compatibility of the prospective bride and bridegroom through their “eight characters” of the birth moment.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235) <br /> <br /> Naji happens after the matchmaker takes back the woman's name and eight characters. If divining an auspicious omen, the boy's family will inform the girl’s parents and decide to engage the marriage.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235) <br /> <br /> What is more, Na Zheng is an important step when the boy sends betrothal presents to the girl and for courtesy the girl will send back part of the presents such as food and some clothes.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235) <br /> <br /> Qing Qi means that the boy's family choose an auspicious day to hold the wedding ceremony and then dispatch the matchmaker to tell the girl’s family.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235) <br /> <br /> Qin Ying is the last procedure of the six etiquettes, that is, the groom goes to the bride's home to take the bride to his home.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ====Customs====<br /> <br /> In addition to the six steps mentioned above, there are many other customs in the traditional Chinese wedding ceremony. Generally speaking, ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker and many young people could not master their own marriage. Before wedding ceremony, men and women were not allowed to meet each other in that ancient people were very conservative and most girls were kept in boudoirs. If they met in private before marriage, it would be regarded as a kind of female infidelity and parents would also think it quite unlucky. Under this circumstance, newlyweds could only see each other until the day of marriage.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47-48)<br /> <br /> On the wedding day, the boy’s family will hold a big banquet at home. Before setting out to pick up bride, the bridegroom should first worship his ancestors for the sake of safety and auspice during the process of picking up the bride. (Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> After that, the following step is the most grand one among the whole ceremony --- at the dusk moment, the groom and the bride, his parents as well as all the guests will gather together at the central room to witness the kneeling etiquettes of the couple, which consists of 4 steps: (Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> The first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber : the bride will be sent into the bridal chamber and the groom will drink with guests until night.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> After wedding ceremony, the couple must return to the girl’s home together at the third day, which is called “Huimen” or “Guiling”. This etiquette is indispensable. The groom should take some gifts for respect and change the way that he addresses the bride’s parents, and the latter will also prepare a good meal for the couple’s coming.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ====Development====<br /> <br /> As time goes by, there are many reforms about marriage nowadays. Adults own the freedom to choose their spouse and they can meet each other every day if possible. Parents can’t master their “life event” any more.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47) In addition, many couples skip the cumbersome rites in the wedding ceremony. Some of them choose to hold the ceremony in the church with some close relatives and friends and some even finish it through travel.(Zhou Dandi,Yue Shufa 2012,15)<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, most young people still adopt the main procedures of the traditional Chinese customs, some of which are handed down until the present day. There still exist betrothal gifts and dowries, and many couples choose to wear red costumes. The bridegroom should go to the bride’s home to escort her to the wedding and so on. Thus it can be seen that most traditional Chinese marriage customs are deeply rooted in the hearts of Chinese people and show a unique Chinese characteristics.(Zhou Dandi,Yue Shufa 2012,15)<br /> <br /> ====References====<br /> <br /> Gao Xiaoqian. 高筱倩.(2017) 中国传统婚嫁习俗研究［The Research on Traditional Chinese Marriage Customs］戏剧之家[Drama House] 235.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yueyong. 张月莹.(2013) 中国近代婚嫁礼俗及婚姻观念转变的探索[A Study on the Change of Marriage customs and Marriage Concepts in Modern China] 松州学刊［Songzhou Academic Journal］ 47-48.<br /> <br /> Zhou Dandi, Yue Shufa. 周丹迪, 岳书法.(2012) 浅析近代以来中国婚嫁民俗的演变[On the evolution of Chinese marriage customs since modern times] 文化学刊[Cultural Academic Journal] 15.<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> Na Cai 纳彩 <br /> <br /> Wen Ming 问名<br /> <br /> Na Ji 纳吉 <br /> <br /> Na Zheng 纳征<br /> <br /> Qing Qi 纳征 <br /> <br /> Qin Ying 亲迎<br /> <br /> Huimen 回门 <br /> <br /> Guiling 归宁 <br /> <br /> betrothal presents 彩礼<br /> <br /> the central room 堂屋<br /> <br /> bridal chamber 婚房<br /> <br /> “eight characters” of the birth moment 生辰八字<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.How many procedures are needed from the negotiation to the completion of marriage?<br /> <br /> 2.Did the ancient young people have the rights to decide their own marriage or not and why?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the kneeling etiquettes?<br /> <br /> 4.When the couple have to return to the girl’s home?<br /> <br /> 5.What changes have been made nowadays?<br /> <br /> 6.Please list some new wedding customs.<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying.<br /> <br /> 2.No, they didn’t have the right to decide their own marriage because ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker.<br /> <br /> 3.It consists of 4 steps: the first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber.<br /> <br /> 4.At the third day of the wedding ceremony.<br /> <br /> 5.Adults can choose their spouse by themselves and they can meet each other whenever they want; Some couples choose to hold the ceremony in the church some even finish it through travel, etc.<br /> <br /> 6.Examples:couple can choose to live in the either part of the two families; wedding ceremony can be hold in hotel; the bride can wear white wedding dress rather than the single red in the ancient time.<br /> <br /> ==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br /> <br /> ====Topic: Chinese cinema (dramas and movies) and its popularity and affection in Vietnam====<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac - Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 202070080603专业 is missing--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:16, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br /> <br /> ===Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac===<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:oyltacz.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]2020 is the year of rat according to the Chinese zodiac which consists of twelve animals used by people to name years. The traditional Chinese zodiac has been passed down for more than 2000 years since its origin(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). The twelve zodiac signs are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig, which are assigned in a repeating 12-year cycle(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). This traditional Chinese scheme was originated from China and then has enjoyed a popularity in many other Asian countries(The Editorial Board, 2010: 12-13). With its cultural connotation and time-honored impact, the Chinese zodiac have been engraved in every Chinese people. <br /> <br /> 2020 is the year of rat according to the Chinese zodiac which consists of twelve animals used by people to name years. The traditional Chinese zodiac has been passed down for more than 2000 years since its origin(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). The twelve zodiac signs are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig, which are assigned in a repeating 12-year cycle(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). This traditional Chinese scheme was originated from China and then has enjoyed a popularity in many other Asian countries(The Editorial Board, 2010: 12-13). With its cultural connotation and time-honored impact, the Chinese zodiac have(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;) been engraved in every Chinese people. --[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ====Origin====<br /> <br /> Regarding the origin of the Chinese zodiac, there are various opinions but many of them are presented with no sufficient evidence. There are many myths explaining these animal signs and their arrangement. Among them the most enduring one is the Great Race. In this story, the Jade Emperor, Ruler of the Heavens, wanted to devise a way to measure time, so he organized a race. At the end, the first twelve animals who made it across the river were the winners and so they earned themselves a spot on the zodiac calender in the order they arrived(The Editorial Board, 2010: 6). Besides this folk story, some scholars claim the zodiac scheme was indeed derived from the Twelve Earthly Branches but did not occur at the same time while the Earthly Branches appeared. Since the Han Dynasty, the Earthly Branches have been used to record the time of day. Therefore some hold until that time, the 12 zodiac came into being as a supplementary to refer to the 12 periods of 24 hours. Since the original meaning of the Earthly Branches at that time was obliterated due to the passage of time, the ancient Chinese attached the Earthly Branches and the Ten Heavenly Stems to the zodiac(The Editorial Board, 2010: 5-7). There also stands an opinion that the zodiac signs were originated from the totem worship in the primitive society. According to some research on the origin of Chinese zodiac, there were only twelve earliest surnames in ancient China, which were derived from the names of the twelve animals in the Chinese zodiac scheme. Here the twelve animals refer to the totems at ancient times and different surname tribes use different animals as their totems. Therefore, the twelve animals of Chinese zodiac was developed from the totems of ancient tribes(The Editorial Board, 2010: 4-5).<br /> <br /> Regarding the origin of the Chinese zodiac, there are various opinions but many of them are presented with no sufficient evidence.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;there are various opinions,however,many of them are presented without sufficient evidences&lt;/span&gt;) There are many myths explaining these animal signs and their arrangement. Among them the most enduring(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;time-honored&lt;/span&gt;) one is the Great Race. In this story, the Jade Emperor, Ruler of the Heavens, wanted to devise a way to measure time, so he organized a race. At the end, the first twelve animals who (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;that&lt;/span&gt;)made it across the river were the winners and so they earned themselves a spot on the zodiac calender in the order they arrived(The Editorial Board, 2010: 6). Besides this folk story, some scholars claim the zodiac scheme was indeed derived from the Twelve Earthly Branches but did not occur at the same time while the Earthly Branches appeared. Since the Han Dynasty, the Earthly Branches have been used to record the time of day. Therefore some hold until that time, the 12 zodiac came into being as a supplementary to refer to the 12 periods of 24 hours. Since the original meaning of the Earthly Branches at that time was obliterated due to the passage of time, the ancient Chinese attached the Earthly Branches and the Ten Heavenly Stems to the zodiac(The Editorial Board, 2010: 5-7). There also stands an opinion that the zodiac signs were originated from the totem worship in the primitive society. According to some research(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;researches&lt;/span&gt;) on the origin of Chinese zodiac, there were only twelve earliest surnames in ancient China, which were derived from the names of the twelve animals in the Chinese zodiac scheme. Here the twelve animals refer to the totems at ancient times and different surname tribes use different animals as their totems. Therefore, the twelve animals of Chinese zodiac was developed from the totems of ancient tribes(The Editorial Board, 2010: 4-5).--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Folk Culture and Belief ====<br /> <br /> The zodiac sign not only can reveal one’s age, but also represents his or her personality, career prospects and way of life according to Chinese superstition. <br /> <br /> The zodiac sign not only can (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;can not only&lt;/span&gt;)reveal one’s age, but also represents his or her personality, career prospects and way of life according to Chinese superstition. (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;quotation is missing&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> The Chinese seem to believe that they have some affinity with the animals of the years in which they were born and that their personal traits and fortunes come under their mysterious influence. According to superstitious belief in China, Zodiac animals are combined with the Five Elements that consist of Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth, to tell one's destiny. Since people have their zodic sign's fixed elment, there are many folk beliefs based on this. For example, people born in the years of Metal Rat are believed to have a promising future; people born in the years of Fire Rat are deemed to be clever and intelligent and Wood Rat independent and self-respected(The Editorial Board, 2010: 40). <br /> <br /> The Chinese seem to believe that they have some affinity with the animals of the years in which they were born and that their personal traits and fortunes come under their mysterious influence. According to superstitious belief in China, Zodiac animals are combined with the Five Elements that consist of Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth, to tell one's destiny. Since people have their zodic(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;zodiac&lt;/span&gt;) sign's fixed elment, there are many folk beliefs based on this. For example, people born in the years of Metal Rat are believed to have a promising future; people born in the years of Fire Rat are deemed to be clever and intelligent and Wood Rat independent and self-respected(The Editorial Board, 2010: 40). <br /> <br /> Besides, since the zodiac is determined by the year of birth, there are many implications of one’s birth year. For example, some zodiacal preferences prevail in Chinese population. Chinese have always had a strong affection for the Dragon, so married couples prefer to give births in the year of Dragon. Since dragon is regarded as the auspicious and divine creatures, the children born in these years of dragon are believed to have fortune. These cultural preferences and folk beliefs have influenced prospective parents’ reproductive behavior in the Chinese society(Yip et al., 2002: 1804).<br /> <br /> Besides, since the zodiac is determined by the year of birth, there are many implications of one’s birth year. For example, some zodiacal preferences prevail in Chinese population. Chinese have always had a strong affection for the Dragon, so married couples prefer to give births in the year of Dragon. Since dragon is regarded as the auspicious and divine creatures(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;creature&lt;/span&gt;) , the children born in these years of dragon are believed to have fortune. These cultural preferences and folk beliefs have influenced prospective parents’ reproductive behavior in the Chinese society(Yip et al., 2002: 1804).<br /> <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese people believe certain animals get on better than the others, so the zodiac has had a great impact on marriage as well. Specifically, people who is born in the Year of Tiger would have perfect romance with Pigs, Rabbit with Dogs and Dragon with Roosters. On the contrary, some zodiac signs are believed to have misfortune if they are married with people of certain zodiac. As the Chinese idiom goes, if a dragon and a tiger fight each other, there will be one injured. This old says reflects that dragon and tiger are natural enemies according to the belief(The Editorial Board, 2010: 34-35). And this is the reason why men and women would like to evaluate their Bazi, the Eight Characters, before they get married. However, in reality, personality is related to one’s experience through the life journey rather than the pre-written zodiac signs. People born in the same year would have very distinctive personalities. Similarly, the destiny is also a result of people’s character and most decisions they’ll be making along the way. Of course the marriage is a more complex thing that cannot be deemed to have a pre-given outcome brought by the zodiac.<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese people believe certain animals get on better than the others, so the zodiac has had a great impact on marriage as well. Specifically, people who is(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;are&lt;/span&gt;) born in the Year of Tiger would have perfect romance with Pigs, Rabbit with Dogs and Dragon with Roosters. On the contrary, some zodiac signs are believed to have misfortune if they are married with people of certain zodiac. As the Chinese idiom goes, if a dragon and a tiger fight(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;fight against&lt;/span&gt;) each other, there will be one injured. This old says reflects that dragon and tiger are natural enemies according to the belief(The Editorial Board, 2010: 34-35). And this is the reason why men and women would like to evaluate their Bazi, the Eight Characters, before they get married. However, in reality, personality is related to one’s experience through the life journey rather than the pre-written zodiac signs. People born in the same year would have very distinctive personalities. Similarly, the destiny is also a result of people’s character and most decisions they’ll be making along the way. Of course the marriage is a more complex thing that cannot be deemed to have a pre-given outcome brought by the zodiac.<br /> <br /> ====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Chinese zodiac is a complex scheme which combines the traditional Chinese astrology in it. Based on the Five Elements theory, Yin and Yang system and Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches system, the traditional scheme have developed a profound connotation and implications through generation. Over thousands of years, this popular culture has affected people’s major decisions in naming, marriage, giving birth and attitude towards each other. But people have to consider zodiac in a rational and scientific way. Perhaps the zodiac may help us to understand what we’re given, but it cannot determine our destiny. We should treat it as the precious cultural heritage and explore the profound culture and historical traces embodied in it(The Editorial Board, 2010: 1-2).<br /> <br /> Chinese zodiac is a complex scheme which combines the traditional Chinese astrology in it. Based on the Five Elements theory, Yin and Yang system and Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches system, the traditional scheme have(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;) developed a profound connotation and implications through generation(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;generations&lt;/span&gt;). Over thousands of years, this popular culture has affected people’s major decisions in naming, marriage, giving birth and attitude towards each other. But people have to consider zodiac in a rational and scientific way. Perhaps the zodiac may help us to understand what we’re given, but it cannot determine our destiny. We should treat it as the precious cultural heritage and explore the profound culture and historical traces embodied in it(The Editorial Board, 2010: 1-2).--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 06:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> 《大中国上下五千年》丛书编委会(2010) The Editorial Board of the ''Five Thousand Years of Great China''（''Dazhongguo Shangxia Wuqiannian''） ''Series'',《中国生肖文化》''The Culture of Chinese Zodiac'', 北京：外文出版社 Beijing: Foreign Languages Press.<br /> <br /> Yip, Paul S.F.伊普, Lee, Joseph 李 and Cheung, Y.B.张 (2002).The Influence of the Chinese Zodiac on Fertility in Hong Kong SAR 论生肖对香港生育率的影响. ''Social Science &amp; Medicine''《社会科学与医学》, Volume 55, Issue 10 第55卷第10期, 1803-1812.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions=== <br /> <br /> Jade Emperor 玉皇大帝<br /> <br /> Ten Heavenly Stems 十天干<br /> <br /> Twelve Earthly Branches 十二地支<br /> <br /> Five Elements 五行<br /> <br /> Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth 金木水火土<br /> <br /> Eight Characters 八字<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.How long is the history of Chinese zodiac?<br /> <br /> 2.What are the twelve zodiac signs in order? <br /> <br /> 3.From what time the Earthly Branches was used to record time?<br /> <br /> 4.According to Chinese folk belief, what kind of characteristics do people born in year of rat have?<br /> <br /> 5.Which zodiac animal is mostly praised in China?<br /> <br /> 6.Can you name some pairs of zodiac animal that get along well with each other according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> 7.Which pair of animals that are natural enemies according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.More than 2200 years.<br /> <br /> 2.Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig.<br /> <br /> 3.Han Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 4.They are smart, adaptable, and have the will to fight, but, on the other hand, they are so over-ambitious and easy to fail.<br /> <br /> 5.Dragon.<br /> <br /> 6.Tiger and pig, rabbit and dog and dragon and rooster. <br /> <br /> 7.Dragon and tiger.<br /> <br /> ==Lisu People and Daogan Festival of Lisu Ethnic Minority Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏 202070080641==<br /> --[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 08:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Lisu people and Daogan festival====<br /> <br /> The Lisu ethnic group are the Tibeto-Burman ethnic group living in mountainous areas such as Burma, southwest China, Thailand, and Arunachal Pradesh in India.<br /> <br /> The Lisu ethnic group is the Tibeto-Burman ethnic group whose people live in mountainous areas such as Burma, southwest China, Thailand, and Arunachal Pradesh in India.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[File:Example1.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> There are about 730,000 Lisu people living in Lijiang, Baoshan, Nujiang, Diqing, Dehong and other counties in Yunnan and Sichuan provinces in China. The Lisu nationality is one of the 56 nationalities officially recognized by China. In Myanmar, the Lisu ethnic group is recognized as one of 135 ethnic groups with an estimated population of 600,000. Approximately 55,000 live in Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. They mainly inhabit remote mountainous areas. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> There are about 730,000 Lisu people living in Lijiang, Baoshan, Nujiang, Diqing, Dehong and other counties in Yunnan province and Sichuan province in China. The Lisu nationality is one of the 56 official nationalities recognized by China. In Myanmar, the Lisu ethnic group is recognized as one of the 135 ethnic groups with an estimated population of 600,000. Approximately 55,000 Lisu people live in Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. They mainly inhabit remote mountainous areas. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans. Each clan has its own name or surname. The most famous family clans in the tribal clans are Laemae pha, Bya pha, Thorne pha, Ngwa Pha (Ngwazah), Naw pha, Seu pha, Khaw pha. Most of the surnames come from their own hunter work in primitive times. But later, they adopted many Chinese surnames. Their culture has the same characteristics as the Yi nationality or Nuosu (Lolo) culture. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans. Each clan has its own name or surname. The most famous family clans are Laemae pha, Bya pha, Thorne pha, Ngwa Pha (Ngwazah), Naw pha, Seu pha, Khaw pha. Most of the surnames came from their own hunter work in primitive times. And later, they adopted many Chinese surnames. Their culture has the same characteristics as the Yi nationality or Nuosu (Lolo) culture does. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Daogan Festival (刀杆节) is a traditional festival of Lisu ethnic groups living in Lushui County(泸水县), Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture(怒江傈僳族自治州).Due to the death of the old artists, they were once lost in Nujiang Prefecture and recovered in recent years. They are mainly distributed in Luzhang Village(鲁掌镇), Luzu Village(鲁祖村) and Loma Village(洛玛村) of Lushui County(泸水县).(Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> Daogan Festival (刀杆节) is a traditional festival of Lisu ethnic group in Lushui County(泸水县), Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture(怒江傈僳族自治州).Due to the death of the old artists, the traditions were once lost in Nujiang Prefecture and were recovered in recent years. They are mainly distributed in Luzhang Village(鲁掌镇), Luzu Village(鲁祖村) and Loma Village(洛玛村) of Lushui County(泸水县).(Ernst, Gabriel 2019)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[File:Example2.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> ====Legend====<br /> <br /> During the Ming Dynasty, when people not belonging to the same clan of feudal China invaded the borders of Yunnan, the king sent Wang Ji (王骥), the ministry of war, to resist the enemy with troops. Wang Ji united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders. Later, Wang Ji was killed by traitors. To commemorate Wang Ji's great achievement and to pray for the souls of the brave soldiers who died bravely defending the border, the Li tribe held the &quot;Up and down the mountain&quot; event. (上刀山，下火海), and designated the 15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year as the Knife Gan Festival.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> During the Ming Dynasty, when people of different clans of feudal China invaded the borders of Yunnan, the emperor sent Wang Ji (王骥), the war department of the Chinese feudal ministry, to resist the enemy with troops. Wang Ji united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders. But later, Wang Ji was killed by traitors. To commemorate Wang Ji's great achievement and to pray for the brave soldiers who died bravely in defending the border, the Li tribe held the &quot;Going up to the mountain of swords and going down to the sea of ​​fire&quot; event. (上刀山，下火海), and designated the 15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year as the Knife Gan Festival.(Li Zhihuan,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Going up to the knife mountain and going down to the sea of ​​fire are the main custom performances of the Taozhen Festival, which reproduce the life experience of people living in mountainous areas as they climb the mountains and the hard spirit and skills of climbing.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> Going up to the mountain of swords and going down to the sea of ​​fire is one of the the main custom performances of the Taozhen Festival, which came from the life experience of people living in mountainous areas as they climb the mountains with the hard spirit and skills of climbing.(Li Zhihuan,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Performing====<br /> <br /> Pine trees were used as tool poles, iron knives as tool ladders, crinkled paper as flowers, and bamboo as flower sticks. When we go up the rice mountain and down the fire, we play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments under the knife pole. There are strict procedures and rituals from pointing flowers, pointing knives, playing knives, tying knives, tying flowers, welcoming flowers, and altars. Setting , knife pole , vertical pole , sacrificial dragon , knife stand and dismantling knife (in the sea of fire). Knife poles are usually called gold pillar, silver pillar or male pillar and female pillar respectively, representing the dead and the living. Thirty-six long sharp knives representing 365 days a year are tied to the sides of the ladder with paper flowers made of five-color paper. After the knife poles are tied, Heung Tong/Heung Tong (巫师) recites the words in his mouth and performs the knife dance with drum music. After the knife dance, to the sound of Suo na, gongs and drums, the knife bearer grasps the blade with both hands, steps on the blade with bare feet and then climbs up. When the knife-bearer reaches the top through the three scissors, the knife-bearer opens the lock of heaven, takes out the grains and flowers, spreads them out into the boiling crowd, and then places the red ribbon on the colored door, over which he sings the old prayer song, and then he comes down from the pole of the knife again. After that, he stepped barefoot into the burning charcoal fire, licking the burning plow with his tongue and biting the burning chains with his teeth, which showed the national spirit of the Li people and their superb performance skills.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> Pine trees were used as tool poles, with iron knives as tool ladders, crinkled paper as flowers, and bamboo as flower sticks. Before people going up the mountain and down the fire, they play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , Suo na (唢呐) and other musical instruments under the knife pole. There are strict procedures and rituals of pointing flowers, pointing knives, playing knives, tying knives, tying flowers, welcoming flowers, and altars. Settings, knife pole, vertical pole, sacrificial dragon , knife stand and dismantling knife (in the sea of fire). Knife poles are usually called gold pillar, silver pillar or male pillar and female pillar respectively, representing the dead and the living. Thirty-six long sharp knives representing 365 days a year are tied to the sides of the ladder with paper flowers made of five-color paper. After the knife poles are tied, Heung Tong/Heung Tong (巫师) recites the words in his mouth and performs the knife dance with drum music. After the knife dance, to the sound of Suo na, gongs and drums, the player grasps the blade with both hands, steps on the blade with bare feet and then climbs up. When he reaches the top through the three scissors, he opens the lock of heaven, takes out the grains and flowers, spreads them out into the lively crowd, and then places the red ribbon on the colored door, sings the old prayer song, and then he comes down from the pole of the knife again. After that, he stepped barefoot into the burning charcoal fire, licking the burning plow with his tongue and biting the burning chains with his teeth. All of these show the national spirit of the Li people and their superb performance skills.(Li Zhihuan,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Development====<br /> <br /> According to legend, it commemorates an ancient Han Chinese hero who showed great kindness to the Lisu people. The Lisu people made the anniversary of the hero's death a traditional holiday for their own people, and used symbolic rituals such as going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire to express their feelings of willingness to go through fire in return. On the day of the Knife Festival, several able-bodied men first perform the &quot;firewalking&quot; ceremony. They jump into the red-hot coals with bare feet and perform various stunts. On the second day, they sharpen 36 long knives and tie them to two 20-meter-high wooden racks with rattan strips, forming a knife ladder. With bare hands and feet, the performers climb to the top from the edge of the knives and perform various difficult moves at the top of the pole. Today, this thrilling traditional sacrificial ritual has evolved into a sporting event for the good people of the Lisu people to perform their stunts.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> According to legend, it commemorates an ancient Han Chinese hero who showed great kindness to the Lisu people. The Lisu people made the anniversary of the hero's death a traditional holiday for their own people, and used symbolic rituals such as going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire to express their feelings of willingness to go through fire in return. On the day of the Knife Festival, several able-bodied men first perform the &quot;firewalking&quot; ceremony. They jump into the red-hot coals with bare feet and perform various stunts. On the second day, they sharpen 36 long knives and tie them to two 20-meter-high wooden racks with rattan strips, forming a knife ladder. With bare hands and feet, the performers climb to the top from the edge of the knives and make various difficult performances at the top of the pole. Today, this thrilling traditional sacrificial ritual has evolved into a sporting event for the Lisu people to perform their stunts.(Li Zhihuan,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> 1.Lisu people 傈僳族<br /> <br /> 2.&quot;Up and down the mountain&quot; event 上刀山，下火海<br /> <br /> 2.going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire上刀山，下火海--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.The Lisu tribe 傈僳族<br /> <br /> 4.clan 氏族<br /> <br /> 5.primitive times 原始时期<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.How many Lisu people live in Yunnan and Sichuan？<br /> <br /> 2.How many clans make up the Lisu people？<br /> <br /> 3.Who united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders？<br /> <br /> 4.Which day is the Daogan Festival？<br /> <br /> 5.What musical instruments do they play under the knife pole?<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.About 730,000 Lisu people. <br /> <br /> 2.The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans.<br /> <br /> 3.Wang Ji.<br /> <br /> 4.15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year.<br /> <br /> 5.They play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments.<br /> <br /> ====References====<br /> <br /> *Ernst, Gabriel (21 October 2019). &quot;'We try to not be Thai': the everyday resistance of ethnic minorities&quot;<br /> *&quot;Yunnan Province of China Government Web&quot;. Eng.yn.gov.cn.<br /> *李智环．Li Zhihuan. 傈僳族人口分布及形成原因分析 [Analysis of the Distribution and Causes of the Formation of the Lisu People] 《保山学院学报》， 2010 [Journal of Baoshan College], 2010<br /> <br /> ==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br /> Culture==Topic-Chinese Clothing== Phyo, Su Kyi, Student No-20191108000,Major: Comparative Literature and Cross-cultural Studies. <br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> <br /> Chinese Clothing has many ethnic groups with a long history while Han people dominate most periods in history. For thousands of years, generations of clothing designers have devoted themselves to building the Kingdom of Clothes, making the garments that cover the human body into an important component of Chinese culture. The progress of nation can be seen through its changes in clothing styles.Clothing manufacture in China dates back to prehistoric times, at least 7,000years ago. Archaeological findings of 18,000 years-old artifacts such as bone sewing needles and stone beads and shells with holes bored in them attest to the existence of ornamentation and of sewing extremely early in Chinese civilization. (www.topchinatravel. com, 2004)<br /> <br /> Chinese clothing has undergone continuous transformations throughout history,providing a reflection of the culture in place at any given time. A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry, and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive Chinese fashions through the ages. This illustrated introductory survey takes the reader through traditional Chinese clothing,ornamentation,and ceremonial wear, and discusses the importance of silk and the diverse costumes of China's ethnic groups before considering modern trends and China's place in the fashion world today.(Mei Hua-2010-page-1)<br /> <br /> 1-Chinese traditional clothing<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional clothing contains rich cultural connotations.Today, after the reform and opening up, the clothing industry has developed vigorously. People gradually start to pay attention to the local clothing culture, and pursue cultural connotation contained in clothing. For modern designers, the traditional clothing and its cultural background are their creation inspirations during creation phases,and they are also one of the expressive elements preferred by designers at home and abroad. Inheriting traditional clothing culture not only means that it needs us to turn the traditional clothing elements into a symbol, but also needs us to further understand the background and connotations of traditional clothing culture. The work of design without culture is like a gorgeous shell that can't stand the test of history. Only by grasping the inner spirit of traditional clothing culture, abandoning simple piled up work and patch-up work without connotation and learning the modern expressive methods of traditional clothing elements, one can design out the works which can touch people's heartstrings. (Jiangsu,2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional clothing contains rich cultural connotations.Today, after the reform and opening up, the clothing industry has developed vigorously. People gradually start paying or to pay attention to the local clothing culture, and pursue cultural connotation contained in clothing. For modern designers, the traditional clothing and its cultural background are their creation inspirations during creation phases,and they are also one of the expressive elements preferred by designers at home and abroad. Inheriting traditional clothing culture not only means that it needs us to turn the traditional clothing elements into a symbol, but also needs us to further understand the background and connotations of traditional clothing culture. The work of design without culture is like a gorgeous shell that can't stand the test of history. Only by grasping the inner spirit of traditional clothing culture, abandoning simple piled up work and patch-up work without connotation and learning the modern expressive methods of traditional clothing elements, one can design out the works which can touch people's heartstrings. (Jiangsu,2016,page-2).<br /> <br /> Traditional clothing is the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics. Traditional clothing mutually integrates its unique style, comfortable fabric, bright colors,rich designs and exquisite craft elements to bring people impulsive feelings with visual communication. Traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics enjoys its unique artistic features in the style, color,fabrics,decoration and craft, ect. They are profoundly influenced by Chinese traditional culture ideas in the process of their formation and development and finally condensed into the national culture bearing Chinese culture features. These elements are the source of our inspiration in contemporary clothing design, and the use of these Chinese elements can help people to design out the clothing Chinese style.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional culture is an indispensable source of inspiration in fashion design. Putting the traditional elements into fashion design not only helps the native culture to extend itself, but also greatly promotes the culture exchanges in nationalities. Therefore, we should advocate the national advanced culture,make the Chinese traditional culture achieve the development in the clothing design, use the common language to express Chinese traditional culture essence, and integrate Chinese traditional element symbol into the spiritual elements of fashion design to make the national culture spirit and the language of the world integrate into the mainstream of modern clothing design.(Jiangsu,2016, page -3)<br /> <br /> 1:1.Traditional Han Chinese Clothing (Han Fu)<br /> <br /> It refers to the attire worn byvthe Han people from the enthronement of the Yellow Emperor(about 2698BC) till the late Ming Dynasty (1368-1644AD).It became known as the Han Fu(fu means 'clothes&quot; in Chinese)because the fashion was improved and popularized during the Han Dynasty. It is usually in the from of long gown,cross collar, wrapping the right lapel over the left, loose wide sleeves and no buttons but a sash. Although simple in design, it gives different feelings to different wearers.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019-Aug-2)<br /> <br /> 1:2.Chinese Suit(Tang Zhuang)<br /> <br /> It is a combination of the Manchu male jacket ofvthe Qing Dynasty and the western style suit. It is usually straight collared,with coiled buttons down the front. Its color and design are in traditional Chinese style but tailoring is western.(www.topchinatravel. com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> 1:3.Cheongsam(Qi Pao)<br /> <br /> Originated from the Manchu female clothes, it evolved by merging with western patterns that show off the beauty of a female body. Its features are straight collar, strain on the waist,coiled buttons and slits on both sides ofvthe dress. Materials used are usually silk, cotton and linen.Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire in the world today.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> 1:4.Chinese Tunic Suit(Zhongshan Zhuang)<br /> <br /> Also called the Yat-sen Suit , it is designed by Dr.Sun Yat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire. It has a turn-down collar and four pockets with flaps. As Chairman Mao Zedong worn it quite frequently, it is also called the Mao Suit by westerners. It is the main attire from the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 till 1980,s. The country's leaders still wear it today when attending important occasions, such as military parades.(www.topchinatravel. com,2016,Auge-2.)<br /> <br /> 2.Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements<br /> <br /> There are many old stories in ancient Chinese civilization, and Chinese traditional elements come up with the tenacity of the Chinese nations long history. Different times has their unique cultural connotations and form elements,which include Chinese architecture, costumes, traditional Chinese painting and folk art etc., and those cultural connotations and form elements are precious heritage that the ancestors leave to their off-springs. The change of dynasties in the history of our country lead to changes of cultural centers, which finally lead to the appearance Chinese traditional elements with different representative features in each historical periods, nations and regions. These elements include: Chinese silk ,cloth of brocade, hemp,blue printed fabric; chirpaur, Chinese -style chest covering, Chinese tunic suit, collar,surplice, mandarin and split etc.; colorful ethnic colors: such as bright red,green,yellow and blueetc.;Neolithic patterns, bronze patterns in Shang and Chou dynasties, ancient lacquer were pattern in Qin and Han dynasties, Buddhism patterns in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties and traditional decorative patterns in Tang,Sing and Qing dynasties. The essence of Chinese traditional culture which bear the role of inheriting national culture, and is the unique and external characteristic of Chinese nation.(Jiangsu,2016, page-3)<br /> <br /> 2:1.The Aesthetic Performance of Design<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional clothing of each dynasty has its own unique clothing style and design, but no matter how the style changes,the mainstream concept of traditional Chinese clothing always emphasizes symmetry and balance, and the clothing symmetry can be seen in sleeve, placket, hem,pattern ect.Chinese traditional clothing design is particular about proportion,such as the ancient Chinese woman dresses, short jacket unlined uper garment (named Ru)marching long dress , and it emphasizes the perfect proportion which hold that&quot;the upper part should be short, the below part should be long&quot;; in Song and Ming dynasties people the collocation of long BeiZi(a kind of dress that girls dress in ancient times) and short skirt, the &quot;long upper part,short below part&quot;ratio perfectly reflects the proportions beauty of the clothing.(Jiangsu,2016, page-5.)<br /> <br /> 2:2.The Aesthetic Performance of colors<br /> <br /> Green, white, yellow, red, black ,the five colors, form the Chinese traditional color system. They have obvious implied meaning and identification.Black stands for that the dark heaven, and yellow stands for the earth at dusj, and black and yellow stand for the heaven and the earth ,and they are mostly used in the Kings' clothing, About the colorific choice of Chinese traditional clothing the yellow and red which the historical role is prominent perform particularly well. In the late period of the Warring States as a royal color yellow appeared and became the supreme ruler's senior clothing color .People advocate yellow but don't prohibit yellow.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-6)<br /> <br /> In Chinese traditional clothing colors red has evoluted from the original noble characteristic tovthe civilians characteristic. It evolution has experienced a certain period of time. The original red uses magenta, red ,cinnabar to represent. It is the noble officials' clothing color.<br /> Many designers combine Chinese red and modern clothing design to embody the application of Chinese traditional clothing elements in modern clothing design.(Jaingsu,2016-page-7)<br /> In Chinese traditional clothing colors, the red color has evoluted from the original noble characteristic tovthe civilians characteristic. It evolution has experienced a certain period of time. The original red uses magenta, red ,cinnabar to represent. It is the noble officials' clothing color.<br /> Many designers combine Chinese red and modern clothing design to embody the application of Chinese traditional clothing elements in modern clothing design.(Jaingsu,2016-page-7)--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 08:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)su kyi<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Chinese traditional culture is an indispensable source of inspiration in fashion design.Therefore, we should advocate the national advanced culture, make the Chinese traditional culture achieve the development in the clothing design.<br /> <br /> Trems and Expressions<br /> <br /> 历史-history, <br /> <br /> 期-period, <br /> <br /> 世代-generations, <br /> <br /> 服装-clothing, <br /> <br /> 设计师-designers , <br /> <br /> 装饰-ornamentation<br /> <br /> 中国服饰- Chinese clothing<br /> <br /> 服饰-Costumes <br /> <br /> 传统服装-Traditional clothing<br /> <br /> 服装设计-Clothing design<br /> <br /> 时尚设计-Fashion design <br /> <br /> 几代服装设计师-Generations of clothing designers <br /> <br /> 中国西装-Chinese Suit<br /> <br /> 旗袍-Cheongsam<br /> <br /> 中山装-Chinese Tunic Suit <br /> <br /> 中国传统元素-Chinese traditional elements <br /> <br /> ===Questions ===<br /> <br /> 1-What’s archaeological findings in Chinese fashions through the ages?<br /> <br /> 2-What's Traditional Clothing?<br /> <br /> 3-What's Traditional culture indispensable?<br /> <br /> 4-How is means Han Fu?<br /> <br /> 5-What's the popular Chinese attire?<br /> <br /> 6-How called was Chinese Tunic Suit?<br /> <br /> 7-What'are include Chinese traditional elements? <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 04:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Answers===<br /> 1- A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry,<br /> and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive chinese fanshions through the ages.<br /> <br /> 2-Traditional clothingis the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing<br /> culture with Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> 3-Chineset traditional culture is an indispensablevsource of inspirationin fashion<br /> design.<br /> <br /> 4-Han Fu is fu means clothes in Chinese. <br /> <br /> 5-Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire inthe world today.<br /> <br /> 6-It is also called the Yat-sen Suit,it is designed byDr.SunYat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire.<br /> <br /> 7-Chinese traditional elements include: Chinese silk,cloth of brocade, hemp, blue printed fabric.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 11:56, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> 1.Jiangsu.,(2016), “Influences of Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements on Modern Clothing Design”,<br /> <br /> Nanjing University of Finance and Economics,Soochow University,Published by Atlantic Press.<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.Mei Hua,(2010), `Chinese Clothing´, Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building,Cambridge CB28RU,UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press,NewYork<br /> www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title:www.cambridge.org/9780521186896<br /> Originally published byChina Intercontinental Press as Cinese Clothing(9787508516615)in2010©ChinaIntercontinentalPress.<br /> <br /> 3.https://www.topchinatravel.com/china-guide/history-of-chinese-clothing.htm<br /> <br /> 4.https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/clothing/--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 10:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br /> <br /> ===Chinese traditional dance===<br /> <br /> 1. INTRODUCTION<br /> <br /> There is a long recorded history in China for various kinds of dances. China is highly took position for art consisting for many modern and traditional dance genres. The dance covers a world a worldwide range, like folk dances, ballet, rituals and weeding ceremonies. We also know about that, there are also 56 officially recognized ethnic groups have their own folk dances and style of forms. The best known Chinese are the Dragon dance and Lion dances both dances were known in earlier dynasties in various forms. &quot; Lianxiang &quot; is a Chinese traditional dance , people usually plays it for entertainment and body building.The author presents the view that the dance can relax tendons and activate collaterals by striking shoulders, chest, waist, abdomen, buttocks, feet and acupuncture points of the four limbs, and slightly swaying knees together with shoulder, the set of movement can also exercise bones, muscles.--[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 05:14, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2. Characteristics of the Dance<br /> <br /> Characteristics of the movements <br /> <br /> There have 3 characteristic of the movements are: thrashing, quivering and lowering. The performer holds bamboo pole to play various dance movements by striking shoulders, chest, waist, abdomen, buttocks, feet and acupuncture points of the four limbs, and slightly swaying knees together with shoulder vibration. The traditional movements are modified and developed which is called single- thrashing and double-thrashing. Single-thrashing movements including crouch thrashing, jump thrashing, rolling thrashing and mixed thrashing with one bamboo pole. --[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 06:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Liquor Culture of China 瞿淼 Student No.202070080604 ==<br /> ==The Liquor Culture of China 瞿淼 Student No.202070080604 英语笔译 ==--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 08:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.The Origin of liquor in China====<br /> <br /> With a long history of liquor-making, China boasts a variety of vintage liquor, which is renowned at home and abroad. Penetrating in China’s entire history of civilization, the liquor culture plays a significant role in many aspects, such as cuisine, literature, and health care, of Chinese people’s daily life.（后面好像缺了文献的引用，参考文献中的没有在正文体现）--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> As to the origin of Chinese liquor, opinions vary and no unanimous conclusion can be drawn, and the most widely accepted version is that Du Kang is the person who invented liquor. There are divergent views on Du Kang’s identity, so far, documents have been found which recorded his deeds in the Yellow Emperor era and Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties. And even his address is disputable. Some people think he lived in Baishui, Shaanxi province and was buried here, while others hold the opinion that he lived in Ruyang, Henan province. However, Du Kang is generally believed to be the Chinese Dionysus. According to the legend, one day it rained suddenly while Du Kang was herding the sheep. Hastily driving the sheep back to the sheepfold, he forgot some husked sorghum rice in a hollowed trunk by accident, and when he came back after a few days, the rice he left there became so fragrant that he couldn’t help tasting some. Surprisingly, it was palatable. This unexpected finding made Du Kang start to develop the liquor-brewing technique. Nowadays, Du kang has become the synonym of liquor in many places. Moreover, ancestral halls of Du Kang have been built in Baishui in Shaanxi province and Ruyang in Henan province to enshrine him. And the liquor produced in these places are called “Du Kang Liquor.”(Huang yixi, 2008, 12) <br /> <br /> With a long history of liquor-making, China boasts a variety of vintage liquor, which is renowned at home and abroad. Penetrating in China’s entire history of civilization, the liquor culture plays a significant role in many aspects, such as cuisine, literature, and health care, of Chinese people’s daily life.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As to the origin of Chinese liquor, opinions vary and no unanimous conclusion can be drawn, and the most widely accepted version is that Du Kang invented liquor. There are divergent views on Du Kang’s identity, so far, documents have been found which recorded his deeds in the Yellow Emperor era and Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties. And even his address is disputable. Some people think he lived in Baishui, Shaanxi province and was buried here, while others hold the opinion that he lived in Ruyang, Henan province. However, Du Kang is generally believed to be the Chinese Dionysus. According to the legend, one day it rained suddenly while Du Kang was herding the sheep. Hastily driving the sheep back to the sheepfold, he forgot some husked sorghum rice in a hollowed trunk by accident, and when he came back after a few days, the rice he left there became so fragrant that he couldn’t help tasting it. Surprisingly, it was palatable. This unexpected finding made Du Kang start to develop the liquor-brewing technique. Nowadays, Du kang has become the synonym of liquor in many places. Moreover, ancestral halls of Du Kang have been built in Baishui in Shaanxi province and Ruyang in Henan province to enshrine him. And the liquor produced in these places are called “Du Kang Liquor.”(Huang yixi, 2008, 12)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.The Types of liquor in Ancient China====<br /> With constant reform and innovation of the techniques of brewing liquor, thousands types of vintage liquor have been created in China. According to the different production techniques, Chinese liquor can be divided into fermented wine and distilled liquor.<br /> <br /> With constant reform and innovation of the techniques of brewing liquor, thousands of types of vintage liquor have been created in China. According to the different production techniques, Chinese liquor can be divided into fermented wine and distilled liquor.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Yellow rice wine is the oldest fermented wine around the world. Shaoxing Wine, a famous specialty of Shaoxing, Zhejiang province, is the representative of yellow rice wine. It has a very long history, and the wine industry in Shaoxing was prosperous early in the Warring States period. Shaoxing wine looks yellow and clear, hence sugar is added in its raw material. The most prominent of Shaoxing Wine is that it’s fragrance improves with age. In addition to Shaoxing Wine, there are other famous yellow rice wine like Jiujiang Old Seal Wine, Mellow Wine and Dongwu Rice Wine and so on. where is the source is coming from please?<br /> <br /> Yellow rice wine is the oldest fermented wine around the world. Shaoxing Wine, a famous specialty of Shaoxing, Zhejiang province, is the representative of yellow rice wine. It has a very long history, and the wine industry in Shaoxing was prosperous early in the Warring States Period. Shaoxing wine looks yellow and clear, because sugar is added in its raw material. (这句话的因果关系不知道是什么，改错了就删掉我的就好）The most prominent characteristic of Shaoxing Wine is that it’s fragrance improves with age. In addition to Shaoxing Wine, there are other famous yellow rice wine like Jiujiang Old Seal Wine, Mellow Wine and Dongwu Rice Wine and so on.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Liquor and Spirits(Baijiu), a kind of distilled liquor, is divided into the following flavor types: sauce-flavor type, light flavor type, strong flavor type and other flavour types. Kweichow Moutai is a traditional Chinese specialty liquor. It is one of the world's three major distilled liquors on par with Scotch whiskey and French cognac. It is also the originator of Daqu sauce-flavored liquor with a history of more than 800 years. The style and quality of Kweichow Moutai is characterized by &quot;prominent sauce, elegant and delicate flavour, full-bodied, long aftertaste, and lasting fragrance in an empty cup&quot;. Its special style comes from the unique traditional brewing techniques formed over the years and the brewing methods are combined with the agricultural production in the Chishui River Basin, which is affected by the environment and seasonal production, retaining some of the original traces of local life. In 1996, Moutai's craftsmanship was identified as a state secret to be protected. In 2001, the traditional craft of Moutai was included in the first batch of national material cultural heritage. In 2006, the State Council approved the inclusion of the &quot;Moutai traditional brewing process&quot; in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage lists, and declared the world intangible cultural heritage. where is source coming?<br /> <br /> Liquor and Spirits(Baijiu), a kind of distilled liquor, is divided into the following flavor types: sauce-flavor type, light flavor type, strong flavor type and other flavour types. Kweichow Moutai is a traditional Chinese specialty liquor. It is one of the world's three major distilled liquors on par with Scotch whiskey and French cognac. It is also the origin of Daqu sauce-flavored liquor with a history of more than 800 years. The style and quality of Kweichow Moutai is characterized by prominent sauce, elegant and delicate flavour, full-bodied, long aftertaste, and lasting fragrance in an empty cup&quot;. Its special style comes from the unique traditional brewing techniques formed over the years and the brewing methods are combined with the agricultural production in the Chishui River Basin, which is affected by the environment and seasonal production, retaining some of the original traces of local life. In 1996, Moutai's craftsmanship was identified as a state secret to be protected. In 2001, the traditional craft of Moutai was included in the first batch of national material cultural heritage. In 2006, the State Council included &quot;Moutai traditional brewing process&quot; in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage lists, and declared it as the world intangible cultural heritage.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.The Types of Drinking Vessel in Ancient China====<br /> Chinese people always pay attention to the beauty and delicacy of tableware, and we stress the exquisiteness and suitability of wine vessels when drinking. Therefore,as part of the liquor culture, drinking vessels also have a long history and varied appearances.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(sorry,又忘记复制粘贴，直接改动了）<br /> <br /> In different historical periods, due to the continuous development of society and economy, the production technology, materials, and appearance of wine vessels will naturally undergo corresponding changes; therefore, a wide variety of wine vessels have been produced. As early as the Neolithic culture period, pottery with shapes similar to later wine-ware, such as the pottery of the Peiligang culture period, appeared. The development of the liquor industry and the noble identity of the drinker have made it possible for liquor utensils to be differentiated from ordinary eating utensils. The quality of wine-ware often becomes one of the symbols of the status of drinkers. Bronze ware originated in Xia Dynasty, and the earliest bronze wine ware that has been discovered is from the Xia Erlitou culture period. Bronze ware reached its heyday in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and declined in the Spring and Autumn Period. The purpose of the Shang and Zhou drinking vessels was basically specific. <br /> In the Shang Dynasty, due to the development of the liquor industry and the improvement of bronze production technology, China's wine ware reached unprecedented prosperity. The bronze wine vessels of Shang and Zhou Dynasties were divided into liquor boiling vessels, liquor serving vessels, drinking vessels and liquor storaging vessels according to their purposes. Each vessel has many styles, some are in common styles, and some take animal shapes. Take Zun as an example, there are Elephant Zun, Rhino Zun, Niu Zun, Yang Zun, Tiger Zun, etc. <br /> <br /> In different historical periods, due to the continuous development of society and economy, the production technology, materials, and appearance of wine vessels naturally has undergone corresponding changes; therefore, a wide variety of wine vessels have been produced. As early as the Neolithic culture period, pottery with shapes similar to later wine-ware, such as the pottery of the Peiligang culture period, appeared. The development of the liquor industry and the noble identity of the drinker have made it possible for liquor utensils to be differentiated from ordinary eating utensils. The quality of wine-ware often becomes one of the symbols of the status of drinkers. Bronze ware originated in Xia Dynasty, and the earliest bronze wine ware that has been discovered is from the Xia Erlitou culture period. Bronze ware reached its heyday in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and declined in the Spring and Autumn Period. The purpose of the Shang and Zhou drinking vessels is basically specific. <br /> In the Shang Dynasty, due to the development of the liquor industry and the improvement of bronze production technology, China's wine ware reached unprecedented prosperity. The bronze wine vessels of Shang and Zhou Dynasties were divided into liquor boiling vessels, liquor serving vessels, drinking vessels and liquor storaging vessels according to their purposes. Each vessel has many styles, some are in common styles, and some take animal shapes. Take Zun as an example, there are Elephant Zun, Rhino Zun, Niu Zun, Yang Zun, Tiger Zun, etc. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:zun.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> During the Qin and Han Dynasties, lacquered wine utensils became popular in southern China. It became the main type in the Han Dynasty, Wei and Jin Dynasties, and its shape basically inherited the shape of bronze liquor vessels. Porcelain roughly appeared around the Eastern Han Dynasty. Compared with pottery, the performance of porcelain surpassed that of pottery. The shape of liquor glasses in the Tang Dynasty was much smaller than in the past, so some people think that distilled spirits appeared in the Tang Dynasty. The Song Dynasty was the heyday of ceramic production, and there were many exquisite wine vessels. People in Song Dynasty like to warm rice wine and drink it. So the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl were invented. People placed the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and poured hot water into the bowl to warm the wine. The representative porcelain wine-ware of the Ming and Qing Dynasty is the blue-and-white porcelain wine-ware.<br /> <br /> During the Qin and Han Dynasties, lacquered wine utensils became popular in Southern China. It became the main type in the Han Dynasty and Wei and Jin Dynasties, and its shape basically inherited the shape of bronze liquor vessels. Porcelain roughly appeared around the Eastern Han Dynasty. Compared with pottery, the performance of porcelain surpassed that of pottery. The shape of liquor glasses in the Tang Dynasty was much smaller than it in the past, so some people think that distilled spirits appeared in the Tang Dynasty. The Song Dynasty was the heyday of ceramic production, and there were many exquisite wine vessels. People in Song Dynasty like to warm rice wine and drink it. So the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl were invented. People placed the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and poured hot water into the bowl to warm the wine. The representative porcelain wine-ware of the Ming and Qing Dynasty is the blue-and-white porcelain wine-ware.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[File:Example3.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> ====4.Drinking Order====<br /> As early as the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, drinking orders appeared at banquets in the Yellow River Basin. There are many ways to make wine orders. The way the literati and the ordinary people make drinking orders are naturally very different. Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc., while ordinary people use simple ways to act without any preparation. It requires a quick, witty, artistic and talented person to do liquor orders. The drinking order is of great significance to the transformation, enrichment and development of drinking rituals. It is not only an important means to add wine to the fun and to invigorate the banquet, but also to make Chinese culture enter the wine and become the Liquor Culture&quot;.<br /> <br /> As early as the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, drinking games appeared at banquets in the Yellow River Basin. There are many ways to make wine games. The way the literati and the ordinary people make drinking games are naturally different. Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc., while ordinary people use simple ways to act without any preparation. It requires a quick, witty, artistic and talented person to do liquor orders. The drinking games is of great significance to the transformation, enrichment and development of drinking rituals. It is not only an important means to add wine to the fun and to invigorate the banquet, but also to make Chinese culture enter the wine and become the Liquor Culture&quot;.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> 1.Du Kang 杜康<br /> <br /> 2.Chinese Dionysus 中国酒神<br /> <br /> 3.husked sorghum rice 秫米饭<br /> <br /> 4.Baishui 白水县（陕西渭南市辖县）<br /> <br /> 5.Ruyang 汝阳县（河南省洛阳市下辖县）<br /> <br /> 6.fermented wine 发酵酒<br /> <br /> 7.Distilled liquor 蒸馏酒<br /> <br /> 8.Yellow rice wine 黄酒<br /> <br /> 9.Shaoxing Wine 绍兴酒 <br /> <br /> 10.Jiujiang Old Seal Wine 九江成年封缸酒<br /> <br /> 11.Mellow Wine 醇香酒 <br /> <br /> 12.Dongwu Rice Wine 东吴老酒<br /> <br /> 13.Liquor and Spirits 白酒 <br /> <br /> 14.Kweichow Moutai 贵州茅台<br /> <br /> 15.sauce-flavor type 酱香型 <br /> <br /> 16.light flavor type 清香型 <br /> <br /> 17.strong flavor type 浓香型 <br /> <br /> 18.Daqu sauce-flavored liquor 大曲酱香型白酒<br /> <br /> 19.the Peiligang culture period裴李岗文化时期 <br /> <br /> 20.the Xia Erlitou culture period 夏二里头文化时期<br /> <br /> 21.Zun 樽 <br /> <br /> 22.injection vessel and bowl 注子和注碗<br /> <br /> 23.drinking order 行酒令<br /> <br /> 23.drinking games 行酒令--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Questions==== （问题好像还要再加一两个 忘记标准了）--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1.Who is generally believed to invent liquor in China? <br /> <br /> 2.What is the most prominent of Shaoxing Wine?<br /> 2.What is the most prominent characteristic of Shaoxing Wine?--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.How to use the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl in the Song dynasty?<br /> <br /> 4.How do literati often make drinking orders in China?<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.Du Kang<br /> <br /> 2.It’s fragrance improves with age.<br /> <br /> 3.Place the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and pour hot water into the bowl to warm the wine.<br /> <br /> 4.Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc.<br /> <br /> ====Bibliography====<br /> *Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br /> <br /> *Li Fangzhou 李方舟. (1998) 酒令——酒文化的珍品[Liquor-a treasure of wine culture]. 质量天地Production Room.<br /> <br /> *Du Jinpeng 杜金鹏. (1995) 中国古代酒具[Ancient Chinese Wine Set]. 上海文化出版社 Shanghai Culture Publishing House.<br /> <br /> *Yang Li 杨 利. (2005) 酒文化及酒的精神文化价值探微[A Probe into Wine Culture and Spiritual Cultural Value of Wine]. 邵阳学院学报Academic Journal of Shaoyang University, 2005(02):82-83.<br /> <br /> *Xu Shaohua 徐少华. (1999) 中国酒文化研究50年[Research on 50 years of Chinese wine culture]. 酿酒科技Brewing Technology, 1999(06):15-18.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Fengqi 赵凤琦. (2014) 我国白酒产业可持续发展研究[Research on Sustainable Development of Chinese Liquor Industry]. 中国社会科学院研究生院CASS Graduate School.<br /> <br /> *Wng Jianguo&amp;Xu Liang 汪建国,徐亮.(2005)我国黄酒的特征及展望[Characteristics and Prospects of Chinese Rice Wine] 江苏调味副食品Journal of Jiangsu Seasoning Food, 2005(06):8-12.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jihua 丁季华. (1991) 中国酒文化的结构与功能[The structure and function of Chinese wine culture]. 历史教学问题History Research and Teaching, 1991(2).<br /> <br /> == China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH) - Rajabov, Anushervon student NO. 201921080005 Major: Comparative literature and cross culture ==<br /> <br /> ===China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH)===<br /> <br /> Introduction <br /> <br /> High-speed railway (HSR) in China is the longest network of high-speed railways in the world and is used most widely. The network of UNCC includes the recently built railway at the estimated speed of 200-350 km / h (120-220 miles per hour). The Chinese VSM accounts for two thirds of world high-speed railways. Almost all trains, the path and services of the HSR belong to the Chinese railway corporation under the CHINA Railway High Speed brand (CRH). The high-speed railway has developed rapidly in China over the past 15 years. CRH was put into operation in April 2007, the Intercity Line Beijing-Tianjin, which opened in August 2008, became the first HSR allocated passenger line. HSR applies to all administrative provincial levels, except Macau and Tibet. The total length of the HSR network reached 36,000 km (22,000 miles) in August 2020. The HSR construction boom continues, and the HSR network should reach 70,000 km (43,000 miles) in 2035. China's first high-speed trains were imported or built in accordance with the Technology Transfer Agreement with foreign trains manufacturers, including Alstom, Siemens, Bombardier and Kawasaki Heavy Industry Since the initial technical support, Chinese engineers have overpower the internal components of the train and built local trains produced by the CRRC State Corporation. The appearance of a rapidly accelerated railway in China has decreased in the way and changed Chinese society and the economy. The World Bank study has shown that &quot;a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality.&quot;[http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/451551468241176543/pdf/932270BRI0Box30ffic020140final000EN.pdf]<br /> <br /> Definition and terminology <br /> <br /> High-speed trains in China are usually belonging to passenger trades of classes G, D and C. in class G trains (高 铁; Gāotiě; &quot;High-speed rail&quot;) are commonly used trains E In class D trains (动 车; Dòngchē; &quot;Electrical multiple unit&quot;) are presented by EMU trains operating at lower speeds, whether in high-speed or low-speed ways. The actual movement speed of class D trains can vary greatly. D211 Creament train from Guyang-east to Guangzhou-South along the High Speed Railway Guang-Guangzhou, a line with an estimated speed of 250 km / h, on average, 207 km / h per trip. The sleeping train D312 EMU between South Beijing and Shanghai at a low speed Beijing - Shanghai on average passing 121 km / h. Class C (c héngjì; “intercity”) trains that run on high-speed tracks at speeds above 250 km / h are also considered high-speed trains.[https://ru.qaz.wiki/wiki/China_Railway_High-speed]<br /> <br /> Influence on airlines<br /> <br /> The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights. The effect of high-speed railway on airfare is most acute when traveling for less than 500 km (310 miles). By the spring of 2011, commercial airlines were fully stopped at previously popular routes such as Wuhan Nanjing, Wuhan Nanchang, Xi'an-Zhengzhou and Chengdu Chongqing. Flights along the routes with a length of more than 1500 km (930 miles) usually do not suffer. As of October 2013, half a speed of passengers were transported monthly on high-speed rail than in the country's airlines. where the source a<br /> Technologies <br /> Chinese High Speed Railway Controls Various Electric Forms of Trains, Hexie HAO Title (Simplified Chinese: 和谐 号; Traditional Chinese: 和 諧 號; Pinyin: Héxié Hào; Harmony) is for designs which are imported from other nations and designated CRH-1 to CRH-5 and CRH380A (L), CRH380B (L) and CRH380C (L). CRH compositions are designed for fast and convenient movement between cities. The weakness of intellectual property Hexie HAO creates obstacles to China in the export of its products related to high-speed railways, which leads to the development of a fully recycled railway franchise called Fuxing Hao (Rejuvenation) that based on local technologies.[https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine ]<br /> <br /> 4 + 4 HSR network <br /> <br /> The network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km. Most of the lines follow existing routes and are for passenger traffic only. These are known as Passenger Lines (PDL). Several sections of the national network, especially along the southeastern coastal corridor, have been built to connect cities that previously had no rail links. These sections will carry both passenger and cargo. High-speed trains on HSR corridors can usually reach speeds of 300-350 km / h (190-220 mph). On mixed HSR lines, passenger trains can reach a maximum speed of 200–250 km / h (120–160 mph). This ambitious national grid project was slated to be built by 2020, but government incentives have significantly shortened the construction timeframe for many lines.[http://www.railjournal.com/A/xfeature2.html]<br /> <br /> Advantages <br /> <br /> HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances that: Increases economic productivity and long-term competitiveness by increasing rail capacity and unifying labor markets. Moving passengers onto high-speed lines frees up older railways to carry more cargo, which is more beneficial for railways than for passengers whose fares are subsidized. Boosts the economy in the short term as high-speed rail construction creates jobs and stimulates demand in the construction, steel and cement industries during the economic downturn. 110,000 workers were mobilized for the construction of the Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway. Facilitates economic integration between cities and promotes the growth of second-tier cities. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains. [https://ru.qaz.wiki/wiki/China_Railway_High-speed]<br /> <br /> Wenzhou accident <br /> <br /> On July 23, 2011, two high-speed trains collided on the Ningbo-Taizhou-Wenzhou railway in the Lucheng district of Wenzhou city, Zhejiang province. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped. Signals failed, causing another train to stop a stopped train. Several carriages derailed. State Chinese media confirmed 40 deaths and at least 192 people were hospitalized, including 12 seriously injured. The train accident in Wenzhou and the lack of accountability by rail officials have generated public outcry and heightened concerns about the safety and management of China's high-speed rail system. Concerns about quality and safety have also influenced plans to export cheaper high-speed train technology to other countries. In the aftermath of the deadly disaster, the Chinese government has suspended approval of new rail projects and began security checks on existing equipment.[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/23/china-train-crash-kills-32]<br /> <br /> Terms and expressions<br /> <br /> 高 铁 - High-speed rail<br /> 动 车 - Electrical multiple unit<br /> 和 諧 號 – Harmony<br /> 復興號 - Rejuvenation<br /> <br /> Questions <br /> <br /> 1. What does the World Bank research say?<br /> 2. What forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights?<br /> 3. How many high speed rail corridors are there in the 4 + 4 HSR network? What is their total length?<br /> 4. What caused the accident?<br /> 5. What are the benefits of HSR?<br /> <br /> Answers<br /> <br /> 1. The World Bank study has shown that &quot;a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality.&quot; <br /> 2. The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights.<br /> 3. The 4 + 4 HSR network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km. <br /> 4. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped.<br /> 5. HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains.<br /> <br /> References <br /> <br /> http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/451551468241176543/pdf/932270BRI0Box30ffic020140final000EN.pdf<br /> https://ru.qaz.wiki/wiki/China_Railway_High-speed<br /> https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine <br /> http://www.railjournal.com/A/xfeature2.html<br /> https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/23/china-train-crash-kills-32.<br /> <br /> ==Language, The Chinese Language - Seydou, Sagara, Student No:201911080004,Major:Translation Studies===<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> China is a very big country with a large population, multi-ethnic,and multi-lingual. Each etthnic groups may have its own lingo, or dialects. There are great differences between the dialects because of pronunciation. For example, if people in different places use their dialects to talk, they may not be able to understand each other, and the situation may lead to embarrassment and understanding. Therefore, the Chinese people communicate with each other in a common language, Putonghua, also known as Mandarin in Western countries. Cheng Aimin (2019,<br /> <br /> ==Putonghua and Dialects==<br /> <br /> Putonghua is the national language of China, and Chinese is the most widely spoken language in the world. More than one billion of the world's populations are Chinese speakers. The Chinese population is already one fifth of the population of the world and is rapidly expanding its presence everywhere and influence many people around the world. Cheng Aimin (2019, 25) <br /> It is the modern standard Chinese language with the Beijing pronunciation as its standard pronunciation, the northern dialect (also known as Mandarin, the official language in the past) as its basic dialect, and the modern vernacular as its grammatical norm. Therefore, the northern dialect sounds more like Putonghua than other dialects. Putonghua is a standardized language, which is legally used all over the country. In 2000, the law of the People’s Republic of China on common languages and characters established the legal status of Putonghua and standardized Chinese Characters as the national language and writing system. Putonghua is also one of the six working language of the United Nation and an important means of communication between China and foreign countries. According to statistics from ethnologist, in 2015, 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, but there were still about 400 million people who spoke dialects or minority languages. Article 19 of the constitution of the People’s Republic of China stipulates that ‘’ Putonghua is widely used by the state ‘’, and the third week of September is the national Putonghua Publicity week. We often hear some sayings like this: ‘’ Learn Putonghua well and you will have friend all over the world.’’ Chinese dialects are usually divided into seven groups: northern dialect Wu dialect, Hunan dialect, Jiangxi dialect, Hakka dialect, and Cantonese dialect and Fujian dialect. Most northern are close to Putonghua and easy to understand a non-native speaker. Cheng Aimin (2019, 126) <br /> <br /> The dialects in China differ greatly. Speaking Putonghua allows the Chinese people to communicate better with each other and promote the development of economy and culture everywhere. However, the promotion of Putonghua cannot be achieved in a short time. The Chinese government plans to enable more than 80% of Chinese people to speak Putonghua by 2020. (C.Gov art 10. 2017)<br /> Only by learning Putonghua can you communicate with people from all parts of China and event with Chinese –speaking people all over the world. While striving to promote Putonghua among the people of the whole country, China also pays special attention to the protection of dialects, which should not be lost after learning Putonghua. . Cheng Aimin (2019, 126)<br /> <br /> ==Ancient Chinese and Modern Chinese ==<br /> Over the past three thousand years, Chinese has undergone a long period of development and changes, and has been constantly interacting with the languages of other nations. Ancient Chinese and written Chinese characters are not exactly the same as they are now. When we visit Chinese historical sites, we often see couplets, poems, and inscriptions. Most of them are written in classical Chinese and traditional Chinese characters. Classical Chinese is a written language formed on the basis of the spoken language in the pre-Qin period. Cheng Aimin (2019, 127) <br /> <br /> By the time of the Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties (the 7th century to the 10th century), the spoken Chinese had changed greatly and had significant differences with the classical style of written Chinese. The pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar had changed greatly. But all the time, some people still insisted on writing in classical Chinese, while others wrote in the commonly used vernacular (spoken Chinese). The Four Classical Novels created in the Ming and Qing dynasties, The Dreams of the red Chambers, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, The Outlaws of the Marsh and the journey to the west, are all representative works of the ancient vernacular. After the May 4th movement in 1919, China launched a vernacular movement advocating ‘’my hand writes my speech’’. Since then, the vernacular has gradually been more widely used in the whole society, and modern Chinese has gradually developed and formed. Compared with ancient Chinese, modern Chinese absorbs a lot Western grammar and has added many disyllabic words. Cheng Aimin (2019 ,128)<br /> <br /> ==Idiomatic Phrases- Idioms, Proverbs, Common Sayings, and Allegorical Sayings.==<br /> Many phrases with fixed meanings in Chinese have been handed down from the ancient times. Mastering these phrases will make your language more authentic and vivid. For example, ‘’Lofty mountains and flowing rivers ‘’. Playing the lute to the cow’’ ‘’prescribing medicine according to symptoms’’, and ‘’ pleading guilty by carrying a rod on one’s back’ ’these phrases, often contain four Chinese characters each, are called idioms. They are quite formal and often originate from ancient historical stories, fables, myths and legends, or literary works. Sometimes we cannot guess the meaning of an idiom simply according to the meaning of the words. For example, 崇山峻岭，流淌的河流 ‘’lofty mountains and flowing rivers’’ means meeting someone who can really understand and appreciate them, while吹牛的长笛 ‘’ Playing the lute to the cow’’ means the casting pearls before swine. Wendy Abraham: (2018 ,115)<br /> There are also proverbs, common sayings, and allegorical sayings created and passed down by the common people in spoken language, which are quite colloquial and emotional, reflecting the unique culture of China.<br /> Proverbs are common and easy -to understand fixed phrases used orally, often explaining a truth. For example, ‘’ if you are not in charge of a home, you don’t know how expensive the firewood and rice, if you don’t have children, you don’t know kinds your parents are.’’ ‘’Seeing is better than hearing 100 times, and doing is better than seeing 100 times’’ Cheng Aimin (2019, 129)<br /> Common sayings mostly come in a three –character format, but there are also other formats. In addition to the literal meaning, there are deep metaphorical extensions. For example, 吹牛皮 ‘’blow cow skin’’ (meaning bragging or boating) ‘给某人. 穿紧身鞋 ‘’give SB . Tight shoes to wear ‘’ ( meaning making things hard for SB), ‘为外国人工作时的消磨时间‘’kill time when working for foreigners ‘’ ( loafing on the job) , 提一个黑锅 ‘’ carry a black pot’’ ( taking the blame for the fault of others ) , 钉在眼睛里 ‘’ nail in the eyes’’ ( thorn in the flesh ), 狗腿 ‘’ dog leg’’ ( hired thug) , 不管3x7 = 21 ‘’regardless of 3x7= 21’’( regardless of consequences, in the spite of anything ), 打不了八极 ‘’ can’t hit with eight poles’’ ( extremely distant or unrelated ). (Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002,232)<br /> An allegorical saying is divided into two parts. It is like a riddle: The first part is a metaphor, and the second part is an explanation. There are two types of allegorical sayings: homophonic and figurative. Example of the homophonic type ‘’ the nephew carries a lantern – to light up the uncle’’ (pronounced the same ‘’ as before ‘’ in Chinese); ‘’the monk opens an umbrella – no hair and no sky ‘’ (‘’ no hair ‘’ is pronounced similar to ‘’ lawless ‘’ in Chinese). Examples of the figurative type: ‘’ A mute person takes a dose of bitter medicine- they can’t say it is bitter ‘’; ‘’ Mice go to the street – everybody shouts and beats them.’’ Cheng Aimin (2019.130)<br /> <br /> ==Language policy==<br /> While vigorously promoting Putonghua, the Chinese government has also promulgated many policies to protect dialect and minority languages. In order to promote Putonghua, China promulgated the Chinese Pinyin Program in 1958. Pinyin (the standard Chinese sound- spelling system) is widely used in Putonghua promotion, international Chinese teaching, foreign exchange and other fields. It has become an important tool for reading Chinese characters, learning Putonghua, training and improving reading and writing ability. With the popularization of modern information technology, pinyin is widely used to input the Chinese characters on computers and mobile phones. Pinyin affects all aspects of social life. In translation, Chinese names of people, places, food, and even some cultural concept with Chinese characteristics (Such as Beijing, pingpang, Shaoling, Gongful) are directly spelled with Pinyin, which is therefore an important standard for translation and a bridge for international exchange. Minglang Zhou: (pp.71-95).<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion.== <br /> Today, an increasing number of people from other countries now want to learn Chinese language and culture and also many universities from different countries throughout the world offer Chinese language courses because Putonghua is also an open door to a huge job market in all of the countries where Putonghua is the language of commerce like Mainland China, Taiwan and Singapore. Learning Chinese can help to make a better future for everyone. Abundant opportunities for governments and business careers as well as scientific and cultural exchanges await the student of Chinese. The China market is blossoming after decades of global isolation. As China is rapidly becoming a world economic power as it opens its doors to foreign investment expands its infrastructure, those who know Chinese will be valuable to business.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> Cheng Aimin.(2019), ''中国概况'' [Understanding China]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> Minglang Zhou: Language Policy in the People’s Republic of China (p.71-95), Wendy Abraham: let’s talk Mandarin Chinese: 1,001 real-life phrases and Idioms. Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37) Article 10 Putonghua and the standardized Chinese characters shall be used as the basic language in education and teaching in schools and other institutions of education, except where otherwise provided for in laws.<br /> The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002)<br /> ===Terms and expressions===<br /> <br /> Lingo: 林戈<br /> <br /> Lingo: 行话，语言<br /> <br /> Putonghua: 普通话<br /> <br /> Await student:等待学生<br /> <br /> Pinyin: 等待学生<br /> <br /> Pinyin: 拼音<br /> <br /> Lofty: 崇高<br /> <br /> Vernacular: 白话<br /> <br /> Swine: 猪<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1. Why Putonghua is spoken in United Nations Organization?<br /> 2. How many people speak Putonghua in China and around the world?<br /> 3 .Why Chinese government is promoted Putonghua among many others languages?<br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1. Because it is an important means of communication between China and foreign countries.<br /> 2. According to ethnologist 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, and according to the10 most spoken languages in the world Chinese (and all of its varieties such as Mandarin) is by far the most spoken language across the world with 1.31 billion speakers.<br /> 3. Because Putonghua is become an international language and it also facilitate understanding between different ethnic groups in China.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_trans&diff=116423 2020-12-20T10:54:07Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Chen Han 陈涵 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung). <br /> <br /> Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.<br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.<br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.<br /> <br /> 杂文首次作为一种现代文体出现时，明确是为了不自主地表达随即反应的情感、感想。1918年，胡适发表了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，&quot;什么&quot;已经在标准形式中表达了&quot;what&quot;的意思。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 当杂文最开始作为一种现代文体流行起来时，其明确的目的是为了无意识地表达随即反应的情感。1918年，胡适发行了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，&quot;什么&quot;已经在标准形式中表达了&quot;what&quot;的意思。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 10:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays. <br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence.<br /> 胡适在其阐述中强调说杂文这一角色是对生活本身的一种回应。像大多数的诗歌，而不是小说或戏剧那样，杂文本身就是先发者的声音，而非是各种声音的再现。但它不像诗歌那样，可能会需要想象一下大声读出来的场景，不断重复并推敲，才能充分发挥作用。杂文能够达到的理想效果只显现在报纸背面的那一瞬间，在任何人可以“在杂文里找到座位然后坐下来”或因为杂文而冒犯他人之前，伴随着读者神秘莫测的笑声、叹气声或是不屑地发出哼声，人们早就将其抛诸脑后了。<br /> <br /> 胡适的表述强调了杂文对“生活本身”的回应。 像大多数诗歌一样，但与大多数小说和戏剧不同的是，杂文本身就是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。 然而，与诗歌不同的是，诗歌是在大声朗读，重复和品尝中才能充分发挥作用，而杂文则是在报纸的背面短暂地出现，并伴随着诗歌的出现。 在任何人都可以“找到自己的座位并坐在座位上”或冒犯他人之前，令人迷惑不解的笑声，叹息声或打喷嚏然后迅速被扔掉。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text. <br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.<br /> <br /> 文章中的语调是一种讽刺性的表达手法；你如何通过印刷油墨来传达声音中所承载的一切?在本文中，我试图通过“铿锵的”作品来说明语调的隐喻，特别是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位诗人，退休后他将诗歌化为论战的杂文即他的杂文并因此闻名。在当代中国，杂文所处的独特而饱受困扰的社会和文化空间揭示了中文写作语调的体系，意识形态和意义。比其他文学体裁相比，杂文更依赖于用喜怒无常，固执己见的声音中蕴含的某种东西来传达其信息。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 10:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''<br /> <br /> '''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''<br /> <br /> A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.<br /> Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.<br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.<br /> <br /> 很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。 建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。 但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。 这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。 报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了阅读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。 建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。 但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。 这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。 报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了朗读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place. <br /> <br /> I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces.<br /> <br /> 读者拥有最大的权力对报纸进行批评，我想有多少读者发现了某个地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”的现象。<br /> <br /> 作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是遵循的一般传统作出的判断），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，，更不用说天津和河北附近。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.<br /> <br /> 我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。 一个人只能看到有限的内容。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。 一个人能看到内容有限。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 &quot;呸呸呸&quot;的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 &quot;叭叭叭&quot;的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.<br /> <br /> 这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是出于礼貌客套。为了让文学艺术，报纸刊物和文学作品发挥更好的社会效果，也为了将时代特性与群众心灵结合起来，报纸编辑，读者，以及那些该领域的负责人应该直接表达自身观点，犯错误时，彼此应该互相纠正并弥补，这时谁也没必要客套了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.<br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.<br /> <br /> 我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。如果你“纪律和纠正”越多，脑子里的“诸多新挑战和新问题”也越多，那为什么所有人还要去“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我还特别搞不懂“稳定人们思想”到底具体指什么，我也看不到提了什么具体要求。这就是我的要求，需要得到指导。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.<br /> Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社<br /> <br /> 文学期刊《文学与人民生活》向我讨要了很多次我的手稿，但我一直没有答应。写到这里，我突然想到这一部分是不是应该叫做“文学与人民思想”？但这是一个很大的话题，一千个字都没办法讲完。（1989.2.21，邵燕祥1993年发表在群众出版社的文章“自己的酒”，181-183页）--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''East Station'''<br /> <br /> Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.<br /> <br /> '''东站'''<br /> <br /> 在30年前的北京，如果你提到“东站”，大家都会知道你指的是建在北京前城门东边外缘的北京东站。今天，这个不起眼的带有半西式风格的，矗立在喧闹的高楼大厦之间的建筑，挂着一个小牌子，上面写道：“铁路工人俱乐部”。它俨然已是一件“过时的老物件”了，而它过去那些繁荣与光辉也不在了。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station. <br /> <br /> This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?<br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol? <br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road?<br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”<br /> <br /> Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.<br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br /> <br /> The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”<br /> <br /> 而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。 当时郭沫若作了一首诗：&quot;为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。 想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。&quot; --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。<br /> <br /> 北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 &quot;人民交通警察&quot;，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。<br /> <br /> 从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”<br /> <br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique? <br /> <br /> Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history. <br /> <br /> 1989. 9. 13 <br /> <br /> Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.<br /> <br /> 但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？<br /> <br /> 今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。<br /> <br /> 1989.9.13<br /> <br /> 请不要删除或改变这个日子。 这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。<br /> <br /> 但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 &quot;表演 &quot;过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。 文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。 这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 &quot;区级保护单位 &quot;的标志都评不上。 这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？ <br /> <br /> 今天也将成为历史。 而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。 <br /> <br /> 1989. 9. 13 <br /> <br /> 请不要删减或更改这个日期。 新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 &quot;三十多年前 &quot;相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> '''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays <br /> In the Context of Fable of September''' <br /> <br /> Jie Lu<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.<br /> <br /> '''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集<br /> 以九月寓言为背景'''<br /> <br /> 吕杰<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text. <br /> Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ]<br /> <br /> 在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，许多作家将目光转向过去，而不是歌颂这个新的全球化时代，这是一个有趣的现象。在梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家中，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过它既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨张炜散文中怀旧的道德和文学意蕴，这是1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）的一部分。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，出现了一个有趣的现象，许多作家没有歌颂这个全球化的新时代，反而将目光转向过去。如梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过这种文学模式他们既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）一书中的怀旧的道德和文学意蕴。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992. <br /> Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture.<br /> <br /> 而不是将张的作品在当代知识争论激进主义的大背景(激进知识/文化话语)和(新)保守主义(anti-radical),(关于当代知识辩论的主要理论话语在中国,看到徐本的“争夺记忆知识Self-Positing: 1990年代在中国的新的文化保守主义”在中国现代文学和文化,Vol.11(春天,1999)157 - 193;陈建华“叙事论争的本土与全球:90年代末中国的自由主义与新左派”，载于《亚太传播》第9卷113-129;李世涛主编《知识分子的地位》三卷，《时代文艺社》2000年出版。我将从他1992年出版的广受赞誉的小说《九月寓言》的文学背景来探讨这个问题。<br /> 《九月寓言》以一种神话化、本质化的方式展现了历史，并因此以理想化的农业存在的名义抹去了历史。实际上，“土”在张维的著述中是一个超越的、包罗万象的概念，代表着一种理想化的、未受工业化和现代化污染的纯净状态。在他的文章中，这片土地被转化为一种社会和文学隐喻，象征着道德纯洁和文学精英主义，而不是作者所认为的普遍道德颓废和文学混乱的当代背景。这一理想被认为是实现社会、道德和文学救赎的一种手段，被提升为一种批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.<br /> <br /> 然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中把“土地”具化为一个先验的隐喻，这只能暴露出作者对中国现代化的复杂程度缺乏深刻的认识。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化困境和矛盾作为知识和文化领域的永久固定装置。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国后社会主义的社会现实变得越来越复杂和越来越严苛，文化形态也越来越多样化和无组织化，任何明确的道德解决方案，不管是基于前现代社会关系和规范(设想一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)还是针对社会罪恶，都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程带来的文化危机。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.<br /> <br /> 当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times.<br /> <br /> 正如丛书主编在序言中所说，这部作品是专门写给那些当代 &quot;文学英雄 &quot;的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。他们之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 &quot;反抗文学 &quot;的大旗（萧 1995，二），抨击当代的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II).<br /> <br /> 在出版《反抗》系列时，它的创作者是在回应所谓的流氓运动对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓，实质上是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表——其形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 通过出版《反抗》系列，创作者回应了所谓的“流氓运动”对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓主义的实质是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表，他有形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”，包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧 1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.<br /> <br /> 但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗和堕落的。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗又堕落的时期。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]<br /> <br /> 张炜主要以小说家闻名。他的主要小说包括《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》。【《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》均收录于《张炜文集》(上海:上海文艺出版社，1997)。]他还出版了许多散文集。他在《焦虑和愤怒的归途》中收集的作品包括散文、谈话和采访。这些文章没有用如此强烈的声音和直白的方式表达这种不妥协的立场。相反，张提出了以一个文学人格作为一种自我表现。他表现为一个理想化的个体，在各方面都体现了一个人和艺术家或作家的纯粹道德品质。这个理想化的人是一个战士，与时尚潮流和各种邪恶势力进行着孤独而英勇的斗争(肖 1995，6)。【《焦虑和愤怒的归途》既包括张炜的散文，也包括各种评论家的评论文章。在这篇论文中，我将使用这本文集的编辑萧夏林作为参考，为张炜和其他评论家的文章提供文本内引文。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”<br /> <br /> 作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也是务实的劳动者的代表，他辛勤劳作挥洒汗水来维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous.<br /> <br /> 张炜在散文《忧愤的归途》中指出了当代很多作家存在的一些“缺憾”。首先，如今的很多作家缺乏“自我反思”(实际上更多地是指道德上的“自我反思”或“自我意识”，而非理智上的自我反思)。其次他们缺乏“守旧精神”，即坚持某种精神的能力，于此张炜还看到当代作家前卫精神的缺失。他们也还不够“偏执”，过度容忍恶习和堕落的行为，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管这种情绪的定义相当模糊。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 他在《焦急愤懑的回家之旅》一文中指出了许多当代作家的“不足”。首先，当今许多作家缺乏“自我反省性”（这实际上更多指的是道德上的“自我反省”或“自我意识”，而不是智力上的自我反省）。他们缺乏“保守精神”，这是一种坚持某种精神的能力；并且他认为作家缺乏真正的前卫精神。他们不能够坚持自我，这意味着他们对恶习和腐朽行径过于宽容，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管他对于稳定这一定义相当模糊。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television).<br /> <br /> 接着，张炜的自我体现也是一种自我合法化形式，这种形式赋予他一种文学氛围和声明高尚的道德立场的合法性。从这个特权立场的立场出发，他继续诠释、再现、明确表达、定义以及评价了文学、社会和人类生活的本质、意义和标准。通过他全部的文章包括采访、会谈和讲座，我们可以发现，张炜就像一位有自我风格的专家，不断地给大学学生、年轻作家和讲座迷关于写什么、如何写以及怎样生活的问题提供建议。这些建议完全基于高雅文学和通俗文学之间鲜明的区别以及他对大众文学（以电视节目为代表）的毫不掩饰的批判。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism. <br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.<br /> <br /> 在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 &quot;土地 &quot;概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 &quot;农村知识分子 &quot;的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。作为自然的象征--野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋--土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 &quot;纯文学 &quot;的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> 在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 &quot;土地 &quot;概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 &quot;农村知识分子 &quot;的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋是自然的象征，而土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 &quot;纯文学 &quot;的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.<br /> <br /> 张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 张将大众文学和电视文化与低级趣味和没有文化的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国的文学批评过于受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观念甚至是一种道德标准，通过这种标准，他批评了现当代社会的许多方面——从以金钱为万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司的支配和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，批评当前的中国文学批评过分受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观甚至是一种道德标准，他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.<br /> 但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。&quot;[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它&quot;（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 &quot;土地的崇拜者&quot;（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，&quot;土地 &quot;的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> 但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。&quot;[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去&quot;（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 &quot;土地的崇拜者&quot;（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，&quot;土地 &quot;精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September.<br /> <br /> 于是，这片土地指向了一个理想的超然境界，不受现代世界的污染。但只有在高度文学化、暗示性、情感化的语言和自然意象和类比中，土地的概念才显得非常抽象和不真实。作者自己问：“野地到底是什么？它在哪里存在？它真的包含了我想象中的纯真世界吗？”（肖1995，30）。事实上，作为一个无所不包、无所不在的隐喻，土地在他的散文中从来没有一次被清晰、客观地定义过。无论是表现为母亲形象的人格化、永恒存在的化身，还是各种理想品质和价值观的组合，张的“土地”缺乏作为道德和社会隐喻的实质性的力量。但是，如果我们要为这个概念找到一个本体论的锚定，只能在他著名的小说《九月寓言》中找到。<br /> <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.<br /> <br /> 阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.<br /> <br /> 与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear). <br /> The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village. <br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').<br /> 然而,具有讽刺意味的是,在描述村庄的时间轮廓时,历史并不是太正确的术语。因为突出村庄生活的主要特征是“土地” /食物（更具体地说是地瓜） 与村庄在一起，并在村庄中使用某种讲故事的方式来回忆过去的苦难。 这些特征作为村庄存在的精要指标，不是暂时的运动，而是永恒的存在。 围绕这三个要素，村庄的生活艰苦，简单，不变且与原型亲密。 年轻人要用尽他们充沛而烦躁的精力的唯一方法是晚上在野外奔跑和嬉戏，已婚夫妇殴打妻子并做“托杯”（“ ba houguan”）。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 15:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 讽刺的是，历史并不是一个描述村庄时间轮廓的正确术语，因为村庄生活突出的中心特征是“土地”/食物（更确切地说是番薯）、留在村子里的传统想法和一种村里常用的回忆过往苦难的特殊的讲故事的方式。就像村庄得以存在的典型标志，这些特征标志的是一个永恒的存在，而不是一个暂时的运动。以这三个要素为中心，村里的生活艰苦、简单、始终如一、并接近典型的村庄生活。夜里，在野外奔跑、玩耍成了年轻人将充沛且静不下来的精力耗尽的唯一的方法，而已经结婚的人则是通过殴打他们的妻子以及拔火罐来消耗其精力。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 06:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age. <br /> The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.] <br /> <br /> This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.”<br /> <br /> 正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对按时间叙事的否定。读者几乎不可能分辨出该村历史的实际时间表。即使是从三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及叙述世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间安排的完整讨论，请参见陈四河的 《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]<br /> <br /> 这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对时间性的叙事否定。读者几乎无法了解到该村历史发展的实际进程。即使是从二十世纪三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及所叙述的世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间线索布局的详尽讨论，请参见陈四河的 《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]<br /> <br /> 这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends.<br /> <br /> 唯一的时间指标是雨季，抑或是冬季鹅毛大雪，或者是秋季田野里盛产红薯和豆子的时期。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间标志，比如年、月、日，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物的作用是使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更接近于前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活是由自然本身&quot;定时&quot;的。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即被消解为众多乡村传说中的一种。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 唯一的时间指标是雨季，或是下起鹅毛大雪的冬季，或田野里红薯和豆子丰收的秋季。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间顺序标志，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更加接近前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活由自然本身“定时”。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即隐入为众多乡村传说中的一种。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together. <br /> The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).<br /> <br /> 如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br /> <br /> 小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br /> <br /> 小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.<br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality. <br /> <br /> The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses.<br /> <br /> 换句话说，魔法是每天都有的。 因此,本体论表示形式进一步否定了历史的时间性。<br /> 小说中缺少的历史时间也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担着历史解释的功能。神话中解释了这个小村庄的起源，这个神话是关于一群流浪者的，这些流浪者经过漫长的旅程已经精疲力尽了，他们停下来，然后定居在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上。具有承载能力的猴子精神的故事成为对社会分层和剥削的神话解释，这进一步背离了历史语境。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations. <br /> <br /> As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).<br /> <br /> 这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。<br /> <br /> 正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。<br /> 南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.<br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.<br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.<br /> <br /> 金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 &quot;活生生的即时性 &quot;的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 &quot;活生生的即时性 &quot;的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation. <br /> <br /> Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.<br /> <br /> 而这种前现代的乡村只有通过故事的方式才能被叙述和理解，因为与神话、传说、魔幻混杂在一起的特定的历史感和现实体验，超过了我们现代和理性表述模式的正常感受。 <br /> <br /> 因此，前现代的存在和故事模式，以这两者为标志的前现代与后现代主义方式主义以其复杂的叙事策略综合，也偏向了讽刺，即这个自然的、前现代的世界只能用非常风格化的手段来重新呈现。在这里，张炜遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。庄子尽管怀疑语言，但他只能通过语言来设想不可言说的道。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这种前现代的乡村生活只有通过讲故事的方式来进行叙述，因为与神话、传说、还有魔幻的事物混杂在一起的历史感和现实体验超越了我们现代化和理性表达模式下的正常感受。<br /> <br /> 因此，前现代主义以生活和讲述模式为特点，后现代主义方式拥有复杂叙事策略，这两者的结合也指向了讽刺，而只有通过讽刺才能通过风格化的手段重新呈现这个自然的前现代世界。这里张玮遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。尽管庄子怀疑语言，但是他也只能通过语言来想象一些又不能言表的道。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence. <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time.<br /> <br /> 因此，作者所赞颂的自然或现代化之前的存在状态不再是自然的第一阶，而是第二阶，因为只有通过一种精心设计的叙述架构，这种原始主义和自然才能重现。换句话说，在后现代主义时代，作者在复活原始事物的过程中，实际上无意识地揭示了原始主义的一个基本真理。事实上，以小村所代表的自然的、有机的、非时间的农业世界的存在并不是我们所堕落的乌托邦。相反，它之所以有意义，是因为它与现代文明的现世世界是对立的。只有与这个短暂的世界相对比，原始的、不受时间限制的事物才能被赋予否定历史时间的意义。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.<br /> <br /> In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques. <br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events.<br /> <br /> 显而易见的是，这一原型村落的创作体现了作者对前现代过去的深切怀旧和对理想存在状态的乌托邦式追求。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图从商业刺激性的怀旧到作为根本的中国根的农村的过去，重新定位中国当代的地理和文化怀旧。然而，在小村庄的表现中缺乏直接的时空参照，使得他的怀旧更接近于想象，或者更接近王大卫所说的想象怀旧（1993，107）。换言之，他对这个小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏真实的记忆。这一点在他精心设计的一种时间叙事结构、对神话传说和那些神奇事件的预言上表现得尤为明显。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130). <br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present. <br /> <br /> The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel. <br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.<br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.<br /> <br /> 最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> 小村庄所体现的前现代农业生存最终被现代工业化所摧毁。那么，历史虽然被小说的叙事形式所否定和抹杀，但却在结尾处重新出现。这给我们留下的不是这个前现代农业缓慢衰落的故事，而是它灾难性的崩溃。村庄的生存结构是无论如何无法自变的，这表现在村民对以采煤业为代表的外界影响的强烈抵制。结果，这个村子不是逐步转型，而是突然被工业机器力量所摧毁。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109). <br /> <br /> So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing. <br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.<br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays. <br /> <br /> ''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.<br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.<br /> <br /> <br /> ......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但当然，这种希望只是一个梦想“（萧夏林 1995，193）。 这种对现代文明的不信任也反映了雷蒙德·威廉姆斯所谓的“农村-知识分子激进主义”（威廉姆斯 1973，36）。 事实上，作为一名农村知识分子（正如许多评论家给他贴上的标签），张炜展示了农村知识分子心态的多个方面：敌视现代资本主义，反对商业主义，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973，36)。 毫无疑问，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活深切的渴望与怀念，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis.<br /> <br /> 然而，张使用“土地”的中心概念（指理想化的存在）作为他批判现代文明的基础-谴责道德沦丧、消费主义、大众文学的主导地位和知识的商业化-以及他的知识分子心态-这一概念揭示了作者对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性的朴素、本质主义和绝对主义的态度。 在他的散文中，土地的再化缺乏对中国现代性的广泛而深刻的历史视角。 商业主义及其文化通过各种手段促成了社会基本人文价值的普遍道德沦丧和侵蚀，全球文化效应导致了严重的文化危机。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，张把“土地”（指理想化的存在）的中心概念作为他批评现代文明的基础——谴责道德沦丧，消费主义盛行，流行文学盛行，知识商业化——这一概念揭示了他作为农村知识分子的心态，思想单纯，本质主义，以及对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性采用绝对主义方法。他散文中土地的物化缺乏对中国现代性采用广阔而深刻的历史视角。商业主义和它的文化无疑导致了道德上的沦丧，也侵蚀了社会中基本的人文价值，全球文化效应导致了更深层次的文化危机。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.<br /> <br /> Works Cited（不用翻）<br /> <br /> Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)<br /> <br /> Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968) <br /> <br /> Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)<br /> <br /> Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)<br /> <br /> Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994) <br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105<br /> <br /> Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> '''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's &quot;Religious Sublime&quot;''' <br /> <br /> ''Xinmin Liu<br /> <br /> ''<br /> '''Abstract<br /> '''<br /> <br /> Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this &quot;war of words,&quot; no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi. <br /> <br /> Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent.<br /> <br /> “”破译民粹：围绕张承志“宗教崇高”的文化论战”<br /> <br /> 刘新民<br /> <br /> ''<br /> '''摘要<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 自1990年代中期以来，中国三文通过在期刊，富尔登报纸，系列丛书和论坛上对社会和文化问题的激烈争论而目睹了高涨。 在这场“口水战”中，没有哪个作家像张承志那样多产，挑衅和有问题。<br /> <br /> 张的文章对中国知识分子缺乏精神信仰，他们屈服于全球消费主义和后现代主义提出了严厉的批评。 在民粹主义热心的推动下，张赞赞扬中国穆斯林对宗教信仰的热爱，对物质富足的蔑视，并与他们生硬但未受污染的生境联系在一起。 他的民粹主义对宗教超越的态度与他认为今天的知识界的对立是模棱两可和矛盾的。<br /> <br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.<br /> <br /> In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.”<br /> <br /> 它在次要政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆。它没有建立一种可以保护文化差异而又不屈服于声称通过独特途径获得真理的文化立场的民族多元主义前景。<br /> <br /> 在一个必须重新竞争和协商的多语言时代，违反边界是规则而不是例外。在上个千禧年结束之前，中国散文在文化争论中兴起。但就美学和本体论规范而言，由于经常被众多滑溜的问题，古怪的主题和“肮脏的弱势分子”轰炸而流离失所，散文家们无法长期在安全和明确的边界内停留。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 11:51, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 它在低级政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆不定。它未能构建一个保护文化差异，并不屈服于声称有独特途径了解真相的文化立场的民族多元化的前景。<br /> <br /> 在一个多语言的时代，一切都必须重新竞争和谈判，打破边界是规则而不是例外。在上一个千禧年结束前，中国散文在文化论战的热潮中蓬勃发展，但就美学和本体论规范而言，散文家们无法长期呆在安全和明确的界限内，因为他们常发现自己被一大堆难以捉摸的问题、古怪的主题和“无赖的业余爱好者。”驱逐出去--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve. <br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar.<br /> <br /> 想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中做到了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中获得了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards?<br /> <br /> 称赞为一本书的作者一手救赎整个二十世纪中国写作,张风头正劲的顺风非常受欢迎的新陵史(历史的灵魂,1992)和似乎已经回到了公共论坛和他东拉西扯的浮力重新和他的“神圣”的使命感再次。乍一看，这似乎不是当年的张承志，他在完成《新灵诗》后，因精神上的崇高而狂喜，并真诚地向读者祈祷:“从今以后，不会再有这个‘我’了。”请把我从你的记忆中抹去。……我甚至连自己都感到惊讶，有了这本书，我竟然能让自己停下来。张承志:《灵魂史》(广州:花城初社1991)311。但是章子怡有没有退出公共论坛，在随后与读者进行的对话中抹掉自己的声音呢?--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br /> <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s? <br /> <br /> Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).] <br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones. <br /> <br /> Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.<br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 &amp; 2, 113-29. ]<br /> <br /> 很少有人相信简单的文化综合，他在公共辩论的交火中fire壮成长，并对知识分子主流人士造成严重破坏，他们的社会合法性已经与官员和意识形态中心进行了复杂的联络。从某种意义上说，构成他以前的自我的身份（即“我”）已经在公开抗议的边界上蓄势待发，该人在“灵魂历史”中灵活地讲述了一个被压迫者的隐藏历史。在官方历史和大众回忆录之间，在文化批评和认同政治的话语之间，还有个人的疑虑。类似于马丁•布伯（Martin Buber）的《我和你》 的自我/其他意识语气，张以“我”作为他的话语伴侣并肩地诉诸于“你”，不仅表示存在被主体间性暗示的对话性伴侣. ，但插入了引发“一致的知识逃避现实主义”的批判意识。[在这里，我引用戴金华的期刊文章“隐藏的叙事：1990年代的大众文化政治”这一短语。陈建华在《亚洲及太平洋通讯》第一卷中发表的“叙事竞赛中的本地和全球：自由主义和新左派在1990年代后期的中国”中对她的观点进行了严格的评估. 9号1和2，113-29. ]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest? <br /> <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:<br /> <br /> On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography? <br /> If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.<br /> <br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”: <br /> <br /> It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago. <br /> <br /> Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted. <br /> <br /> No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').<br /> <br /> 但在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，恰恰是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识得以保持，并敦促我们不要把权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。<br /> <br /> 毋庸置疑，张加入了90年代中期关于 &quot;终极关怀 &quot;的讨论，但他是以自己的方式进行的。他提出了一种由一个人的情感倾向、民族血统和乾定命运组成的民族学方法。这些因素相互联系和相互作用，以各种方式使人置身于文化对话的关系中。然后，他以 &quot;原初之问 &quot;的形式来探究专业主义的假象。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 03:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness. <br /> <br /> A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.<br /> Zhang 1999a, 37.<br /> Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125. <br /> Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.” <br /> <br /> What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.<br /> <br /> 作为一个 &quot;他者 &quot;的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。 借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。&quot;... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱&quot; &quot;寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力&quot; 。<br /> <br /> 他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？ 张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 &quot;纯洁性 &quot;和 &quot;真实性 &quot;可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 &quot;最自得其乐 &quot;的人，&quot;这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”<br /> <br /> 那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐 的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary. <br /> <br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.<br /> <br /> Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass. <br /> <br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> <br /> When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.” <br /> <br /> Zhang 1994a, 125.<br /> Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.<br /> Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.<br /> For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”<br /> <br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br /> <br /> Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br /> <br /> 这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。 <br /> <br /> 这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br /> <br /> <br /> 这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。<br /> <br /> Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br /> <br /> 事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994. <br /> Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).<br /> For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。张承志、张炜在《文汇报》文艺副刊（上海文汇报）上，与许多对市场化经济和消费主义文化比较同情的作家，就大众消费与文化问题展开了一轮激烈的笔战。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br /> <br /> 相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:<br /> <br /> The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable.<br /> <br /> 事实上，张现在用一种不那么讽刺但更坚定的措辞来论证:为什么鲁迅独行而无情的社会文化改革在90年代的中国越来越流行。他写道：<br /> <br /> 这个国家的人民没有什么力量，也没有什么希望。但他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦绝望时，“知识阶层”就成了继政客和金钱之后的又一个残酷的压迫者。广大群众只想吃穿。但他们需要知识分子不断地对社会精英和权贵进行基本的、持续的批评。否则，他们的困境将是无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 事实上，张炜现在用不那么讽刺但坚定的措辞来论证为什么鲁迅这种孤僻但无情的社会文化变革在90年代的中国长久不衰。他写道：<br /> <br /> 这个国家的人民是积弱且缺乏希望的。然而他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦和绝望时，“知识阶层”便成了金钱和政客之后的又一残酷压迫者。广大百姓想要的只不过是吃得饱，穿的暖。但他们需要知识分子对社会精英和权贵保持基本、持续的批判。否则，他们的困境时无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun. <br /> <br /> One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.<br /> <br /> 作为鲁迅的读者，我们当然会被超过五十年后在张先生文章里发现那难以置信地熟悉的遣词、语气和坚定不移的想法而打动。我们也会惊讶，当把他放在同一位置和伟大的鲁迅进行比较，做出社会评论时，他是多么的坦率和不受影响。<br /> <br /> 有人也许想问：张炜是在哗众取宠吗？我认为不是。然而，对于他来势汹汹的攻势的原因却值得探讨：讽刺的是，这些原因是由中共意识形态形态者用来谴责“自由主义资产阶级价值观”入侵的二元思维框架产生的。但是这种思维框架也被海内外许多张炜的批评者们所复制。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.<br /> <br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay. <br /> <br /> Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.<br /> <br /> 其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 其结果是，&quot;人民 &quot;等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。 当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。 他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.<br /> <br /> Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.<br /> <br /> For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 与他有时声称的那样——以“宗教”纯洁的名义抛弃应受谴责的知识分子，张先生总有一种冲动，那就是，要把知识分子自我的力量重新注入，做到说教而不是剥夺，诊断而不是不可知论，独立但不自我隔离。他跨越边界的自我的关键是在自我的多种可行姿势之间的对话互动，而不允许自我被束缚在单一的僵硬形式上。正是通过这些个人信念立场之间的协商，张先生旨在创造一种警惕和建设性的氛围，以期纠正社会不公。他在《重温恩师》一书中重温鲁迅时，热切地呼吁中国的知识分子开始一种孤独而持久的追求社会下层人民的利益的道路。<br /> <br /> 关于这一争议的进一步解读，请阅读李世涛主编《知识分子立场:自由主义之争与中国思想界的分化》（中国知识分子的立场：自由主义问题上的分裂的知识界）(Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000)。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.” <br /> <br /> '''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''<br /> <br /> ''King-Fai Tam''<br /> <br /> I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre. <br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 他发现，与这些民众的对话是为了让知识分子”对反社会和反权利人群永远保持警惕”。而且这些民众会发现张的议论文，就像他们在1930年代对鲁迅《杂文》所做的一样，“总有人像鲁迅一样，独自一人在呕心沥血地讨伐。”<br /> <br /> '''本章讨论：实现散文和杂文中的小品文'''<br /> <br /> ''谭景辉''<br /> <br /> 首先，我想向为本章提供原始资料作出贡献的人表示感谢，经深度探索且表达清楚的论文可以在分享对散文体裁辩论本质的兴趣时，从多个角度来呈现散文研究现状。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ''谭景辉''<br /> <br /> 首先，我想对本章贡献原始资料的人表示感谢，这些论文研究深刻、表达清楚，不仅仅为着手研究散文提供了多个角度，还对散文体裁辩论本质拥有相同兴趣。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.<br /> <br /> 然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，这篇文章可能给人不好的感觉，回忆时像一把长矛和匕首，其中一段“扎文”更可能引起同样不愉快的反应，而不是让问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由称这种交流为“笔战”。（用笔作战）正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，这篇文章也是散文家有意识地塑造自己形象的成果。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还拥有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，散文也可以尖锐凌厉，让人联想到长矛和匕首的形象，其中“扎文”更可能引起尖锐的反应，而不是使问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由将这种交锋称为“笔战”。正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，散文家也是会有意识地将散文作为塑造自己形象的场所。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.<br /> <br /> 虽然一篇文章与论文确实存在区别，其简洁性使其不具备解决问题的深度，但是如张伟和张承志一类的作者产出颇丰，详尽探索一篇篇文章中不同深浅的问题，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者可以通过文章来讲述或复述一个故事，提出一个命题，对其进行修饰或否定。因此，它取代了小说，抓住了20世纪90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管一篇论文的确与论文有所不同，因为篇幅简洁，无法充分解决一个问题，但张炜和张承志等作者却可以求助于大量论文，详尽地探讨了不同层次的论文，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者用它来讲述和叙述一个故事，提出一个命题并加以修改或否认。 因此，它取代了小说，成为最能体现90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again. <br /> <br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.<br /> <br /> 我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> 我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> [http://www.example.com link title]<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.<br /> <br /> 然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物：&quot;革命现实主义 &quot;的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> 然而，在中国，即使把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能彻底弄清散文的论极是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极应该定义成启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学对等物：&quot;革命现实主义 &quot;的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对<br /> 唾弃“美的篇章”，通过直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是防止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说些什么别的。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.<br /> 《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> 张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?<br /> <br /> 即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br /> <br /> 即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都受散文家的情感影响，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文的论断比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br /> <br /> In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.<br /> <br /> 在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> 在20世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从用不同的方法审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture.<br /> <br /> 这显然是散文家高傲的姿势,套用鲁迅翻译Kuriyagawa Hakuson的一句话,“冬天坐在火炉旁的摇椅上或夏天穿上浴袍跟好朋友喝茶聊天不会让人头疼。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，散文集作者想让我们头疼。”即使他们有不同程度的隐逸或妥协，但他们总是在之后的论战中重新焕发活力。我记得这样的例子，张维反复声称要在山里找到一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐蚀影响。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 显然，“闲适”散文家那种傲慢的姿态已经消失了，套用鲁迅对厨川白村的著名翻译，&quot;冬天坐在炉子边的摇椅上，或者夏天穿上浴袍，和好朋友喝茶闲聊，谈的都是一些不使人头痛的事情&quot;。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，头痛正是要由我们的散文家提供。即使他们也会不同程度地影响到隐忍或妥协，但他们后来总是以新的活力重新回到论战中来。我想到的就是这样的例子，比如张炜反复声称要在山里找一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐化影响。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.<br /> <br /> '''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.<br /> <br /> 其实，在某种程度上，《叔叔的故事》挑战了万能叙事模式，这种模式通常讲的是改造后的右翼分子生活得到了改善。在我看来，散文家的敏感性绝不是与历史无关的，它可以用在历史上。张伟、张成志、邵延翔等人的作品或许可以为这篇文章的历史关联性提供一个注脚。<br /> <br /> '''20世纪中国论文--特点、角色及其趋势'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 本文第一部分论述散文的特点，首先，我将散文定义为一种自由形式的非虚构性主观表征。&quot;Essay&quot;，中文为''散文''，指较短的、自成一体的非虚构性文体，其作者试图用主观的“我”的视角来表达个人对某一对象或问题的体验。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.<br /> <br /> In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.<br /> <br /> In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century? <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.<br /> <br /> 我介绍一下鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以仍然是作品传阅最广的作家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆文和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。&quot;故乡的野菜&quot;（周作人1925年）、&quot;听听那冷雨&quot;（余光中1974年）和 《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。<br /> --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural<br /> <br /> Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world. <br /> <br /> The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.<br /> <br /> 在第四部分，我将列举当代散文写作的趋势。在文革之后，散文变得写实。尤其是在20世纪80年代和90年代，个人主义对个人消费的满足进行反思；像散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。其它20世纪80年代和90年代的散文以新主观主义写作，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是创造出一个或是积极或是消极的世界来和读者产生共鸣。<br /> <br /> 当今中国社会快节奏的本质需要有趣且简短文本。人们对个性也越来越关注，而散文就是最直观的个人表达形式，诗歌与之相比还受到了格律和形式的限制。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 00:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> 第四部分，我将阐述当代散文写作的趋势。文革后，散文开始写实。从20世纪80年代开始，尤其是在90年代，个人主义对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性的反思；正如散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。八九十年代的其他散文则以新的主观主义作为写作目标，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是通过营造一个积极或消极的世界和读者产生共鸣。<br /> <br /> 当今中国社会快节奏的特点要求文字有趣而简短。人们的个性意识也在不断增强，而散文是最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比要求以格律和形式为中介的诗歌更加直接。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).<br /> <br /> 在中国，我们能看到如同二十世纪二十年代至二十世纪三十年代，通过论文这一媒介，人们又有了兴趣讨论社会政治问题。当日常生活被用作文学主题时，我们就会意识到其平庸，就像在散文中一样，散文通常是针对日常生活的体裁。中国社会的去意识形态化，导致了民国时期，特别是1923 - 1928年的非政治性散文的重新发现。20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文式文化消失了;唯一的政治遗迹是爱国主义，例如1996年发表的专著《中国可以说不!》-冷战后政治和情感的可能性”(见《中国可以说不》!)''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:35, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> <br /> '''1. CHARACTERISTICS<br /> <br /> 1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br /> <br /> Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.<br /> <br /> 1. 特征<br /> <br /> 1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式<br /> <br /> 与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> '''1. 特征<br /> <br /> 1.1 将散文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式'''<br /> <br /> 和国际文学一样，中国文学一般细分为三类：即史诗（包括小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧。小说和散文虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但人们通常把他们合称为“无韵文”，这里中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。这三种类型从本质上来说大致可以通过以下方式来区分：在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个广阔充实的故事主导了前景。在诗歌中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当时告白式的感觉。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br /> <br /> “Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br /> <br /> <br /> 该剧直接在独白或对话中唤起了一个独立的情节，并以此减轻了读者/观众的创造性想象力。 这篇散文作为史诗体裁的文章是一种自由形式的超脱的非虚构主观表现形式。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Essay”的中文即散文，主要是较短的、自成体系的非虚构散文的流派，作者试图从主观角度调解对象或问题的个人经验。 这样，从不同方面进行了关联性的尝试，而不是作为日常使用的文本，而是通过艺术或教育上要求苛刻的语言手段进行了尝试，但仍以可访问的形式进行。 散文内容完全由散文家掌握，并且可以在更大的范围内了解主旨，甚至可以幽默地对其进行介绍。 形式和内容的自由对散文来说至关重要。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br /> <br /> Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems.<br /> <br /> 不同的观点在国际类型的文章：体裁主要是文学的分工，通过文学的学术专门思考，为了能够更容易地比较类似的文本。另一方面，在太多的小实体中对这篇文章进行了归类，在解释学的发现中质疑了这种划分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，这仍然是一个及时的问题，即使它在国际上被接受。<br /> <br /> 地域差异对文章的重要性似乎不如对短篇小说、小说等已有的体裁那么大，而对诗歌的重要性则要小得多。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 对于文章的国际体裁存在不同的观点：体裁主要是文学的分类，通过对文学进行专门的学术研究，能够更容易地对比相似的文本。另一方面，在太多小实体中进行更小的分类，在解释学的发现中质询了这种细分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，即使它在国际上得到认可，这仍是一个及时的问题。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br /> <br /> In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br /> <br /> The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的&quot;短篇小说&quot;的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br /> <br /> 当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个表现。尽管大众普遍接受“短故事”和&quot;短篇小说&quot;的翻译，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br /> <br /> 当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.<br /> <br /> 周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。 中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> <br /> This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.<br /> <br /> Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br /> <br /> 这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。 在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。 但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。<br /> <br /> 进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> <br /> '''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''<br /> <br /> Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br /> <br /> '''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''<br /> 从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。 <br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（ 关于新月派 &quot;瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''1.2我将介绍散文是如何开始发现的'''<br /> 尽管从1979年开始，散文作品有所增多，但对这一现象的理论反思却用了十年的时间才首次出现。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。<br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这些反思首先聚焦于鲁迅等单一作者的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文论坛也没有显示出朝国际学术研究发展的动向。直到1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用普遍的文献方法来探讨单一散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华]库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或团体散文家的散文（关于新月派 &quot;瓦格纳1996年）。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> <br /> Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).<br /> <br /> Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.<br /> 直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文（吴莫汀 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文 《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。<br /> 中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，人们往往按照西方人的口味来选择散文，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜中，鲁迅排行第16位。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 15:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文的历史（Woesler 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文，《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。<br /> 中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，散文往往按照西方人的口味被人们选择，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜调查中，鲁迅排在第16位。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 03:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> <br /> If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.<br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> <br /> In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.<br /> <br /> '''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''<br /> <br /> The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.<br /> <br /> 在未来，新的《波恩中国文学史》将给这篇文章一个合适的位置，它将有两到三卷专供《比集》、《酉集》和其他文章的专供。<br /> “1.3 20世纪的发展与阻碍”<br /> 政论散文的专题发展经历了一个从1907年启蒙教育散文到20世纪30年代日政散文的转变，再到20世纪40年代的抗日宣传和20世纪50、60年代的思想宣传。在20世纪80 - 90年代，日常兴趣政治的讨论比20 - 30年代要少。在20世纪80年代所有类型包括诗歌和散文为意识形态服务，被评论家用于反对关于共产主义的叙述或毛泽东主义的艺术理解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> <br /> Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.<br /> <br /> I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda.<br /> <br /> 而在20世纪80年代，政治问题在关于最佳社会制度的讨论（也在一般文学和电影中）中复兴。到了20世纪90年代，散文家们重新定义了自己的角色，首先是与大众的消费取向相对应。（余光中的散文《狼来了》表明，意识形态的视角不仅仅破坏了大陆的散文创作，见余光中1977年）。这篇散文似乎是中国唯一一个保持其教育主张的体裁，除了那些号称“艺术的散文”。<br /> 我提到了缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，认为许多中国散文只是宣传。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 划词翻译<br /> 20 世纪 80 年代，在讨论社会的最佳制度时，政治问题又出现了复苏，(也包括在一般的文学和电影中) 在 20 世纪 90 年代变成了纯粹的非政治性和更具哲学性的-道德主题，在那里，散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是要与大众的消费取向相对应。余光忠的“狼来了”一文表明，意识形态的视角不仅损害了中国大陆的文学创作，参见余光中 1977 年的作品) 似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但主张“艺术是艺术”的论文除外。<br /> <br /> 我提到缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，许多中国的文章只是宣传。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> <br /> This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br /> <br /> 在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> <br /> In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.<br /> <br /> 在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> <br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br /> <br /> 非政治性散文在话题上的发展开始于1917年，当时朱自清（见朱自清1928年《说梦》）和周作人（1923年《自己的园地》、1924年《苍蝇》、1936年《在马桶上读书》）谈论的是日常话题，到1927年尾声，政治性散文成为主流，30年代末，非政治性散文在抗日运动中彻底淘汰。直到20世纪70年代，生活步入常态化，这一时期长期不受关注的日常事物反而成为了人们感兴趣的话题，非政治性散文由此得以恢复。同样在90年代，也由于人们对政治问题不怎么感兴趣，加上在大众消费主义的新世界中需要全新的定位，非政治性散文蓬勃发展起来。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> <br /> '''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''<br /> <br /> Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br /> <br /> Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.<br /> <br /> One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.<br /> <br /> '''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？<br /> <br /> 这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。<br /> <br /> 人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?<br /> <br /> 这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。<br /> <br /> 人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> <br /> During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature.<br /> <br /> 在他的一生中，他以尖锐的攻击力成为最著名的散文作家。但是他的这些散文仅仅是处于日常的政治兴趣，在今天很少有人阅读。分析表明，到20世纪末，他的作品仍然是阅读得最多的。直到本世纪末，保留下来的并非是他的杂文，而是以下的回忆录和抒情散文：《野草》中的一篇抒情散文《秋夜》（鲁迅 1925），在《藤野先生》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅仍然记得他的日语老师，在《风筝》（鲁迅 1925）中，鲁迅记得他曾经是如何伤害他的弟弟的，在《从百草园到三味书屋》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅叙述了他的童年经历和经典文学。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> <br /> The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> <br /> Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife. <br /> <br /> Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.<br /> <br /> Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.<br /> <br /> For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).<br /> <br /> 余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。<br /> <br /> 决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。<br /> <br /> 因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章占据了榜首。<br /> <br /> 有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。<br /> <br /> 决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。<br /> <br /> 因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章囊获了榜首。<br /> <br /> 有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> <br /> The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).<br /> <br /> Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).<br /> <br /> 大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。<br /> <br /> 从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 大量的散文和散文家为互文性以及主体间性的对比提供了多种可能性。但由于篇幅有限，这里只能展示一部分想法。它们或许能够激发进一步的分析作业。鲁迅、周作人和朱自清都描写过同一场景，1926年3月18日的大屠杀，但是描绘的手法不尽相同。朱自清正面攻击政府，并断定它不久就会垮台（《执政府大屠杀记》朱自清 1926）。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《几年刘和珍君》 鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。<br /> <br /> 从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：巴金不遗余力地自我谴责（巴金1979a）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《纪念刘和珍君》 鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：在自我批评方面，巴金对自己毫不手软。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> <br /> Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.<br /> <br /> 王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在&quot;文化大革命&quot;后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931） ）和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。<br /> <br /> 朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。<br /> <br /> 1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> <br /> Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay.<br /> <br /> 王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，论述落叶寓言中生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，是很有意思的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> <br /> '''3.Trends<br /> <br /> 3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br /> <br /> What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.<br /> <br /> The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.<br /> 3.潮流与趋势<br /> “中国当代散文写作的现状如何?”<br /> 它的地位应该与后现代主义元素、后殖民主义思维、解构主义等最近的分类方法、视角和术语恰当地联系起来。<br /> “文革”后散文增多，因为原因有两点：1.散文比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历的能力 2.它对历史真理的内在诉求。<br /> 但散文并不是客观真实的保证:它同时具有主观性，作者有意识地对自己的形象进行调整。<br /> 这就会导致所报道的真相只能是主观的，防止有人故意“篡改”真相。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.趋势<br /> 3.1作为当代思想的快照的散文<br /> 中国当代散文创作的现状如何？它的定位应与后现代主义、后殖民主义、解构主义等现代理论方法、视角和术语保持适当的联系。<br /> <br /> “文革”后散文产量的增加，这可以用散文的能力来解释，因为它具有内在的历史真理诉求，比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历。但散文并不是客观真实的保证，同时它也是主观的，散文作者有意识地调整自己的形象。这就把报道的真相限制在主观上，并承担着故意“修正”真相的风险。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br /> <br /> 共和时代的个人主义建立在站在历史转折点上的共同感觉的基础上，并朝着共同目标发展，例如创建新文学和新中国社会。 在1980年代，尤其是1990年代，个人主义要求对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性思考，并试图赋予个人取向，散文学家呼吁道德美德（“ Serene” Wang Meng 1992，“首先用自己的东西制造自己的东西）。 好方法”（王萌，1994年）。 这些论文主要发表在报纸和杂志上，在瞬息万变，匿名，疏远和消费导向的大众文化社会中被人们广泛阅读。<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> <br /> Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''<br /> <br /> From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br /> <br /> -The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> <br /> -The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br /> <br /> -A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> -The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br /> <br /> -The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> - 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；<br /> - 通过散文重新唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的兴趣，如20世纪20年代或30年代。<br /> - 因成为文学话题，日常生活的平庸性变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活文体——散文。<br /> - 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的散文在最前面，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。<br /> <br /> - 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；<br /> <br /> -通过这篇文章唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的关注，如20世纪20年代或30年代的情况。<br /> <br /> -日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。<br /> <br /> 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本站在最前面，而是非政治性的文章，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治论文是批评文章。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> <br /> -Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”). <br /> <br /> -In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> <br /> In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).<br /> <br /> The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，80年代受到政治批评的散文文化已经消失，唯一留下的政治产物是爱国主义。例如，1996年出版的专著《中国可以说不——冷战后时代的政治与情感抉择》（见于《中国可以说不》）。<br /> <br /> 从后现代主义小说的角度来看，我们找不到后现代散文的原因就是散文具有直接性。散文作为一种文体，是沟通作者和读者的桥梁，而不是一种艺术对象。通常艺术对象指企图引起不同的解读，或依靠独一无二的形式或内容，甚至引用前现代主义的特点使其成为一种独特的艺术对象。另外，1993年出版的小说《废都》（贾平凹 1993年）、《英儿》（顾城 1993年）以及1995年出版的《新无界》，作者在这些作品中日常语言的使用趋势在散文写作中也未得到体现。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 到20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文文化已经式微，唯一留下的政治产物就是爱国主义。……我们之所以没有在后现代小说意义上找到后现代主义论文的原因在于散文的直接性：散文是一种作者与读者之间对话的体裁，而不是一种引起不同解读的艺术体，也不是依赖于独一无二的形式或内容，甚至是为使本身变得独特而引用前现代主义特征的艺术对象。……--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> <br /> -Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984). <br /> <br /> 1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.<br /> <br /> 2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.<br /> <br /> 老舍，茅盾和沈从文作品中呈现的虚构现实主义也被证明有助于理解某些文章，其中之一就是“小狗包弟”（Ba Jin 1981），这篇文章中，作者不再像以前那样叙述事实，（如《萧山回忆录》，巴金，1984b）。两者都是对过去的回忆，也就是王在沈从文作品中提出的虚构的真相（David Wang，1992），它有助于阅读《昆明的雨》（王增琪[1984]）和《山西歌剧》（贾平瓦（1984）。<br /> <br /> 1辛庄台小说新状态小说，由韩东，鲁羊，朱文，林白，陈梁，张梅代表。<br /> <br /> 2后殖民主义思维（Williams等，1994）虽然被视为社会政治话语的一部分，却出现在文章中，特别是在1990年代批评性和政治性较弱但提倡爱国主义的论文中。卡夫卡主义可以帮助我们理解《梦m》（Si Yu 1995）一文，在那篇文章中作者是一位解构主义者，而主人公甚至被迫自杀。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> <br /> -The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).<br /> <br /> '''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler<br /> <br /> The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> <br /> In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the &quot;League of Left-Wing Writers&quot;. <br /> <br /> Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming &quot;needs&quot; of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- &quot;a genre of self-reflection&quot;. Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> <br /> '''Zhou Zuoren'''<br /> <br /> The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius &quot;degenerated&quot; and later became a national &quot;traitor&quot;. Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.<br /> <br /> 周作人<br /> <br /> 中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。 周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。 实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。 这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 周作人<br /> <br /> 民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 &quot;堕落 &quot;了，后来成了民族 &quot;汉奸&quot;。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> <br /> The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his &quot;degeneration&quot; and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as &quot;paralyzing&quot; . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經­ (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots. <br /> <br /> 3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]<br /> <br /> 4 (&quot;Mai tang 卖糖&quot; 1924).<br /> <br /> 5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).<br /> <br /> 人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 &quot;堕落 &quot;和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 &quot;麻痹&quot;。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 &quot;堕落 &quot;和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 &quot;麻痹&quot;。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> <br /> So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to &quot;treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives&quot; and to &quot;make children the essence of children's literature&quot; , literature should make the society more humane.<br /> <br /> The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''.<br /> <br /> 因此，对叙事的第一个纠正是，他的文学不是在质上受社会政治环境的影响，而是在内容上。还有一个关于周作人的第二个故事，说他是一个不关心政治的作家。事实上，他想把他对政治声明的无欲理解为一种政治声明本身。对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是反抗的手段。在现代化社会中，他倡导妇女解放，要求“把儿童作为一个完整的主体，有自己的外在和内在的生命”，“使儿童成为儿童文学的本质”，文学要使社会更加人性化。<br /> 第二个例子，读了他的一些文章，我们就可以重新发现这个作者是巴金：他以他在20世纪30年代和40年代写作的具有无政府主义和共产主义背景的实用文章而闻名，因为他在文革期间机会主义的自我批评、自我审查和对作家圈的指责。在“文化大革命”后，当他声称自己是在压力下做这一切的时候，他似乎成了一个正直的人。然后，他把自己的散文归于“文化大革命”的创伤中，例如在自责的系列随笔《随想》中。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> <br /> Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays &quot;''Independent Thoughts''&quot; and &quot;''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''&quot;, dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.<br /> <br /> &quot;''Independant Thoughts''&quot; dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> <br /> &quot;''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''&quot;, a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.<br /> <br /> '''&quot;The Small Dog Baodi&quot; as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''<br /> <br /> Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> 1962年初在上海第二届文艺代表大会上的一篇演讲《作家的勇气与责任感》后来有七个引人注目的部分被删减。在这部小说中，巴金对自己和他的同僚进行了严格的评判：在不同的文学运动中，他们会适时地追随政治要求，因此他们是叛徒。巴金批评的第二个对象是审查员和批评家，他们比作家拥有更多的权力，没有合法性。巴金对毛泽东延安文艺讲话的解读是：作家应该自己承担责任。<br /> <br /> '''《小狗包弟》作为一种隐喻讲述了巴金的个人悲痛'''<br /> <br /> 巴金虽然与冰心一起被视为共和文学的代表人物之一，但其散文作品更重要的部分似乎在于1949年以后。自1979以来从香港出版，他大声反对，并试图帮助缓解与“文化大革命”有关的创伤。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> <br /> One of this essays is the story-like &quot;''Small Dog Baodi''&quot;. Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:<br /> <br /> 这篇随笔中有一篇是像故事一样的《小狗宝蒂》。这封信写于1980年，作者回忆起他的狗，这只狗是20年前他从一个瑞典人那里收到的，过了一段时间他就爱上了它。当“红色大革命”流行时，狗处于危险之中。巴金详细描述了这只动物的命运和他自己的辞职，当他得知他不能保护狗。为了把他从痛苦的死亡中拯救出来，他最终在1966年把狗送去做医学实验。“文化大革命”后，他重新回到他的花园，痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里和狗玩耍的情景。我想提出六点解释:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这随笔集中，有一篇故事《小狗包弟》。这篇文章写于1980年，作者怀念他的狗，这只狗是作者二十年前从一个瑞典人手中收到的，过了一段时间作者就爱上了它。当'红卫兵'肆虐的时候，这只狗的处境危险。巴金详细描述了小狗包弟的命运和自己得知无法保护狗时的无可奈何。为了让小狗包弟免于折磨而死，巴金终于在1966年将这只狗送去做医学实验。'文革'后巴金重游自家花园，他痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里与狗玩耍的情景。对这篇文章，我想提出六点解读：--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> <br /> 1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, &quot;if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?&quot; Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?<br /> <br /> 狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 狗是个比喻。 一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> <br /> 6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).<br /> <br /> 7 (Zhou 1923).<br /> <br /> 8 (The Family in 1951)<br /> <br /> 9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).<br /> <br /> 10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his &quot;Random Thoughts&quot; into the soul of Ba Jin..<br /> <br /> 11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).<br /> <br /> 2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay &quot;''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''&quot;, which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> <br /> 3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.<br /> <br /> 本文是对'文革'的控诉。 没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> <br /> 4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> <br /> 5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist &quot;I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.&quot;. In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In &quot;''The Small Dog Baodi''&quot; he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> <br /> 6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out<br /> <br /> &quot;To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, &quot;the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart.&quot; [...]<br /> She also mentions that &quot;[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief.&quot;<br /> <br /> 6.巴金的个人悲痛，在狗的隐喻中比他直接指责的文章更有说服力。<br /> <br /> 正如薇拉·施娃茨（Vera Schwarcz）（1996）所指出的那样&quot;过多地谈论悲痛就是钝化它的锋芒。这种行为甚至可能让我们对最开始引发关于讨论痛苦的呐喊充耳不闻。冷酷、斤斤计较的智慧无法把握悲伤的粗糙轮廓。[...]为了保持个人苦难在公共生活中的意义，我们需要一种更间接的方法；一种接受并且实际上滋生模棱两可的方法。用辛西娅·奥齐克（Cynthia Ozick）的话说，这就是隐喻的分立范畴，&quot;相互作用，普遍化的力量，使得我们能够想象陌生人的心。&quot;[...]她还提到，&quot;[....]保持沉默--或者说适度使用“隐喻性话语”--在巨大的悲痛面前更有利于我们&quot;。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the &quot;uneducated&quot; writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.<br /> <br /> 综上所述，巴金原来并不是一个自我审查者，试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要有机会，他就会大声疾呼，但不会危及自身。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“不谙世事”的作家形象出现。巴金对虚构事实的修辞手法已经十分高超，能够通过狗宝弟的隐喻，以隐喻性的话语，更有说服力地传递他个人的悲伤。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> 综上所述，巴金并不是一个试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态的自我审查者。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要一有机会，他就会在不危及自己的情况下畅所欲言。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“没有受过教育的”作家的形象出现。然而，他实现了“虚构真实”的高度流变，通过狗宝弟的隐喻，在“隐喻话语”中更有说服力地表达了个人的悲伤。<br /> --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201214_cult&diff=113475 2020-12-17T07:49:52Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Yang Chenting 杨晨婷 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Alsied, Saffana==<br /> <br /> ==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> <br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> <br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> <br /> ==Dashkin, Gennadii==<br /> <br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> <br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> <br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> <br /> ==Grosheva, Anna==<br /> <br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> <br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> <br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> <br /> ==Guirou, Barthelemy==<br /> <br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> 1. 孔子是我国古代伟大的思想家和教育家,儒家学派创始人,世界最著名的文化名人之一。孔子的言行思想主要载于语录体散文集《论语》。<br /> <br /> Confucius was a great thinker of ancient China and educator, he is also the founder of Confucianism and one of the world's most famous cultural figures. His words and deeds were mainly recorded in his work ''The Analects''.<br /> <br /> 2.道教(或道教)是指各种相关的中国哲学传统和概念的英文名称。这些传统影响了东亚两千多年，有些还在国际上传播。道家的礼教和伦理强调 &quot;道 &quot;的三宝，即“慈、俭、让”。道家思想注重 &quot;无为&quot;、&quot;人本&quot;、&quot;虚无&quot;。无为常常被错误地翻译为（&quot;无所作为&quot;），这种错误由于非道家学者的翻译而广泛传播。道教强调人与自然的联系。道教认为，这种联系减少了对规则和秩序的需要，使人更好地理解世界。<br /> <br /> Taoism (or Daoism) is the English name referring to a variety of related Chinese philosophical traditions and concepts. These traditions influenced East Asia for over two thousand years and some have spread internationally. Taoist propriety and ethics emphasize the Three Jewels of the Tao; namely, compassion, moderation, and humility. Taoist thought focuses on wu wei (&quot; action that does not involve struggle or excessive effort&quot; ) spontaneity, humanism, and emptiness. Wu wei is often incorrectly translated as (&quot;non-action&quot;) and this error has propagated widely as a result of translations made by academics who are non practising Taoists. An emphasis is placed on the link between people and nature. Taoism teaches that this link lessened the need for rules and order, and leads one to a better understanding of the world.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==<br /> <br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> <br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> <br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> <br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> <br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> 1. 儒家在先秦时期和诸子百家地位平等，秦始皇焚书坑儒后，使儒家遭受重创。而后汉武帝为了维护封建专制统治，听从董仲舒“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”的建议，对思想实施钳制，使儒家重新兴起。历经两千多年的发展演变，儒学文化构建起完整的思想体系，涉及政治、教育、道德伦理、行为准则、生活技艺等诸多方面，长期涵养国人的智慧和心灵，形成固定思维、心理以及生存模式，可谓根深蒂固。<br /> <br /> Confucian school was on an equal footing with the other hundred schools in the pre-Qin period. After the First Emperor of Qin, also called Qin Shihuang, burned books and buried scholars alive, the development of the Confucian school suffered a serious defeat. Then, in order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's advice of &quot;banishing other schools of thought and worshiping Confucianism only&quot; and imposed restrictions on thought, which led to the revival of Confucian school. After more than two thousand years of development and evolution, Confucian culture has built up a complete ideological system, involving politics, education, morality, ethics, code of conduct, life skills and other aspects. It has cultivated the wisdom and soul of the Chinese people throughout the history, and formed deep-rooted set patterns of thinking, psychology and survival. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:17, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2. 《老子》是道家学派的主要著作之一，它的产生丰富了我国传统文化和思想宝库。老子是道家思想的创始人，他提出了许多重要的范畴和观点，在中国哲学史上独放异彩，并给予后世以深远影响。<br /> <br /> ''Laozi'' is one of the main works of the Taoist School; its production enriches our country's traditional culture and stock house of thoughts. Lao Zi, the founder of the Taoism, proposed a lot of important views and conceptions which have original enchantment in Chinese philosophy, and influence the afterworld deeply. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:17, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ''Laozi'' is one of the main works of the Taoism and its production enriches our traditional culture and the treasury of thoughts. Lao Zi, the founder of the Taoism, proposed many important views and conceptions which have original enchantment in Chinese philosophy, and have a far-reaching influence on the afterworld.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> <br /> 1.人道主义是人类永恒的主题，对于任何社会，任何时代，任何一个政府都是适用的，而秩序和制度社会则是建立人类文明社会的基本要求。<br /> <br /> Humanity is the eternal theme of humanity, applicable to any society, any era, any government, while order and institutional society are the basic requirements for building a civilized human society.<br /> <br /> 2.在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。<br /> <br /> Among the five major religions in China, Taoism is the only religion that originated in China and was founded by Chinese people, so it is also known as a native religion.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> 1、孔子的大同社会、小康社会理想对中国后世影响深远。后来不同历史时期，不同阶段的思想家提出不同内容的憧憬蓝图和奋斗目标，这种思想对进步思想家、改革家也有一定启发，洪秀全、康有为、谭嗣同和孙中山都受其影响。<br /> <br /> Confucius' ideal of a commonwealth society and a moderately prosperous society had a profound influence on later generations in China. Later on, thinkers at different stages of history put forward different content of visionary blueprints and goals to strive for, and such ideas also inspired progressive thinkers and reformers, with Hong Xiuquan, Kang Youwei, Tan Sitong and Sun Yat-sen being influenced by them.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The social ideal of a commonwealth society and a moderately prosperous society from Confucius has posed profound impacts on China's future generations. Later, even in sundry historical times, miscellaneous idealists put forward different blueprints and struggle goals, which indicated that Confucius ideal has inspired advanced idealists and refomers, including Hong Xiuquan, Kang Youwei, Tan Sitong and Sun Zhongshan.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2、新中国成立后，对旧社会道教中存在的一些不合理制度和陋习进行了改革，道教的面目为之一新。中国道教协会的成立实现了全国道教徒的大联合，广大爱国道教徒开始为发展道教事业共同努力。道教在反右斗争、大跃进、人民公社化等政治运动中受到波及。<br /> <br /> After the founding of New China, some unreasonable systems and bad practices that existed in Taoism in the old society were reformed, and Taoism took on a new face. The establishment of the Chinese Taoist Association realized the unification of Taoists nationwide, and the majority of patriotic Taoists began to work together for the development of Taoism. Taoism was affected by political movements such as the anti-rightist struggle, the Great Leap Forward, and the Communization of the People's Commune.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Taoism was out of some unreasonable systems and bad practices in the old society were reformed and it then took on a new face. The establishment of the Chinese Taoist Association promoted the unification of Taoists nationwide, and the majority of patriotic Taoists began to work together for the development of Taoism. However, Taoism was affected by political movements such as the anti-rightist struggle, the Great Leap Forward, and the Communization of the People's Commune.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 05:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> <br /> ==Lo, Minh Thao==<br /> <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> <br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> <br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> <br /> 1.君子坦荡荡，小人长戚戚。<br /> <br /> A gentleman is open and poised; while a petty man is unhappy and worried.<br /> <br /> 2.人法地，地法天，天法道，道法自然。<br /> <br /> The person reflects the earth.The earth reflects heaven. Heaven reflects the Way. And the Way reflects its own nature.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br /> <br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> <br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> <br /> ==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br /> <br /> ==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br /> <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> <br /> ==Rajabov, Anushervon==<br /> <br /> ==Seydou, Sagara==<br /> <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> <br /> 1. 董仲舒提出“春秋大一统”和“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”，强调以儒家思想为国家的哲学根本，杜绝其他思想体系。汉武帝采纳了他的主张。从此儒学成为正统思想，研究四书五经的经学也成为了显学。此时，孔子已死三百余年。董仲舒在具体的政策上将道家，阴阳家和儒家中有利于封建帝王统治的部分加以发展，形成了新儒家思想。<br /> <br /> Dong Zhongshu proposed the &quot;Great Unification of the Spring and Autumn Period&quot; and the &quot;Dismissal of the Hundred Schools and Exclusive Respect for Confucianism&quot;, emphasizing Confucianism as the philosophical foundation of the state and the elimination of other systems of thought. Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty adopted his ideas. From then on, Confucianism became the orthodoxy, and the study of the Four Books and Five Classics became a prominent school. At this time, Confucius had been dead for more than 300 years. Dong Zhongshu developed the parts of Taoism, Yin and Yang and Confucianism that were beneficial to the rule of the feudal emperor in his specific policies, forming Neo-Confucianism.<br /> <br /> 2. “道”是中国古代哲学的重要范畴，用以说明世界的本原、本体、规律或原理。在中国哲学史上，“道”这一范畴为道家首先提出。道的原始涵义指道路、坦途，以后逐渐发展为道理，用以表达事物的规律性。这一变化经历了相当长的历史过程。春秋后期，老子最先把道看作是宇宙的本原和普遍规律，成为道家的创始人。以后，在不同的哲学体系中其涵义虽有不同，但基本上成为世界本原、本体、规律或原理的代名词。<br /> <br /> &quot;Tao&quot; is an important category in ancient Chinese philosophy, which is used to describe the origin, essence, law or principle of the world. In the history of Chinese philosophy, the category of &quot;Tao&quot; was first introduced by the Taoists. The original meaning of Dao refers to the path, the straight path, and later it gradually developed into reason, which is used to express the regularity of things. This change has gone through a rather long historical process. In the late Spring and Autumn period, Laozi first regarded Tao as the origin and universal law of the universe and became the founder of Taoism. Later, although its meaning differs in different philosophical systems, it basically became a synonym for the origin of the world, the essence, the law or the principle.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 03:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> <br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> <br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> <br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> <br /> 1.中庸精神随着时间的推移，其价值和重要性必将日益显现出来，这一点已经有所表现。中庸之道是世界上最具有连续性的文化，也是中国众多文化流派中最具有价值的核心精神和观念。<br /> <br /> 1.With the passage of time, the value and importance of the spirit of the mean will become increasingly apparent, which has already been demonstrated. The Golden Mean is the most continuous culture in the world and the most valuable core spirit and concept among many cultural schools in China.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:48, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> 2.道教文学艺术就是以宣传道教教义、神仙长生思想以及反映其宗教生活为题材的内容的各种形式的文学艺术作品。文学艺术可以扩大道教的社会影响，进而提高道教的宗教素质。反过来，道教的神仙信仰也给中国文学艺术的发展巨大的影响。<br /> <br /> 2.Taoist literature and art are literary and artistic works in various forms that promote Taoist doctrines, the thoughts of immortal longevity, and reflect their religious life. Literature and art can expand the social influence of Taoism, thereby improving the religious quality of Taoism. In turn, Taoist belief in immortals has also had a huge impact on the development of Chinese literature and art.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:48, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> <br /> 1. 南北朝时期（420一589）是道教进一步充实完善的时代，是道教走上成熟的时代，出现了众多的道教改革家、理论家，他们的活动对后世道教有着重要的影响。<br /> <br /> 1. The Southern and Northern Dynasties period (420-589) was a time when Taoism was further enriched, a time when Taoism came to maturity and numerous Taoist reformers and theorists emerged, having an important influence on the development of Taoism.<br /> <br /> 2. 曲阜孔庙为纪念孔夫子而兴建，千百年来屡毁屡建，到今天已经发展成超过100座殿堂的建筑群。<br /> <br /> 2. The Confucius Temple in Qufu was built to commemorate Confucius, which has been destroyed and built again and again over the centuries. Today, it has grown into a building complex of over 100 palaces today.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> The Confucius Temple in Qufu was built to commemorate Confucius, which has been destroyed and rebuilt again and again over the past centuries. Today, it has grown into a building complex of over 100 palaces.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> <br /> 1、孔子是中国思想史上第一个把道德作为做人和治国首要条件和最高标准提出来的哲人。道德的核心是仁。儒家提倡人与人之间的仁和礼。今天，在中国和其他许多国家，儒学的研究正在迅速增长。<br /> <br /> Confucius was the first philosopher in China's ideological history to propose moral standards as the prior criterion for man's behaviour and governing a country.The core of morality is benevolence. Confucianism advocates benevolence and courtesy among people. Today, in China and many other countries, the study of Confucianism is rapidly growing.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Confucius was the first philosopher in the history of Chinese thought to put morality as the primary and highest standard for being a man and governing a country. The core of morality is benevolence. Confucianism advocates benevolence and etiquette among people. Today, in China and many other countries, the study of Confucianism is growing rapidly. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:04, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2、道教是中国固有的一种宗教，距今已有1800余年的历史。它深深扎根于中华沃土之中，具有鲜明的中国特色,并对中华文化的各个层面产生了深远影响。 <br /> <br /> Taoism, an inherent religion of China, has a history of over 1800 years. It is deeply rooted in the Chinese fertile soil with distinct Chinese characteristics, and have a profound impact on all levels of Chinese culture.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Taoism is a religion inherent in China, with a history of more than 1,800 years. It is deeply rooted in the fertile soil of China, with distinctive Chinese characteristics, and a profound impact on overall Chinese culture. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:04, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> <br /> 孔子在卫国住了约10个月，因有人在卫灵公面前进谗言，卫灵公对孔子起了疑心，派人公开监视孔子的行动，因此孔子带弟子离开卫国，打算去陈国。<br /> <br /> Confucius lived in Wei State for about 10 months. Due to someone advancing slander in front of Duke Ling of Wei, he became suspicious of Confucius and sent people to publicly monitor Confucius. Therefore, Confucius led his disciples to leave Wei and planned to go to Chen State. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 道教继承和发展了先秦道家思想，将“道”作为最高信仰，从中演化出最高经典，最上道术及最高的神灵，构建了庞大的经典道术神仙体系。<br /> <br /> Daoism inherited and developed Taoism thought in the pre-Qin period, taking &quot;Dao&quot; as the highest belief, evolving from it the highest classics, the highest Daoism and the supreme gods, and building a huge system of classic Daoism gods. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1. Confucius stayed in Wei for about 10 months, but when someone slandered him in front of Duke Weiling, he became suspicious of Confucius and sent people to monitor his movements openly. Therefore, Confucius left Wei with his disciples to Chen. <br /> <br /> 2. Inheriting and developing the pre-Qin dynasty Taoist thought, it holds “Tao” as the highest belief, evolving the highest classics, the highest Taoist arts and the highest deities, forming a huge system of classical Taoist arts and deities.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> <br /> 解放前的道教中充满着浓厚的封建气息，对广大道教徒进行爱国主义教育，改革宫观封建经济，废除道教中的封建残余，与反动会道门划清界限，成为道教在新中国面临的重大任务。<br /> <br /> Taoism before liberation was represents strong feudal atmosphere. It became a major task for Taoism in New China to carry out patriotic education for the majority of Taoists, reform the feudal economy of the palace, abolish the remnants of feudalism in Taoism, and draw a clear line with the reactionary Taoist doors.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Taoism before liberation was in strong feudal atmosphere. Therefore, it became a major task for Taoism in New China to carry out patriotic education for the majority of Taoists, reform the feudal economy of the palace, abolish the remnants of feudalism in Taoism, and draw a clear line with the reactionary Taoist doors.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 孔子，姓孔，名丘，字仲尼，公元前551年，出生于春秋后期的鲁国。<br /> <br /> Confucius is known as Kong Qiu, a combination of his surname and his given name, and he is also named as Zhongni, which is his courtesy name.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> <br /> 1.身处乱世的孔子所主张的仁政没有施展的空间，但在治理鲁国的三个月中，使强大的齐国也畏惧孔子的才能，足见孔子无愧于杰出政治家的称号。<br /> <br /> The benevolent government advocated by Confucius in troubled times has no room for display, but during the three months of ruling Lu State, the powerful Qi State also feared Confucius’ talents, which shows that Confucius deserves the title of outstanding statesman.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the troubled times, Confucius' benevolent rule had no room to be exercised, but in the three months he ruled the state of Lu, he made even the powerful state of Qi fear Confucius' talent, which shows that Confucius deserves the title of outstanding statesman.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.道教继承和发展了先秦道家思想，将“道”作为最高信仰，从中演化出最高经典，最上道术及最高的神灵，构建了庞大的经典道术神仙体系。<br /> <br /> Taoism inherited and developed Taoism thought in the pre-Qin period, taking &quot;Tao&quot; as the highest belief, and evolving from it the highest classics, the highest Taoism and the highest gods, and building a huge system of classic Taoism gods.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Taoism inherited and developed Taoist thought from the pre-Qin dynasty, taking &quot;Tao&quot; as the highest belief, evolving from it the highest classics, the highest Taoist arts and the highest deities, and building a huge system of classical Taoist deities.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> <br /> 1. 孔子63岁时，曾这样形容自己：“发愤忘食，乐以忘忧，不知老之将至。”当时孔子已带领弟子周游列国9个年头，历尽艰辛，不仅未得到诸侯的任用，还险些丧命，但孔子并不灰心，仍然乐观向上，坚持自己的理想，甚至是明知其不可为而为之。<br /> <br /> When Confucius was 63 years old, he used to describe himself as, &quot;(One is) so engrossed in his studies that he forgets to have his meals on time; so cheerful that he forgets all his worries; so youthful that he forgets his actual age.&quot; At that time, Confucius had guided his disciples to travel around the various states and nations for nine years. He had not been appointed by the feudal lord, but he almost died. However, he was not disheartened. He was still optimistic and insisted on his ideal even he knew it was impossible. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 04:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2. 作为中华文化最重要的两翼，道家和儒家的关系比较复杂，它们之间有互相学习的一面，也有互相对立的一面。<br /> <br /> As the two most important components of Chinese culture, Daoism and Confucianism have a complicated relationship, with both learning from each other and opposing each other. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 04:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> 1.孔子是当时社会上最博学者之一，在世时就被尊奉为“天纵之圣”“天之木铎”，更被后世统治者尊为孔圣人、至圣、至圣先师、大成至圣文宣王先师、万世师表。<br /> <br /> Confucius was one of the most knowledgeable people in the society at that time, and he was honored as &quot;the sage of heaven&quot; and &quot;the mudor of heaven&quot; during his lifetime.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:09, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Confucius was one of the most erudite scholars in society at that time. He was honored as the &quot;Sage of Heaven&quot; and &quot;Wood Duo of Heaven&quot; when he was alive. The most sacred Wenxuan Wang Xianshi, Wanshishishi.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Confucius was one of the most knowledgeable people in the society at that time, and he was honored as &quot;the sage from heaven&quot; and is honored as &quot;the mudor of heaven&quot; nowadays.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 04:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.道教对我国古时代的政治、经济和文化都发生过深刻的影响，是统治阶级的三大精神支柱之一。<br /> <br /> Taoism has had a profound impact on the politics, economy and culture of our ancient times and was one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:09, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Taoism had a profound impact on the politics, economy and culture of our country in ancient times, and it is one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> ==Zubareva, Ekaterina==</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201214_cult&diff=113469 2020-12-17T07:46:21Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Mo Ling 莫玲 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Alsied, Saffana==<br /> <br /> ==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> <br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> <br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> <br /> ==Dashkin, Gennadii==<br /> <br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> <br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> <br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> <br /> ==Grosheva, Anna==<br /> <br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> <br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> <br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> <br /> ==Guirou, Barthelemy==<br /> <br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> 1. 孔子是我国古代伟大的思想家和教育家,儒家学派创始人,世界最著名的文化名人之一。孔子的言行思想主要载于语录体散文集《论语》。<br /> <br /> Confucius was a great thinker of ancient China and educator, he is also the founder of Confucianism and one of the world's most famous cultural figures. His words and deeds were mainly recorded in his work ''The Analects''.<br /> <br /> 2.道教(或道教)是指各种相关的中国哲学传统和概念的英文名称。这些传统影响了东亚两千多年，有些还在国际上传播。道家的礼教和伦理强调 &quot;道 &quot;的三宝，即“慈、俭、让”。道家思想注重 &quot;无为&quot;、&quot;人本&quot;、&quot;虚无&quot;。无为常常被错误地翻译为（&quot;无所作为&quot;），这种错误由于非道家学者的翻译而广泛传播。道教强调人与自然的联系。道教认为，这种联系减少了对规则和秩序的需要，使人更好地理解世界。<br /> <br /> Taoism (or Daoism) is the English name referring to a variety of related Chinese philosophical traditions and concepts. These traditions influenced East Asia for over two thousand years and some have spread internationally. Taoist propriety and ethics emphasize the Three Jewels of the Tao; namely, compassion, moderation, and humility. Taoist thought focuses on wu wei (&quot; action that does not involve struggle or excessive effort&quot; ) spontaneity, humanism, and emptiness. Wu wei is often incorrectly translated as (&quot;non-action&quot;) and this error has propagated widely as a result of translations made by academics who are non practising Taoists. An emphasis is placed on the link between people and nature. Taoism teaches that this link lessened the need for rules and order, and leads one to a better understanding of the world.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==<br /> <br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> <br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> <br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> <br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> <br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> 1. 儒家在先秦时期和诸子百家地位平等，秦始皇焚书坑儒后，使儒家遭受重创。而后汉武帝为了维护封建专制统治，听从董仲舒“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”的建议，对思想实施钳制，使儒家重新兴起。历经两千多年的发展演变，儒学文化构建起完整的思想体系，涉及政治、教育、道德伦理、行为准则、生活技艺等诸多方面，长期涵养国人的智慧和心灵，形成固定思维、心理以及生存模式，可谓根深蒂固。<br /> <br /> Confucian school was on an equal footing with the other hundred schools in the pre-Qin period. After the First Emperor of Qin, also called Qin Shihuang, burned books and buried scholars alive, the development of the Confucian school suffered a serious defeat. Then, in order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's advice of &quot;banishing other schools of thought and worshiping Confucianism only&quot; and imposed restrictions on thought, which led to the revival of Confucian school. After more than two thousand years of development and evolution, Confucian culture has built up a complete ideological system, involving politics, education, morality, ethics, code of conduct, life skills and other aspects. It has cultivated the wisdom and soul of the Chinese people throughout the history, and formed deep-rooted set patterns of thinking, psychology and survival. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:17, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2. 《老子》是道家学派的主要著作之一，它的产生丰富了我国传统文化和思想宝库。老子是道家思想的创始人，他提出了许多重要的范畴和观点，在中国哲学史上独放异彩，并给予后世以深远影响。<br /> <br /> ''Laozi'' is one of the main works of the Taoist School; its production enriches our country's traditional culture and stock house of thoughts. Lao Zi, the founder of the Taoism, proposed a lot of important views and conceptions which have original enchantment in Chinese philosophy, and influence the afterworld deeply. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:17, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ''Laozi'' is one of the main works of the Taoism and its production enriches our traditional culture and the treasury of thoughts. Lao Zi, the founder of the Taoism, proposed many important views and conceptions which have original enchantment in Chinese philosophy, and have a far-reaching influence on the afterworld.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> <br /> 1.人道主义是人类永恒的主题，对于任何社会，任何时代，任何一个政府都是适用的，而秩序和制度社会则是建立人类文明社会的基本要求。<br /> <br /> Humanity is the eternal theme of humanity, applicable to any society, any era, any government, while order and institutional society are the basic requirements for building a civilized human society.<br /> <br /> 2.在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。<br /> <br /> Among the five major religions in China, Taoism is the only religion that originated in China and was founded by Chinese people, so it is also known as a native religion.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> 1、孔子的大同社会、小康社会理想对中国后世影响深远。后来不同历史时期，不同阶段的思想家提出不同内容的憧憬蓝图和奋斗目标，这种思想对进步思想家、改革家也有一定启发，洪秀全、康有为、谭嗣同和孙中山都受其影响。<br /> <br /> Confucius' ideal of a commonwealth society and a moderately prosperous society had a profound influence on later generations in China. Later on, thinkers at different stages of history put forward different content of visionary blueprints and goals to strive for, and such ideas also inspired progressive thinkers and reformers, with Hong Xiuquan, Kang Youwei, Tan Sitong and Sun Yat-sen being influenced by them.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The social ideal of a commonwealth society and a moderately prosperous society from Confucius has posed profound impacts on China's future generations. Later, even in sundry historical times, miscellaneous idealists put forward different blueprints and struggle goals, which indicated that Confucius ideal has inspired advanced idealists and refomers, including Hong Xiuquan, Kang Youwei, Tan Sitong and Sun Zhongshan.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2、新中国成立后，对旧社会道教中存在的一些不合理制度和陋习进行了改革，道教的面目为之一新。中国道教协会的成立实现了全国道教徒的大联合，广大爱国道教徒开始为发展道教事业共同努力。道教在反右斗争、大跃进、人民公社化等政治运动中受到波及。<br /> <br /> After the founding of New China, some unreasonable systems and bad practices that existed in Taoism in the old society were reformed, and Taoism took on a new face. The establishment of the Chinese Taoist Association realized the unification of Taoists nationwide, and the majority of patriotic Taoists began to work together for the development of Taoism. Taoism was affected by political movements such as the anti-rightist struggle, the Great Leap Forward, and the Communization of the People's Commune.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Taoism was out of some unreasonable systems and bad practices in the old society were reformed and it then took on a new face. The establishment of the Chinese Taoist Association promoted the unification of Taoists nationwide, and the majority of patriotic Taoists began to work together for the development of Taoism. However, Taoism was affected by political movements such as the anti-rightist struggle, the Great Leap Forward, and the Communization of the People's Commune.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 05:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> <br /> ==Lo, Minh Thao==<br /> <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> <br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> <br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> <br /> 1.君子坦荡荡，小人长戚戚。<br /> <br /> A gentleman is open and poised; while a petty man is unhappy and worried.<br /> <br /> 2.人法地，地法天，天法道，道法自然。<br /> <br /> The person reflects the earth.The earth reflects heaven. Heaven reflects the Way. And the Way reflects its own nature.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br /> <br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> <br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> <br /> ==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br /> <br /> ==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br /> <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> <br /> ==Rajabov, Anushervon==<br /> <br /> ==Seydou, Sagara==<br /> <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> <br /> 1. 董仲舒提出“春秋大一统”和“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”，强调以儒家思想为国家的哲学根本，杜绝其他思想体系。汉武帝采纳了他的主张。从此儒学成为正统思想，研究四书五经的经学也成为了显学。此时，孔子已死三百余年。董仲舒在具体的政策上将道家，阴阳家和儒家中有利于封建帝王统治的部分加以发展，形成了新儒家思想。<br /> <br /> Dong Zhongshu proposed the &quot;Great Unification of the Spring and Autumn Period&quot; and the &quot;Dismissal of the Hundred Schools and Exclusive Respect for Confucianism&quot;, emphasizing Confucianism as the philosophical foundation of the state and the elimination of other systems of thought. Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty adopted his ideas. From then on, Confucianism became the orthodoxy, and the study of the Four Books and Five Classics became a prominent school. At this time, Confucius had been dead for more than 300 years. Dong Zhongshu developed the parts of Taoism, Yin and Yang and Confucianism that were beneficial to the rule of the feudal emperor in his specific policies, forming Neo-Confucianism.<br /> <br /> 2. “道”是中国古代哲学的重要范畴，用以说明世界的本原、本体、规律或原理。在中国哲学史上，“道”这一范畴为道家首先提出。道的原始涵义指道路、坦途，以后逐渐发展为道理，用以表达事物的规律性。这一变化经历了相当长的历史过程。春秋后期，老子最先把道看作是宇宙的本原和普遍规律，成为道家的创始人。以后，在不同的哲学体系中其涵义虽有不同，但基本上成为世界本原、本体、规律或原理的代名词。<br /> <br /> &quot;Tao&quot; is an important category in ancient Chinese philosophy, which is used to describe the origin, essence, law or principle of the world. In the history of Chinese philosophy, the category of &quot;Tao&quot; was first introduced by the Taoists. The original meaning of Dao refers to the path, the straight path, and later it gradually developed into reason, which is used to express the regularity of things. This change has gone through a rather long historical process. In the late Spring and Autumn period, Laozi first regarded Tao as the origin and universal law of the universe and became the founder of Taoism. Later, although its meaning differs in different philosophical systems, it basically became a synonym for the origin of the world, the essence, the law or the principle.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 03:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> <br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> <br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> <br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> <br /> 1. 南北朝时期（420一589）是道教进一步充实完善的时代，是道教走上成熟的时代，出现了众多的道教改革家、理论家，他们的活动对后世道教有着重要的影响。<br /> <br /> 1. The Southern and Northern Dynasties period (420-589) was a time when Taoism was further enriched, a time when Taoism came to maturity and numerous Taoist reformers and theorists emerged, having an important influence on the development of Taoism.<br /> <br /> 2. 曲阜孔庙为纪念孔夫子而兴建，千百年来屡毁屡建，到今天已经发展成超过100座殿堂的建筑群。<br /> <br /> 2. The Confucius Temple in Qufu was built to commemorate Confucius, which has been destroyed and built again and again over the centuries. Today, it has grown into a building complex of over 100 palaces today.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> <br /> 1、孔子是中国思想史上第一个把道德作为做人和治国首要条件和最高标准提出来的哲人。道德的核心是仁。儒家提倡人与人之间的仁和礼。今天，在中国和其他许多国家，儒学的研究正在迅速增长。<br /> <br /> Confucius was the first philosopher in China's ideological history to propose moral standards as the prior criterion for man's behaviour and governing a country.The core of morality is benevolence. Confucianism advocates benevolence and courtesy among people. Today, in China and many other countries, the study of Confucianism is rapidly growing.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Confucius was the first philosopher in the history of Chinese thought to put morality as the primary and highest standard for being a man and governing a country. The core of morality is benevolence. Confucianism advocates benevolence and etiquette among people. Today, in China and many other countries, the study of Confucianism is growing rapidly. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:04, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2、道教是中国固有的一种宗教，距今已有1800余年的历史。它深深扎根于中华沃土之中，具有鲜明的中国特色,并对中华文化的各个层面产生了深远影响。 <br /> <br /> Taoism, an inherent religion of China, has a history of over 1800 years. It is deeply rooted in the Chinese fertile soil with distinct Chinese characteristics, and have a profound impact on all levels of Chinese culture.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Taoism is a religion inherent in China, with a history of more than 1,800 years. It is deeply rooted in the fertile soil of China, with distinctive Chinese characteristics, and a profound impact on overall Chinese culture. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:04, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> <br /> 孔子在卫国住了约10个月，因有人在卫灵公面前进谗言，卫灵公对孔子起了疑心，派人公开监视孔子的行动，因此孔子带弟子离开卫国，打算去陈国。<br /> <br /> Confucius lived in Wei State for about 10 months. Due to someone advancing slander in front of Duke Ling of Wei, he became suspicious of Confucius and sent people to publicly monitor Confucius. Therefore, Confucius led his disciples to leave Wei and planned to go to Chen State. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 道教继承和发展了先秦道家思想，将“道”作为最高信仰，从中演化出最高经典，最上道术及最高的神灵，构建了庞大的经典道术神仙体系。<br /> <br /> Daoism inherited and developed Taoism thought in the pre-Qin period, taking &quot;Dao&quot; as the highest belief, evolving from it the highest classics, the highest Daoism and the supreme gods, and building a huge system of classic Daoism gods. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1. Confucius stayed in Wei for about 10 months, but when someone slandered him in front of Duke Weiling, he became suspicious of Confucius and sent people to monitor his movements openly. Therefore, Confucius left Wei with his disciples to Chen. <br /> <br /> 2. Inheriting and developing the pre-Qin dynasty Taoist thought, it holds “Tao” as the highest belief, evolving the highest classics, the highest Taoist arts and the highest deities, forming a huge system of classical Taoist arts and deities.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> <br /> 解放前的道教中充满着浓厚的封建气息，对广大道教徒进行爱国主义教育，改革宫观封建经济，废除道教中的封建残余，与反动会道门划清界限，成为道教在新中国面临的重大任务。<br /> <br /> Taoism before liberation was represents strong feudal atmosphere. It became a major task for Taoism in New China to carry out patriotic education for the majority of Taoists, reform the feudal economy of the palace, abolish the remnants of feudalism in Taoism, and draw a clear line with the reactionary Taoist doors.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Taoism before liberation was in strong feudal atmosphere. Therefore, it became a major task for Taoism in New China to carry out patriotic education for the majority of Taoists, reform the feudal economy of the palace, abolish the remnants of feudalism in Taoism, and draw a clear line with the reactionary Taoist doors.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 孔子，姓孔，名丘，字仲尼，公元前551年，出生于春秋后期的鲁国。<br /> <br /> Confucius is known as Kong Qiu, a combination of his surname and his given name, and he is also named as Zhongni, which is his courtesy name.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> <br /> 1.身处乱世的孔子所主张的仁政没有施展的空间，但在治理鲁国的三个月中，使强大的齐国也畏惧孔子的才能，足见孔子无愧于杰出政治家的称号。<br /> <br /> The benevolent government advocated by Confucius in troubled times has no room for display, but during the three months of ruling Lu State, the powerful Qi State also feared Confucius’ talents, which shows that Confucius deserves the title of outstanding statesman.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the troubled times, Confucius' benevolent rule had no room to be exercised, but in the three months he ruled the state of Lu, he made even the powerful state of Qi fear Confucius' talent, which shows that Confucius deserves the title of outstanding statesman.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.道教继承和发展了先秦道家思想，将“道”作为最高信仰，从中演化出最高经典，最上道术及最高的神灵，构建了庞大的经典道术神仙体系。<br /> <br /> Taoism inherited and developed Taoism thought in the pre-Qin period, taking &quot;Tao&quot; as the highest belief, and evolving from it the highest classics, the highest Taoism and the highest gods, and building a huge system of classic Taoism gods.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Taoism inherited and developed Taoist thought from the pre-Qin dynasty, taking &quot;Tao&quot; as the highest belief, evolving from it the highest classics, the highest Taoist arts and the highest deities, and building a huge system of classical Taoist deities.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> <br /> 1. 孔子63岁时，曾这样形容自己：“发愤忘食，乐以忘忧，不知老之将至。”当时孔子已带领弟子周游列国9个年头，历尽艰辛，不仅未得到诸侯的任用，还险些丧命，但孔子并不灰心，仍然乐观向上，坚持自己的理想，甚至是明知其不可为而为之。<br /> <br /> When Confucius was 63 years old, he used to describe himself as, &quot;(One is) so engrossed in his studies that he forgets to have his meals on time; so cheerful that he forgets all his worries; so youthful that he forgets his actual age.&quot; At that time, Confucius had guided his disciples to travel around the various states and nations for nine years. He had not been appointed by the feudal lord, but he almost died. However, he was not disheartened. He was still optimistic and insisted on his ideal even he knew it was impossible. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 04:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2. 作为中华文化最重要的两翼，道家和儒家的关系比较复杂，它们之间有互相学习的一面，也有互相对立的一面。<br /> <br /> As the two most important components of Chinese culture, Daoism and Confucianism have a complicated relationship, with both learning from each other and opposing each other. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 04:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> 1.孔子是当时社会上最博学者之一，在世时就被尊奉为“天纵之圣”“天之木铎”，更被后世统治者尊为孔圣人、至圣、至圣先师、大成至圣文宣王先师、万世师表。<br /> <br /> Confucius was one of the most knowledgeable people in the society at that time, and he was honored as &quot;the sage of heaven&quot; and &quot;the mudor of heaven&quot; during his lifetime.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:09, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Confucius was one of the most erudite scholars in society at that time. He was honored as the &quot;Sage of Heaven&quot; and &quot;Wood Duo of Heaven&quot; when he was alive. The most sacred Wenxuan Wang Xianshi, Wanshishishi.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Confucius was one of the most knowledgeable people in the society at that time, and he was honored as &quot;the sage from heaven&quot; and is honored as &quot;the mudor of heaven&quot; nowadays.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 04:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.道教对我国古时代的政治、经济和文化都发生过深刻的影响，是统治阶级的三大精神支柱之一。<br /> <br /> Taoism has had a profound impact on the politics, economy and culture of our ancient times and was one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:09, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Taoism had a profound impact on the politics, economy and culture of our country in ancient times, and it is one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> ==Zubareva, Ekaterina==</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_trans&diff=113452 2020-12-17T07:26:55Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Mo Ling 莫玲 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung). <br /> <br /> Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.<br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.<br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.<br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays. <br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence. <br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text. <br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.<br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''<br /> <br /> '''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''<br /> <br /> A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.<br /> Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.<br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.<br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place. <br /> <br /> I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces. <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.<br /> <br /> 我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。 一个人只能看到有限的内容。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。 一个人能看到内容有限。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 &quot;呸呸呸&quot;的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 &quot;叭叭叭&quot;的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.<br /> <br /> 这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.<br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.<br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.<br /> Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社<br /> <br /> '''East Station'''<br /> <br /> Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old. <br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station. <br /> <br /> This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?<br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol? <br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road?<br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”<br /> <br /> Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.<br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br /> <br /> The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”<br /> <br /> 而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。 当时郭沫若作了一首诗：&quot;为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。 想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。&quot; --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。<br /> <br /> 北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 &quot;人民交通警察&quot;，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。<br /> <br /> 从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”<br /> <br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique? <br /> <br /> Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history. <br /> <br /> 1989. 9. 13 <br /> <br /> Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.<br /> <br /> 但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？<br /> <br /> 今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。<br /> <br /> 1989.9.13<br /> <br /> 请不要删除或改变这个日子。 这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。<br /> <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> '''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays <br /> In the Context of Fable of September''' <br /> <br /> Jie Lu<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.<br /> <br /> '''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集<br /> 以九月寓言为背景'''<br /> <br /> 吕杰<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text. <br /> Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ] <br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992. <br /> Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture. <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.<br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.<br /> <br /> 当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times. <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II). <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.<br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]<br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.” <br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous. <br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television). <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism. <br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.<br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.<br /> <br /> 张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.<br /> 但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。&quot;[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它&quot;（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 &quot;土地的崇拜者&quot;（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，&quot;土地 &quot;的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> 但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。&quot;[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去&quot;（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 &quot;土地的崇拜者&quot;（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，&quot;土地 &quot;精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September. <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.<br /> <br /> 阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.<br /> <br /> 与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear). <br /> The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village. <br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').<br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age. <br /> The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.] <br /> <br /> This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.” <br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends. <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together. <br /> The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).<br /> <br /> 如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br /> <br /> 小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br /> <br /> 小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.<br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality. <br /> <br /> The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses. <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations. <br /> <br /> As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).<br /> <br /> 这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。<br /> <br /> 正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。<br /> 南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.<br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.<br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.<br /> <br /> 金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 &quot;活生生的即时性 &quot;的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 &quot;活生生的即时性 &quot;的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation. <br /> <br /> Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.<br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence. <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time. <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.<br /> <br /> In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques. <br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events. <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130). <br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present. <br /> <br /> The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel. <br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.<br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.<br /> <br /> 最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109). <br /> <br /> So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing. <br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.<br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays. <br /> <br /> ''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.<br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.<br /> <br /> <br /> ......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis. <br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.<br /> <br /> Works Cited（不用翻）<br /> <br /> Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)<br /> <br /> Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968) <br /> <br /> Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)<br /> <br /> Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)<br /> <br /> Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994) <br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105<br /> <br /> Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> '''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's &quot;Religious Sublime&quot;''' <br /> <br /> ''Xinmin Liu<br /> <br /> ''<br /> '''Abstract<br /> '''<br /> <br /> Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this &quot;war of words,&quot; no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi. <br /> <br /> Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent. <br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.<br /> <br /> In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.” <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve. <br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar. <br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards? <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s? <br /> <br /> Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).] <br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones. <br /> <br /> Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.<br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 &amp; 2, 113-29. ] <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest? <br /> <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:<br /> <br /> On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography? <br /> If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.<br /> <br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”: <br /> <br /> It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago. <br /> <br /> Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted. <br /> <br /> No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness. <br /> <br /> A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.<br /> Zhang 1999a, 37.<br /> Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125. <br /> Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.” <br /> <br /> What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.<br /> <br /> 作为一个 &quot;他者 &quot;的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。 借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。&quot;... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱&quot; &quot;寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力&quot; 。<br /> <br /> 他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？ 张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 &quot;纯洁性 &quot;和 &quot;真实性 &quot;可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 &quot;最自得其乐 &quot;的人，&quot;这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”<br /> <br /> 那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐 的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary. <br /> <br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.<br /> <br /> Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass. <br /> <br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> <br /> When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.” <br /> <br /> Zhang 1994a, 125.<br /> Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.<br /> Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.<br /> For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”<br /> <br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br /> <br /> Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br /> <br /> 这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。 <br /> <br /> 这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br /> <br /> <br /> 这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。<br /> <br /> Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br /> <br /> 事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994. <br /> Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).<br /> For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:<br /> <br /> The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable. <br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun. <br /> <br /> One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.<br /> <br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay. <br /> <br /> Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.<br /> <br /> 其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 其结果是，&quot;人民 &quot;等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。 当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。 他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.<br /> <br /> Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.<br /> <br /> For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.” <br /> <br /> '''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''<br /> <br /> ''King-Fai Tam''<br /> <br /> I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre. <br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again. <br /> <br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay. <br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say. <br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.<br /> 《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> 张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?<br /> <br /> 即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br /> <br /> In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.<br /> <br /> 在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture. <br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.<br /> <br /> '''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.<br /> <br /> In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.<br /> <br /> In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century? <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural<br /> <br /> Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world. <br /> <br /> The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> <br /> '''1. CHARACTERISTICS<br /> <br /> 1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br /> <br /> Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.<br /> <br /> 1. 特征<br /> <br /> 1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式<br /> <br /> 与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br /> <br /> “Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br /> <br /> Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br /> <br /> In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br /> <br /> The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的&quot;短篇小说&quot;的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br /> <br /> 当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.<br /> <br /> 周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。 中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> <br /> This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.<br /> <br /> Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br /> <br /> 这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。 在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。 但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。<br /> <br /> 进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> <br /> '''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''<br /> <br /> Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> <br /> Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).<br /> <br /> Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> <br /> If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.<br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> <br /> In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.<br /> <br /> '''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''<br /> <br /> The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> <br /> Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.<br /> <br /> I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. <br /> <br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> <br /> This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br /> <br /> 在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> <br /> In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.<br /> <br /> 在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> <br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> <br /> '''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''<br /> <br /> Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br /> <br /> Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.<br /> <br /> One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays. <br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> <br /> During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature. <br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> <br /> The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> <br /> Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife. <br /> <br /> Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.<br /> <br /> Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.<br /> <br /> For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> <br /> The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).<br /> <br /> Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).<br /> <br /> 大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。<br /> <br /> 从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> <br /> Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.<br /> <br /> 王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在&quot;文化大革命&quot;后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931） ）和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。<br /> <br /> 朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。<br /> <br /> 1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> <br /> Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> <br /> '''3.Trends<br /> <br /> 3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br /> <br /> What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.<br /> <br /> The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br /> <br /> The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> <br /> Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''<br /> <br /> From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br /> <br /> -The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> <br /> -The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br /> <br /> -A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> -The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br /> <br /> -The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> <br /> -Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”). <br /> <br /> -In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> <br /> In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).<br /> <br /> The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> <br /> -Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984). <br /> <br /> 1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.<br /> <br /> 2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> <br /> -The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).<br /> <br /> '''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler<br /> <br /> The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> <br /> In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the &quot;League of Left-Wing Writers&quot;. <br /> <br /> Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming &quot;needs&quot; of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- &quot;a genre of self-reflection&quot;. Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> <br /> '''Zhou Zuoren'''<br /> <br /> The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius &quot;degenerated&quot; and later became a national &quot;traitor&quot;. Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.<br /> <br /> 周作人<br /> <br /> 中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。 周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。 实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。 这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 周作人<br /> <br /> 民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 &quot;堕落 &quot;了，后来成了民族 &quot;汉奸&quot;。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> <br /> The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his &quot;degeneration&quot; and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as &quot;paralyzing&quot; . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經­ (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots. <br /> <br /> 3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]<br /> <br /> 4 (&quot;Mai tang 卖糖&quot; 1924).<br /> <br /> 5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).<br /> <br /> 人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 &quot;堕落 &quot;和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 &quot;麻痹&quot;。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 &quot;堕落 &quot;和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 &quot;麻痹&quot;。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> <br /> So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to &quot;treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives&quot; and to &quot;make children the essence of children's literature&quot; , literature should make the society more humane.<br /> <br /> The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> <br /> Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays &quot;''Independent Thoughts''&quot; and &quot;''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''&quot;, dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.<br /> <br /> &quot;''Independant Thoughts''&quot; dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> <br /> &quot;''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''&quot;, a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.<br /> <br /> '''&quot;The Small Dog Baodi&quot; as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''<br /> <br /> Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> <br /> One of this essays is the story-like &quot;''Small Dog Baodi''&quot;. Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> <br /> 1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, &quot;if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?&quot; Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?<br /> <br /> 狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 狗是个比喻。 一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> <br /> 6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).<br /> <br /> 7 (Zhou 1923).<br /> <br /> 8 (The Family in 1951)<br /> <br /> 9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).<br /> <br /> 10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his &quot;Random Thoughts&quot; into the soul of Ba Jin..<br /> <br /> 11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).<br /> <br /> 2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay &quot;''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''&quot;, which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> <br /> 3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.<br /> <br /> 本文是对'文革'的控诉。 没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> <br /> 4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> <br /> 5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist &quot;I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.&quot;. In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In &quot;''The Small Dog Baodi''&quot; he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> <br /> 6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out<br /> <br /> &quot;To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, &quot;the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart.&quot; [...]<br /> She also mentions that &quot;[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief.&quot;<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the &quot;uneducated&quot; writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_2&diff=113443 2020-12-17T07:08:44Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac - Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 202070080603专业 is missing--Mo Ling (talk) 08:16, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling */</p> <hr /> <div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br /> *Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br /> <br /> '''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br /> *You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like &quot;Longevity Noodles&quot;) or Text B (&quot;Mooncakes&quot;), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title (&quot;Festival Meals&quot;) and arrange it accordingly.<br /> *In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br /> *For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br /> *Add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Please also add a list &quot;Terms and Expressions&quot;.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Questions&quot; section.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Answers&quot; section.<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Red Culture - Kang Haoyu 康浩宇, 202070080638 English Interpreting==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康浩宇 Kang Haoyu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Red Culture===<br /> Chinese red culture is unique in the world. As a very important cultural resource, it has both tangible culture and intangible culture. Red culture in China refers to the advance culture with Chinese characteristics created by party and people in revolutionary years.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)<br /> <br /> ====1. Development====<br /> <br /> China has brilliant history and splendid civilization in ancient times. However, with the Opium War of 1840, China was plunged into the darkness of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression. Despite of all efforts that countless dedicated patriots had made, they still failed to change the plight. The October Revolution in Russia brought Marxism-Leninism. With Communism as the the highest ideal and ultimate goal, the Communist Party of China shouldered the historic mission of national rejuvenation. With the firm leadership of the party, Chinese people embraced national independence, people's liberation, national reunification and social stability, and stepped into a new era of prosperity and happiness.(Xi Jinpin 2017)<br /> <br /> Red culture is condensed by the Communist Party of China in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. It is an advanced Marxism culture that was inherited and developed in the new period of socialist construction. It's a collectivism culture of bravery, sacrifice and devotion that seeks happiness for the Chinese people and rejuvenation for the Chinese nation.Red culture is embodied in the aspects of ideal belief, value pursuit and spiritual outlook, and is integrated into material remains, mechanism behaviors and cultural and artistic forms.(Luo Liling, Pu Qingpin 2018, 45)<br /> <br /> First of all, red culture is a revolutionary culture, which was formed by the Chinese Communist Party in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. After the founding of People's Republic of China, the Communist Party of China led the Chinese people to inherit and carry forward the revolutionary culture. In the new period of socialist construction and reform and opening up, a vigorous and advanced socialist culture was formed, which enriched and developed the connotation of red culture. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture, and are the core value and spiritual subject of contemporary Chinese culture. As for Chinese red culture, Among them, Marxism is the soul, the common ideal of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the theme, the national spirit and the spirit of the times are the essence, and the socialist concept of honor and disgrace is the foundation. These four aspects influence, infiltrate and interact with each other, revealing the essential characteristics of red culture scientifically and completely.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)<br /> <br /> ====2. Symbols====<br /> <br /> The word “red” in “red culture” has many symbols. Chinese people have “red” complex since ancient time. Red represents authority. For, example, official documents are also called red heading documents. Red represents courage. Red is the color of Chinese national flag. Chinese military strategists and generals have a deep understanding of the role of red in war, so they use red flags to unite their morale, inspire their fighting and their courage, and summon the spirit of going forward bravely and not fearing sacrifice. Red represents honor and auspiciousness. For instance, the places are always adorned with red for conference and ceremony. People are awarded with red flower and red certificates. Red represents revolution. When Marx was asked about &quot;favorite color&quot; in his early years, he clearly answered &quot;red&quot;. In 1864, First International was founded, and its logo was red. The first army of Communist Party of China was named Red Army, and Ruijin, the first revolutionary base area, was called Red Capital. There were also red boats in South Lake and red flags in Jinggangshan.(Chen dongwang, Huang Weiliang 2006, 19)<br /> <br /> ====3. Values====<br /> <br /> Red culture has many values. Red culture has the value of history. It witnesses the early development history of the Communist Party of China. It shows the inevitability of the socialist road in China. And it is an important weapon to guide the success of Chinese revolution. Besides, red culture has the value of civilization. Carrying forward the red culture is an urgent need to cultivate a new national spirit. Red culture is important for the construction of socialism culture and ideology. Moreover, red culture has the value of economy. Red culture is a powerful driving force for the development of socialist market economy. It is an important medium of economic development under the new historical conditions. The red cultural industry has become a new economic growth point.(Wang Yidi 2007, 149)<br /> <br /> ====4. Red Culture in Nanchang====<br /> <br /> Nanchang is the capital city of Jiangxi Province and it is where August 1st uprising took place. Nanchang is renowned as the cradle of Chinese revolution and the place where the military flag rose. Because in August 1st uprising, communist party of china formed its first army in Nanchang. There are lots of red culture resources in Nanchang. <br /> <br /> Bayi Square is at the center of Nanchang city. It was built to memorize August 1st uprising. Bayi Square highlights the theme of &quot;Bayi History and Culture&quot; in all directions. The memorial area, cultural area, reminiscence area and leisure area of Bayi Square show Bayi Uprising in different forms. The landmark in the square is Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower. Besides, Nangchang August 1st Memorial Hall is a special memorial hall established to commemorate Nanchang Uprising.（Peng Bo, Zhang Li, Li Jiangyuan 2006, 58）<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] 程东旺, 黄伟良. “红色文化”的价值形态与德育功能探析[J]. 现代教育科学, 2006: 19-21.<br /> <br /> [2] 罗丽琳,蒲清平. 红色文化的思想政治教育基因及其时代价值[J].新疆师范大学学报, 2018: 45-52<br /> <br /> [3] 彭波, 张丽, 李江源. 整合红色资源,提升江西文化力[J]. 江西崛起策论, 2006:58-60.<br /> <br /> [4] 王以第. “红色文化”的价值内涵[J]. 文化论苑, 2007:149-150.<br /> <br /> [5] 习近平, 决胜全面建成小康社会 夺取新时代中国特色社会主义伟大胜利——在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告,人民日报,2017.<br /> <br /> [6] 朱桂莲,李晶. 德育视角下的中国红色文化研究综述[J]. 研究综述, 2010:87-89.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> red culture 红色文化<br /> <br /> Opium War 鸦片战争<br /> <br /> red heading documents 红头文件<br /> <br /> red army 红军<br /> <br /> August 1st uprising 八一起义<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1. What is the historical background of the birth of red culture?<br /> <br /> 2. What are two major components of red culture?<br /> <br /> 3. How many symbols dose the word &quot;red&quot; in red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 4. How many values dose red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 5. What is the landmark in Bayi Square?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1. In modern China, Communist Party of China led the Chinese revolution and led people to fight against suppression.<br /> <br /> 2. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture<br /> <br /> 3. Four. Authority, courage, honor and revolution.<br /> <br /> 4. Three. History value, civilization value and economic value.<br /> <br /> 5. Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower<br /> <br /> ==Landscape, The Ancient Tea Horse Road - Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> <br /> ===The Ancient Tea Horse Road===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. The ancient tea horse road is divided into two routes: the Sichuan-Tibet line and the Yunnan-Tibet line. The ancient tea horse road originated from the ancient southwest frontier of the tea horse mutual market, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and most prosperous in the middle and late World War II. The ancient Tea Horse Road divided into Shanxi-Gan, Shanxi-Kangtang (folk called wade ancient road, Sichuan-Tibet line is part of it), Yunnan-Tibet and other three main routes, connecting Sichuan, Yunnan-Tibet, extending into the territory of Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal, India, until reaching West Asia, West Africa, the Red Sea coast. 5 March 2013, the Tea Horse Road was listed by the State Council as the seventh batch of national key cultural relics conservation units.(Zou Jingyi 2018,131)<br /> <br /> ====Historical Routes====<br /> China’s ancient tea horse road is divided into:<br /> 1. The Shanxi-Gansu tea horse road is the main route for tea to travel westward in mainland China and exchange for horses. It is one of the main routes of the ancient Silk Road.<br /> 2. Shanxi and Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road), began in the Han Dynasty, formed by the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse each other. Due to the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government control of tea trafficking, tea trafficking sub-regional, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road.<br /> 3. The ancient Yunnan-Tibet Tea Horse Road. Formed around the late sixth century AD, it is south of Yunnan's main tea producing areas in Xishuangbanna Yiwu, Pu'er City, intermediate through today's Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture and Lijiang City, Shangri-La into Tibet, directly to Lhasa. Some also re-exported from Tibet to India and Nepal, is an important trade channel between ancient China and South Asia.<br /> 4.Sichuan-Tibet Tea Horse Road is a part of the Shan-Kang-Tibet Tea Horse Road, east of Yazhou edge tea production Ya'an, after playing arrow furnace (now Kangding), west to Lhasa, Tibet, and finally through to Bhutan, Nepal and India, a total length of nearly four thousand kilometers, is an essential bridge and link between ancient Tibet and the interior.<br /> There are three main routes of the ancient tea-horse road: The Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line. <br /> Among the three ancient tea-horse roads, the Qinghai-Tibet line was established in the Tang Dynasty and developed earlier, while the Sichuan-Tibet line was the most influential and well-known later. These three routes are closely related to Chengdu, among them, the Yunnan-Tibet route and the Sichuan-Tibet route must pass through Chengdu, and their development is closely related to the tea-horse trade.(Kang Yuming2020,281-283)<br /> <br /> Shanxi- Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road), was formed in the Han dynasty through the efforts of the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government controlled tea traffickin along the tea trafficking sub-region, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:02, 7 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> ====Historical Value====<br /> The Silk Road in the north and the ancient Tea Horse Road in the south. The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization. However, its history and value will always shine brightly.(Li Gang 2011,113-117)<br /> <br /> 1.The Golden Road of Tourism<br /> The ancient tea-horse road tour has unique scenery, profound cultural connotation, exclusive resources and is unparalleled in the world.<br /> 2. Ancient Roads for the Propagation of Civilization<br /> The ancient Tea Horse Road was not only an important migration corridor for the ancient ancestors between Wei-Tibet and present Sichuan and Yunnan, but also an important aperture for the spread and exchange of ancient civilizations between present Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet.<br /> 3.Migration Corridor of National Cultures<br /> On this ancient road, which stretches for more than 10,000 miles, Chinese, Tibetan, Yi, Naxi, Lisu, Hani, Kino, Qiang, Pumi, Bai, Nu, Jingpo, Achang and other ethnic groups have flourished here for thousands of years, highlighting the diversity and original form of ethnic culture in southwest China.<br /> 4.Religious Propagation Road<br /> With the development of the tea-horse trade and the extension of the ancient tea-horse route, Tibetan Buddhism spread widely along this route on the Tibetan Plateau and surrounding areas. The development and spread of Tibetan stupas can be roughly divided into two routes: one is Tibet - Qinghai - Gansu - Inner Mongolia - the other is Tibet - Qinghai - Gansu - Inner Mongolia. -Liaoning--Jilin--Heilongjiang--Beijing--Hebei --Henan--Jiangsu; second, Tibet--Yunnan--Sichuan. --Guangxi--Hubei.<br /> 5. The Path of National Spirituality<br /> You can't talk about the ancient tea-horse road without mentioning the horse gangs. The horse gangs have formed a unique cultural carrier in the course of thousands of years. Their spirit is attached to this ancient road, and become part of the Chinese national spirit.<br /> 6.The Road of National Unity and Integration<br /> The ancient tea-horse road is like a huge net in southwest China, through which people of all nationalities strengthen their ties and communication, promote political, economic and cultural interaction, development and integration among all nationalities, and enhance the emotional ties between them.<br /> 7.The Road of Securing the Borders<br /> The expansion of the ancient tea-horse road and the flourishing of the tea-horse trade contributed to the stability and consolidation of China's southwest frontier.<br /> 8.The road to economic development<br /> The Thousand-Year Tea Horse Trail contributed to the formation of many towns in the region through the tea and horse trade, which greatly contributed to the economic development of the region.(Ji Jing2016,354-355)<br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road(茶马古道)<br /> <br /> 2.Sichuan-Tibet Line（川藏线）<br /> <br /> 3.Yunnan-Tibet line（滇藏线）<br /> <br /> 4.wade ancient road（蹚古道）<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What is the ancient tea horse road ?<br /> <br /> 2.How many main routes does the ancient tea-horse road conclude?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the historical value?<br /> --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 04:15, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. <br /> <br /> 2.There are three main routes, including the Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line.<br /> <br /> 3.The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]邹怡情,张依玫.作为文化线路的茶马古道遗产保护研究[J].北京规划建设,2018(04):131-140.<br /> <br /> [2]康昱明,李金峰.甘肃茶马古道文化线路遗产探究[J].农村经济与科技,2020,31(11):281-283.<br /> <br /> [3]李刚,李薇.论历史上三条茶马古道的联系及历史地位[J].西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2011,41(04):113-117.<br /> <br /> [4]纪静.茶马古道的兴起及其价值研究[J].福建茶叶,2016,38(07):354-355.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:06, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Literature, Novels - Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> <br /> ===Four satirical novels in ancient China===<br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.<br /> <br /> ==== Nie Hai Hua====<br /> Nie Hai Hua was written by Zen Pu (1872-1935).A total of 35 chapters.it is a novel of condemnation, historical fiction and political fiction. In the novel, Jin yun (wen qing) is the main character.After won the scholarship, he took a famous courtesan, Fu Caiyun, as his concubine in Suzhou.He was then ordered to travel to Russia, Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands. After returning to China, Jin Wenqing died of illness in Beijing, and Fu Caiyun left the Jin family to resume her old profession in Shanghai, changing her name to Cao Menglan then went to Tianjin to work as a prostitute, calling herself Sai Jinhua.<br /> The novel takes the story of Jin Wenqing and Fu Caiyun as the main line, vividly describes the historical and cultural changes as well as political and social changes from Tongzhi to Guangxu more than 30 years, exposing the decay and decline of the rulers, criticizing the feudal system of imperial examination, satirizing the officials, truly reflecting their spiritual life and cultural mentality. at the same time also enthusiastically glorifies Feng Zicai, Liu Yongfu and other war heroes and Sun Yat-sen and so on. The revolutionary activities of the Democratic Revolutionaries express the author's patriotic thoughts against the feudal dictatorship and advocate national democratic revolution. In specific writing, the author adopts the modern popular block novel structure combined with the traditional mesh novel structure to unfold the plot, with ups and downs, twists and turns, touching and orderly, always around the main line.<br /> As a historical novel, Nie Hai Hua draws on the spirit of the ancient &quot;good history&quot; of China to portray its characters. At the same time, it draws on the satirical approach of &quot;The History of Confucianism&quot; in which &quot;the fair-minded accuse the evils of the times&quot;, commenting on events and weighing characters in a realistic manner. In terms of art, Nie Hai Hua also has many shortcomings.However, it is a skillful structure and outstanding novel at that time.<br /> <br /> ==== the Travels of an Old Man====<br /> The Travels of an Old Man was written by Liu E (1857-1909) and a total of 20 chapters. Liu E was an entrepreneur and scholar, not a professional writer, but his reputation as a literary figure was far greater than that of an entrepreneur and scholar. This novel is an unfinished work of his that was written in his later years with an autobiographical nature.<br /> The novel takes a bell-ringing mountebank, Lao can (Tie Ying), as its main character, and narrates his experiences and activities during his travels in northern China, exposing the decadence and darkness of the Qing government, the brutality and lethargy of the officials, and the poverty and oppression of the people, especially attacking the abusive behavior of those &quot;Qing officials&quot; who are actually cruel officials, and expressing the author's strong views on the perilous reality of society and the country. <br /> The artistic achievement of the novel is very high. The first is the superb descriptive skills, whether it is a description, a landscape, or a narrative, can be vividly depicted, such as the scenery of Thousand Buddha Mountain, Daming Lake etc., which makes people have a sense of being in the real world. Secondly, its psychological description and psychological analysis, with appropriate language, can brilliantly show the inner world of the characters. Thirdly, the exquisite structural art. The novel is in the form of a Travel Journal, with travel as a clue,and organic combined of what he see, hear, think and do along the way forms a unique structural feature of the novel.<br /> <br /> ==== The Records of Officialdom Exposure====<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure by Li Baojia (1867-1906), five editions and a total of 60 chapters. This is the first long chapter novel in China's modern era that was published serially in newspapers and magazines and achieved a social sensation, creating a culture of critical reality in modern fiction.<br /> The novel consists of more than 30 relatively independent bureaucratic stories linked together,involving the Qing government from the emperor, down to the minor officials and so on,and these various bureaucrats of all kinds of evil behavior were exposed:They embezzled public funds, corrupt and pervert the law or the named &quot;expedition bandits&quot;, but is harmful to the people. The work is like a scroll of the officialdom at the end of the feudal society, touching on the main contradictions of that time.<br /> The novel's writing method is modelled on &quot;The Scholars&quot; and has been developed, making full use of exaggeration, comic style and satirical techniques. only a few strokes will outline the character's voice and physical appearance. And the author also good at describing the details, so that the characters are vivid and evocative, with a strong artistic impact. Therefore, the subsequent imitation of the work is quite a lot, it become a great view.<br /> <br /> ==== 20 years witness strange present situation====<br /> The Strange Situation Witnessed in Twenty Years was written by Wu Woyao(1866-1910), A total of 60 chapters. This is a long novel with autobiographical flavor.it through nearly 200 short stories that the protagonist hears and witnesses from the death of his father to his failure in business. it outlines the strange realities of late Qing society during the 20 years from the Sino-French War to the beginning of the 20th century.<br /> The scope of social life is much broader than The Records of Officialdom Exposure. In addition to describing the officialdom, there are also involving the shopping malls, foreign markets, science fields, medical and astrological practices. It exposes the political situation, moral outlook, social customs, and human conditions of the increasingly colonized Chinese feudal society, and is of high cognitive value in helping readers to see the irreparable historical destiny of the late Qing society and feudal system.<br /> The novel adopts the first-person narrative story, structured in a way that makes the reader feel intimate and trustworthy, setting a precedent in the history of Chinese fiction. The structure is also very clever: &quot;nine deaths and a lifetime&quot; is not only the narrator of the book story, but also the backbone of the structure of the book, and at the same time uses flashbacks, interpolations and other methods, combining it organically together, making the whole book complex and simple appropriate, muddle together.<br /> <br /> ==== Conclution====<br /> As a result of the bourgeois reformists and democratic revolutionaries strongly advocated, the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty got unprecedented development, and a large number of influential novels emerged, forming a prosperous situation of the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty.The emergence of the &quot;Four satirical novels&quot; in the late Qing Dynasty is an important sign that The creation of Chinese novels has entered another prosperous period.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> *[1]https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E6%99%9A%E6%B8%85%E5%9B%9B%E5%A4%A7%E8%B0%B4%E8%B4%A3%E5%B0%8F%E8%AF%B4/702907?fr=aladdin<br /> *[2]二十年目睹之怪现状[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 吴趼人, 2012<br /> *[3]老残游记[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 刘鹗, 2012<br /> *[4]官场现形记[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 李宝嘉, 2012<br /> *[5]孽海花[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 曾朴, 2012<br /> *[6]四大谴责小说政治批判手法研究[J].李辉东,2017<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure 《官场现形记》<br /> <br /> The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years 《二十年之目睹怪现象》<br /> <br /> the Travels of an Old Man 《老残游记》<br /> <br /> Nai Hai Hua 《孽海花》<br /> <br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty 晚清四大谴责小说<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1、what are The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty ?<br /> <br /> 2、which novel is modeled the &quot;The Scholars&quot;?<br /> <br /> 3、what’s the common characteristic of these four novels? <br /> <br /> 4、what other satirical novels do you know?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1、They are Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua.<br /> <br /> 2、The Records of Officialdom Exposure<br /> <br /> 3、The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time.<br /> <br /> 4、E.g.The Scholars<br /> <br /> ==Shadow Play - Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> ===Shadow Play Li Lili No.202070080594 MTI===<br /> ====The Origin of Shadow Play====<br /> Shadow play has a long history from the written records. Legend has it that Madame Li, the wife of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, died of illness. Emperor Wu's yearning for her was so intense that he was in a trance and ignored the government's affairs all day. Minister Li Shaoweng went out one day when he came across a child playing with a doll in his hand, with its shadow being vivid，so he came up with an idea that he could cut the image of Mrs. Li from cotton and silk, painted it with color, and installed wooden poles on her hands and feet. After seeing it, Emperor Wu was glued to it and couldn't put it down. This love story is considered to be the earliest origin of shadow play. (Wei Liqun 2018,13) <br /> <br /> There are also some views that shadow play originated in Xi'an of Tang Dynasty, however, it is worth discussing that although there were an variety of operas in the Tang Dynasty, yet there were no any records of shadow play mentioned in the Tang Dynasty. Up to now, the earliest shadow play we can see is recorded in Song Dynasty. Its rise and development is closely related to Bianjing’s (the capital of Northern Song Dynasty) superior geographical environment, the development of commodity trade and good commercial transportation at that time. (Wei Liqun 2018,14-15)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> [[File:shadow play.jpg]]<br /> In Chinese ancient society, Chinese began to give performances using puppets against an illuminated screen. This is “shadow puppets”, also known as “lamp and shadow play”. It is considered as “precursor of movie” because it was the earliest moving part of form dubbed with human voice in the world. During a play, puppeteers hide behind the white screen and move puppets, while narrating the story, usually through singing. Performances are accompanied by musicians playing percussion and stringed instruments. A shadow puppet can perform actions such as “serving drinks”, “waving a sword and a spear,” or even “smoking” by puppeteer holding and moving manipulating rods on its body. (Wang Yexia 2012,1-2)<br /> <br /> Typically, a shadow puppet has three rods, some may have five or seven rods. It can create rich designs such as shadow puppets, animals and stage props, for example, buildings, imperial palaces, chariots, tables and chairs as well as weapons. It is so rich that it includes almost everything under the sun. It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools. The well-known ones include Tangshan Shadow Play in Hebei Province, Beijing Shadow Play as well as Shaanxi, Shanxi and Hunan Shadow Play. etc. (Wang Yexia 2012,2-3)<br /> <br /> So how to make a puppet? First. Draw pictures of the various parts of the shadow puppets; second, finish carving with a knife and a hard board underneath the design; third, color the puppet with watercolor pens; forth, paint the body parts with a brush dipped in oil. This can make the puppet transparent and better reflect colors under the light.; fifth, connect joint sections with the cotton thread; sixth, make the manipulating rods; finally, attach the manipulating rods to the shadow puppet with cotton thread. Thanks to different manipulating rods moves, the shadow puppet has a life, and can show happiness, anger, sorrow and gladness. (Wang Yexia 2012,29-35)<br /> <br /> The eyes and the eyebrows of a shadow puppet’s five facial features represent different personalities. The good and positive people are typical of a benevolent and kind countenance, with nice-looking eyebrows and eyes, while the villain or the general are ferocious look, with sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes. And the former are often concealed teeth and the latter are revealed teeth. The middle-aged people are short beard, but the elderly men are long beard. (Wang Yexia 2012,10-11)<br /> <br /> The decorative designs on the shadow puppets are so important that they must match the character’s social status. In a shadow play, female characters are usually decorated with patters such as flowers, grass, clouds and phoenix, while male characters are often decorated with dragons, tigers, water and clouds. Shadows puppets look colorful under the light. To achieve a better visual effect, the translucent puppets need to be painted on both sides. The head of color can also represent different characters’ personalities. The red is symbol of a heroic and upstanding character and the representative is Guan Yu. The black is a sign of a just, honest and selfless personality and the representative is Zhang Fei. The yellow shows a brave and irascible character and are often used in fantasy plays to represent people with magic power. (Wang Yexia 2012,13-16)<br /> <br /> ====The Present Situation of Contemporary Shadow Play====<br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, shadow play, as an art form, has undergone a series of reforms under the guidance of the Party's principles, including the organization of theatrical troupes, the compilation and creation of plays, the drawing and performing forms of shadow play. With the advent of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, the prosperity of shadow play came to an abrupt end. The troupe was disbanded, the repertoire was banned, and the artists were transferred to other fields. A large number of precious shadow puppet props and documents were damaged. This situation, except for some places, lasted until 1976. <br /> (Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）<br /> <br /> After the end of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, shadow puppet art revived rapidly, However, with the economic development being put in the first place of social activities and the popularity of television and the richness of artistic forms, shadow play is declining day by day with an irresistible trend, because shadow play arts are unable to keep pace with the times and get the appreciation from the audience. As a result, the prospect of shadow play art is becoming increasingly bleak. （Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）<br /> <br /> In order to inherit Chinese excellent culture and protect the ancient art forms such as shadow play. On May 20, 2006, it was approved by the State Council to be included in the first part of national intangible cultural heritage list. On November 27, 2011, UNESCO put Chinese shadow play on the &quot;list of representative works of human intangible cultural heritage&quot;.（baidubaike）<br /> <br /> ===References：===<br /> Wang Yexia 王业霞.(2012). 《皮影戏》 [Shadow Play] 北京：高等教育出版社 Beijing: [Higher Education Publishing House] <br /> <br /> Wei Liqun 魏力群.(2018). 《小书大传承-皮影》[&quot;Small Book, Big Heritage - Shadow Play&quot;] 重庆：重庆出版社 Chongqing: [Chongqing Publishing House]<br /> <br /> Zhu Hengfu 朱恒夫.(2020) 中国皮影戏的历史，现状与剧目特征[The History, Current Situation and Repertoire Characteristics of Chinese Shadow Theatre] 浙江艺术职业学院学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Arts Vocational College]<br /> <br /> https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%9A%AE%E5%BD%B1%E6%88%8F/23224?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Words and Expressions===<br /> shadow puppet皮影戏 <br /> paper cutting 剪纸<br /> ventriloquism 口技<br /> manipulating rod 操纵杆<br /> five facial features 五官<br /> sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes 尖眉杏眼<br /> Cultural Revolution 文化大革命<br /> intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1.When is the earliest shadow puppet’s record?<br /> <br /> 2.What art of forms do shadow play use?<br /> <br /> 3. What does a red head stand for in a play?<br /> <br /> 4.When is it put on the list of intangible cultural heritage&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.Song dynasty.<br /> <br /> 2.It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools.<br /> <br /> 3.The red is symbol of a heroic and upstanding character.<br /> <br /> 4. On November 27, 2011.<br /> <br /> ==Confucian Culture - Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Confucian Culture ===<br /> <br /> <br /> ==== Introduction ====<br /> <br /> Confucian school is an academic school founded by Confucius, developed by Mencius, and composed by Xunzi. Today, it still retains a certain vitality. Confucian school takes Confucianism as its guiding ideology whose central ideas are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 31)<br /> <br /> Confucian school was on an equal footing with the other hundred schools in the pre-Qin period. After the First Emperor of Qin, also called Qin Shihuang, burned books and buried scholars alive, the development of the Confucian school suffered a serious defeat. Then, in order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's advice of &quot;banishing other schools of thought and worshiping Confucianism only&quot; and imposed restrictions on thought, which led to the revival of Confucian school. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 20) The concepts of &quot;Confucian school&quot;, &quot;Confucianism&quot;, and &quot;Confucian Religion&quot; should be distinguished since Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism a social stratification, and Confucian religion belief. (Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 2017, 60-61)<br /> <br /> Laozi founded Chinese Taoist school; Confucius started Chinese Confucian school; Sun Tzu initiated Chinese military strategist school; Mozi was the founder of Mohism in the early Warring States. Confucianism contributes to guiding the code of conduct and constructing social order; Taoism focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalism serves the system construction of national political management.; the concepts of Universal Love and utilitarianism are two cornerstones for the Mohism. The General Unity idea of Confucianism has played an important role in the unification of a nation, the enhancement of national cohesion and the integration of cultural values. (Tan Su 2012, 68) After more than two thousand years of development and evolution, Confucian culture has built up a complete ideological system, involving politics, education, morality, ethics, code of conduct, life skills and other aspects. It has cultivated the wisdom and soul of the Chinese people throughout the history, and formed deep-rooted set patterns of thinking, psychology and survival. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42-43)<br /> <br /> ==== Analysis of Confucian Culture ====<br /> <br /> ===== Intelligence Development =====<br /> <br /> Confucius is a great educator, as well as a pioneer and practitioner of mass education. After Confucianism was established as a dominant culture, both the rulers and the public respected the teachings of the sage and attached great importance to education. In this context, a basic requirement is to stay highly cultured and steeped in propriety. After the Emperor Wen initiated the imperial examination system in the Sui Dynasty, those who are good scholars could make an official, which inspired students of poor families to change their lives by studying hard and diligent. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 19) For generations, the Chinese people have attached great importance to the education of their children, which is conducive to the improvement of the thinking ability of the whole nation. <br /> <br /> However, the corrupt of bureaucracy and the darkness of officialdom in metaphase and anaphase made many literati feel despairing about official career and discredit about the concept. In addition, the Four Books and Five Classics were the main learning content of Confucianism. Apart from government-run schools, private schools and self-study can hardly meet the requirements of the Six Classical Arts. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 21) Therefore, the Four Books and Five Classics were the focus of students, while the Six Classical Arts were not highly valued. <br /> <br /> =====Spiritual Guidance =====<br /> <br /> In terms of spirit, Confucianism contends that &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.&quot; (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 86) Benevolent people love each other, which reflects the essence of “Unity of Man and Nature” and also the most brilliant connotation of Confucianism. This philosophy calls for people’s active contributions to the society. It is still alive in modern times, and is the fundamental requirement of people's spiritual orientation in the future. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32)<br /> <br /> =====Order Construction =====<br /> <br /> In the age of barbarism and backwardness, a common feature was that a small number of people used power and force to suppress and enslave the majority, thus resulting in labor division and unfair distribution of wealth and generating corresponding social hierarchy and concepts. Given the fact that Confucianism developed in the transitional period of feudal society, the thoughts of Confucius and Mencius were rooted in the idealist view of destiny and did not break the shackles of social hierarchy. In addition, they even advocated the distinguish between the noble and the humble and highlighted the importance of hierarchy division. In this context, the benevolence they advocated had great limitations in political management. The public could not be treated equally in terms of political status. Instead, the so-called benevolence calls for improvement of the living conditions of the public and more benefits from the ruling class. However, its purpose was to maintain social order and reconcile social contradictions. This is also the root cause of feudal rulers’ favoring of Confucianism. In essence, Confucianism did not promote social equality, instead, it worked to maintain the unequal feudal hierarchy that aggravated servitude. In fact, after a long history of feudal rule, the sense of hierarchy would be part of the national psyche. With the progress of times and civilization, the view of destiny and the thought of social order have become psychological shackles of the Chinese people. (Li Fangping 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> After eliminating the ideology of feudal hierarchy and formalism, some philosophies of Confucianism still generate positive effects on modern society. Specifically, the spirit of benevolence and universal love is conducive to cultivate people’s spirits; (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 33) the concept of “the country belongs to the public” reflects a sense of social responsibility to make contributions for society, which can be expanded into a sharing social and political philosophy for different countries. Filial piety and brotherhood increase the harmony and stability of family; Loyalty, faithfulness, propriety and forgiveness are conducive to the relationship between different countries, societies and people. &quot;Loyalty&quot; means that people should stay loyal to the country and people; &quot;Friendliness&quot; and &quot;forgiveness&quot; play an important role in resolving various contradictions and animosities; when it comes to &quot;filial piety&quot; and &quot;propriety&quot;, many redundant forms inherited from feudal society should be eradicated and be more practical. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-41)<br /> <br /> ====The Contemporary Value of Confucian Culture ====<br /> <br /> Today, Confucian culture is still of great significance. We must explore the value of Confucian culture on the basis of the excellent tradition of the Chinese nation and by combining the characteristics of the times with and the actual situation. The Confucian culture has affected Chinese more than two thousand years and gone deep into each aspect of Chinese society. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39)<br /> <br /> =====Ideological and Political Education =====<br /> <br /> Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy, and it places a high priority on human value and dignity. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 51-57) Over the years, the Chinese nation has been influenced by this excellent philosophy. On this occasion, its behavioral pattern and psychological structure are endowed with uniqueness, which is mainly manifested in two aspects. One is to respect yourself, learn how to love and care yourself. Moreover, gain dignity and achieve the development of human value through the continuous improvement of moral cultivation. Second, respect others and show respect for others' personality by respecting, understanding and caring for others. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-40)<br /> <br /> ===== Modern Economic Construction=====<br /> <br /> Under today’s circumstance, some ideological contents are still alive and produce positive effects on promoting the economic construction of modernization and fostering modern patriotism emotion of the Chinese people. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65)<br /> <br /> First of all, Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of &quot;benevolence&quot; and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65) Since Confucian culture reflects a collectivist view on life, individuals are full of sense of duty and responsibility towards others and groups. In this context, their self-cultivation targets at regulating the family, country and the world. Thus, the value of individual is closely linked with the rise and fall of the country, so they have a strong sense of responsibility. (Tan Su 2012, 68) &quot;Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country&quot; has been a common belief for thousands of years. Such a social responsibility will give rise to a huge driving force for the development of the country and society.<br /> <br /> Second, the consciousness of &quot;self-improvement&quot; and the proposition of &quot;seeking truth&quot; in the Confucian culture strengthen the national spirit and provide a source power for China’s economic modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 66) Yi Zhuan put forward: &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection.’’ It means that continuous development is the law of nature and that a gentleman should pursue progress and be strong, unyielding resilient and positive. For thousands of years, the Chinese nation has formed a fine tradition of working hard and striving for strength under the influence of these thoughts. Today, we carry forward the spirits of “self-improvement” and &quot;seeking truth&quot; in ways that further enhance national spirits and provide a strong driving force for the socialist modernization.<br /> <br /> Third, the &quot;reform and innovation&quot; concept in Confucian culture is conducive to the expansion of the reform and opening up and the acceleration of China's socialist modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 67) On the basis of admitting the fact that the continuous development is the universal law of nature, Confucian culture puts forward the &quot;innovation idea&quot;. The Book of Rites said, &quot;If you can in one day renovate yourself; do so from day to day and let there be daily renovation.&quot; The Book of Changes said, &quot;Reform refers to destroy the old, while innovation means to establish the new.” The concept is not only serves as the theoretical basis for reform and innovation throughout the history, but also provides valuable lessons for the reform in socialist economic and political systems today. Domestically, promoting the innovative spirits can greatly enhance the reform consciousness of the Chinese people. Externally, it is conducive to advancing the opening up by leveraging the global influence of Confucian culture.<br /> <br /> ===== Legal Construction =====<br /> <br /> Confucian culture places a high priority on personal cultivation, while a highly civilized society under the rule of law must be composed of highly educated citizens. Confucian school, a school with thousands of years of history in China, has become an integral part of the Chinese culture. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32-33) Nowadays, since China has called for the policy of combining the rule of virtue with the rule of law, it is the time for Confucian culture to find its historical position and fully play its role. Exploring the influence of Confucian culture on the construction of contemporary Chinese rule by law, not only can we help us more deeply understand the traditional culture, but also can promote the process of building the rule of law in contemporary China. <br /> <br /> The rule by virtue thought is an important part of Confucian culture and it emphasizes the importance of moral education. It is a national strategy pursued by ancient Chinese rulers and a method of national governance embodying reference significance in today’s China. (Wei Na 2014, 1-2) In terms of national governance, Confucianism emphasizes the importance of morality, believing that national governance should not mainly rely on harsh punishment, instead, moral education should be applied to reform people. Confucius said, &quot;By governing with virtue, rulers will be loved by the public, just like stars surround the North Star.&quot; By comparing rulers to the North Star and people to the stars, Confucius emphasized the importance of moral governance. (Wang Jie 2004, 77)<br /> <br /> How to rule by virtue? First of all, rulers should pay attention to their personal cultivation and develop good moral characters, so that they can set a good example for the public. Only when officials and common people obey the ruler sincerely, can a good social atmosphere be formed. Secondly, since Confucianism takes &quot;benevolence&quot; as its core and calls for the rule of virtue, many people subconsciously believe that Confucianism denies the role of criminal law and that Confucian culture does not call for the rule of law. In fact, this is not the case. While Confucianism advocates the rule of virtue, it also emphasizes the supplementary role of rule of law. (Wang Jie 2004, 82-83) Confucius said, &quot;Sages believe that national governance must combine the rule of virtue and law.&quot; That is to say, if people are governed by systems and laws, they seek for impunity but lack of conscience; however, if they are guided by morality and etiquette, they will have a sense of right and wrong and will impose strict requirements on themselves.<br /> <br /> In a word, we should clearly realize that, although Confucian culture is an excellent traditional culture in China, it was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. Under this circumstance, we must analyse Confucian culture dialectically and explore the value of Confucian culture. At the same time, we should discard the bad habits and unfavorable factors left by it, so as to better carry forward our traditional culture and accelerate the construction of the rule of law in contemporary China. (Wang Jie 2004, 83) <br /> <br /> ====The Confucius Institute ====<br /> <br /> With the improvement of China's international status and the increasingly extensive international exchanges, Chinese culture has won wider foreign attention and the world is more eager to learn and understand the Chinese culture. The Confucius Institute project, founded in 2004, emerges in response to the call of the times. Today, Confucius Institutes have spread throughout Asia, Africa, The Americas, Europe and Oceania. (Wang Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 30) Fundamentally speaking, its is conducive to the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture since language is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is of positive significance to the construction of China's national image, the promotion of China's international influence, the realization of wider international communication.<br /> <br /> The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Today, countries are committed to spreading their own language and culture, so there is a fierce competition in international cultural promotion. In addition, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. At present, Confucius Institutes are prevalent all over the world, but the promotion strategy seeking for quantity and speed results in a serious shortage of teachers capable of teaching Chinese as a foreign language. According to statistics, there is a global shortage of at least five million TCSL teachers. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 31) Secondly, the lack of high-quality and localized teaching materials for Chinese has also become a bottleneck for the development of Confucius Institutes. The shortage of Chinese textbooks affects the depth of cultural communication of Confucius Institutes directly. Thirdly, Confucius Institutes are not capable of spreading the ideological depth of the Chinese culture. Although the textbooks are rich in content, they mainly focus on promoting folk culture by introducing Chinese food, tea and wine, traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts. Meanwhile, they rarely involve the ideological essence of traditional Chinese culture and the modern value of Chinese culture. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 32)<br /> <br /> The Confucius Institutes should fully explore the modern significance of Confucianism and cast the quintessence of Chinese culture, and strengthen the spread of the core idea of Chinese culture and its modern cultural value. The connotation of Chinese culture is very rich. What Confucius Institutes should spread is not all the contents of Chinese culture, but the contents with universal value that are different from other countries and represent the essence of Chinese culture. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions ====<br /> <br /> 儒家 Confucian school<br /> <br /> 儒学 Confucianism<br /> <br /> 儒教 Confucian religion <br /> <br /> 兼爱 Universal love<br /> <br /> 恕、忠、孝、悌、勇 forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage<br /> <br /> 仁、义、礼、智、信 benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith<br /> <br /> 学而优则仕 A good scholar will make an official<br /> <br /> 四书五经 the Four Books and Five Classics<br /> <br /> 天行健，君子当自强不息；地势坤，君子以厚德载物。As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.<br /> <br /> 天下兴亡，匹夫有责 Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country<br /> <br /> ====Questions ====<br /> <br /> 1. What’s the central ideas of Confucian culture?<br /> <br /> 2. What’s the difference among Confucian school, Confucianism and Confucian religion?<br /> <br /> 3. What do you think of the relationship between Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school, Legalist school?<br /> <br /> 4. What’s the Six Classical Arts?<br /> <br /> 5. What you think of the ancient influence of Confucianism?<br /> <br /> 6. Do you think Confucian culture still has its contemporary values in China? And why?<br /> <br /> 7. What do you think of the current situation of the development of the Confucian institute?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1. The central ideas of Confucian culture are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith.<br /> <br /> 2. Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism is a social stratification, and Confucian is a religion belief.<br /> <br /> 3. Confucian school emphasizes the code of conduct and the social order construction; Taoist school focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalist school serves the system construction of national political management; Mohist school emphasizes Universal Love and utilitarianism. Although Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school and Legalist school are different schools with different theories, they are not completely antagonistic. <br /> <br /> 4. The Six Classical Arts refers to propriety(礼), music（乐）, archery（射）, riding（御）, writing（书） and arithematic（数）. <br /> <br /> 5. The ancient influence of Confucianism should be analysed from a historical perspective. It was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. While contributing to intelligence development, spiritual guidance and order construction to some extent, it has also led to some negative effects in the long run. For example, it called for rigid feudal hierarchy and resulted in spiritual constraints. <br /> <br /> 6. Yes. Although Confucian culture has a history of thousands of years, it still has contemporary values in today's society. For instance, Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy and places a high priority on human value and dignity, which is still of profound significance; Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of &quot;benevolence&quot; and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy.<br /> <br /> 7. The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Nowadays, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. Joint efforts of all social sectors should be made to achieve the sustainable development of it. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 陈智斌, 杜艾红. (2017). 儒学、儒家、儒教之异同 [The Differences and Similarities of Confucian School, Confucianism and Confucian Religion]. ''审计月刊'' Audit Monthly. <br /> <br /> Li Chenzong 李承宗. (2002). 论儒家文化对培养现代爱国主义情感的积极作用 [On the Positive Effects of Confucian Culture on Cultivating Patriotism]. ''廊坊师范学院学报'' Journal of Langfang Teachers College. <br /> <br /> Li Fangping 李芳萍. (2013). 儒家思想对中国文化的影响研究 [A Study on the Influence of Confucianism on Chinese Culture]. ''前沿'' Forward Position.<br /> <br /> Li Xiaoyu 李晓愚. (2010). 儒家仁爱思想的当代诠释 [Contemporary Interpretation of Benevolence]. ''郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Zhengzhou University. <br /> <br /> Tan Su 谭苏. (2012). 论春秋战国时期的百家争鸣 [On the Competition of Ideas in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period]. ''兰台世界'' Lantai World. <br /> <br /> Wang Jie 王杰. (2004). 为政以德: 孔子的德治主义治国模式 [Rule of Virtue: Confucian’s Model of Governance]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C．<br /> <br /> Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 吴瑛, 提文静. (2009). 孔子学院的发展现状与问题分析 [The Development Status and Problems of Confucius Institute]. ''云南师范大学学报 (对外汉语教学与研究版)'' Journal of Yunnan Normal University. <br /> <br /> Xiang Chunling 向春玲. (2008). 儒家文化的现代意义 [On Modern Significance of Confucian Culture]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C．<br /> <br /> Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (1990). ''中国儒学思想史'' [The History of Chinese Confucianism]. 陕西：陕西人民出版社 Shaanxi: Shaanxi People’s Publishing House.<br /> <br /> ==Ch'ien Chung-shu - Liu Liu刘柳， 202070080596 MTI==<br /> <br /> ====Ch'ien Chung-shu====<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu (1910-1998), a well-known scholar, writer, translator and literary researcher, was born into an education family in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province. In Chinese academic circles, Qian was ranked with Rao Zongyi, a master in academic circles, and both were called &quot;South Rao and North Qian&quot;. He was admitted to Tsinghua University in 1929 and got to know Yang Jiang in 1932. Qian became famous soon after the enrolment, not only for the 15 mark of his mathematics, but for his excellent Chinese and English, especially full marks in English. Qian had an engagement with Yang the year after their acquaintance and went to study at Oxford University in England along with her. In 1937, he obtained the bachelor's degree from Oxford with the treatise ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries'', and his daughter Qian Yuan was born the same year. He wrote a great many profound literary works in his lifetime. When it comes to Ch'ien Chung-shu, people would think of his representative work ''Fortress Besieged'', which was published in 1947.<br /> <br /> As a realistic satirical novel, ''Fortress Besieged'' is known as &quot;The New Scholars&quot; in the 1940s. The novel is centralized on Fang Hongjian,who returned from studying abroad at the beginning of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression. It depicts the struggles in love, marriage,career and life of a group of intellectuals who were far away from the times and the people during the War of Resistance against Japanese Agression. It reveals their inner poverty, emptiness and lowliness, criticizes the dark reality of the Kuomintang-controlled areas, and reveals the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life. In the preface of the book, Qian said that, &quot;In this book I intended to write about a certain segment of society and a certain kind of people in modern China. In writing about these people, I didn’t forget they are human beings, still human beings with the basic nature of hairless, two-legged animals. &quot;The novel is like an X-ray mirror that reveals the deformed characters and ugly souls of those &quot;hairless and two-legged animals&quot; and analyzes the cultural matrix which is responsible for the deformed characters and ugly souls of these &quot;latest style&quot; literati. Yang Jiang said, &quot;The main connotation of ''Fortress Besieged'' is that those who are besieged by the city want to escape, while those outside want to rush in. This is what most people wish for in life, whether in marriage or career. &quot;The meaning of &quot;fortress besieged&quot; is also stated several times in the novel. It tells people that life is a besieged city everywhere, people have marriage and divorce, divorce and marriage in endless succession,with everlasting confusion and dilemma. The questions that Qian raised in the novel refer to a question of universal significance, which is the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life as a whole. In December 1990, the television series ''Fortress Besieged'' was broadcast on China Central Television(CCTV) and enjoyed great popularity.<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu has made significant achievements in literary research and literary creation. In particular, it is of great significance to carry forward and deny traditional Chinese culture scientifically and learn from foreign culture selectively. He has wrote the collection of essays ''Written in the Margins of Life''(1941), the collection of short stories ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts''(1946), and the novel ''Fortress Besieged''(1947). Both his essays and novels are wise and meaningful. Qian has read Chinese history, philosophy and literary classics in depth and has studied western old and new literature, philosophy and psychology. Many of his works, such as ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideaas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', have enjoyed high reputation in academic circles both at home and abroad.<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu viewd China and the world with a cultural criticism spirit. Based on his profound knowledge of Chinese and world culture, Qian has always shown a clear mind and a deep insight when observing Chinese and Western culture. He didn't reject any theories or doctrines, nor did he blindly follow any authorities. He devoted his life to promoting Chinese literature and art to the world. To this end, he not only explicated the profound meaning and unique value of Chinese culture in depth, but also pointed out its historical and regional limitations. He not only criticized the Chinese for their arrogance towards the local culture due to certain illusions, but also mercilessly eliminated the Westerners' prejudice centered on European and American culture due to ignorance. It is Ch'ien Chung-shu who has promoted cultural communication between China and other countries.<br /> <br /> November 21st,2020 is the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu. People often call him a well-informed scholar, but he is more of a down-to-earth writer and scholar. He was indifferent to fame and wealth and alaways took a rigorous and serious attitude towards academic research. We feel ourselves in an entirely new world when we read the subtle metaphors in ''Fortress Besieged'', while we read ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', we are amazed at Qian's erudition. People all over the world admire his talent, but in fact,it is his meticulous and diligent reading spirit that makes him a well-informed scholar. Many of his life experiences and the question of whether his scholarship was systematic or not have attracted much attention. Wang Shuizhao, professor of Chinese Department of Fudan University, who has studied and worked with Ch'ien Chung-shu for a long time, has recently published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'', in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements based on the first-hand historical data, his personal experiences and his own understanding of academia, and gives answers to the questions discueesed widely, such as Qian's experience of being falsely accused, whether there exists system in his scholarship and the collision of viewpoints between Qian and Chen Yinke.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries'' 《十七十八世纪英国文学中的中国》<br /> <br /> ''Fortress Besieged'' 《围城》<br /> <br /> Kuomintang-controlled areas 国统区<br /> <br /> ''Written in the Margins of Life'' 《写在人生边上》<br /> <br /> ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts'' 《人·兽·鬼》<br /> <br /> ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' 《管锥编》<br /> <br /> ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'' 《谈艺录》<br /> <br /> the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu 钱钟书诞辰110周年纪念日<br /> <br /> ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu '' 《钱钟书的学术人生》<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.What is Ch'ien Chung-shu's representative work? When was it published?<br /> <br /> 2.When was the TV series ''Fortress Besieged'' broadcast?<br /> <br /> 3.Do you know other works about Ch'ien Chung-shu? Can you list some of them?<br /> <br /> 4.Which book did Wang Shuizhao publish in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu? What does he talk about in this book?<br /> <br /> 5.Which sentence is your favoriate in ''Fortress Besieged''? <br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Ch'ien Chung-shu's representive work is ''Fortress Besieged''. It was published in 1947.<br /> <br /> 2.It was broadcast in December 1990.<br /> <br /> 3.''Patchwork:Seven Essays on Art and Literature''（《七缀集》） and ''Poetic Remains of an Ephemeral Life''（《槐聚诗存》）.<br /> <br /> 4.Wang Shuizhao published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'' in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu, in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements.<br /> <br /> 5.&quot;I want to be able to occupy the whole life of the man I love. Before meeting me, he would have had no past and would be waiting for me with a clean slate.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧， 202070080597，MTI==<br /> <br /> '''相声 Crosstalk'''<br /> <br /> ===The Development of Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> Crosstalk, in the ancient time was known as onomatopoeia, originally refers to imitate others’ voices. It was evolved and further developed from the folk opera in North China, and integrated with imitating oral skills and other folk art forms. It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty. It’s a folk vocal art that uses jokes or funny questioning and answering to make the audience laugh. In the early years of the Republic of China (1912-1949), crosstalk gradually developed from one-person ventriloquism to one person stand-up talk, and the name changed to cross talk. Later, it developed into stand-up crosstalk, dual crosstalk, and group crosstalk. And become a veritable form of art. After years of development, dual crosstalk has finally become the most popular form of crosstalk among audiences.In the late Qing Dynasty, crosstalk formed its modern features and styles. The language uses in crosstalk is mainly Beijing dialect, however, there are also “dialect crosstalk” in other regions of China. (360 Encyclopedia)<br /> <br /> <br /> Crosstalk is a original folk art in China, with a long historical tradition, deeply loved by the majority of the people. The once-dead crosstalk art has been reborn and developed very rapidly especially since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. It is no longer confined to several cities in the north, nor spread only within the citizens, but also spread from the north to the whole country, from the city to the countryside, and from the citizens to all strata. (Hou Baolin, 1982:01)<br /> <br /> ===Four Basic Skills in Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> Speaking, imitating, teasing and singing are the four basic artistic skills of crosstalk. “Speaking” means to tell jokes, stories, lantern riddles, drinking games, etc; “imitating” is to imitate all kinds of birds and animals, hawking, singing and the sound of different languages, etc; “teasing” is to gag and tease; “sing” means to sing Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity, so they are called Taiping) (1982:194), opera lyrics and songs. Crosstalk artists regard “speaking, imitating, teasing and singing” as their “four compulsory lessons”. For example, by saying “tongue twisters” or “reciting classical repertoires” to grasp the rhythm in language and correct the pronunciation. By learning all kinds of sounds to gain the ability to imitate. To practice singing skills by singing “Taiping lyrics” , opera lyrics and songs. (Hou Baolin, 1982:11)<br /> <br /> ===Characteristics of Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> First of all, crosstalk is the art of “speaking”, which belongs to the art of “performing with words”, it is different from drama that “performing with body movements”. This kind of performance has a close relationship between the actors and the audience and shortened the distance between the stage and the audience. The actors directly communicate with the audience and perform with the audience's cooperation and tacit understanding to obtain artistic effect. In this sense, crosstalk is a collective performance of actors and audiences. From the perspective of the audience, they are not standing on the opposite side of the actors and appreciating the stage performance passively and objectively, but creating artistic images with the actors. (Hou Baolin. 1982:02)<br /> <br /> Secondly, crosstalk is the art of laughter. Crosstalk uses laughter as a weapon to expose contradictions, shape characters and evaluate life. Without laughter, it can constitute any other arts, but not crosstalk and comedy. In other words, crosstalk has the characteristics of humor and satire. It reflects that life is not flat, but exaggerated and even deformed. China has a long tradition of satirizing emperors or high rank officials, its written record could be traced back to the Zhou (1046BC-256BC) and Qin (221BC-207BC) Dynasties. Satire is the product of class oppression. China has been in a feudalistic society for a long time, without political democracy and freedom of speech, the people often take circuitous methods to fight against the ruling class. Satirical art is like a weed under a boulder. Only through deformation and roundabout can this kind of art maintain to exist. (Hou Baolin. 1982:03)<br /> <br /> <br /> “Speaking” and “laughing” constitute the basic outline of cross talk art, which is a language performance art with comedy style. “Speaking”, as a kind of rap art, establishes the mode of crosstalk art, which is distinguished from drama art. “Laughing” is the artistic characteristics of crosstalk, which distinguishes it from other rap art forms. These two characteristics are interdependent and complementary. (Hou Baolin. 1982:04)<br /> <br /> Crosstalk belongs to the art of drama, but it is different from comedy. In comedy, the laughter of audience mainly comes from plot and comic characters, while in crosstalk it mainly comes from “baofu” (jokes). Sometimes it relies on the plot, sometimes it is not needed, but win the applaud of audience by the charm of language. “Baofu” must be expressed in the way of “dialogue” and “chatting” between the actors . (Hou Baolin. 1982:04)<br /> <br /> ===Famous Artists of CrossTalk===<br /> <br /> In Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) and Emperor Guangxu (1875—1908) periods, Zhu Shaowen (stage name “Qiong Bupa, which means not afraid of poverty”) was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art. Other famous crosstalk artists including Hou Baolin(1917-1993), a pioneering master of crosstalk. In his 60 years of art career, he has devoted himself to the research and development of crosstalk art and brought laughter to the audience. Under his leadership and promotion, crosstalk art has really entered thousands of households and reached a remarkable artistic peak. His crosstalk works including Drama Talks, Drunkenness and etc. Ma Sanli (1914-2003) is the son of the crosstalk actor Ma Delu. Ma Sanli devoted himself to the exploration of long-term artistic practice, and created the unique “Ma’s Style of Crosstalk”. He was the oldest, most experienced and most accomplished crosstalk leader in the cross-talk circle at that time. So was deeply loved and respected by all walks of life and the audience. Ma's cross talk enjoys wide popularity among the people. In Tianjin, it was a saying that “no branches of crosstalk did not learn from Ma”. His representative works including “Eating Yuanxiao(dumpling)”, “Selling Tickets” and “the Yellow Crane Tower” . Other famous crosstalk artists include Zhang Yongxi, Liu Baorui, Hou Yaowen, Jiang Kun, Feng Gong, Niu Qun and Guo Degang. (Baijiahao, 2018 )<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> speaking, imitating, teasing and singing 说学逗唱<br /> <br /> Taiping lyrics 太平歌词<br /> <br /> Baofu 包袱<br /> <br /> Drama Talks 《戏剧杂谈》<br /> <br /> Drunkenness 《醉酒》<br /> <br /> Selling Tickets 《卖挂票》<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.When did crosstalk form its format?<br /> <br /> 2.What is Taiping lyrics?<br /> <br /> 3.Who was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art ?<br /> <br /> 4.What are the four basic skills of crosstalk?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty.<br /> <br /> 2.Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity) is the content to be sang in the crosstalk.<br /> <br /> 3.Zhu Shaowen.<br /> <br /> 4.They are speaking, imitating, teasing and singing.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> 1.Hou Baolin，Xue Baokun，1982，《相声溯源》，People's Education Press<br /> 2.https://cul.sohu.com/20090619/n264630449.shtml<br /> 3.https://baike.so.com/doc/1925383-2037001.html<br /> 4.https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1590742532351773378<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> Go 围棋--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:04, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===GO - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI===<br /> Go is an adversarial game with the objective of surrounding a larger total area of the board with one's stones than the opponent[1]. As the game progresses, the players position stones on the board to map out formations and potential territories. Contests between opposing formations are often extremely complex and may result in the expansion, reduction, or wholesale capture and loss of formation stones.[2]<br /> <br /> A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board. One or more liberties enclosed within a group is called an eye, and a group with two or more eyes cannot be captured, even if surrounded.[3] Such groups are said to be unconditionally alive.<br /> <br /> The general strategy is to expand one's territory, attack the opponent's weak groups (groups that can be killed), and always stay mindful of the &quot;life status&quot; of one's own groups. The liberties of groups are countable. Situations where mutually opposing groups must capture each other or die are called capturing races, or semeai. In a capturing race, the group with more liberties (and/or better &quot;shape&quot;) will ultimately be able to capture the opponent's stones. Capturing races and the elements of life or death are the primary challenges of Go.<br /> <br /> Players may pass rather than place a stone if they think there are no further opportunities for profitable play. The game ends when both players pass or when one player resigns. In general, to score the game, each player counts the number of unoccupied points surrounded by their stones and then subtracts the number of stones that were captured by the opponent. The player with the greater score (after adjusting for komi) wins the game.<br /> <br /> In the opening stages of the game, players typically establish positions (or &quot;bases&quot;) in the corners and around the sides of the board. These bases help to quickly develop strong shapes which have many options for life (self-viability for a group of stones that prevents capture) and establish formations for potential territory. Players usually start in the corners because establishing territory is easier with the aid of two edges of the board. Established corner opening sequences are called &quot;joseki&quot; and are often studied independently.<br /> <br /> &quot;Dame&quot; are points that lie in between the boundary walls of black and white, and as such are considered to be of no value to either side. &quot;Seki&quot; are mutually alive pairs of white and black groups where neither has two eyes. A &quot;ko&quot; (Chinese and Japanese: 劫) is a repeated-position shape that may be contested by making forcing moves elsewhere. After the forcing move is played, the ko may be &quot;taken back&quot; and returned to its original position.[30] Some &quot;ko fights&quot; may be important and decide the life of a large group, while others may be worth just one or two points. Some ko fights are referred to as &quot;picnic kos&quot; when only one side has a lot to lose. The Japanese call it a hanami (flower-viewing) ko. <br /> <br /> Playing with others usually requires a knowledge of each player's strength, indicated by the player's rank (increasing from 30 kyu to 1 kyu, then 1 dan to 7 dan, then 1 dan pro to 9 dan pro). A difference in rank may be compensated by a handicap—Black is allowed to place two or more stones on the board to compensate for White's greater strength. There are different rule-sets (Korean, Japanese, Chinese, AGA, etc.), which are almost entirely equivalent, except for certain special-case positions.<br /> <br /> Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, there are essentially only two rules in Go:<br /> • Rule 1 (the rule of liberty) states that every stone remaining on the board must have at least one open &quot;point&quot; (an intersection, called a &quot;liberty&quot;) directly orthogonally adjacent (up, down, left, or right), or must be part of a connected group that has at least one such open point (&quot;liberty&quot;) next to it. Stones or groups of stones which lose their last liberty are removed from the board.<br /> • Rule 2 (the &quot;ko rule&quot;) states that the stones on the board must never repeat a previous position of stones. Moves which would do so are forbidden, and thus only moves elsewhere on the board are permitted that turn.<br /> Almost all other information about how the game is played is a heuristic, meaning it is learned information about how the game is played, rather than a rule. Other rules are specialized, as they come about through different rule-sets, but the above two rules cover almost all of any played game.[4]<br /> Although there are some minor differences between rule-sets used in different countries, most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules, these differences do not greatly affect the tactics and strategy of the game.<br /> <br /> Except where noted, the basic rules presented here are valid independent of the scoring rules used. The scoring rules are explained separately. Go terms for which there is no ready English equivalent are commonly called by their Japanese names.<br /> <br /> The two players, Black and White, take turns placing stones of their colour on the intersections of the board, one stone at a time. The usual board size is a 19×19 grid but for beginners, or for playing quick games, the smaller board sizes of 13×13 and 9×9 are also popular.[5] The board is empty to begin with. Black plays first, unless black is given a handicap of two stones or more (in which case, white plays first). The players may choose any unoccupied intersection to play on, except for those forbidden by the ko and suicide rules (see below). Once played, a stone can never be moved and can be taken off the board only if it is captured. A player may also pass, declining to place a stone, though this is usually only done at the end of the game when both players believe nothing more can be accomplished with further play. When both players pass consecutively, the game ends and is then scored.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Go 围棋 heuristic 启发式的<br /> adversarial game 对抗性游戏 intersection 交叉点<br /> board 棋盘 black 黑棋<br /> formation 阵型 white 白棋<br /> move 走棋 scoring rule 计分规则<br /> liberty 自由度 player 棋手<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1, What’s the basic principle of Go?<br /> <br /> <br /> 2,Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, What are other two essential rules in Go？<br /> <br /> <br /> 3, What countries have the most notable scoring rules differences?--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1, A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board.<br /> <br /> 2,The rule of liberty and the &quot;ko rule&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3, Most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Matthews, Charles (2004). Teach Yourself Go. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-142977-1.<br /> <br /> [2]NRICH Team, Going First, University of Cambridge, retrieved 2007-06-16<br /> <br /> [3]Iwamoto, Kaoru (1977). Go for Beginners. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 978-0-394-73331-9.<br /> <br /> [4]British Go Association, Comparison of some go rules, retrieved 2007-12-20<br /> <br /> [5]Kim, Janice; Jeong, Soo-hyun (1997). Learn to Play Go. Five volumes (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Good Move Press. ISBN 978-0-9644796-1-6.<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜,202070080598 MTI--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:21, 14 December 2020 (UTC)==<br /> <br /> ===The Four Most Handsome men in Ancient China===<br /> It is said that there were four most beautiful women in ancient times, and corresponding to that, it is worth mentioning that there were four most attractive men at that time.Despite that we consider these four men as attractive, this refers to more than just their appearance. They have a common feature: it proves that while their appearance is marvelous, they are also outstanding in literature. Namely, as a Chinese saying goes, they are endowed with both beauty and talent.<br /> These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> The allusion of “throwing fruit to fill a carriage” originates from Pan An, which resembles movie fans nowadays to see their idols. There is a comment on Pan An’s appearance: &quot;No more and no less.&quot; The history books also describe Pan An with three words “good-looking, well-mannered, and graceful”. Although these did not describe Pan An’s appearance in details, such as eyebrows and eyes or lips, from these side descriptions, we can know that Pan An’s appearance is far above ordinary people, and even his styles draw imitation from others. <br /> At the same time, Pan An is known as “the flower of a county in Heyang”, and he is also one of the few men who are compared with flowers to be praised for excellent appearance. The beauty of exterior only fails to last long in this world. Pan An's talent and temperament and the devotion to his wife are also often eulogized. Pan Yue showed his unusual talent since he was a child, and he was called a child prodigy by the villagers. In his early years, he was appreciated by an official and recommended as a scholar. <br /> Later, served as the magistrate of Heyang (now Meng County, Henan), he was diligent in political affairs, and advocated the people to plant more fruits and trees. The county was full of trees and peaches and plums everywhere, known as “Flower County”. During his administration, his political achievements were remarkable. Besides, Pan An holds a special place in the history of literature. He was good at composing verse and orders, expatiation, and skilled in the choice of words and building of sentences, which fully reflects the characteristics of Taikang literature that pays attention to the beauty of form. <br /> He was expert in composing Ci lyric of sorrow and admonishment, and his current works such as Widow's Fu, Mourning Poem and other famous works are all known for their narration and empathy. Pan An can be described as both internally and externally blessed.（Liu Xixue 2003,63-64）<br /> <br /> Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. There is a very popular legend about King Lanling. It's believed that King Lanling was a brave and supremely skilled general. However, because he looked very sweet and it seemed hard to frighten the enemy, he often wore a half-mask when fighting, which sounds very fairytale. <br /> Nevertheless, the beauty of King Lanling is beyond doubt and otherworldly. Book of Northern Qi Dynasty described that he was friendly looking and mentally strong, with beautiful voice and appearance.King Lanling spent half his life in military affairs, and made great achievements. While this gave him glory, it also brought bad luck. There is an old Chinese saying that the glow of a inferior from massive achievements will overshadow his superior. <br /> Although the King Lanling did not have the idea of usurping the throne, but the incumbent felt threatened because of his existence itself. In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> Song Yu (about 322 BC-298 BC), as it is widely rumored, a student of Qu Yuan, was born in the capital city of Song Dynasty during the Warring States Period (now Shangqiu, Henan). Song Yu was a writer of Ci lyric of State Chu in the late Warring States period, adept in Ci lyric and even acclaimed as a great poet after Qu Yuan' reputation. Later generations often referred to them as “Qu Song”. Rumors circulate that there are many Ci lyrics from him, and Book of Han records about 16 works, but many of them are lost today.<br /> His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on. He was the first to write about sadness from Autumn and to write about women. His description of women's nature exerts a great influence on later generations such as Cao Zhi. The goddess in Song Yu's The Fu poetry of Goddess embodies the essence of pre-Qin female beauty, recounting the beauty of the goddess of Wushan Mountain in details so much so that later generations have coveted for it for thousands of years.<br /> 16 works survived, among which Nine Discriminations is believed to be truly composed by him. It is equivalent to Qu Yuan's Li Sao or A lament in the history of Chinese literature. Both poets can be called the two shining pearls in Ci lyric at their times.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> <br /> Wei Jie (286-June 20, 312), a metaphysician and an official of the Jin Dynasty. Wei Jie was a noted talker and metaphysicist during the Wei and Jin Dynasties. He was appointed as an assistant of the prince in the matter of politics. In the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Yongjia(AD310), Wei Jie died at the age of 27. Both ancient books and ancients commented on Wei Jie's appearance. Wang Ji reckoned that, “A jade is on my side, and I feel like I am nobody”; “Wandering with Jiu is like sauntering with a pearl on the side, with him shining brightly.”<br /> History Retold as a Mirror for rulers authored by Sima Guang goes into detail: &quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot; Wei Jie not only have a mere marvelous exterior, but also he can discern metaphysics from his perspective. Wei Jie’s views always amaze the concerned parties. <br /> It is said that even three sons of the Wang family, are not as good as the first son of the Wei family, and the three sons of the Wang family were all well-known scholars at that time, and the Wei Jie could be regarded as unmatchable compared with the three in family background, appearance, and talents.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Pan An 潘安<br /> <br /> King Lanling 兰陵王<br /> <br /> Ji Kang 嵇康 <br /> <br /> Wei Jie 卫玠 <br /> <br /> throwing fruit to fill a carriage 掷果盈车<br /> <br /> scholar 秀才<br /> <br /> expatiation 铺陈<br /> <br /> Book of Northern Qi Dynasty 《北齐书》<br /> <br /> the Warring States Period 战国时期<br /> <br /> Book of Han 《汉书》<br /> <br /> Nine Discriminations 《九辨》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Wind 《风赋》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Goddess 《神女赋》<br /> <br /> the goddess of Wushan Mountain 巫山神女<br /> <br /> metaphysician 玄学家<br /> <br /> a noted talker 清谈名士<br /> <br /> History Retold as a Mirror for rulers 《资治通鉴》<br /> <br /> Widow's Fu 《寡妇赋》<br /> <br /> Mourning Poem 《悼亡诗》<br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1.Who are the four most handsome men at ancient time in China?<br /> <br /> 2.Who is Gao Changgong?<br /> <br /> 3.How did Lanlin King die?<br /> <br /> 4.What works did Song Yu compose?<br /> <br /> 5.Who are the two shining pearls in Ci lyric according to the passage?<br /> <br /> 6.What History Retold as a Mirror for rulers comment on Wei Jie?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.<br /> <br /> 2.Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. <br /> <br /> 3.In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King. <br /> <br /> 4.His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on.<br /> <br /> 5.Qu Yuan and Song Yu<br /> <br /> 6.&quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]刘细学.古代四大美男[J].文史天地,2003(06):63-64.<br /> <br /> [2]王真波.四大美男都是怎么死的[J].青年文学家,2008(11):59-60.<br /> <br /> ==Lo, Minh Thao==<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Mogao Grottoes--Lou Cancan 娄灿灿 student no.202070080599 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Mogao Grottoes===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The Mogao Grottoes, known as the Thousand Buddhas Caves, were built on the eastern cliff of Mingsha Mountain, 25 kilometers to the southeast of Dunhuang city. There are 492 caves (well preserved) today, containing over 2,400 painted clay statues and 45,000 square meters of murals and 5 timber structures on the cliff of the southern district. There are also more than 300 caves used as both living room and burying place for monks and painters on the cliff of the northern district. Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes,so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes. From the 4th until the 14th century, caves were constructed by monks to serve as shrines with funds from donors. (Fan Jinshi 2010，170)The major caves were sponsored by patrons such as important asclergies, local ruling elites, foreign dignitaries, as well as Chinese emperors. Other caves may have been funded by merchants and other local people such as women's groups. (Sha Wutian 2020, 122)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes]]====<br /> <br /> ===History===<br /> <br /> Mogao Grottoes were not built in one day. According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff. Later, monk Faliang（法良）came here and joined him cultivating in caves. Since then more and more caves have been excavated over a thousand year. (Whitfield 1990, 8) <br /> <br /> By the time of Northern Liang, small community of monks had formed at this site. The caves initially served only as a place of meditation for hermit monks. Later, they were developed to serve the monasteries that sprang up nearby. Members of the ruling families of Northern Wei and Northern Zhou constructed many caves here, and it flourished in the short-lived Sui Dynasty. By the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Mogao Caves had become a place of worship and pilgrimage for the public. In the Sui Dynasty, Hexi Corridor was controlled by central authority. The emperors were pious followers of Buddhism and they ordered to build stupas across the country. Therefore, more than 100 caves were excavated in Mogao Grottoes within 37 years. By the Tang Dynasty, the number of caves had reached over a thousand. During this period, Dunhuang became the main hub of commerce of the Silk Road and a major religious center. A large number of the caves were constructed during this era, including the two large statues of Buddha at the site, the largest one constructed in 695 following an edict a year earlier by Tang Empress Wu Zitian to build giant statues across the country. The site escaped the persecution of Buddhists ordered by Emperor Wuzong in 845 as it was then under Tibetan control. As a frontier town, Dunhuang had been occupied at various times by other non-Han Chinese people. After the Tang Dynasty, the site went into a gradual decline, and construction of new caves ceased entirely after the Yuan Dynasty. In the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, Mogao Grottoes were preserved and kept by Cao Yijin（曹议金). (MA Shichang 2010, 303) After that, his later generations governed Dunhuang Prefecture and constructed multiple family caves such as Cave 55. (Gao Xiujun 2016, 9) During the Ming Dynasty, the Silk Road was finally abandoned and Dunhuang slowly became depolulated and was forgotten by the outside world. Most of the Mogao caves were abandoned. The site, however, went back to a place of pilgrimage and worship by local people at the beginning of the twentieth century. On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings. Since then, Dunhuang has become well known throughout the world. Both Chinese and foreign scholars have made extensive studies on the findings.(Stein 1912, volume 2)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Taoist Wang Yuanlu.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Taoist Wang Yuanlu]]====<br /> <br /> ===Art===<br /> <br /> The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture and they vary from dynasty to dynasty. There are mainly three types of structural forms of Mogao Grottoes: Vihara, Chaitya and Hall with inverted funnel shaped ceiling. A Chaitya with a central pillar is the main form of the caves in the early period of the Sixteen States, with Northern Wei, Western Wei and Northern Zhou Dynasties included. The murals may be divided into seven sorts:Buddhist figures, Sutra illustration, Buddhist stories, Buddhist historical pictures, Chinese mythologies, donors and decorative designs. Buddhist stories in the murals can be divided into three types: Jataka（佛本生), Buddha’s life and fate story. A Jataka is a narrative which tells of the good deeds performed by Sakyamuni during his perious existence such as prince Sudanda giving up his body to feed the hungry tigers. As to sculptures, they were constructed on a wooden frame, padded with reed, then modelled in clay stucco and finished with paint.（Duan Wenjie 1994, 163) <br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Chaitya with a Central Pillar.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Chaitya with a Central Pillar]]==== <br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body]]====<br /> <br /> The artistic styles in the Sixteen States, which gradually turned away from being primitive and simple to an easy and graceful styles in the Northern Wei, manifested in figures with well-chiseled builds and emaciated looks. In Northern Zhou, the styles of figures show that Chinese art combining the influence of foreign and native styles gradually became more nationalized. The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs. The caves become spacious and more suited for large paintings, such as the Sutra illustrations and huge pictures of Buddha expounding sermons. Bold and vigorous, brush work was painted with intricate and flowing lines. For example, Lotus Sutra on the ceiling of Cave 420 displays a lot of episodes of mountains, forests, rivers, buildings and so on in a limitated space. The theme and art in the Sui Dynasty show an important devdelopment in traditional art and indicate a comimg glorious new era. In Tang Dynasty, the caves are large with an inverted funnel shaped ceiling. The murals consist mostly of huge paintings of stories from Buddhist Sutras with well-regulated scenes and well-balanced composition. The figures at that time have round and plump faces and curved eyebrows which expresses the aesthetical taste of the people living in Tang. The mural in Cave 220 contains vivid portraits of the Emperor and his ministers listening to a sermon. The ministers attending to Emperor are each bestowed with differrent appearances and expressions. Some are natural and graceful and some cautious. The well-proportioned painted statues were made with more consummate care and attention to the detail, showing us the solemn Buddha. In addition, very tall and colossal statues of Buddha began to be made. The outstanding one is an early Tang Dynasty statue 34 metres high in Cave 96. In 781-848A.D, Hexi region fell into the Tibetan. Hence, there was an interesting changes: the king of the Tibetan took the place of central-plain emperors in the wall-painting.( Fan Jinshi 2010, 175) <br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 251 in Northern Wei.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 251 in Northern Wei]]====<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty]]====<br /> <br /> <br /> By the time of the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, the grottoes carved in this period are very large and different in form and layout. The subject and style of the statues and murals remain the influence from Tang Dynasty, but the use of colours and the drawing techniques show a simple folk style. From the 9th century to 12th, the Uygur had been in Dunhuang. The artistic styles bear the imprint of both Han and Uygur. The Uygur murals are generally characterized by the simplicity of the subject, the looseness of the arrangement, the direct and rough brush strokes. The human figures have features of certain minority groups. In the Western Xia Dynasty(1036-1227), most of caves were repaired and renovated, and only 10 caves were built because of the limited cliffs. Compared to the Yulin Grottoes at the same time, painting of Dunhuang display the Pure-land Sutra, containing simpler content. Only 27 caves are extant in Yuan times(1227-1372). The murals in Cave 3, however, still remain the Tang and Song techniques, namely using different types of drawing to depict different parts of human figures such as iron-wire lines, orchid-leaf strokes and broken-reef strokes, etc. Since the 15th century, the Mogao Grottoes had gradually fallen into neglect in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. (Rong Xinjiang 1999, 248)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty]]====<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> hermit 隐士<br /> <br /> stupas 舍利塔<br /> <br /> Emperor Wuzong ofTang Dynasty 唐武宗<br /> <br /> Vihara 精舍<br /> <br /> Chaitya 支提窟<br /> <br /> stucco 灰泥<br /> <br /> Sakyamuni 释迦牟尼<br /> <br /> Sutras 佛经<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What do Dunhuang Grottoes refer to?<br /> <br /> 2.Who built the first cave and when?<br /> <br /> 3.In 1900, who found the treasure-house in Mogao Grottoes and what were stored in it?<br /> <br /> 4.How many aspects does the art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of and what are they respectively?<br /> <br /> 5.What are the characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes, so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes.<br /> <br /> 2.According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff.<br /> <br /> 3.On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings.<br /> <br /> 4.The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture.<br /> <br /> 5.The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Fan Jinshi 樊锦诗.(2010). ''敦煌石窟'' [The Caves of Dunhuang]. Gansu: The Dunhuang Academy 敦煌研究院. <br /> <br /> Gao Xiujun 高秀军.(2016). ''敦煌莫高窟第55窟研究'' [Research on the 55th Grotto of Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang].Lanzhou University 兰州大学.<br /> <br /> MA Shichang.(2010). Buddhist Cave-temples and the Cao Family at Mogao Ku, Dunhuang. MA Shichang,27(2),303-317.<br /> <br /> Rong Xinjiang 荣新江. (2010).'' 敦煌藏经洞的性质及其封闭原因'' [The Nature of the Dunhuang Library Cave and the Reasons for Its Sealing]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Sha Wutian 沙武田. (2020). 佛教供养与政治宣传——敦煌莫高窟第156窟供养人画像研究 [Buddhist offerings and Political Propaganda -- A Study on the Portrait of the Patron of the 156th Grottoes in Dunhuang].''中原文物'' Cultural Relics in Central Plain, No.215,118-128.<br /> <br /> Stein, M. Aurel. Ruins of Desert Cathay.(1912). Personal Narrative of Explorations in Central Asia and Westernmost China, volume 2. London: Macmillan.<br /> <br /> Suemori Kaoru. (2020).&quot;Thousand-Buddha images in Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes: Religious spaces created by polychromatic patterns&quot;. Kyoto: Hozokan. <br /> <br /> DuanWenjie. (1994). Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie. Abhinav Publications. p. 163.<br /> <br /> Whitfield, Roderick and Farrer, Anne, Caves of the Thousand Buddhas. (1990). Chinese Art from the Silk Route, British Museum Publications. P . 5-20.<br /> <br /> https://books.google.ru/books?hl=zh-CN&amp;lr=&amp;id=vYPNqlAMZWAC&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PP7&amp;dq=info:9v6pr21oST8J:scholar.google.com/&amp;ots=s-uXhnyDBp&amp;sig=u3H7MAh_OpGRS6Iwxoqx0rC5_fo&amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false<br /> <br /> https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogao_Caves<br /> <br /> https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=zh-CN&amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;q=mogao+grottoes&amp;oq=<br /> <br /> ==Four State-level Cultural Relics Luo Weijia罗维嘉 Student No.202070080600==<br /> <br /> ===Four State-level Cultural Relics===<br /> <br /> China, home to one of the world’s most ancient civilizations, abounds in cultural relics, from ancient tombs, architecture, instruments to handicrafts, historical books and so on. They embody rich information about history and culture and vividly display the process of Chinese cultural development. The astounding artistic and technological levels shown in those relics continue to impress people today.<br /> <br /> ====Houmuwu Ding====<br /> <br /> In ancient China, ding was a symbol of imperial power. Therefore, ding is often used in phrases and expressions in the Chinese language to imply authority. For instance, wending, literally “enquiring about ding”, means plotting to usurp political power, yiyan juiding, literally “One word of promise is equal to nine dings”, means a decisive comment.<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding,or Houmuwu Ding, was a very precious cultural relic, found in 1937 in Anyang of Henan Province (Zhang Peng:86-89).It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago. This square-shaped ding is the largest existing bronzeware in the ancient world. It is now housed in the National Museum of China in Beijing. <br /> <br /> Ding was a cooking vessel probably used to boil or cook food in the primitive society. At that time, dings were made of clay. During the Shang and Zhou (11th century-771 BC) dynasties, bronze cast technology reached a very high level in China. Therefore, people used bronze to cast ding. However, dings were no longer cooking utensils in ordinary people’s life but an object for important ceremonies to offer sacrifices. <br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding was cast by Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty as a ritual object for a ceremony to offer sacrifices to his mother. The three characters simuwu form an inscription on the inside of the sidewall. According to archeologists, si means sacrificial ceremony and muwu is the name of the emperor’s mother. Later on, Simuwu became the name of this huge ding (Zhang Peng:86-89).<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding is 1.33m high, 1.10m long and 0.78m wide, weighing 832.84kg. At that time, it needed 1000kg of metal and two to three hundred workers to produce it. This ding is solid in build, magnificent in appearance and was made with fine craftsmanship. The four pillar legs are thick and powerful. Each side has a blank space in the middle, surrounded by a band of decoration featuring taotie (animal faced creatures) and kuilong (one-legged dragons), symbolic of harvest and auspiciousness. Simuwu Ding represents the highest level of bronze cast technology in the Shang and Zhou dynasties.<br /> <br /> ==== The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi ====<br /> <br /> The chime bells, or bianzhong, are a kind of percussion musical instrument made of bronze. China is the earliest country to manufacture and use such instrument. Chime bells were divided into groups according to their size, temperament, pitch and were hang on a rack. A small hammer or wooden club is used to hit the bell to make a resonant and agreeable sound.<br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are the largest and the most complete ancient chimes existing today in China. They were unearthed from the tomb of Yi, the Marquis of Zeng, a small state of the Warring States Period (475 BC- 221 BC), in 1978. When they were found, all bells were still hanging on their rack. They are now preserved in Hubei Museum(Gao Nan:29). <br /> <br /> There are altogether 65 bells hung in eight groups on wooden or bronze bars. The rack, 10.79m long, 2.67m high, is made of three bars, namely, the upper, middle and lower bars, held up by six bronze warriors and a few round, wooden posts. The 65 bells weigh over 2500kg. The largest bell is 1.52m in height and weighs more than 203.6kg. The smallest bell is about 20cm in height and weighs 2.4kg (Gao Nan:29). It is extremely rare tosee a set with so many bells of such weight and size. <br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are exquisitely cast and look very elegant. To help artists to perform music, there are instructions on each bell with 3700 characters in all (Wan Quanwen:1-2). There are also words about the hanging indication and musical temperament that are called the “valuable music theory work”. The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi show that, as early as the Warring States Period, China already had a very rich musical culture. The chime bells still could produce a pure and accurate note after unearthed. The tone is excellent and the timbre is pure. <br /> <br /> After excavation of the chime, Chinese musicians created a melody entitled Bianzhong Yuewu (music and dance accompanied by chime bells), to once again demonstrate the charm of ancient Chinese music. <br /> <br /> ==== Jade Suit with Gold Thread ====<br /> <br /> Ordinarily, the texture of clothes is cotton, flax or silk. However, there were suits made of gold and jade, that is “Jade Suit with Gold Thread”.<br /> <br /> The emperors of the Han Dynasty believed that jade could prevent their corpses from decaying, and they regarded jade as full of dignity and nobility. Therefore, they used jade suits as their grave clothes. Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade separately that are called Jade Suit Sewn with Gold Thread, Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread and Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread.<br /> <br /> The two sets of jade suits of the Han Dynasty tomb unearthed in Mancheng of Hebei Province in 1968 revealed to the world the real features of such grave clothes (Li Yawen:38-39). Their owners were Liu Sheng, Prince Jing of Zhongshan, and his wife, Dou Wan, of the Western Han Dynasty(206 BC-25 AD). <br /> <br /> In appearance, a jade suit follows the shape of a human body. It consists of five parts, i.e., head mask, coat, trousers, gloves and shoes. Each part is made of pieces of jade. The size and shape of each jade piece was designed according to its position. Most jade pieces are shaped in square or rectangular form, but there are a few in trapezoid, triangle or multi sided shapes. Each jade piece is perforated at its corners, through which a gold thread goes through to sew the pieces together. Liu Sheng’s jade suit is rather large, 1.88m long and made up of 2498 pieces. The gold thread used for this suit is about 700g in weight (Li Yawen:38-39). <br /> <br /> Such refined suits made some 2000 years ago in the Han Dynasty indicate the high design level and excellent craftsmanship of that time. In fact, of course, the rulers’ dream of preventing their corpses from decaying could never be realized. The practice of wearing jade suits was banned during the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280).<br /> <br /> ==== Bronze Galloping Horse ====<br /> <br /> In 1969, a galloping horse in bronze was unearthed in an Eastern Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) tomb in Wuwei, Gansu Province in western China. The bronze statue is a famous representative sculpture of the Han Dynasty. Wuwei County leapt to fame with the discovery of this national treasure.<br /> <br /> The 34.5 cm-high bronze horse, covered with spots of verdigris, has a full and robust body. The prancing legs, flying tail, slightly dilated nostrils portray a galloping horse. What is ingenious about it is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow. That means the galloping horse is faster than a flying swallow (Wang Qian:10-11). The positioning of its four legs strictly conforms to that of a living horse and is highly praised by many local and foreign archeologists and artists. <br /> <br /> In this work, Chinese ancient artists combined realism and romanticism, and ingeniously integrated galloping horse and flying swallow through rich imagination, original conception and skillful craftsmanship (Wang Qian:10-11). The swift flying swallow sets off the amazingly fast speed of the galloping horse. According to analysis of its mechanics, Bronze Galloping Horse finds a center of gravity in the swallow to give the statue its stability. The romantic image of the swallow sets off the power and strength of the horse, providing a rich imaginative experience for viewers. <br /> <br /> Bronze Galloping Horse is believed to be a portrayal of the &quot;heavenly steed&quot; of Chinese legend. It is of high craftsmanship, fully expressive of the horse-breeding culture of China's western regions. It has become a symbol of Chinese tourism and a representative work that brings forth the time-honored cultural tradition of the Chinese nation and the oriental aesthetics to the world. The cultural relic is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> Houmuwu Ding 后母戊鼎<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding 司母戊鼎<br /> <br /> Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty 商王武丁<br /> <br /> taotie 饕餮<br /> <br /> National Museum of China 中国国家博物馆<br /> <br /> chime bells/bian zhong 编钟<br /> <br /> Marquis Yi 曾侯乙<br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi 曾侯乙编钟<br /> <br /> Bianzhong Yuewu 《编钟乐舞》<br /> <br /> Hubei Museum 湖北省博物馆<br /> <br /> Jade Suit with Gold Thread 金缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread 银缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread 铜缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Bronze Galloping Horse 铜奔马/ 马踏飞燕<br /> <br /> Gansu Provincial Museum 甘肃省博物馆<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1. What does ding symbolize?<br /> <br /> 2. When was Houmuwu Ding produced?<br /> <br /> 3.How many bells do the chime bells of Marquis Yi contain?<br /> <br /> 4.What is the size of the largest bell?<br /> <br /> 5.What kind of thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade?<br /> <br /> 6.When did the Jade Suit with Gold Thread unearth?<br /> <br /> 7.What is ingenious about the Galloping Horse?<br /> <br /> 8.Where is Bronze Galloping Horse preserved now?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Ding was a symbol of imperial power. <br /> <br /> 2.It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago. <br /> <br /> 3.They contain 65 bells.<br /> <br /> 4.The largest bell exceeds 1.5m in height and weighs more than 200kg.<br /> <br /> 5.Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade.<br /> <br /> 6.It unearthed in 1968.<br /> <br /> 7.It is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow. <br /> <br /> 8.It is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Zhang Peng 张鹏.(2020).青铜大师杜廼松:“司母戊鼎”名称不容置疑[No Doubt about the Name of Simuwu Ding].中国民族博览 (09):86-89.<br /> <br /> [2]Wan Quanwen 万全文.(2020).曾侯乙编钟[The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi].文史知识 (11):1-2.<br /> <br /> [3]Gao Nan 高楠.(2020).音乐中的国家宝藏——曾侯乙编钟[National Treasure in Music].琴童 (01):29.<br /> <br /> [4]Li Yawen 李雅雯.(2019)浅说满城汉墓中的金缕玉衣 [The Study of Jade Suit with Gold Thread Unearthed in Mancheng].文物鉴定与鉴赏 (03):38-39.<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Qian 王倩.(2020).青铜雕塑“马踏飞燕”的研究[The Study of the Bronze Sculpture ——the Galloping Horse].艺术品鉴, (26):10-11.<br /> <br /> == Architecture and Gardens, The Forbidden City Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴 Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> ===The Forbidden City===--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 08:30, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====I.Introduction==== <br /> The Forbidden City (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng) is a palace complex in Dongcheng District, Beijing, China, and with a total area of 720,000 square meters (180 acres). It lies in the center of Beijing's central axis. Today, the Forbidden City houses the Palace Museum, and was the former Chinese imperial palace and residence of the Emperor of China from the Ming dynasty (since the Yong Le Emperor) to the end of the Qing dynasty, between 1420 and 1924. The Forbidden City served as the home of Chinese emperors and their households and was the ceremonial and political center of the Chinese government.(Barmé, Geremie R 2018,26)<br /> The Forbidden City is a national AAAAA tourist attraction and was listed as the first batch of key cultural relics under national protection in 1961. What’s more, it was declared a world cultural heritage in 1987, and listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.(UNESCO,2007)<br /> ====[[File:A Panaroma view of the Forbidden City.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A Panaroma view of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====II.The Name of the Forbidden City====<br /> The common English name &quot;Forbidden City&quot; is a translation of the Chinese name Zijin Cheng (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng; English: Purple Forbidden City). The name Zijin Cheng first formally appeared in the period of Jia Jing. (Li Xieping1997, (04)29-31) In ancient China, the planning concept of &quot;harmony between man and nature&quot; was emphasized. The stars in the sky were used to correspond with the capital planning to highlight the legitimacy of the regime and the supremacy of imperial power. “ Zi ”, or &quot;Purple&quot;, refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star, The emperor of heaven lived in Ziwei palace, while the human emperor claimed to be the &quot;son of heaven&quot; who was ordered by heaven. His residence should be a symbol of Ziwei palace to correspond to the heaven emperor. “Jin” means that this splendid palace symbolizes supreme power and status of the royal family. In that case, this palace was forbidden, no one could enter and leave the palace without the emperor’s permission. Cheng means a city. Today, the site is most commonly known in Chinese as Gùgōng (故宫), which means the &quot;Former Palace&quot;. The museum which is based in these buildings is known as the &quot;Palace Museum&quot; (Chinese: 故宫博物院; pinyin: Gùgōng Bówùyùan).<br /> <br /> ====III.The History of the Forbidden City====<br /> <br /> When Hongwu’s son Zhu Di became the Yong Le Emperor, he moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, and construction began in 1406 on what would become the Forbidden City. Construction lasted 14 years and required more than a million workers. From 1420 to 1644, the Forbidden City was the seat of the Ming dynasty. (Yu Zhuoyun1984,18)In April 1644, it was captured by rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. He set fire to parts of the Forbidden City in the process of retreating to Shannxi. By October, the Manchus had achieved supremacy in northern China, and a ceremony was held at the Forbidden City to proclaim the Emperor Shunzhi as ruler of all China under the Qing dynasty. (Guo Moruo 1944,3.14) In the 22nd year of Kangxi's reign (1683), the reconstruction of the rest of the destroyed buildings of the Forbidden City was started, and it was basically completed in 1695.After being the home of 24 emperors – 14 of the Ming dynasty and 10 of the Qing dynasty – the Forbidden City ceased being the political centre of China in 1912 with the abdication of Puyi, the last Emperor of China. In 1933, the Japanese invasion of China forced the evacuation of the national treasures in the Forbidden City. Part of the collection was returned at the end of World War II, but the other part was evacuated to Taiwan in 1948 under orders of Chiang Kai-shek.After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, some damage was done to the Forbidden City as the country was swept up in revolutionary zeal. During the Cultural Revolution, however, further destruction was prevented when Premier Zhou Enlai sent an army battalion to guard the city.( Xie Mengyin&amp;Qu Wanlin2006, 11.7)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====IV.The Structure of the Forbidden City==== <br /> Firstly, The Forbidden City is a rectangle and symmetric in its layout. Its palaces are arranged along a north-south axis, on which the three main halls, the rear three palaces and the imperial garden are all located. This central axis not only runs through the Forbidden City, but also reaches Yongding Gate in the south, Drum Tower and bell tower in the north, and runs through the whole city.(Xie Li 2005,(03)100-102)<br /> Secondly, the Forbidden City is divided into two parts, the Outer Court and Inner Court. The Outer Court is the place where the emperor deals with political affairs. There are mainly three halls: the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony, and the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The Inner Court or Back Palace includes the northern sections, and was the residence of the Emperor and his family, and was used for day-to-day affairs of state. The inner court takes Palace of Heavenly Purity, Hall of Union and Palace of Earthly Tranquility as its center with six palaces in the east and six palaces in the west.<br /> <br /> ====[[File:The layout of the Forbidden City.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The layout of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====VI The Collections of the Forbidden City==== <br /> The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925, whose extensive collection of artwork and artifacts were built upon the imperial collections of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Part of the museum's former collection is now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. Both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.(Li Wei &amp; Wang Shuo 2005,6-22) <br /> The collections of the Palace Museum are based on the Qing imperial collection, including paintings, ceramics, seals, steles, sculptures, inscribed wares, bronze wares, enamel objects, etc. According to latest audit, it has 1,863,404 pieces of art. They are numbered by &quot;Gu&quot;, &quot;Xin&quot; and &quot;Shu&quot;. Except for the ancient books and documents, all the other collections are labeled with &quot;Gu&quot; and &quot;Xin&quot;. The number of ordinary cultural relics begins with the word &quot;Zi&quot;, and the ceramic specimens begin with the word &quot;Biao&quot;. The general catalogue is divided into 25 categories, and the numbers in each category are sorted from small to large. Many collections once lost and was brought to the Palace Museum, For example, Han Banquet map. And there are some exquisite collections like Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer, Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems and Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.(Website:The Collection of the Palace Museum )In addition, The Palace Museum has one of the largest collections of mechanical timepieces of the 18th and 19th centuries in the world, with more than 1,000 pieces. (Meng Fuxia 2012, (21) 73-74)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Han Banquet map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Han Banquet map]]====<br /> ====[[File:Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance]]====<br /> ====[[File:Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems]]====<br /> ====[[File:Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women]]====<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions==== <br /> palace complex 宫殿群<br /> <br /> central axis 中心轴<br /> <br /> the Palace Museum故宫博物院<br /> <br /> the Yong Le Emperor 永乐皇帝<br /> <br /> key cultural relics under national protection 国家重点文物保护单位<br /> <br /> world cultural heritage 世界文化遗产<br /> <br /> harmony between man and nature 天人合一<br /> <br /> the imperial garden 御花园<br /> <br /> the Hall of Supreme Harmony 太和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Central Harmony 中和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Preserving Harmony 保和殿<br /> <br /> Palace of Heavenly Purity (乾清宮)<br /> <br /> Hall of Union 交泰宫<br /> <br /> Palace of Earthly Tranquility 坤宁宫<br /> <br /> Han Banquet map 韩熙载夜宴图<br /> <br /> Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer陶彩绘女舞俑<br /> <br /> Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems十二生肖镜<br /> <br /> Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women画珐琅西洋人物鼻烟壶<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> 1. What’ s the meaning of “Zi” in the Chinese name Zijin Cheng?<br /> <br /> 2. When was the Forbidden City listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.<br /> <br /> 3.How many emperors have been lived in the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 4.How long did it take to build the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 5.Why some parts of national treasures are in the National Palace Museum in Taipei now.<br /> <br /> 6. What two parts can the Forbidden City be divided into?<br /> <br /> 7.When was the Palace Museum established?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.“Zi” refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star<br /> <br /> 2.In 1897.<br /> <br /> 3.24 emperors.<br /> <br /> 4.14 years.<br /> <br /> 5.Because both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.<br /> <br /> 6.They are the Outer Court and Inner Court.<br /> <br /> 7.The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Barmé, Geremie R(2008). The Forbidden City. Harvard University Press.26.<br /> <br /> UNESCO(2007). &quot;UNESCO World Heritage List: Imperial Palaces of the Ming and Qing Dynasties in Beijing and Shenyang&quot;.<br /> <br /> Li Xieping 李燮平. (1997) &quot;紫禁城&quot;名称始于何时[When did the name of the Forbidden City come into being?]. 紫禁城Forbidden City, (04) 29-31.<br /> <br /> Yu Zhuoyun(1984), Palaces of the Forbidden City, New York: Viking Press,p18.<br /> <br /> Guo Moruo 郭沫若.(1994) 甲申三百年祭[Commemorating 300th Anniversary of the Jia-Sheng Year]. 新华日报 New China Daily, 3.19.<br /> <br /> Xie Li 谢丽.(2005) 北京中轴线上的十七座门[Seventeen doors on the central axis of Beijing].紫禁城 Forbidden City, (03)100-102.<br /> <br /> Meng Fuxia 孟福霞. (2012)北京故宫空间布局构思探源——论中国古代宫殿建筑的美学精神[On the Origin of the Space Layout of the Palace Museum in Beijing--On the Aesthetic Spirit of Ancient Chinese Palace Architecture]大众文艺Popular Literature and Art, (21) 73-74. <br /> <br /> Li Wei&amp;Wang Shuo 刘薇,王硕.2005故宫文物南迁路线图揭秘[Unveiling the Route Map of the Cultural Relics of the Imperial Palace to the South] 华夏经纬网Jinwei Network, 6.22 http://www.huaxia.com/wh/gjzt/2005/00333230.html <br /> <br /> The Collection of the Palace Museum 故宫博物院馆藏https://www. dpm.org.cn /Home.html<br /> <br /> Xie Mengyin &amp; Qu Wanlin 谢荫明,瞿宛林. (2006) “文化大革命” 中谁保护了故宫 [Who protected the Forbidden City in the Cultural Revolution? ].人民网People’s Daily Online,11,7. http://history.people.com.cn/n/2014/0811/c372327-25441615.html<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Marriage Customs Mo Ling 莫玲 202070080602 &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【专业 is missing】&lt;/span&gt;==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 莫玲 Mo Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Marriage Customs===<br /> <br /> China is an ancient country of rites. When it comes to the most important thing in one’s life---marriage, Chinese people have developed a set of unique and grand ceremonies. Generally speaking, weddings in ancient China needed to be approved by parents and arranged by parents. <br /> <br /> China is an ancient country of rites. When it comes to the most important thing in one’s life---marriage, Chinese people have developed a set of unique and grand ceremonies. Generally speaking, weddings in ancient China needed to be approved by parents and arranged by parents. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【quotation is missing】&lt;/span&gt;<br /> ===Six Procedures===<br /> <br /> There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying. Na Cai is the begining of all the marriage procedures. It refersthat if a boy intends to marry a girl, firstly his family must invite a matchmaker to the girl's home to propose marriage. After obtaining the consent of the girl's family , the boy's family should entrust the matchmaker to make a proposal formally with some gifts. Usually, the most common gift is wild goose, which represents fidelity. Besides, mandarin ducks, phoenix and sheep are also frequently-used gifts. Wen Ming means that the boy's family ask the matchmaker to fetch the girl's name and date of birth. There are two purposes of this step: the one is to prevent the marriage of close relatives with the same surname; the other is to assure the compatibility of the potential bride and bridegroom through their “eight characters” of the birth moment. Naji happens after the matchmaker takes back the woman's name and eight characters. If divining an auspicious omen, the boy's family will inform it to the girl’s parents and decide to engage the marriage. What is more, Na Zheng is an important step when the boy sends betrothal presents to the girl and for courtesy the girl will send back part of the presents such as food and some clothes. Qing Qi means that the boy's family choose an auspicious day to hold the wedding ceremony and then dispatch the matchmaker to tell the girl’s family. Qin Ying is the last procedure of the six etiquettes, that is, the groom goes to the bride's home to take the bride to his home.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying. Na Cai is the begining of all the marriage procedures. It refers&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【refers to a practice that..】&lt;/span&gt; that if a boy intends to marry a girl, firstly his family must invite a matchmaker to the girl's home to propose marriage. After obtaining the consent of the girl's family , the boy's family should entrust the matchmaker to make a proposal formally with some gifts. Usually, the most common gift is wild goose, which represents fidelity. Besides, mandarin ducks, phoenix&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【？】&lt;/span&gt; and sheep are also frequently-used gifts. Wen Ming means that the boy's family ask&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【asks】&lt;/span&gt; the matchmaker to fetch the girl's name and date of birth. There are two purposes of this step: the&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【可删】&lt;/span&gt; one is to prevent the marriage of close relatives with the same surname; the other is to assure the compatibility of the potential&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【prospective】&lt;/span&gt; bride and bridegroom through their “eight characters” of the birth moment. Naji happens after the matchmaker takes back the woman's name and eight characters. If divining an auspicious omen, the boy's family will inform it to &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【inform sb of sth 】&lt;/span&gt;the girl’s parents and decide to engage the marriage. What is more, Na Zheng is an important step when the boy sends betrothal presents to the girl and for courtesy the girl will send back part of the presents such as food and some clothes. Qing Qi means that the boy's family choose an auspicious day to hold the wedding ceremony and then dispatch the matchmaker to tell the girl’s family. Qin Ying is the last procedure of the six etiquettes, that is, the groom goes to the bride's home to take the bride to his home.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ===Customs===<br /> <br /> In addition to the six steps mentioned above, there are many other customs in the traditional Chinese wedding ceremony. Generally speaking, ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker, many young people could not master their own marriage. Before wedding ceremony, men and women were not allowed to meet each other in that ancient people were very conservative and most girls were kept in boudoirs. If they met in private before marriage, it would be regarded as a kind of female infidelity and parents would also think it quite unlucky. Under this circumstance, newlyweds could only see each other until the day of marriage.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47-48)<br /> <br /> In addition to the six steps mentioned above, there are many other customs in the traditional Chinese wedding ceremony. Generally speaking, ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker, &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【 connective is missing】&lt;/span&gt;many young people could not master their own marriage. Before wedding ceremony, men and women were not allowed to meet each other in that ancient people were very conservative and most girls were kept in boudoirs. If they met in private before marriage, it would be regarded as a kind of female infidelity and parents would also think it quite unlucky. Under this circumstance, newlyweds could only see each other until the day of marriage.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47-48)<br /> <br /> On the wedding day, the boy’s family will hold a big banquet at home. Before setting out to pick up bride, the bridegroom should first worship his ancestors for the sake of safety and auspice during the process of picking up the bride. After that, the following step is the most grand one among the whole ceremony --- at the dusk moment, the groom and the bride, his parents as well as all the guests will gather together at the central room to witness the kneeling etiquettes of the couple, which consists of 4 steps: The first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber : the bride will be sent into the bridal chamber and the groom will drink with guests until night.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> On the wedding day, the boy’s family will hold a big banquet at home. Before setting out to pick up bride, the bridegroom should first worship his ancestors for the sake of safety and auspice during the process of picking up the bride &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【before or during？】&lt;/span&gt;. After that, the following step is the most grand one among the whole ceremony --- at the dusk moment, the groom and the bride, his parents as well as all the guests will gather together at the central room to witness the kneeling etiquettes of the couple, which consists of 4 steps: The first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber : the bride will be sent into the bridal chamber and the groom will drink with guests until night.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> After wedding ceremony, the couple must return to the girl’s home together at the third day, which is called “Huimen” or “Guiling”. This etiquette is indispensable. The groom should take some gifts for respect and change the way that he calls the bride’s parents, and the latter will also prepare a good meal for the couple’s coming.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> After wedding ceremony, the couple must return to the girl’s home together at the third day, which is called “Huimen” or “Guiling”. This etiquette is indispensable. The groom should take some gifts for respect and change the way that he calls&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【addresses】&lt;/span&gt; the bride’s parents, and the latter will also prepare a good meal for the couple’s coming.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ===Development===<br /> <br /> As time goes by, there are many reforms about marriage right now. Adults own the freedom to choose their spouse and they can meet each other every day if possible. Parents can’t master their “life event” any more.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47) In addition, many couples skip the cumbersome rites in the wedding ceremony. Some of them choose to hold the ceremony in the church with some close relatives and friends and some even finish it through travel.(Zhou Dandi &amp; Yue Shufa 2012,15)Nevertheless, most young people still adopt the main procedures of the traditional Chinese customs, some of which are handed down until right now. There still exist betrothal gifts and dowry, and many couples choose to wear red costumes. The groom should go to the bride’s home to escort her to the wedding and so on. Thus it can be seen that most traditional Chinese marriage customs are deep rooted in the hearts of Chinese people and shows--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC) a unique Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> As time goes by, there are many reforms about marriage right now&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【nowadays】&lt;/span&gt;. Adults own the freedom to choose their spouse and they can meet each other every day if possible. Parents can’t master their “life event” any more.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47) In addition, many couples skip the cumbersome rites in the wedding ceremony. Some of them choose to hold the ceremony in the church with some close relatives and friends and some even finish it through travel.(Zhou Dandi &amp; Yue Shufa 2012,15)Nevertheless, most young people still adopt the main procedures of the traditional Chinese customs, some of which are handed down until right now&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【the present day】&lt;/span&gt;. There still exist betrothal gifts and dowry&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【dowries】&lt;/span&gt;, and many couples choose to wear red costumes. The groom should &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【？】&lt;/span&gt;go to the bride’s home to escort her to the wedding and so on. Thus it can be seen that most traditional Chinese marriage customs are deep&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【deeply】&lt;/span&gt; rooted in the hearts of Chinese people and shows&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【show】&lt;/span&gt;--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC) a unique Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Gao Xiaoqian. 高筱倩.(2017) 中国传统婚嫁习俗研究［The Research on Traditional Chinese Marriage Customs］戏剧之家[Drama House] 235.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yueyong. 张月莹.(2013) 中国近代婚嫁礼俗及婚姻观念转变的探索[A Study on the Change of Marriage customs and Marriage Concepts in Modern China] 松州学刊［Songzhou Academic Journal］ 47-48.<br /> <br /> Zhou Dandi, Yue Shufa. 周丹迪, 岳书法.(2012) 浅析近代以来中国婚嫁民俗的演变[On the evolution of Chinese marriage customs since modern times] 文化学刊[Cultural Academic Journal] 15.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> Na Cai 纳彩 <br /> <br /> Wen Ming 问名<br /> <br /> Na Ji 纳吉 <br /> <br /> Na Zheng 纳征<br /> <br /> Qing Qi 纳征 <br /> <br /> Qin Ying 亲迎<br /> <br /> Huimen 回门 <br /> <br /> Guiling 归宁 <br /> <br /> betrothal presents 彩礼<br /> <br /> the central room 堂屋<br /> <br /> bridal chamber 婚房<br /> <br /> “eight characters” of the birth moment 生辰八字<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.How many procedures are needed from the negotiation to the completion of marriage?<br /> <br /> 2.Did the ancient young people have the rights to decide their own marriage or not and why?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the kneeling etiquettes?<br /> <br /> 4.When the couple have to return to the girl’s home?<br /> <br /> 5.What changes have been made nowadays?<br /> <br /> 6.Please list some new wedding customs.<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying.<br /> <br /> 2.No, they didn’t have the right to decide their own marriage because ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker.<br /> <br /> 3.It consists of 4 steps: the first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber.<br /> <br /> 4.At the third day of the wedding ceremony.<br /> <br /> 5.Adults can choose their spouse by themselves and they can meet each other whenever they want; Some couples choose to hold the ceremony in the church some even finish it through travel, etc.<br /> <br /> 6.Examples:couple can choose to live in the either part of the two families; wedding ceremony can be hold in hotel; the bride can wear white wedding dress rather than the single red in the ancient time.<br /> <br /> ==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br /> <br /> ====Topic: Chinese cinema (dramas and movies) and its popularity and affection in Vietnam====<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac - Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 202070080603专业 is missing--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:16, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br /> <br /> ===Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac===<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:oyltacz.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]2020 is the year of rat according to the Chinese zodiac which consists of twelve animals used by people to name years. The traditional Chinese zodiac has been passed down for more than 2000 years since its origin(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). The twelve zodiac signs are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig, which are assigned in a repeating 12-year cycle(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). This traditional Chinese scheme was originated from China and then has enjoyed a popularity in many other Asian countries(The Editorial Board, 2010: 12-13). With its cultural connotation and time-honored impact, the Chinese zodiac have been engraved in every Chinese people. <br /> <br /> 2020 is the year of rat according to the Chinese zodiac which consists of twelve animals used by people to name years. The traditional Chinese zodiac has been passed down for more than 2000 years since its origin(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). The twelve zodiac signs are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig, which are assigned in a repeating 12-year cycle(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). This traditional Chinese scheme was originated from China and then has enjoyed a popularity in many other Asian countries(The Editorial Board, 2010: 12-13). With its cultural connotation and time-honored impact, the Chinese zodiac have(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;) been engraved in every Chinese people. --[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ====Origin====<br /> <br /> Regarding the origin of the Chinese zodiac, there are various opinions but many of them are presented with no sufficient evidence. There are many myths explaining these animal signs and their arrangement. Among them the most enduring one is the Great Race. In this story, the Jade Emperor, Ruler of the Heavens, wanted to devise a way to measure time, so he organized a race. At the end, the first twelve animals who made it across the river were the winners and so they earned themselves a spot on the zodiac calender in the order they arrived(The Editorial Board, 2010: 6). Besides this folk story, some scholars claim the zodiac scheme was indeed derived from the Twelve Earthly Branches but did not occur at the same time while the Earthly Branches appeared. Since the Han Dynasty, the Earthly Branches have been used to record the time of day. Therefore some hold until that time, the 12 zodiac came into being as a supplementary to refer to the 12 periods of 24 hours. Since the original meaning of the Earthly Branches at that time was obliterated due to the passage of time, the ancient Chinese attached the Earthly Branches and the Ten Heavenly Stems to the zodiac(The Editorial Board, 2010: 5-7). There also stands an opinion that the zodiac signs were originated from the totem worship in the primitive society. According to some research on the origin of Chinese zodiac, there were only twelve earliest surnames in ancient China, which were derived from the names of the twelve animals in the Chinese zodiac scheme. Here the twelve animals refer to the totems at ancient times and different surname tribes use different animals as their totems. Therefore, the twelve animals of Chinese zodiac was developed from the totems of ancient tribes(The Editorial Board, 2010: 4-5).<br /> <br /> Regarding the origin of the Chinese zodiac, there are various opinions but many of them are presented with no sufficient evidence.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;there are various opinions,however,many of them are presented without sufficient evidences&lt;/span&gt;) There are many myths explaining these animal signs and their arrangement. Among them the most enduring(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;time-honored&lt;/span&gt;) one is the Great Race. In this story, the Jade Emperor, Ruler of the Heavens, wanted to devise a way to measure time, so he organized a race. At the end, the first twelve animals who (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;that&lt;/span&gt;)made it across the river were the winners and so they earned themselves a spot on the zodiac calender in the order they arrived(The Editorial Board, 2010: 6). Besides this folk story, some scholars claim the zodiac scheme was indeed derived from the Twelve Earthly Branches but did not occur at the same time while the Earthly Branches appeared. Since the Han Dynasty, the Earthly Branches have been used to record the time of day. Therefore some hold until that time, the 12 zodiac came into being as a supplementary to refer to the 12 periods of 24 hours. Since the original meaning of the Earthly Branches at that time was obliterated due to the passage of time, the ancient Chinese attached the Earthly Branches and the Ten Heavenly Stems to the zodiac(The Editorial Board, 2010: 5-7). There also stands an opinion that the zodiac signs were originated from the totem worship in the primitive society. According to some research(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;researches&lt;/span&gt;) on the origin of Chinese zodiac, there were only twelve earliest surnames in ancient China, which were derived from the names of the twelve animals in the Chinese zodiac scheme. Here the twelve animals refer to the totems at ancient times and different surname tribes use different animals as their totems. Therefore, the twelve animals of Chinese zodiac was developed from the totems of ancient tribes(The Editorial Board, 2010: 4-5).--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Folk Culture and Belief ====<br /> <br /> The zodiac sign not only can reveal one’s age, but also represents his or her personality, career prospects and way of life according to Chinese superstition. <br /> <br /> The zodiac sign not only can (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;can not only&lt;/span&gt;)reveal one’s age, but also represents his or her personality, career prospects and way of life according to Chinese superstition. (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;quotation is missing&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> The Chinese seem to believe that they have some affinity with the animals of the years in which they were born and that their personal traits and fortunes come under their mysterious influence. According to superstitious belief in China, Zodiac animals are combined with the Five Elements that consist of Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth, to tell one's destiny. Since people have their zodic sign's fixed elment, there are many folk beliefs based on this. For example, people born in the years of Metal Rat are believed to have a promising future; people born in the years of Fire Rat are deemed to be clever and intelligent and Wood Rat independent and self-respected(The Editorial Board, 2010: 40). <br /> <br /> The Chinese seem to believe that they have some affinity with the animals of the years in which they were born and that their personal traits and fortunes come under their mysterious influence. According to superstitious belief in China, Zodiac animals are combined with the Five Elements that consist of Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth, to tell one's destiny. Since people have their zodic(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;zodiac&lt;/span&gt;) sign's fixed elment, there are many folk beliefs based on this. For example, people born in the years of Metal Rat are believed to have a promising future; people born in the years of Fire Rat are deemed to be clever and intelligent and Wood Rat independent and self-respected(The Editorial Board, 2010: 40). <br /> <br /> Besides, since the zodiac is determined by the year of birth, there are many implications of one’s birth year. For example, some zodiacal preferences prevail in Chinese population. Chinese have always had a strong affection for the Dragon, so married couples prefer to give births in the year of Dragon. Since dragon is regarded as the auspicious and divine creatures, the children born in these years of dragon are believed to have fortune. These cultural preferences and folk beliefs have influenced prospective parents’ reproductive behavior in the Chinese society(Yip et al., 2002: 1804).<br /> <br /> Besides, since the zodiac is determined by the year of birth, there are many implications of one’s birth year. For example, some zodiacal preferences prevail in Chinese population. Chinese have always had a strong affection for the Dragon, so married couples prefer to give births in the year of Dragon. Since dragon is regarded as the auspicious and divine creatures(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;creature&lt;/span&gt;) , the children born in these years of dragon are believed to have fortune. These cultural preferences and folk beliefs have influenced prospective parents’ reproductive behavior in the Chinese society(Yip et al., 2002: 1804).<br /> <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese people believe certain animals get on better than the others, so the zodiac has had a great impact on marriage as well. Specifically, people who is born in the Year of Tiger would have perfect romance with Pigs, Rabbit with Dogs and Dragon with Roosters. On the contrary, some zodiac signs are believed to have misfortune if they are married with people of certain zodiac. As the Chinese idiom goes, if a dragon and a tiger fight each other, there will be one injured. This old says reflects that dragon and tiger are natural enemies according to the belief(The Editorial Board, 2010: 34-35). And this is the reason why men and women would like to evaluate their Bazi, the Eight Characters, before they get married. However, in reality, personality is related to one’s experience through the life journey rather than the pre-written zodiac signs. People born in the same year would have very distinctive personalities. Similarly, the destiny is also a result of people’s character and most decisions they’ll be making along the way. Of course the marriage is a more complex thing that cannot be deemed to have a pre-given outcome brought by the zodiac.<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese people believe certain animals get on better than the others, so the zodiac has had a great impact on marriage as well. Specifically, people who is(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;are&lt;/span&gt;) born in the Year of Tiger would have perfect romance with Pigs, Rabbit with Dogs and Dragon with Roosters. On the contrary, some zodiac signs are believed to have misfortune if they are married with people of certain zodiac. As the Chinese idiom goes, if a dragon and a tiger fight(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;fight against&lt;/span&gt;) each other, there will be one injured. This old says reflects that dragon and tiger are natural enemies according to the belief(The Editorial Board, 2010: 34-35). And this is the reason why men and women would like to evaluate their Bazi, the Eight Characters, before they get married. However, in reality, personality is related to one’s experience through the life journey rather than the pre-written zodiac signs. People born in the same year would have very distinctive personalities. Similarly, the destiny is also a result of people’s character and most decisions they’ll be making along the way. Of course the marriage is a more complex thing that cannot be deemed to have a pre-given outcome brought by the zodiac.<br /> <br /> ====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Chinese zodiac is a complex scheme which combines the traditional Chinese astrology in it. Based on the Five Elements theory, Yin and Yang system and Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches system, the traditional scheme have developed a profound connotation and implications through generation. Over thousands of years, this popular culture has affected people’s major decisions in naming, marriage, giving birth and attitude towards each other. But people have to consider zodiac in a rational and scientific way. Perhaps the zodiac may help us to understand what we’re given, but it cannot determine our destiny. We should treat it as the precious cultural heritage and explore the profound culture and historical traces embodied in it(The Editorial Board, 2010: 1-2).<br /> <br /> Chinese zodiac is a complex scheme which combines the traditional Chinese astrology in it. Based on the Five Elements theory, Yin and Yang system and Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches system, the traditional scheme have(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;) developed a profound connotation and implications through generation(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;generations&lt;/span&gt;). Over thousands of years, this popular culture has affected people’s major decisions in naming, marriage, giving birth and attitude towards each other. But people have to consider zodiac in a rational and scientific way. Perhaps the zodiac may help us to understand what we’re given, but it cannot determine our destiny. We should treat it as the precious cultural heritage and explore the profound culture and historical traces embodied in it(The Editorial Board, 2010: 1-2).--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 06:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> 《大中国上下五千年》丛书编委会(2010) The Editorial Board of the ''Five Thousand Years of Great China''（''Dazhongguo Shangxia Wuqiannian''） ''Series'',《中国生肖文化》''The Culture of Chinese Zodiac'', 北京：外文出版社 Beijing: Foreign Languages Press.<br /> <br /> Yip, Paul S.F.伊普, Lee, Joseph 李 and Cheung, Y.B.张 (2002).The Influence of the Chinese Zodiac on Fertility in Hong Kong SAR 论生肖对香港生育率的影响. ''Social Science &amp; Medicine''《社会科学与医学》, Volume 55, Issue 10 第55卷第10期, 1803-1812.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions=== <br /> <br /> Jade Emperor 玉皇大帝<br /> <br /> Ten Heavenly Stems 十天干<br /> <br /> Twelve Earthly Branches 十二地支<br /> <br /> Five Elements 五行<br /> <br /> Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth 金木水火土<br /> <br /> Eight Characters 八字<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.How long is the history of Chinese zodiac?<br /> <br /> 2.What are the twelve zodiac signs in order? <br /> <br /> 3.From what time the Earthly Branches was used to record time?<br /> <br /> 4.According to Chinese folk belief, what kind of characteristics do people born in year of rat have?<br /> <br /> 5.Which zodiac animal is mostly praised in China?<br /> <br /> 6.Can you name some pairs of zodiac animal that get along well with each other according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> 7.Which pair of animals that are natural enemies according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.More than 2200 years.<br /> <br /> 2.Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig.<br /> <br /> 3.Han Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 4.They are smart, adaptable, and have the will to fight, but, on the other hand, they are so over-ambitious and easy to fail.<br /> <br /> 5.Dragon.<br /> <br /> 6.Tiger and pig, rabbit and dog and dragon and rooster. <br /> <br /> 7.Dragon and tiger.<br /> <br /> ==Lisu People and Daogan Festival of Lisu Ethnic Minority Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏 202070080641==<br /> --[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 08:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Lisu people and Daogan festival====<br /> <br /> The Lisu ethnic group are the Tibeto-Burman ethnic group living in mountainous areas such as Burma, southwest China, Thailand, and Arunachal Pradesh in India.<br /> <br /> The Lisu ethnic group is the Tibeto-Burman ethnic group whose people live in mountainous areas such as Burma, southwest China, Thailand, and Arunachal Pradesh in India.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[File:Example1.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> There are about 730,000 Lisu people living in Lijiang, Baoshan, Nujiang, Diqing, Dehong and other counties in Yunnan and Sichuan provinces in China. The Lisu nationality is one of the 56 nationalities officially recognized by China. In Myanmar, the Lisu ethnic group is recognized as one of 135 ethnic groups with an estimated population of 600,000. Approximately 55,000 live in Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. They mainly inhabit remote mountainous areas. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> There are about 730,000 Lisu people living in Lijiang, Baoshan, Nujiang, Diqing, Dehong and other counties in Yunnan province and Sichuan province in China. The Lisu nationality is one of the 56 official nationalities recognized by China. In Myanmar, the Lisu ethnic group is recognized as one of the 135 ethnic groups with an estimated population of 600,000. Approximately 55,000 Lisu people live in Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. They mainly inhabit remote mountainous areas. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans. Each clan has its own name or surname. The most famous family clans in the tribal clans are Laemae pha, Bya pha, Thorne pha, Ngwa Pha (Ngwazah), Naw pha, Seu pha, Khaw pha. Most of the surnames come from their own hunter work in primitive times. But later, they adopted many Chinese surnames. Their culture has the same characteristics as the Yi nationality or Nuosu (Lolo) culture. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans. Each clan has its own name or surname. The most famous family clans are Laemae pha, Bya pha, Thorne pha, Ngwa Pha (Ngwazah), Naw pha, Seu pha, Khaw pha. Most of the surnames came from their own hunter work in primitive times. And later, they adopted many Chinese surnames. Their culture has the same characteristics as the Yi nationality or Nuosu (Lolo) culture does. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Daogan Festival (刀杆节) is a traditional festival of Lisu ethnic groups living in Lushui County(泸水县), Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture(怒江傈僳族自治州).Due to the death of the old artists, they were once lost in Nujiang Prefecture and recovered in recent years. They are mainly distributed in Luzhang Village(鲁掌镇), Luzu Village(鲁祖村) and Loma Village(洛玛村) of Lushui County(泸水县).(Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> Daogan Festival (刀杆节) is a traditional festival of Lisu ethnic group in Lushui County(泸水县), Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture(怒江傈僳族自治州).Due to the death of the old artists, the traditions were once lost in Nujiang Prefecture and were recovered in recent years. They are mainly distributed in Luzhang Village(鲁掌镇), Luzu Village(鲁祖村) and Loma Village(洛玛村) of Lushui County(泸水县).(Ernst, Gabriel 2019)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[File:Example2.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> ====Legend====<br /> <br /> During the Ming Dynasty, when people not belonging to the same clan of feudal China invaded the borders of Yunnan, the king sent Wang Ji (王骥), the ministry of war, to resist the enemy with troops. Wang Ji united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders. Later, Wang Ji was killed by traitors. To commemorate Wang Ji's great achievement and to pray for the souls of the brave soldiers who died bravely defending the border, the Li tribe held the &quot;Up and down the mountain&quot; event. (上刀山，下火海), and designated the 15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year as the Knife Gan Festival.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> During the Ming Dynasty, when people of different clans of feudal China invaded the borders of Yunnan, the emperor sent Wang Ji (王骥), the war department of the Chinese feudal ministry, to resist the enemy with troops. Wang Ji united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders. But later, Wang Ji was killed by traitors. To commemorate Wang Ji's great achievement and to pray for the brave soldiers who died bravely in defending the border, the Li tribe held the &quot;Going up to the mountain of swords and going down to the sea of ​​fire&quot; event. (上刀山，下火海), and designated the 15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year as the Knife Gan Festival.(Li Zhihuan,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Going up to the knife mountain and going down to the sea of ​​fire are the main custom performances of the Taozhen Festival, which reproduce the life experience of people living in mountainous areas as they climb the mountains and the hard spirit and skills of climbing.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> Going up to the mountain of swords and going down to the sea of ​​fire is one of the the main custom performances of the Taozhen Festival, which came from the life experience of people living in mountainous areas as they climb the mountains with the hard spirit and skills of climbing.(Li Zhihuan,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Performing====<br /> <br /> [[File:Example3.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> Pine trees were used as tool poles, iron knives as tool ladders, crinkled paper as flowers, and bamboo as flower sticks. When we go up the rice mountain and down the fire, we play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments under the knife pole. There are strict procedures and rituals from pointing flowers, pointing knives, playing knives, tying knives, tying flowers, welcoming flowers, and altars. Setting , knife pole , vertical pole , sacrificial dragon , knife stand and dismantling knife (in the sea of fire). Knife poles are usually called gold pillar, silver pillar or male pillar and female pillar respectively, representing the dead and the living. Thirty-six long sharp knives representing 365 days a year are tied to the sides of the ladder with paper flowers made of five-color paper. After the knife poles are tied, Heung Tong/Heung Tong (巫师) recites the words in his mouth and performs the knife dance with drum music. After the knife dance, to the sound of Suo na, gongs and drums, the knife bearer grasps the blade with both hands, steps on the blade with bare feet and then climbs up. When the knife-bearer reaches the top through the three scissors, the knife-bearer opens the lock of heaven, takes out the grains and flowers, spreads them out into the boiling crowd, and then places the red ribbon on the colored door, over which he sings the old prayer song, and then he comes down from the pole of the knife again. After that, he stepped barefoot into the burning charcoal fire, licking the burning plow with his tongue and biting the burning chains with his teeth, which showed the national spirit of the Li people and their superb performance skills.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> Pine trees were used as tool poles, with iron knives as tool ladders, crinkled paper as flowers, and bamboo as flower sticks. Before people going up the mountain and down the fire, they play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , Suo na (唢呐) and other musical instruments under the knife pole. There are strict procedures and rituals of pointing flowers, pointing knives, playing knives, tying knives, tying flowers, welcoming flowers, and altars. Settings, knife pole, vertical pole, sacrificial dragon , knife stand and dismantling knife (in the sea of fire). Knife poles are usually called gold pillar, silver pillar or male pillar and female pillar respectively, representing the dead and the living. Thirty-six long sharp knives representing 365 days a year are tied to the sides of the ladder with paper flowers made of five-color paper. After the knife poles are tied, Heung Tong/Heung Tong (巫师) recites the words in his mouth and performs the knife dance with drum music. After the knife dance, to the sound of Suo na, gongs and drums, the player grasps the blade with both hands, steps on the blade with bare feet and then climbs up. When he reaches the top through the three scissors, he opens the lock of heaven, takes out the grains and flowers, spreads them out into the lively crowd, and then places the red ribbon on the colored door, sings the old prayer song, and then he comes down from the pole of the knife again. After that, he stepped barefoot into the burning charcoal fire, licking the burning plow with his tongue and biting the burning chains with his teeth. All of these show the national spirit of the Li people and their superb performance skills.(Li Zhihuan,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Development====<br /> <br /> According to legend, it commemorates an ancient Han Chinese hero who showed great kindness to the Lisu people. The Lisu people made the anniversary of the hero's death a traditional holiday for their own people, and used symbolic rituals such as going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire to express their feelings of willingness to go through fire in return. On the day of the Knife Festival, several able-bodied men first perform the &quot;firewalking&quot; ceremony. They jump into the red-hot coals with bare feet and perform various stunts. On the second day, they sharpen 36 long knives and tie them to two 20-meter-high wooden racks with rattan strips, forming a knife ladder. With bare hands and feet, the performers climb to the top from the edge of the knives and perform various difficult moves at the top of the pole. Today, this thrilling traditional sacrificial ritual has evolved into a sporting event for the good people of the Lisu people to perform their stunts.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> According to legend, it commemorates an ancient Han Chinese hero who showed great kindness to the Lisu people. The Lisu people made the anniversary of the hero's death a traditional holiday for their own people, and used symbolic rituals such as going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire to express their feelings of willingness to go through fire in return. On the day of the Knife Festival, several able-bodied men first perform the &quot;firewalking&quot; ceremony. They jump into the red-hot coals with bare feet and perform various stunts. On the second day, they sharpen 36 long knives and tie them to two 20-meter-high wooden racks with rattan strips, forming a knife ladder. With bare hands and feet, the performers climb to the top from the edge of the knives and make various difficult performances at the top of the pole. Today, this thrilling traditional sacrificial ritual has evolved into a sporting event for the Lisu people to perform their stunts.(Li Zhihuan,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> 1.Lisu people 傈僳族<br /> <br /> 2.&quot;Up and down the mountain&quot; event 上刀山，下火海<br /> <br /> 2.going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire上刀山，下火海--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.The Lisu tribe 傈僳族<br /> <br /> 4.clan 氏族<br /> <br /> 5.primitive times 原始时期<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.How many Lisu people live in Yunnan and Sichuan？<br /> <br /> 2.How many clans make up the Lisu people？<br /> <br /> 3.Who united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders？<br /> <br /> 4.Which day is the Daogan Festival？<br /> <br /> 5.What musical instruments do they play under the knife pole?<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.About 730,000 Lisu people. <br /> <br /> 2.The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans.<br /> <br /> 3.Wang Ji.<br /> <br /> 4.15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year.<br /> <br /> 5.They play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments.<br /> <br /> ====References====<br /> <br /> *Ernst, Gabriel (21 October 2019). &quot;'We try to not be Thai': the everyday resistance of ethnic minorities&quot;<br /> *&quot;Yunnan Province of China Government Web&quot;. Eng.yn.gov.cn.<br /> *李智环．Li Zhihuan. 傈僳族人口分布及形成原因分析 [Analysis of the Distribution and Causes of the Formation of the Lisu People] 《保山学院学报》， 2010 [Journal of Baoshan College], 2010<br /> <br /> ==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br /> Culture==Topic-Chinese Clothing== Phyo, Su Kyi, Student No-20191108000,Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-cultural Studies. <br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> <br /> Chinese Clothing has many ethnic groups with a long history while Han people dominate most periods in history. For thousands of years, generations of clothing designers have devoted themselves to building the Kingdom of Clothes, making the garments that cover the human body into an important component of Chinese culture. The progress of nation can be seen through its changes in clothing styles.Clothing manufacture in China dates back to prehistoric times, at least 7,000years ago. Archaeological findings of 18,000 years-old artifacts such as bone sewing needles and stone beads and shells with holes bored in them attest to the existence of ornamentation and of sewing extremely early in Chinese civilization. (www.topchinatravel. com, 2004)<br /> <br /> Chinese clothing has undergone continuous transformations throughout history,providing a reflection of the culture in place at any given time. A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry, and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive Chinese fashions through the ages. This illustrated introductory survey takes the reader through traditional Chinese clothing,ornamentation,and ceremonial wear, and discusses the importance of silk and the diverse costumes of China's ethnic groups before considering modern trends and China's place in the fashion world today.(Mei Hua-2010-page-1)<br /> <br /> A-Chinese traditional clothing<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional clothing contains rich cultural connotations.Today, after the reform and opening up, the clothing industry has developed vigorously. People gradually start pay attention to the local clothing culture, and pursue cultural connotation contained in clothing. For modern designers, the traditional clothing and its cultural background are their creation inspirations during creation phases,and they are also one of the expressive elements preferred by designers at home and abroad. Inheriting traditional clothing culture not only means that it needs us to turn the traditional clothing elements into a symbol, but also needs us to further understand the background and connotations of traditional clothing culture. The work of design without culture is like a gorgeous shell that can't stand the test of history. Only by grasping the inner spirit of traditional clothing culture, abandoning simple piled up work and patch-up work without connotation and learning the modern expressive methods of traditional clothing elements, one can design out the works which can touch people's heartstrings. (Jiangsu,2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Traditional clothing is the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics. Traditional clothing mutually integrates its unique style, comfortable fabric, bright colors,rich designs and exquisite craft elements to bring people impulsive feelings with visual communication. Traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics enjoys its unique artistic features in the style, color,fabrics,decoration and craft, ect. They are profoundly influenced by Chinese traditional culture ideas in the process of their formation and development and finally condensed into the national culture bearing Chinese culture features. These elements are the source of our inspiration in contemporary clothing design, and the use of these Chinese elements can help people to design out the clothing Chinese style.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional culture is an indispensable source of inspiration in fashion design. Putting the traditional elements into fashion design not only helps the native culture to extend itself, but also greatly promotes the culture exchanges in nationalities. Therefore, we should advocate the national advanced culture,make the Chinese traditional culture achieve the development in the clothing design, use the common language to express Chinese traditional culture essence, and integrate Chinese traditional element symbol into the spiritual elements of fashion design to make the national culture spirit and the language of the world integrate into the mainstream of modern clothing design.(Jiangsu,2016, page -3)<br /> <br /> ==Traditional Han Chinese Clothing (Han Fu):It refers to the attire worn byvthe Han people from the enthronement of the Yellow Emperor(about 2698BC) till the late Ming Dynasty (1368-1644AD).It became known as the Han Fu(fu means 'clothes&quot; in Chinese)because the fashion was improved and popularized during the Han Dynasty. It is usually in the from of long gown,cross collar, wrapping the right lapel over the left, loose wide sleeves and no buttons but a sash. Although simple in design, it gives different feelings to different wearers.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019-Aug-2)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Suit(Tang Zhuang):It is a combination of the Manchu male jacket ofvthe Qing Dynasty and the western style suit. It is usually straight collared,with coiled buttons down the front. Its color and design are in traditional Chinese style but tailoring is western.(www.topchinatravel. com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> ==Cheongsam(Qi Pao):Originated from the Manchu female clothes, it evolved by merging with western patterns that show off the beauty of a female body. Its features are straight collar, strain on the waist,coiled buttons and slits on both sides ofvthe dress. Materials used are usually silk, cotton and linen.Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire in the world today.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Tunic Suit(Zhongshan Zhuang) :Also called the Yat-sen Suit , it is designed by Dr.Sun Yat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire. It has a turn-down collar and four pockets with flaps. As Chairman Mao Zedong worn it quite frequently, it is also called the Mao Suit by westerners. It is the main attire from the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 till 1980,s. The country's leaders still wear it today when attending important occasions, such as military parades.(www.topchinatravel. com,2016,Auge-2.)<br /> <br /> B-Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements<br /> <br /> There are many old stories in ancient Chinese civilization, and Chinese traditional elements come up with the tenacity of the Chinese nations long history. Different times has their unique cultural connotations and form elements,which include Chinese architecture, costumes, traditional Chinese painting and folk art etc., and those cultural connotations and form elements are precious heritage that the ancestors leave to their off-springs. The change of dynasties in the history of our country lead to changes of cultural centers, which finally lead to the appearance Chinese traditional elements with different representative features in each historical periods, nations and regions. These elements include: Chinese silk ,cloth of brocade, hemp,blue printed fabric; chirpaur, Chinese -style chest covering, Chinese tunic suit, collar,surplice, mandarin and split etc.; colorful ethnic colors: such as bright red,green,yellow and blueetc.;Neolithic patterns, bronze patterns in Shang and Chou dynasties, ancient lacquer were pattern in Qin and Han dynasties, Buddhism patterns in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties and traditional decorative patterns in Tang,Sing and Qing dynasties. The essence of Chinese traditional culture which bear the role of inheriting national culture, and is the unique and external characteristic of Chinese nation.(Jiangsu,2016, page-3)<br /> <br /> ==The Aesthetic Performance of Design. Chinese traditional clothing of each dynasty has its own unique clothing style and design, but no matter how the style changes,the mainstream concept of traditional Chinese clothing always emphasizes symmetry and balance, and the clothing symmetry can be seen in sleeve, placket, hem,pattern ect.Chinese traditional clothing design is particular about proportion,such as the ancient Chinese woman dresses, short jacket unlined uper garment (named Ru)marching long dress , and it emphasizes the perfect proportion which hold that&quot;the upper part should be short, the below part should be long&quot;; in Song and Ming dynasties people the collocation of long BeiZi(a kind of dress that girls dress in ancient times) and short skirt, the &quot;long upper part,short below part&quot;ratio perfectly reflects the proportions beauty of the clothing.(Jiangsu,2016, page-5.)<br /> <br /> ==The Aesthetic Performance of colors. Green, white, yellow, red, black ,the five colors, form the Chinese traditional color system. They have obvious implied meaning and identification.Black stands for that the dark heaven, and yellow stands for the earth at dusj, and black and yellow stand for the heaven and the earth ,and they are mostly used in the Kings' clothing, About the colorific choice of Chinese traditional clothing the yellow and red which the historical role is prominent perform particularly well. In the late period of the Warring States as a royal color yellow appeared and became the supreme ruler's senior clothing color .People advocate yellow but don't prohibit yellow.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-6)<br /> <br /> In Chinese traditional clothing colors red has evoluted from the original noble characteristic tovthe civilians characteristic. It evolution has experienced a certain period of time. The original red uses magenta, red ,cinnabar to represent. It is the noble officials' clothing color.<br /> Many designers combine Chinese red and modern clothing design to embody the application of Chinese traditional clothing elements in modern clothing design.(Jaingsu,2016-page-7)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Chinese traditional culture is an indispensable source of inspiration in fashion design.Therefore, we should advocate the national advanced culture, make the Chinese traditional culture achieve the development in the clothing design.<br /> <br /> Trems and Expressions<br /> <br /> 历史-history, <br /> <br /> 期-period, <br /> <br /> 世代-generations, <br /> <br /> 服装-clothing, <br /> <br /> 设计师-designers , <br /> <br /> 装饰-ornamentation<br /> <br /> 中国服饰- Chinese clothing<br /> <br /> 服饰-Costumes <br /> <br /> 传统服装-Traditional clothing<br /> <br /> 服装设计-Clothing design<br /> <br /> 时尚设计-Fashion design <br /> <br /> 几代服装设计师-Generations of clothing designers <br /> <br /> 中国西装-Chinese Suit<br /> <br /> 旗袍-Cheongsam<br /> <br /> 中山装-Chinese Tunic Suit <br /> <br /> 中国传统元素-Chinese traditional elements <br /> <br /> ===Questions ===<br /> <br /> 1-What’s archaeological findings in Chinese fashions through the ages?<br /> <br /> 2-What's Traditional Clothing?<br /> <br /> 3-What's Traditional culture indispensable?<br /> <br /> 4-How is means Han Fu?<br /> <br /> 5-What's the popular Chinese attire?<br /> <br /> 6-How called was Chinese Tunic Suit?<br /> <br /> 7-What'are include Chinese traditional elements? <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 04:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Answers===<br /> 1- A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry,<br /> and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive chinese fanshions through the ages.<br /> <br /> 2-Traditional clothingis the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing<br /> culture with Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> 3-Chineset traditional culture is an indispensablevsource of inspirationin fashion<br /> design.<br /> <br /> 4-Han Fu is fu means clothes in Chinese. <br /> <br /> 5-Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire inthe world today.<br /> <br /> 6-It is also called the Yat-sen Suit,it is designed byDr.SunYat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire.<br /> <br /> 7-Chinese traditional elements include: Chinese silk,cloth of brocade, hemp, blue printed fabric.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 11:56, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> 1.Jiangsu.,(2016), “Influences of Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements on Modern Clothing Design”,<br /> <br /> Nanjing University of Finance and Economics,Soochow University,Published by Atlantic Press.<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.Mei Hua,(2010), `Chinese Clothing´, Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building,Cambridge CB28RU,UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press,NewYork<br /> www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title:www.cambridge.org/9780521186896<br /> Originally published byChina Intercontinental Press as Cinese Clothing(9787508516615)in2010©ChinaIntercontinentalPress.<br /> <br /> 3.https://www.topchinatravel.com/china-guide/history-of-chinese-clothing.htm<br /> <br /> 4.https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/clothing/--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 10:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br /> <br /> ===Chinese traditional dance===<br /> <br /> ==The Liquor Culture of China 瞿淼 Student No.202070080604==<br /> --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 08:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.The Origin of liquor in China====<br /> <br /> With a long history of liquor-making, China boasts a variety of vintage liquor, which is renowned at home and abroad. Penetrating in China’s entire history of civilization, the liquor culture plays a significant role in many aspects, such as cuisine, literature, and health care, of Chinese people’s daily life.<br /> As to the origin of Chinese liquor, opinions vary and no unanimous conclusion can be drawn, and the most widely accepted version is that Du Kang is the person who invented liquor. There are divergent views on Du Kang’s identity, so far, documents have been found which recorded his deeds in the Yellow Emperor era and Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties. And even his address is disputable. Some people think he lived in Baishui, Shaanxi province and was buried here, while others hold the opinion that he lived in Ruyang, Henan province. However, Du Kang is generally believed to be the Chinese Dionysus. According to the legend, one day it rained suddenly while Du Kang was herding the sheep. Hastily driving the sheep back to the sheepfold, he forgot some husked sorghum rice in a hollowed trunk by accident, and when he came back after a few days, the rice he left there became so fragrant that he couldn’t help tasting some. Surprisingly, it was palatable. This unexpected finding made Du Kang start to develop the liquor-brewing technique. Nowadays, Du kang has become the synonym of liquor in many places. Moreover, ancestral halls of Du Kang have been built in Baishui in Shaanxi province and Ruyang in Henan province to enshrine him. And the liquor produced in these places are called “Du Kang Liquor.”(Huang yixi, 2008, 12) <br /> <br /> ====2.The Types of liquor in Ancient China====<br /> With constant reform and innovation of the techniques of brewing liquor, thousands types of vintage liquor have been created in China. According to the different production techniques, Chinese liquor can be divided into fermented wine and distilled liquor.<br /> <br /> Yellow rice wine is the oldest fermented wine around the world. Shaoxing Wine, a famous specialty of Shaoxing, Zhejiang province, is the representative of yellow rice wine. It has a very long history, and the wine industry in Shaoxing was prosperous early in the Warring States period. Shaoxing wine looks yellow and clear, hence sugar is added in its raw material. The most prominent of Shaoxing Wine is that it’s fragrance improves with age. In addition to Shaoxing Wine, there are other famous yellow rice wine like Jiujiang Old Seal Wine, Mellow Wine and Dongwu Rice Wine and so on.<br /> <br /> Liquor and Spirits(Baijiu), a kind of distilled liquor, is divided into the following flavor types: sauce-flavor type, light flavor type, strong flavor type and other flavour types. Kweichow Moutai is a traditional Chinese specialty liquor. It is one of the world's three major distilled liquors on par with Scotch whiskey and French cognac. It is also the originator of Daqu sauce-flavored liquor with a history of more than 800 years. The style and quality of Kweichow Moutai is characterized by &quot;prominent sauce, elegant and delicate flavour, full-bodied, long aftertaste, and lasting fragrance in an empty cup&quot;. Its special style comes from the unique traditional brewing techniques formed over the years and the brewing methods are combined with the agricultural production in the Chishui River Basin, which is affected by the environment and seasonal production, retaining some of the original traces of local life. In 1996, Moutai's craftsmanship was identified as a state secret to be protected. In 2001, the traditional craft of Moutai was included in the first batch of national material cultural heritage. In 2006, the State Council approved the inclusion of the &quot;Moutai traditional brewing process&quot; in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage lists, and declared the world intangible cultural heritage.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Types of Drinking Vessel in Ancient China====<br /> Chinese people always pay attention to the beauty and delicacy of tableware, and we stress the exquisiteness and suitability of wine vessels when drinking. Therefore, drinking vessels as part of the liquor culture also have a long history and varied appearances.<br /> <br /> In different historical periods, due to the continuous development of society and economy, the production technology, materials, and appearance of wine vessels will naturally undergo corresponding changes; therefore, a wide variety of wine vessels have been produced. As early as the Neolithic culture period, pottery with shapes similar to later wine-ware, such as the pottery of the Peiligang culture period, appeared. The development of the liquor industry and the noble identity of the drinker have made it possible for liquor utensils to be differentiated from ordinary eating utensils. The quality of wine-ware often becomes one of the symbols of the status of drinkers. Bronze ware originated in Xia Dynasty, and the earliest bronze wine ware that has been discovered is from the Xia Erlitou culture period. Bronze ware reached its heyday in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and declined in the Spring and Autumn Period. The purpose of the Shang and Zhou drinking vessels was basically specific. In the Shang Dynasty, due to the development of the liquor industry and the improvement of bronze production technology, China's wine ware reached unprecedented prosperity. The bronze wine vessels of Shang and Zhou Dynasties were divided into liquor boiling vessels, liquor serving vessels, drinking vessels and liquor storaging vessels according to their purposes. Each vessel has many styles, some are in common styles, and some take animal shapes. Take Zun as an example, there are Elephant Zun, Rhino Zun, Niu Zun, Yang Zun, Tiger Zun, etc. During the Qin and Han Dynasties, lacquered wine utensils became popular in southern China. It became the main type in the Han Dynasty, Wei and Jin Dynasties, and its shape basically inherited the shape of bronze liquor vessels. Porcelain roughly appeared around the Eastern Han Dynasty. Compared with pottery, the performance of porcelain surpassed that of pottery. The shape of liquor glasses in the Tang Dynasty was much smaller than in the past, so some people think that distilled spirits appeared in the Tang Dynasty. The Song Dynasty was the heyday of ceramic production, and there were many exquisite wine vessels. People in Song Dynasty like to warm rice wine and drink it. So the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl were invented. People placed the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and poured hot water into the bowl to warm the wine. The representative porcelain wine-ware of the Ming and Qing Dynasty is the blue-and-white porcelain wine-ware.<br /> <br /> ====4.Drinking Order====<br /> As early as the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, drinking orders appeared at banquets in the Yellow River Basin. There are many ways to make wine orders. The way the literati and the ordinary people make drinking orders are naturally very different. Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc., while ordinary people use simple ways to act without any preparation. It requires a quick, witty, artistic and talented person to do liquor orders. The drinking order is of great significance to the transformation, enrichment and development of drinking rituals. It is not only an important means to add wine to the fun and to invigorate the banquet, but also to make Chinese culture enter the wine and become the Liquor Culture&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> 1.Du Kang 杜康<br /> <br /> 2.Chinese Dionysus 中国酒神<br /> <br /> 3.husked sorghum rice 秫米饭<br /> <br /> 4.Baishui 白水县（陕西渭南市辖县）<br /> <br /> 5.Ruyang 汝阳县（河南省洛阳市下辖县）<br /> <br /> 6.fermented wine 发酵酒<br /> <br /> 7.Distilled liquor 蒸馏酒<br /> <br /> 8.Yellow rice wine 黄酒<br /> <br /> 9.Shaoxing Wine 绍兴酒 <br /> <br /> 10.Jiujiang Old Seal Wine 九江成年封缸酒<br /> <br /> 11.Mellow Wine 醇香酒 <br /> <br /> 12.Dongwu Rice Wine 东吴老酒<br /> <br /> 13.Liquor and Spirits 白酒 <br /> <br /> 14.Kweichow Moutai 贵州茅台<br /> <br /> 15.sauce-flavor type 酱香型 <br /> <br /> 16.light flavor type 清香型 <br /> <br /> 17.strong flavor type 浓香型 <br /> <br /> 18.Daqu sauce-flavored liquor 大曲酱香型白酒<br /> <br /> 19.the Peiligang culture period裴李岗文化时期 <br /> <br /> 20.the Xia Erlitou culture period 夏二里头文化时期<br /> <br /> 21.Zun 樽 <br /> <br /> 22.injection vessel and bowl 注子和注碗<br /> <br /> 23.drinking order 行酒令<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.Who is generally believed to invent liquor in China? <br /> <br /> 2.What is the most prominent of Shaoxing Wine?<br /> <br /> 3.How to use the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl in the Song dynasty?<br /> <br /> 4.How do literati often make drinking orders in China?<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.Du Kang<br /> <br /> 2.It’s fragrance improves with age.<br /> <br /> 3.Place the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and pour hot water into the bowl to warm the wine.<br /> <br /> 4.Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc.<br /> <br /> ====Bibliography====<br /> *Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br /> <br /> *Li Fangzhou 李方舟. (1998) 酒令——酒文化的珍品[Liquor-a treasure of wine culture]. 质量天地Production Room.<br /> <br /> *Du Jinpeng 杜金鹏. (1995) 中国古代酒具[Ancient Chinese Wine Set]. 上海文化出版社 Shanghai Culture Publishing House.<br /> <br /> *Yang Li 杨 利. (2005) 酒文化及酒的精神文化价值探微[A Probe into Wine Culture and Spiritual Cultural Value of Wine]. 邵阳学院学报Academic Journal of Shaoyang University, 2005(02):82-83.<br /> <br /> *Xu Shaohua 徐少华. (1999) 中国酒文化研究50年[Research on 50 years of Chinese wine culture]. 酿酒科技Brewing Technology, 1999(06):15-18.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Fengqi 赵凤琦. (2014) 我国白酒产业可持续发展研究[Research on Sustainable Development of Chinese Liquor Industry]. 中国社会科学院研究生院CASS Graduate School.<br /> <br /> *Wng Jianguo&amp;Xu Liang 汪建国,徐亮.(2005)我国黄酒的特征及展望[Characteristics and Prospects of Chinese Rice Wine] 江苏调味副食品Journal of Jiangsu Seasoning Food, 2005(06):8-12.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jihua 丁季华. (1991) 中国酒文化的结构与功能[The structure and function of Chinese wine culture]. 历史教学问题History Research and Teaching, 1991(2).<br /> <br /> == China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH) - Rajabov, Anushervon student NO. 201921080005==<br /> <br /> ===China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH)===<br /> <br /> Introduction <br /> <br /> High-speed railway (HSR) in China is the longest network of high-speed railways in the world and is used most widely. The network of UNCC includes the recently built railway at the estimated speed of 200-350 km / h (120-220 miles per hour). The Chinese VSM accounts for two thirds of world high-speed railways. Almost all trains, the path and services of the HSR belong to the Chinese railway corporation under the CHINA Railway High Speed brand (CRH). The high-speed railway has developed rapidly in China over the past 15 years. CRH was put into operation in April 2007, the Intercity Line Beijing-Tianjin, which opened in August 2008, became the first HSR allocated passenger line. HSR applies to all administrative provincial levels, except Macau and Tibet. The total length of the HSR network reached 36,000 km (22,000 miles) in August 2020. The HSR construction boom continues, and the HSR network should reach 70,000 km (43,000 miles) in 2035. China's first high-speed trains were imported or built in accordance with the Technology Transfer Agreement with foreign trains manufacturers, including Alstom, Siemens, Bombardier and Kawasaki Heavy Industry Since the initial technical support, Chinese engineers have overpower the internal components of the train and built local trains produced by the CRRC State Corporation. The appearance of a rapidly accelerated railway in China has decreased in the way and changed Chinese society and the economy. The World Bank study has shown that &quot;a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality.&quot; where the sources are coming from?<br /> <br /> Definition and terminology <br /> <br /> High-speed trains in China are usually belonging to passenger trades of classes G, D and C. in class G trains (高 铁; Gāotiě; &quot;High-speed rail&quot;) are commonly used trains E In class D trains (动 车; Dòngchē; &quot;Electrical multiple unit&quot;) are presented by EMU trains operating at lower speeds, whether in high-speed or low-speed ways. The actual movement speed of class D trains can vary greatly. D211 Creament train from Guyang-east to Guangzhou-South along the High Speed Railway Guang-Guangzhou, a line with an estimated speed of 250 km / h, on average, 207 km / h per trip. The sleeping train D312 EMU between South Beijing and Shanghai at a low speed Beijing - Shanghai on average passing 121 km / h. Class C (c héngjì; “intercity”) trains that run on high-speed tracks at speeds above 250 km / h are also considered high-speed trains. where the sources are coming from ?<br /> <br /> Influence on airlines<br /> <br /> The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights. The effect of high-speed railway on airfare is most acute when traveling for less than 500 km (310 miles). By the spring of 2011, commercial airlines were fully stopped at previously popular routes such as Wuhan Nanjing, Wuhan Nanchang, Xi'an-Zhengzhou and Chengdu Chongqing. Flights along the routes with a length of more than 1500 km (930 miles) usually do not suffer. As of October 2013, half a speed of passengers were transported monthly on high-speed rail than in the country's airlines. where the source a<br /> Technologies <br /> Chinese High Speed Railway Controls Various Electric Forms of Trains, Hexie HAO Title (Simplified Chinese: 和谐 号; Traditional Chinese: 和 諧 號; Pinyin: Héxié Hào; Harmony) is for designs which are imported from other nations and designated CRH-1 to CRH-5 and CRH380A (L), CRH380B (L) and CRH380C (L). CRH compositions are designed for fast and convenient movement between cities. The weakness of intellectual property Hexie HAO creates obstacles to China in the export of its products related to high-speed railways, which leads to the development of a fully recycled railway franchise called Fuxing Hao (Rejuvenation) that based on local technologies. where are coming from?<br /> <br /> 4 + 4 HSR network <br /> <br /> The network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km. Most of the lines follow existing routes and are for passenger traffic only. These are known as Passenger Lines (PDL). Several sections of the national network, especially along the southeastern coastal corridor, have been built to connect cities that previously had no rail links. These sections will carry both passenger and cargo. High-speed trains on HSR corridors can usually reach speeds of 300-350 km / h (190-220 mph). On mixed HSR lines, passenger trains can reach a maximum speed of 200–250 km / h (120–160 mph). This ambitious national grid project was slated to be built by 2020, but government incentives have significantly shortened the construction timeframe for many lines. where the sources are coming from ?<br /> <br /> Advantages <br /> <br /> HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances that: Increases economic productivity and long-term competitiveness by increasing rail capacity and unifying labor markets. Moving passengers onto high-speed lines frees up older railways to carry more cargo, which is more beneficial for railways than for passengers whose fares are subsidized. Boosts the economy in the short term as high-speed rail construction creates jobs and stimulates demand in the construction, steel and cement industries during the economic downturn. 110,000 workers were mobilized for the construction of the Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway. Facilitates economic integration between cities and promotes the growth of second-tier cities. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains. where the sources are coming from ?<br /> <br /> Wenzhou accident <br /> <br /> On July 23, 2011, two high-speed trains collided on the Ningbo-Taizhou-Wenzhou railway in the Lucheng district of Wenzhou city, Zhejiang province. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped. Signals failed, causing another train to stop a stopped train. Several carriages derailed. State Chinese media confirmed 40 deaths and at least 192 people were hospitalized, including 12 seriously injured. The train accident in Wenzhou and the lack of accountability by rail officials have generated public outcry and heightened concerns about the safety and management of China's high-speed rail system. Concerns about quality and safety have also influenced plans to export cheaper high-speed train technology to other countries. In the aftermath of the deadly disaster, the Chinese government has suspended approval of new rail projects and began security checks on existing equipment. where the source are coming from?<br /> <br /> Terms and expressions<br /> <br /> 高 铁 - High-speed rail<br /> 动 车 - Electrical multiple unit<br /> 和 諧 號 – Harmony<br /> 復興號 - Rejuvenation<br /> <br /> Questions <br /> <br /> 1. What does the World Bank research say?<br /> 2. What forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights?<br /> 3. How many high speed rail corridors are there in the 4 + 4 HSR network? What is their total length?<br /> 4. What caused the accident?<br /> 5. What are the benefits of HSR?<br /> <br /> Answers<br /> <br /> 1. The World Bank study has shown that &quot;a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality.&quot; <br /> 2. The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights.<br /> 3. The 4 + 4 HSR network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km. <br /> 4. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped.<br /> 5. HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains.<br /> <br /> References misssing<br /> <br /> ==Language, The Chinese Language - Seydou, Sagara, Student No:201911080004,Major:Translation Studies===<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> China is a very big country with a large population, multi-ethnic,and multi-lingual. Each etthnic groups may have its own lingo, or dialects. There are great differences between these dialects because of pronunciation. For example, if people in different places use their dialects to talk, they may not be able to understand each other, and the situation may lead to embarrassment and understanding. Therefore, the Chinese people communicate with each other in a common language, Putonghua, also known as Mandarin in Western countries. Cheng Aimin (2019, 124)<br /> <br /> ==Putonghua and Dialects==<br /> <br /> Putonghua is the national language of China, and Chinese is the most widely spoken language in the world. More than one billion of the world's populations are Chinese speakers. The Chinese population is already one fifth of the population of the world and is rapidly expanding its presence everywhere and influence many people around the world. Cheng Aimin (2019, 25) <br /> It is the modern standard Chinese language with the Beijing pronunciation as its standard pronunciation, the northern dialect (also known as Mandarin, the official language in the past) as its basic dialect, and the modern vernacular as its grammatical norm. Therefore, the northern dialect sounds more like Putonghua than other dialects. Putonghua is a standardized language, which is legally used all over the country. In 2000, the law of the People’s Republic of China on common languages and characters established the legal status of Putonghua and standardized Chinese Characters as the national language and writing system. Putonghua is also one of the six working language of the United Nation and an important means of communication between China and foreign countries. According to statistics from ethnologist, in 2015, 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, but there were still about 400 million people who spoke dialects or minority languages. Article 19 of the constitution of the People’s Republic of China stipulates that ‘’ Putonghua is widely used by the state ‘’, and the third week of September is the national Putonghua Publicity week. We often hear some sayings like this: ‘’ Learn Putonghua well and you will have friend all over the world.’’ Chinese dialects are usually divided into seven groups: northern dialect Wu dialect, Hunan dialect, Jiangxi dialect, Hakka dialect, and Cantonese dialect and Fujian dialect. Most northern are close to Putonghua and easy to understand a non-native speaker. Cheng Aimin (2019, 126) <br /> <br /> The dialects in China differ greatly. Speaking Putonghua allows the Chinese people to communicate better with each other and promote the development of economy and culture everywhere. However, the promotion of Putonghua cannot be achieved in a short time. The Chinese government plans to enable more than 80% of Chinese people to speak Putonghua by 2020. (C.Gov art 10. 2017)<br /> Only by learning Putonghua can you communicate with people from all parts of China and event with Chinese –speaking people all over the world. While striving to promote Putonghua among the people of the whole country, China also pays special attention to the protection of dialects, which should not be lost after learning Putonghua. . Cheng Aimin (2019, 126)<br /> <br /> ==Ancient Chinese and Modern Chinese ==<br /> Over the past three thousand years, Chinese has undergone a long period of development and changes, and has been constantly interacting with the languages of other nations. Ancient Chinese and written Chinese characters are not exactly the same as they are now. When we visit Chinese historical sites, we often see couplets, poems, and inscriptions. Most of them are written in classical Chinese and traditional Chinese characters. Classical Chinese is a written language formed on the basis of the spoken language in the pre-Qin period. Cheng Aimin (2019, 127) <br /> <br /> By the time of the Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties (the 7th century to the 10th century), the spoken Chinese had changed greatly and had significant differences with the classical style of written Chinese. The pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar had changed greatly. But all the time, some people still insisted on writing in classical Chinese, while others wrote in the commonly used vernacular (spoken Chinese). The Four Classical Novels created in the Ming and Qing dynasties, The Dreams of the red Chambers, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, The Outlaws of the Marsh and the journey to the west, are all representative works of the ancient vernacular. After the May 4th movement in 1919, China launched a vernacular movement advocating ‘’my hand writes my speech’’. Since then, the vernacular has gradually been more widely used in the whole society, and modern Chinese has gradually developed and formed. Compared with ancient Chinese, modern Chinese absorbs a lot Western grammar and has added many disyllabic words. Cheng Aimin (2019 ,128)<br /> <br /> ==Idiomatic Phrases- Idioms, Proverbs, Common Sayings, and Allegorical Sayings.==<br /> Many phrases with fixed meanings in Chinese have been handed down from the ancient times. Mastering these phrases will make your language more authentic and vivid. For example, ‘’Lofty mountains and flowing rivers ‘’. Playing the lute to the cow’’ ‘’prescribing medicine according to symptoms’’, and ‘’ pleading guilty by carrying a rod on one’s back’ ’these phrases, often contain four Chinese characters each, are called idioms. They are quite formal and often originate from ancient historical stories, fables, myths and legends, or literary works. Sometimes we cannot guess the meaning of an idiom simply according to the meaning of the words. For example, 崇山峻岭，流淌的河流 ‘’lofty mountains and flowing rivers’’ means meeting someone who can really understand and appreciate them, while吹牛的长笛 ‘’ Playing the lute to the cow’’ means the casting pearls before swine. Wendy Abraham: (2018 ,115)<br /> There are also proverbs, common sayings, and allegorical sayings created and passed down by the common people in spoken language, which are quite colloquial and emotional, reflecting the unique culture of China.<br /> Proverbs are common and easy -to understand fixed phrases used orally, often explaining a truth. For example, ‘’ if you are not in charge of a home, you don’t know how expensive the firewood and rice, if you don’t have children, you don’t know kinds your parents are.’’ ‘’Seeing is better than hearing 100 times, and doing is better than seeing 100 times’’ Cheng Aimin (2019, 129)<br /> Common sayings mostly come in a three –character format, but there are also other formats. In addition to the literal meaning, there are deep metaphorical extensions. For example, 吹牛皮 ‘’blow cow skin’’ (meaning bragging or boating) ‘给某人. 穿紧身鞋 ‘’give SB . Tight shoes to wear ‘’ ( meaning making things hard for SB), ‘为外国人工作时的消磨时间‘’kill time when working for foreigners ‘’ ( loafing on the job) , 提一个黑锅 ‘’ carry a black pot’’ ( taking the blame for the fault of others ) , 钉在眼睛里 ‘’ nail in the eyes’’ ( thorn in the flesh ), 狗腿 ‘’ dog leg’’ ( hired thug) , 不管3x7 = 21 ‘’regardless of 3x7= 21’’( regardless of consequences, in the spite of anything ), 打不了八极 ‘’ can’t hit with eight poles’’ ( extremely distant or unrelated ). (Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002,232)<br /> An allegorical saying is divided into two parts. It is like a riddle: The first part is a metaphor, and the second part is an explanation. There are two types of allegorical sayings: homophonic and figurative. Example of the homophonic type ‘’ the nephew carries a lantern – to light up the uncle’’ (pronounced the same ‘’ as before ‘’ in Chinese); ‘’the monk opens an umbrella – no hair and no sky ‘’ (‘’ no hair ‘’ is pronounced similar to ‘’ lawless ‘’ in Chinese). Examples of the figurative type: ‘’ A mute person takes a dose of bitter medicine- they can’t say it is bitter ‘’; ‘’ Mice go to the street – everybody shouts and beats them.’’ Cheng Aimin (2019.130)<br /> <br /> ==Language policy==<br /> While vigorously promoting Putonghua, the Chinese government has also promulgated many policies to protect dialect and minority languages. In order to promote Putonghua, China promulgated the Chinese Pinyin Program in 1958. Pinyin (the standard Chinese sound- spelling system) is widely used in Putonghua promotion, international Chinese teaching, foreign exchange and other fields. It has become an important tool for reading Chinese characters, learning Putonghua, training and improving reading and writing ability. With the popularization of modern information technology, pinyin is widely used to input the Chinese characters on computers and mobile phones. Pinyin affects all aspects of social life. In translation, Chinese names of people, places, food, and even some cultural concept with Chinese characteristics (Such as Beijing, pingpang, Shaoling, Gongful) are directly spelled with Pinyin, which is therefore an important standard for translation and a bridge for international exchange. Minglang Zhou: (pp.71-95).<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion.== <br /> Today, an increasing number of people from other countries now want to learn Chinese language and culture and also many universities from different countries throughout the world offer Chinese language courses because Putonghua is also an open door to a huge job market in all of the countries where Putonghua is the language of commerce like Mainland China, Taiwan and Singapore. Learning Chinese can help to make a better future for everyone. Abundant opportunities for governments and business careers as well as scientific and cultural exchanges await the student of Chinese. The China market is blossoming after decades of global isolation. As China is rapidly becoming a world economic power as it opens its doors to foreign investment expands its infrastructure, those who know Chinese will be valuable to business.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> Cheng Aimin.(2019), ''中国概况'' [Understanding China]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> Minglang Zhou: Language Policy in the People’s Republic of China (p.71-95), Wendy Abraham: let’s talk Mandarin Chinese: 1,001 real-life phrases and Idioms. Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37) Article 10 Putonghua and the standardized Chinese characters shall be used as the basic language in education and teaching in schools and other institutions of education, except where otherwise provided for in laws.<br /> The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002)<br /> ===Terms and expressions===<br /> Lingo: 林戈<br /> Putonghua: 普通话<br /> Await student:等待学生<br /> Pinyin: 等待学生<br /> Lofty: 崇高：<br /> Vernacular: 白话：<br /> Swine: 猪：<br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1. Why Putonghua is spoken in United Nations Organization?<br /> 2. How many people speak Putonghua in China and around the world?<br /> 3 .Why Chinese government is promoted Putonghua among many others languages?<br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1. Because it is an important means of communication between China and foreign countries.<br /> 2. According to ethnologist 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, and according to the10 most spoken languages in the world Chinese (and all of its varieties such as Mandarin) is by far the most spoken language across the world with 1.31 billion speakers.<br /> 3. Because Putonghua is become an international language and it also facilitate understanding between different ethnic groups in China.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=113441 2020-12-17T07:06:10Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 专业 is missing--Mo Ling (talk) 08:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language, under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> <br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> <br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾:<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> <br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> <br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory.Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory.Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.(标题格式错误，大小写不统一，名利场是书/杂志，需要斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》(标题格式错误）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles.（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180)<br /> <br /> Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles.（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). （双引号没引完）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation.<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory(Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br /> <br /> According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> <br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====（标题之间需要隔一行）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64). <br /> <br /> On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68). <br /> <br /> Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br /> <br /> In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br /> <br /> There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br /> <br /> At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br /> <br /> The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br /> <br /> (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br /> <br /> (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br /> <br /> (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br /> <br /> (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br /> <br /> (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br /> <br /> (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br /> <br /> (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). <br /> <br /> From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br /> <br /> Exampe 1: <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. (符号之间隔开）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22).<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. <br /> <br /> From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br /> <br /> What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1964).''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''《翻译理论与实践》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Jan de Waard.(1986) ''From One Language to Another''《从一种语言到另一种语言》. Nashville: Thomas Nelson托马斯·纳尔逊出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''《语言、文化与翻译》.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Thackeray,William萨克雷.（2006）. ''Vanity Fair''《名利场》.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie陈岷婕.(2013).浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[On Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Nida’s “functional Equivalence”].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju郭丁菊.(2013).功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance from the Translation of Vanity Fair].Harbin:Northeast Forestry University东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong李建中.(2009)中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Beijing:Peking University Press北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai谭凯.(2011)严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance” and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence].青年作家Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi王运熙,Gu Yisheng顾易生.(2007).中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Shanghai:Shanghai Classics Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复(2009).《天演论》译例言[Preface to Evolution and Ethics].Beijing:The Commercial Press商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi杨必.(2013)《名利场》[Vanity Fair].Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei张妍梅.(2019).功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of Vanity Fair from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory].Lanzhou:Lanzhou Jiaotong University兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi张曦.(2014).翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on :Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House中国学术期刊电子出版社(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤.(2006).奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考[Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s Functional Equivalence]. Journal of Fujiann Medical University福建医科大学学报(3)62-65.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;专业 is missing&lt;/span&gt;--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;perspectives&lt;/span&gt;). Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors.By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;pointed out&lt;/span&gt;) the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;incorrect structure and obscure sentence meaning&lt;/span&gt;) By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;that&lt;/span&gt;)the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;originated from&lt;/span&gt;)his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;linguistics&lt;/span&gt;) was exerted in both of their equivalence theory(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;theories&lt;/span&gt;). Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;meanings&lt;/span&gt;) into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;wanted&lt;/span&gt;) to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;factor&lt;/span&gt;) to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;in front of&lt;/span&gt;) its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language&lt;/span&gt;). In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language&lt;/span&gt;). Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Approaches&lt;/span&gt;)=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;defined&lt;/span&gt;) by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;perspectives&lt;/span&gt;). The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;have offered guidances&lt;/span&gt;) to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;distinguish linguistic from cultural untranslatability &lt;/span&gt;)for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;possessing&lt;/span&gt;) many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian，2009：413）, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei(whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang, 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: ）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.(Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to see the world, meanwhile, more and more foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Cultural Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of public signs in tourist attractions is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of various natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br /> <br /> This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br /> <br /> === The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br /> <br /> After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br /> <br /> In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br /> <br /> <br /> ====Translation Purpose====<br /> As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990) <br /> <br /> ====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br /> As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Content and Form of Translation ====<br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br /> Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br /> As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br /> There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br /> <br /> ====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br /> When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br /> <br /> However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br /> <br /> Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br /> For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br /> <br /> Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. <br /> <br /> This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> --[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces the background and development of translation strategies. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis combines the characteristics of the two kinds of texts to explore the translation strategies that suits for the two types, including domestication, foreignization, omission and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br /> <br /> ===KEY WORDS===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍翻译策略的背景和发展，然后描述新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的特点和翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译等的翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles which have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the background, development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restruction and generalization in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis, as well as point out the drawbacks and advantages. <br /> <br /> ===2.Theoretical Framework===<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Background and development of Texts’ styles===<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts means a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules. <br /> <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997) <br /> <br /> ===2.2 Main functions of texts=== <br /> <br /> ===2.2.1The Referential Function===<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> ===2.2.2The Expressive Function===<br /> <br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> ===2.2.3The Appellative Function===<br /> <br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Main Text - types===<br /> <br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br /> <br /> ===2.3.1 The Expressive Texts=== <br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> ===2.3.2 The Informative Texts===<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> ===2.3.3 The Vocative Texts===<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> ===3.Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br /> <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br /> <br /> ===3.1 Language Characteristics===<br /> <br /> ===3.1.1 For literary stylistics===<br /> ===Vividness===<br /> In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as &quot;trump&quot;, &quot;usher&quot; and &quot;is borne&quot;, the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br /> <br /> ===Emotional expression===<br /> As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br /> <br /> ===Connotation===<br /> Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized &quot;State&quot; can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.1.2 For journalistic===<br /> Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br /> <br /> ===Truthfulness===<br /> First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br /> <br /> ===Newness===<br /> If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br /> <br /> ===Objectivity===<br /> The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br /> <br /> ===Political Relevance===<br /> Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br /> <br /> ===2.3.2 Translation principles=== <br /> Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original. <br /> <br /> ===For Literary===<br /> Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles. <br /> <br /> ===Equivalence-based principle=== <br /> Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br /> <br /> ===Accuracy-based principle===<br /> No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br /> <br /> ===For Journalistic style===<br /> Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability. <br /> <br /> ===Purpose-based principle===<br /> Purpose&quot; is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br /> <br /> ===Accuracy-based principle=== <br /> The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br /> <br /> ===Readability-based principle===<br /> Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br /> <br /> ===4.Translation strategies===<br /> Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br /> <br /> ===4.1Translation strategies in literary style===<br /> In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br /> <br /> ===4.1.1 Domestication===<br /> Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book The Translator’s Invisibility called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.<br /> Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness <br /> of expression… and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br /> which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br /> <br /> ===4.1.1.1 paraphrasing===<br /> <br /> Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br /> <br /> Example1<br /> <br /> ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br /> unceasingly.<br /> <br /> TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br /> Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br /> <br /> TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br /> <br /> The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br /> <br /> ===4.1.1.2 Adaptation===<br /> <br /> In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br /> <br /> Example2 <br /> <br /> ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br /> <br /> TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br /> <br /> Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br /> <br /> Example3<br /> <br /> ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br /> <br /> TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br /> <br /> TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br /> <br /> TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br /> There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br /> <br /> ===4.1.1.3 Replacement===<br /> <br /> Example 4 <br /> <br /> ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br /> <br /> This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric. <br /> <br /> ===4.1.2 Foreignization===<br /> <br /> Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> ===4.1.2.1 phonetic compensation===<br /> <br /> Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br /> <br /> Example5 <br /> <br /> ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br /> <br /> TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br /> <br /> Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br /> <br /> 4.1.2.2 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br /> <br /> Example6<br /> <br /> ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br /> <br /> TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br /> <br /> TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br /> <br /> 4.1.2.3 Amplification<br /> <br /> Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br /> <br /> Example 7<br /> <br /> ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br /> <br /> TT: The Lun-yu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br /> <br /> In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.2Translation strategies in journalistic style===<br /> <br /> ===4.2.1Amplification===<br /> <br /> Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br /> <br /> Example 8 <br /> <br /> ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br /> <br /> TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br /> <br /> There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br /> <br /> Example 9<br /> <br /> ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br /> <br /> TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br /> <br /> “比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 10<br /> ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br /> <br /> TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br /> <br /> “评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br /> <br /> ===4.2.2 Omission===<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br /> <br /> Example11 <br /> ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br /> TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br /> As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br /> <br /> Example12 <br /> <br /> ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br /> <br /> TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br /> <br /> As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br /> <br /> ===4.2.3Imitation===<br /> English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br /> <br /> Example 13 <br /> <br /> ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br /> <br /> TT:双心记 <br /> <br /> This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br /> <br /> Example14 <br /> <br /> ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br /> <br /> TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br /> <br /> This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br /> <br /> ===4.2.4 Restruction===<br /> The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br /> <br /> Example 15 <br /> <br /> ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br /> <br /> TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br /> <br /> “A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br /> <br /> Example16<br /> <br /> ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br /> <br /> TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br /> <br /> In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br /> <br /> Example 17<br /> <br /> ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br /> <br /> TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br /> <br /> The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily. <br /> <br /> ===4.2.5 Adaptation===<br /> Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br /> attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br /> <br /> Example 18<br /> <br /> ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br /> <br /> TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br /> <br /> “Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br /> <br /> Example 19<br /> <br /> ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br /> <br /> TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br /> <br /> “Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br /> <br /> Example 20<br /> <br /> ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br /> <br /> TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br /> <br /> If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion===<br /> The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br /> ===6. References===<br /> [1] McNair, Brain. (1998). The sociology of Journalism. A Hodder Arnold Publication<br /> [2] Munday, Jeremy, 2001, Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications [M], London and New York: Routledge.<br /> [3] Newmark, P. Approaches to Translation ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br /> [4] Nord, Christiane. Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6<br /> [5] Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br /> [6] Venuti, L. 1995. The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation. London &amp; New York: Routledge.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_2&diff=113428 2020-12-17T06:20:13Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac - Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 202070080603专业 is missing--Mo Ling (talk) 08:16, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling */</p> <hr /> <div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br /> *Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br /> <br /> '''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br /> *You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like &quot;Longevity Noodles&quot;) or Text B (&quot;Mooncakes&quot;), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title (&quot;Festival Meals&quot;) and arrange it accordingly.<br /> *In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br /> *For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br /> *Add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Please also add a list &quot;Terms and Expressions&quot;.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Questions&quot; section.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Answers&quot; section.<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Red Culture - Kang Haoyu 康浩宇, 202070080638 English Interpreting==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康浩宇 Kang Haoyu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Red Culture===<br /> Chinese red culture is unique in the world. As a very important cultural resource, it has both tangible culture and intangible culture. Red culture in China refers to the advance culture with Chinese characteristics created by party and people in revolutionary years.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)<br /> <br /> ====1. Development====<br /> <br /> China has brilliant history and splendid civilization in ancient times. However, with the Opium War of 1840, China was plunged into the darkness of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression. Despite of all efforts that countless dedicated patriots had made, they still failed to change the plight. The October Revolution in Russia brought Marxism-Leninism. With Communism as the the highest ideal and ultimate goal, the Communist Party of China shouldered the historic mission of national rejuvenation. With the firm leadership of the party, Chinese people embraced national independence, people's liberation, national reunification and social stability, and stepped into a new era of prosperity and happiness.(Xi Jinpin 2017)<br /> <br /> Red culture is condensed by the Communist Party of China in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. It is an advanced Marxism culture that was inherited and developed in the new period of socialist construction. It's a collectivism culture of bravery, sacrifice and devotion that seeks happiness for the Chinese people and rejuvenation for the Chinese nation.Red culture is embodied in the aspects of ideal belief, value pursuit and spiritual outlook, and is integrated into material remains, mechanism behaviors and cultural and artistic forms.(Luo Liling, Pu Qingpin 2018, 45)<br /> <br /> First of all, red culture is a revolutionary culture, which was formed by the Chinese Communist Party in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. After the founding of People's Republic of China, the Communist Party of China led the Chinese people to inherit and carry forward the revolutionary culture. In the new period of socialist construction and reform and opening up, a vigorous and advanced socialist culture was formed, which enriched and developed the connotation of red culture. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture, and are the core value and spiritual subject of contemporary Chinese culture. As for Chinese red culture, Among them, Marxism is the soul, the common ideal of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the theme, the national spirit and the spirit of the times are the essence, and the socialist concept of honor and disgrace is the foundation. These four aspects influence, infiltrate and interact with each other, revealing the essential characteristics of red culture scientifically and completely.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)<br /> <br /> ====2. Symbols====<br /> <br /> The word “red” in “red culture” has many symbols. Chinese people have “red” complex since ancient time. Red represents authority. For, example, official documents are also called red heading documents. Red represents courage. Red is the color of Chinese national flag. Chinese military strategists and generals have a deep understanding of the role of red in war, so they use red flags to unite their morale, inspire their fighting and their courage, and summon the spirit of going forward bravely and not fearing sacrifice. Red represents honor and auspiciousness. For instance, the places are always adorned with red for conference and ceremony. People are awarded with red flower and red certificates. Red represents revolution. When Marx was asked about &quot;favorite color&quot; in his early years, he clearly answered &quot;red&quot;. In 1864, First International was founded, and its logo was red. The first army of Communist Party of China was named Red Army, and Ruijin, the first revolutionary base area, was called Red Capital. There were also red boats in South Lake and red flags in Jinggangshan.(Chen dongwang, Huang Weiliang 2006, 19)<br /> <br /> ====3. Values====<br /> <br /> Red culture has many values. Red culture has the value of history. It witnesses the early development history of the Communist Party of China. It shows the inevitability of the socialist road in China. And it is an important weapon to guide the success of Chinese revolution. Besides, red culture has the value of civilization. Carrying forward the red culture is an urgent need to cultivate a new national spirit. Red culture is important for the construction of socialism culture and ideology. Moreover, red culture has the value of economy. Red culture is a powerful driving force for the development of socialist market economy. It is an important medium of economic development under the new historical conditions. The red cultural industry has become a new economic growth point.(Wang Yidi 2007, 149)<br /> <br /> ====4. Red Culture in Nanchang====<br /> <br /> Nanchang is the capital city of Jiangxi Province and it is where August 1st uprising took place. Nanchang is renowned as the cradle of Chinese revolution and the place where the military flag rose. Because in August 1st uprising, communist party of china formed its first army in Nanchang. There are lots of red culture resources in Nanchang. <br /> <br /> Bayi Square is at the center of Nanchang city. It was built to memorize August 1st uprising. Bayi Square highlights the theme of &quot;Bayi History and Culture&quot; in all directions. The memorial area, cultural area, reminiscence area and leisure area of Bayi Square show Bayi Uprising in different forms. The landmark in the square is Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower. Besides, Nangchang August 1st Memorial Hall is a special memorial hall established to commemorate Nanchang Uprising.（Peng Bo, Zhang Li, Li Jiangyuan 2006, 58）<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] 程东旺, 黄伟良. “红色文化”的价值形态与德育功能探析[J]. 现代教育科学, 2006: 19-21.<br /> <br /> [2] 罗丽琳,蒲清平. 红色文化的思想政治教育基因及其时代价值[J].新疆师范大学学报, 2018: 45-52<br /> <br /> [3] 彭波, 张丽, 李江源. 整合红色资源,提升江西文化力[J]. 江西崛起策论, 2006:58-60.<br /> <br /> [4] 王以第. “红色文化”的价值内涵[J]. 文化论苑, 2007:149-150.<br /> <br /> [5] 习近平, 决胜全面建成小康社会 夺取新时代中国特色社会主义伟大胜利——在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告,人民日报,2017.<br /> <br /> [6] 朱桂莲,李晶. 德育视角下的中国红色文化研究综述[J]. 研究综述, 2010:87-89.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> red culture 红色文化<br /> <br /> Opium War 鸦片战争<br /> <br /> red heading documents 红头文件<br /> <br /> red army 红军<br /> <br /> August 1st uprising 八一起义<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1. What is the historical background of the birth of red culture?<br /> <br /> 2. What are two major components of red culture?<br /> <br /> 3. How many symbols dose the word &quot;red&quot; in red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 4. How many values dose red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 5. What is the landmark in Bayi Square?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1. In modern China, Communist Party of China led the Chinese revolution and led people to fight against suppression.<br /> <br /> 2. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture<br /> <br /> 3. Four. Authority, courage, honor and revolution.<br /> <br /> 4. Three. History value, civilization value and economic value.<br /> <br /> 5. Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower<br /> <br /> ==Landscape, The Ancient Tea Horse Road - Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> <br /> ===The Ancient Tea Horse Road===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. The ancient tea horse road is divided into two routes: the Sichuan-Tibet line and the Yunnan-Tibet line. The ancient tea horse road originated from the ancient southwest frontier of the tea horse mutual market, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and most prosperous in the middle and late World War II. The ancient Tea Horse Road divided into Shanxi-Gan, Shanxi-Kangtang (folk called wade ancient road, Sichuan-Tibet line is part of it), Yunnan-Tibet and other three main routes, connecting Sichuan, Yunnan-Tibet, extending into the territory of Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal, India, until reaching West Asia, West Africa, the Red Sea coast. 5 March 2013, the Tea Horse Road was listed by the State Council as the seventh batch of national key cultural relics conservation units.(Zou Jingyi 2018,131)<br /> <br /> ====Historical Routes====<br /> China’s ancient tea horse road is divided into:<br /> 1. The Shanxi-Gansu tea horse road is the main route for tea to travel westward in mainland China and exchange for horses. It is one of the main routes of the ancient Silk Road.<br /> 2. Shanxi and Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road), began in the Han Dynasty, formed by the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse each other. Due to the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government control of tea trafficking, tea trafficking sub-regional, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road.<br /> 3. The ancient Yunnan-Tibet Tea Horse Road. Formed around the late sixth century AD, it is south of Yunnan's main tea producing areas in Xishuangbanna Yiwu, Pu'er City, intermediate through today's Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture and Lijiang City, Shangri-La into Tibet, directly to Lhasa. Some also re-exported from Tibet to India and Nepal, is an important trade channel between ancient China and South Asia.<br /> 4.Sichuan-Tibet Tea Horse Road is a part of the Shan-Kang-Tibet Tea Horse Road, east of Yazhou edge tea production Ya'an, after playing arrow furnace (now Kangding), west to Lhasa, Tibet, and finally through to Bhutan, Nepal and India, a total length of nearly four thousand kilometers, is an essential bridge and link between ancient Tibet and the interior.<br /> There are three main routes of the ancient tea-horse road: The Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line. <br /> Among the three ancient tea-horse roads, the Qinghai-Tibet line was established in the Tang Dynasty and developed earlier, while the Sichuan-Tibet line was the most influential and well-known later. These three routes are closely related to Chengdu, among them, the Yunnan-Tibet route and the Sichuan-Tibet route must pass through Chengdu, and their development is closely related to the tea-horse trade.(Kang Yuming2020,281-283)<br /> <br /> Shanxi- Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road), was formed in the Han dynasty through the efforts of the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government controlled tea traffickin along the tea trafficking sub-region, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:02, 7 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> ====Historical Value====<br /> The Silk Road in the north and the ancient Tea Horse Road in the south. The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization. However, its history and value will always shine brightly.(Li Gang 2011,113-117)<br /> <br /> 1.The Golden Road of Tourism<br /> The ancient tea-horse road tour has unique scenery, profound cultural connotation, exclusive resources and is unparalleled in the world.<br /> 2. Ancient Roads for the Propagation of Civilization<br /> The ancient Tea Horse Road was not only an important migration corridor for the ancient ancestors between Wei-Tibet and present Sichuan and Yunnan, but also an important aperture for the spread and exchange of ancient civilizations between present Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet.<br /> 3.Migration Corridor of National Cultures<br /> On this ancient road, which stretches for more than 10,000 miles, Chinese, Tibetan, Yi, Naxi, Lisu, Hani, Kino, Qiang, Pumi, Bai, Nu, Jingpo, Achang and other ethnic groups have flourished here for thousands of years, highlighting the diversity and original form of ethnic culture in southwest China.<br /> 4.Religious Propagation Road<br /> With the development of the tea-horse trade and the extension of the ancient tea-horse route, Tibetan Buddhism spread widely along this route on the Tibetan Plateau and surrounding areas. The development and spread of Tibetan stupas can be roughly divided into two routes: one is Tibet - Qinghai - Gansu - Inner Mongolia - the other is Tibet - Qinghai - Gansu - Inner Mongolia. -Liaoning--Jilin--Heilongjiang--Beijing--Hebei --Henan--Jiangsu; second, Tibet--Yunnan--Sichuan. --Guangxi--Hubei.<br /> 5. The Path of National Spirituality<br /> You can't talk about the ancient tea-horse road without mentioning the horse gangs. The horse gangs have formed a unique cultural carrier in the course of thousands of years. Their spirit is attached to this ancient road, and become part of the Chinese national spirit.<br /> 6.The Road of National Unity and Integration<br /> The ancient tea-horse road is like a huge net in southwest China, through which people of all nationalities strengthen their ties and communication, promote political, economic and cultural interaction, development and integration among all nationalities, and enhance the emotional ties between them.<br /> 7.The Road of Securing the Borders<br /> The expansion of the ancient tea-horse road and the flourishing of the tea-horse trade contributed to the stability and consolidation of China's southwest frontier.<br /> 8.The road to economic development<br /> The Thousand-Year Tea Horse Trail contributed to the formation of many towns in the region through the tea and horse trade, which greatly contributed to the economic development of the region.(Ji Jing2016,354-355)<br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road(茶马古道)<br /> <br /> 2.Sichuan-Tibet Line（川藏线）<br /> <br /> 3.Yunnan-Tibet line（滇藏线）<br /> <br /> 4.wade ancient road（蹚古道）<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What is the ancient tea horse road ?<br /> <br /> 2.How many main routes does the ancient tea-horse road conclude?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the historical value?<br /> --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 04:15, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. <br /> <br /> 2.There are three main routes, including the Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line.<br /> <br /> 3.The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]邹怡情,张依玫.作为文化线路的茶马古道遗产保护研究[J].北京规划建设,2018(04):131-140.<br /> <br /> [2]康昱明,李金峰.甘肃茶马古道文化线路遗产探究[J].农村经济与科技,2020,31(11):281-283.<br /> <br /> [3]李刚,李薇.论历史上三条茶马古道的联系及历史地位[J].西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2011,41(04):113-117.<br /> <br /> [4]纪静.茶马古道的兴起及其价值研究[J].福建茶叶,2016,38(07):354-355.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:06, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Literature, Novels - Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> <br /> ===Four satirical novels in ancient China===<br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.<br /> <br /> ==== Nie Hai Hua====<br /> Nie Hai Hua was written by Zen Pu (1872-1935).A total of 35 chapters.it is a novel of condemnation, historical fiction and political fiction. In the novel, Jin yun (wen qing) is the main character.After won the scholarship, he took a famous courtesan, Fu Caiyun, as his concubine in Suzhou.He was then ordered to travel to Russia, Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands. After returning to China, Jin Wenqing died of illness in Beijing, and Fu Caiyun left the Jin family to resume her old profession in Shanghai, changing her name to Cao Menglan then went to Tianjin to work as a prostitute, calling herself Sai Jinhua.<br /> The novel takes the story of Jin Wenqing and Fu Caiyun as the main line, vividly describes the historical and cultural changes as well as political and social changes from Tongzhi to Guangxu more than 30 years, exposing the decay and decline of the rulers, criticizing the feudal system of imperial examination, satirizing the officials, truly reflecting their spiritual life and cultural mentality. at the same time also enthusiastically glorifies Feng Zicai, Liu Yongfu and other war heroes and Sun Yat-sen and so on. The revolutionary activities of the Democratic Revolutionaries express the author's patriotic thoughts against the feudal dictatorship and advocate national democratic revolution. In specific writing, the author adopts the modern popular block novel structure combined with the traditional mesh novel structure to unfold the plot, with ups and downs, twists and turns, touching and orderly, always around the main line.<br /> As a historical novel, Nie Hai Hua draws on the spirit of the ancient &quot;good history&quot; of China to portray its characters. At the same time, it draws on the satirical approach of &quot;The History of Confucianism&quot; in which &quot;the fair-minded accuse the evils of the times&quot;, commenting on events and weighing characters in a realistic manner. In terms of art, Nie Hai Hua also has many shortcomings.However, it is a skillful structure and outstanding novel at that time.<br /> <br /> ==== the Travels of an Old Man====<br /> The Travels of an Old Man was written by Liu E (1857-1909) and a total of 20 chapters. Liu E was an entrepreneur and scholar, not a professional writer, but his reputation as a literary figure was far greater than that of an entrepreneur and scholar. This novel is an unfinished work of his that was written in his later years with an autobiographical nature.<br /> The novel takes a bell-ringing mountebank, Lao can (Tie Ying), as its main character, and narrates his experiences and activities during his travels in northern China, exposing the decadence and darkness of the Qing government, the brutality and lethargy of the officials, and the poverty and oppression of the people, especially attacking the abusive behavior of those &quot;Qing officials&quot; who are actually cruel officials, and expressing the author's strong views on the perilous reality of society and the country. <br /> The artistic achievement of the novel is very high. The first is the superb descriptive skills, whether it is a description, a landscape, or a narrative, can be vividly depicted, such as the scenery of Thousand Buddha Mountain, Daming Lake etc., which makes people have a sense of being in the real world. Secondly, its psychological description and psychological analysis, with appropriate language, can brilliantly show the inner world of the characters. Thirdly, the exquisite structural art. The novel is in the form of a Travel Journal, with travel as a clue,and organic combined of what he see, hear, think and do along the way forms a unique structural feature of the novel.<br /> <br /> ==== The Records of Officialdom Exposure====<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure by Li Baojia (1867-1906), five editions and a total of 60 chapters. This is the first long chapter novel in China's modern era that was published serially in newspapers and magazines and achieved a social sensation, creating a culture of critical reality in modern fiction.<br /> The novel consists of more than 30 relatively independent bureaucratic stories linked together,involving the Qing government from the emperor, down to the minor officials and so on,and these various bureaucrats of all kinds of evil behavior were exposed:They embezzled public funds, corrupt and pervert the law or the named &quot;expedition bandits&quot;, but is harmful to the people. The work is like a scroll of the officialdom at the end of the feudal society, touching on the main contradictions of that time.<br /> The novel's writing method is modelled on &quot;The Scholars&quot; and has been developed, making full use of exaggeration, comic style and satirical techniques. only a few strokes will outline the character's voice and physical appearance. And the author also good at describing the details, so that the characters are vivid and evocative, with a strong artistic impact. Therefore, the subsequent imitation of the work is quite a lot, it become a great view.<br /> <br /> ==== 20 years witness strange present situation====<br /> The Strange Situation Witnessed in Twenty Years was written by Wu Woyao(1866-1910), A total of 60 chapters. This is a long novel with autobiographical flavor.it through nearly 200 short stories that the protagonist hears and witnesses from the death of his father to his failure in business. it outlines the strange realities of late Qing society during the 20 years from the Sino-French War to the beginning of the 20th century.<br /> The scope of social life is much broader than The Records of Officialdom Exposure. In addition to describing the officialdom, there are also involving the shopping malls, foreign markets, science fields, medical and astrological practices. It exposes the political situation, moral outlook, social customs, and human conditions of the increasingly colonized Chinese feudal society, and is of high cognitive value in helping readers to see the irreparable historical destiny of the late Qing society and feudal system.<br /> The novel adopts the first-person narrative story, structured in a way that makes the reader feel intimate and trustworthy, setting a precedent in the history of Chinese fiction. The structure is also very clever: &quot;nine deaths and a lifetime&quot; is not only the narrator of the book story, but also the backbone of the structure of the book, and at the same time uses flashbacks, interpolations and other methods, combining it organically together, making the whole book complex and simple appropriate, muddle together.<br /> <br /> ==== Conclution====<br /> As a result of the bourgeois reformists and democratic revolutionaries strongly advocated, the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty got unprecedented development, and a large number of influential novels emerged, forming a prosperous situation of the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty.The emergence of the &quot;Four satirical novels&quot; in the late Qing Dynasty is an important sign that The creation of Chinese novels has entered another prosperous period.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> *[1]https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E6%99%9A%E6%B8%85%E5%9B%9B%E5%A4%A7%E8%B0%B4%E8%B4%A3%E5%B0%8F%E8%AF%B4/702907?fr=aladdin<br /> *[2]二十年目睹之怪现状[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 吴趼人, 2012<br /> *[3]老残游记[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 刘鹗, 2012<br /> *[4]官场现形记[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 李宝嘉, 2012<br /> *[5]孽海花[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 曾朴, 2012<br /> *[6]四大谴责小说政治批判手法研究[J].李辉东,2017<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure 《官场现形记》<br /> <br /> The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years 《二十年之目睹怪现象》<br /> <br /> the Travels of an Old Man 《老残游记》<br /> <br /> Nai Hai Hua 《孽海花》<br /> <br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty 晚清四大谴责小说<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1、what are The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty ?<br /> <br /> 2、which novel is modeled the &quot;The Scholars&quot;?<br /> <br /> 3、what’s the common characteristic of these four novels? <br /> <br /> 4、what other satirical novels do you know?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1、They are Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua.<br /> <br /> 2、The Records of Officialdom Exposure<br /> <br /> 3、The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time.<br /> <br /> 4、E.g.The Scholars<br /> <br /> ==Shadow Play - Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> ===Shadow Play Li Lili No.202070080594 MTI===<br /> ====The Origin of Shadow Play====<br /> Shadow play has a long history from the written records. Legend has it that Madame Li, the wife of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, died of illness. Emperor Wu's yearning for her was so intense that he was in a trance and ignored the government's affairs all day. Minister Li Shaoweng went out one day when he came across a child playing with a doll in his hand, with its shadow being vivid，so he came up with an idea that he could cut the image of Mrs. Li from cotton and silk, painted it with color, and installed wooden poles on her hands and feet. After seeing it, Emperor Wu was glued to it and couldn't put it down. This love story is considered to be the earliest origin of shadow play. (Wei Liqun 2018,13) <br /> <br /> There are also some views that shadow play originated in Xi'an of Tang Dynasty, however, it is worth discussing that although there were an variety of operas in the Tang Dynasty, yet there were no any records of shadow play mentioned in the Tang Dynasty. Up to now, the earliest shadow play we can see is recorded in Song Dynasty. Its rise and development is closely related to Bianjing’s (the capital of Northern Song Dynasty) superior geographical environment, the development of commodity trade and good commercial transportation at that time. (Wei Liqun 2018,14-15)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> [[File:shadow play.jpg]]<br /> In Chinese ancient society, Chinese began to give performances using puppets against an illuminated screen. This is “shadow puppets”, also known as “lamp and shadow play”. It is considered as “precursor of movie” because it was the earliest moving part of form dubbed with human voice in the world. During a play, puppeteers hide behind the white screen and move puppets, while narrating the story, usually through singing. Performances are accompanied by musicians playing percussion and stringed instruments. A shadow puppet can perform actions such as “serving drinks”, “waving a sword and a spear,” or even “smoking” by puppeteer holding and moving manipulating rods on its body. (Wang Yexia 2012,1-2)<br /> <br /> Typically, a shadow puppet has three rods, some may have five or seven rods. It can create rich designs such as shadow puppets, animals and stage props, for example, buildings, imperial palaces, chariots, tables and chairs as well as weapons. It is so rich that it includes almost everything under the sun. It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools. The well-known ones include Tangshan Shadow Play in Hebei Province, Beijing Shadow Play as well as Shaanxi, Shanxi and Hunan Shadow Play. etc. (Wang Yexia 2012,2-3)<br /> <br /> So how to make a puppet? First. Draw pictures of the various parts of the shadow puppets; second, finish carving with a knife and a hard board underneath the design; third, color the puppet with watercolor pens; forth, paint the body parts with a brush dipped in oil. This can make the puppet transparent and better reflect colors under the light.; fifth, connect joint sections with the cotton thread; sixth, make the manipulating rods; finally, attach the manipulating rods to the shadow puppet with cotton thread. Thanks to different manipulating rods moves, the shadow puppet has a life, and can show happiness, anger, sorrow and gladness. (Wang Yexia 2012,29-35)<br /> <br /> The eyes and the eyebrows of a shadow puppet’s five facial features represent different personalities. The good and positive people are typical of a benevolent and kind countenance, with nice-looking eyebrows and eyes, while the villain or the general are ferocious look, with sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes. And the former are often concealed teeth and the latter are revealed teeth. The middle-aged people are short beard, but the elderly men are long beard. (Wang Yexia 2012,10-11)<br /> <br /> The decorative designs on the shadow puppets are so important that they must match the character’s social status. In a shadow play, female characters are usually decorated with patters such as flowers, grass, clouds and phoenix, while male characters are often decorated with dragons, tigers, water and clouds. Shadows puppets look colorful under the light. To achieve a better visual effect, the translucent puppets need to be painted on both sides. The head of color can also represent different characters’ personalities. The red is symbol of a heroic and upstanding character and the representative is Guan Yu. The black is a sign of a just, honest and selfless personality and the representative is Zhang Fei. The yellow shows a brave and irascible character and are often used in fantasy plays to represent people with magic power. (Wang Yexia 2012,13-16)<br /> <br /> ====The Present Situation of Contemporary Shadow Play====<br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, shadow play, as an art form, has undergone a series of reforms under the guidance of the Party's principles, including the organization of theatrical troupes, the compilation and creation of plays, the drawing and performing forms of shadow play. With the advent of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, the prosperity of shadow play came to an abrupt end. The troupe was disbanded, the repertoire was banned, and the artists were transferred to other fields. A large number of precious shadow puppet props and documents were damaged. This situation, except for some places, lasted until 1976. <br /> (Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）<br /> <br /> After the end of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, shadow puppet art revived rapidly, However, with the economic development being put in the first place of social activities and the popularity of television and the richness of artistic forms, shadow play is declining day by day with an irresistible trend, because shadow play arts are unable to keep pace with the times and get the appreciation from the audience. As a result, the prospect of shadow play art is becoming increasingly bleak. （Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）<br /> <br /> In order to inherit Chinese excellent culture and protect the ancient art forms such as shadow play. On May 20, 2006, it was approved by the State Council to be included in the first part of national intangible cultural heritage list. On November 27, 2011, UNESCO put Chinese shadow play on the &quot;list of representative works of human intangible cultural heritage&quot;.（baidubaike）<br /> <br /> ===References：===<br /> Wang Yexia 王业霞.(2012). 《皮影戏》 [Shadow Play] 北京：高等教育出版社 Beijing: [Higher Education Publishing House] <br /> <br /> Wei Liqun 魏力群.(2018). 《小书大传承-皮影》[&quot;Small Book, Big Heritage - Shadow Play&quot;] 重庆：重庆出版社 Chongqing: [Chongqing Publishing House]<br /> <br /> Zhu Hengfu 朱恒夫.(2020) 中国皮影戏的历史，现状与剧目特征[The History, Current Situation and Repertoire Characteristics of Chinese Shadow Theatre] 浙江艺术职业学院学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Arts Vocational College]<br /> <br /> https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%9A%AE%E5%BD%B1%E6%88%8F/23224?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Words and Expressions===<br /> shadow puppet皮影戏 <br /> paper cutting 剪纸<br /> ventriloquism 口技<br /> manipulating rod 操纵杆<br /> five facial features 五官<br /> sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes 尖眉杏眼<br /> Cultural Revolution 文化大革命<br /> intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1.When is the earliest shadow puppet’s record?<br /> <br /> 2.What art of forms do shadow play use?<br /> <br /> 3. What does a red head stand for in a play?<br /> <br /> 4.When is it put on the list of intangible cultural heritage&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.Song dynasty.<br /> <br /> 2.It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools.<br /> <br /> 3.The red is symbol of a heroic and upstanding character.<br /> <br /> 4. On November 27, 2011.<br /> <br /> ==Confucian Culture - Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Confucian Culture ===<br /> <br /> <br /> ==== Introduction ====<br /> <br /> Confucian school is an academic school founded by Confucius, developed by Mencius, and composed by Xunzi. Today, it still retains a certain vitality. Confucian school takes Confucianism as its guiding ideology whose central ideas are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 31)<br /> <br /> Confucian school was on an equal footing with the other hundred schools in the pre-Qin period. After the First Emperor of Qin, also called Qin Shihuang, burned books and buried scholars alive, the development of the Confucian school suffered a serious defeat. Then, in order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's advice of &quot;banishing other schools of thought and worshiping Confucianism only&quot; and imposed restrictions on thought, which led to the revival of Confucian school. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 20) The concepts of &quot;Confucian school&quot;, &quot;Confucianism&quot;, and &quot;Confucian Religion&quot; should be distinguished since Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism a social stratification, and Confucian religion belief. (Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 2017, 60-61)<br /> <br /> Laozi founded Chinese Taoist school; Confucius started Chinese Confucian school; Sun Tzu initiated Chinese military strategist school; Mozi was the founder of Mohism in the early Warring States. Confucianism contributes to guiding the code of conduct and constructing social order; Taoism focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalism serves the system construction of national political management.; the concepts of Universal Love and utilitarianism are two cornerstones for the Mohism. The General Unity idea of Confucianism has played an important role in the unification of a nation, the enhancement of national cohesion and the integration of cultural values. (Tan Su 2012, 68) After more than two thousand years of development and evolution, Confucian culture has built up a complete ideological system, involving politics, education, morality, ethics, code of conduct, life skills and other aspects. It has cultivated the wisdom and soul of the Chinese people throughout the history, and formed deep-rooted set patterns of thinking, psychology and survival. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42-43)<br /> <br /> ==== Analysis of Confucian Culture ====<br /> <br /> ===== Intelligence Development =====<br /> <br /> Confucius is a great educator, as well as a pioneer and practitioner of mass education. After Confucianism was established as a dominant culture, both the rulers and the public respected the teachings of the sage and attached great importance to education. In this context, a basic requirement is to stay highly cultured and steeped in propriety. After the Emperor Wen initiated the imperial examination system in the Sui Dynasty, those who are good scholars could make an official, which inspired students of poor families to change their lives by studying hard and diligent. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 19) For generations, the Chinese people have attached great importance to the education of their children, which is conducive to the improvement of the thinking ability of the whole nation. <br /> <br /> However, the corrupt of bureaucracy and the darkness of officialdom in metaphase and anaphase made many literati feel despairing about official career and discredit about the concept. In addition, the Four Books and Five Classics were the main learning content of Confucianism. Apart from government-run schools, private schools and self-study can hardly meet the requirements of the Six Classical Arts. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 21) Therefore, the Four Books and Five Classics were the focus of students, while the Six Classical Arts were not highly valued. <br /> <br /> =====Spiritual Guidance =====<br /> <br /> In terms of spirit, Confucianism contends that &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.&quot; (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 86) Benevolent people love each other, which reflects the essence of “Unity of Man and Nature” and also the most brilliant connotation of Confucianism. This philosophy calls for people’s active contributions to the society. It is still alive in modern times, and is the fundamental requirement of people's spiritual orientation in the future. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32)<br /> <br /> =====Order Construction =====<br /> <br /> In the age of barbarism and backwardness, a common feature was that a small number of people used power and force to suppress and enslave the majority, thus resulting in labor division and unfair distribution of wealth and generating corresponding social hierarchy and concepts. Given the fact that Confucianism developed in the transitional period of feudal society, the thoughts of Confucius and Mencius were rooted in the idealist view of destiny and did not break the shackles of social hierarchy. In addition, they even advocated the distinguish between the noble and the humble and highlighted the importance of hierarchy division. In this context, the benevolence they advocated had great limitations in political management. The public could not be treated equally in terms of political status. Instead, the so-called benevolence calls for improvement of the living conditions of the public and more benefits from the ruling class. However, its purpose was to maintain social order and reconcile social contradictions. This is also the root cause of feudal rulers’ favoring of Confucianism. In essence, Confucianism did not promote social equality, instead, it worked to maintain the unequal feudal hierarchy that aggravated servitude. In fact, after a long history of feudal rule, the sense of hierarchy would be part of the national psyche. With the progress of times and civilization, the view of destiny and the thought of social order have become psychological shackles of the Chinese people. (Li Fangping 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> After eliminating the ideology of feudal hierarchy and formalism, some philosophies of Confucianism still generate positive effects on modern society. Specifically, the spirit of benevolence and universal love is conducive to cultivate people’s spirits; (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 33) the concept of “the country belongs to the public” reflects a sense of social responsibility to make contributions for society, which can be expanded into a sharing social and political philosophy for different countries. Filial piety and brotherhood increase the harmony and stability of family; Loyalty, faithfulness, propriety and forgiveness are conducive to the relationship between different countries, societies and people. &quot;Loyalty&quot; means that people should stay loyal to the country and people; &quot;Friendliness&quot; and &quot;forgiveness&quot; play an important role in resolving various contradictions and animosities; when it comes to &quot;filial piety&quot; and &quot;propriety&quot;, many redundant forms inherited from feudal society should be eradicated and be more practical. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-41)<br /> <br /> ====The Contemporary Value of Confucian Culture ====<br /> <br /> Today, Confucian culture is still of great significance. We must explore the value of Confucian culture on the basis of the excellent tradition of the Chinese nation and by combining the characteristics of the times with and the actual situation. The Confucian culture has affected Chinese more than two thousand years and gone deep into each aspect of Chinese society. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39)<br /> <br /> =====Ideological and Political Education =====<br /> <br /> Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy, and it places a high priority on human value and dignity. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 51-57) Over the years, the Chinese nation has been influenced by this excellent philosophy. On this occasion, its behavioral pattern and psychological structure are endowed with uniqueness, which is mainly manifested in two aspects. One is to respect yourself, learn how to love and care yourself. Moreover, gain dignity and achieve the development of human value through the continuous improvement of moral cultivation. Second, respect others and show respect for others' personality by respecting, understanding and caring for others. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-40)<br /> <br /> ===== Modern Economic Construction=====<br /> <br /> Under today’s circumstance, some ideological contents are still alive and produce positive effects on promoting the economic construction of modernization and fostering modern patriotism emotion of the Chinese people. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65)<br /> <br /> First of all, Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of &quot;benevolence&quot; and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65) Since Confucian culture reflects a collectivist view on life, individuals are full of sense of duty and responsibility towards others and groups. In this context, their self-cultivation targets at regulating the family, country and the world. Thus, the value of individual is closely linked with the rise and fall of the country, so they have a strong sense of responsibility. (Tan Su 2012, 68) &quot;Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country&quot; has been a common belief for thousands of years. Such a social responsibility will give rise to a huge driving force for the development of the country and society.<br /> <br /> Second, the consciousness of &quot;self-improvement&quot; and the proposition of &quot;seeking truth&quot; in the Confucian culture strengthen the national spirit and provide a source power for China’s economic modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 66) Yi Zhuan put forward: &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection.’’ It means that continuous development is the law of nature and that a gentleman should pursue progress and be strong, unyielding resilient and positive. For thousands of years, the Chinese nation has formed a fine tradition of working hard and striving for strength under the influence of these thoughts. Today, we carry forward the spirits of “self-improvement” and &quot;seeking truth&quot; in ways that further enhance national spirits and provide a strong driving force for the socialist modernization.<br /> <br /> Third, the &quot;reform and innovation&quot; concept in Confucian culture is conducive to the expansion of the reform and opening up and the acceleration of China's socialist modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 67) On the basis of admitting the fact that the continuous development is the universal law of nature, Confucian culture puts forward the &quot;innovation idea&quot;. The Book of Rites said, &quot;If you can in one day renovate yourself; do so from day to day and let there be daily renovation.&quot; The Book of Changes said, &quot;Reform refers to destroy the old, while innovation means to establish the new.” The concept is not only serves as the theoretical basis for reform and innovation throughout the history, but also provides valuable lessons for the reform in socialist economic and political systems today. Domestically, promoting the innovative spirits can greatly enhance the reform consciousness of the Chinese people. Externally, it is conducive to advancing the opening up by leveraging the global influence of Confucian culture.<br /> <br /> ===== Legal Construction =====<br /> <br /> Confucian culture places a high priority on personal cultivation, while a highly civilized society under the rule of law must be composed of highly educated citizens. Confucian school, a school with thousands of years of history in China, has become an integral part of the Chinese culture. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32-33) Nowadays, since China has called for the policy of combining the rule of virtue with the rule of law, it is the time for Confucian culture to find its historical position and fully play its role. Exploring the influence of Confucian culture on the construction of contemporary Chinese rule by law, not only can we help us more deeply understand the traditional culture, but also can promote the process of building the rule of law in contemporary China. <br /> <br /> The rule by virtue thought is an important part of Confucian culture and it emphasizes the importance of moral education. It is a national strategy pursued by ancient Chinese rulers and a method of national governance embodying reference significance in today’s China. (Wei Na 2014, 1-2) In terms of national governance, Confucianism emphasizes the importance of morality, believing that national governance should not mainly rely on harsh punishment, instead, moral education should be applied to reform people. Confucius said, &quot;By governing with virtue, rulers will be loved by the public, just like stars surround the North Star.&quot; By comparing rulers to the North Star and people to the stars, Confucius emphasized the importance of moral governance. (Wang Jie 2004, 77)<br /> <br /> How to rule by virtue? First of all, rulers should pay attention to their personal cultivation and develop good moral characters, so that they can set a good example for the public. Only when officials and common people obey the ruler sincerely, can a good social atmosphere be formed. Secondly, since Confucianism takes &quot;benevolence&quot; as its core and calls for the rule of virtue, many people subconsciously believe that Confucianism denies the role of criminal law and that Confucian culture does not call for the rule of law. In fact, this is not the case. While Confucianism advocates the rule of virtue, it also emphasizes the supplementary role of rule of law. (Wang Jie 2004, 82-83) Confucius said, &quot;Sages believe that national governance must combine the rule of virtue and law.&quot; That is to say, if people are governed by systems and laws, they seek for impunity but lack of conscience; however, if they are guided by morality and etiquette, they will have a sense of right and wrong and will impose strict requirements on themselves.<br /> <br /> In a word, we should clearly realize that, although Confucian culture is an excellent traditional culture in China, it was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. Under this circumstance, we must analyse Confucian culture dialectically and explore the value of Confucian culture. At the same time, we should discard the bad habits and unfavorable factors left by it, so as to better carry forward our traditional culture and accelerate the construction of the rule of law in contemporary China. (Wang Jie 2004, 83) <br /> <br /> ====The Confucius Institute ====<br /> <br /> With the improvement of China's international status and the increasingly extensive international exchanges, Chinese culture has won wider foreign attention and the world is more eager to learn and understand the Chinese culture. The Confucius Institute project, founded in 2004, emerges in response to the call of the times. Today, Confucius Institutes have spread throughout Asia, Africa, The Americas, Europe and Oceania. (Wang Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 30) Fundamentally speaking, its is conducive to the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture since language is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is of positive significance to the construction of China's national image, the promotion of China's international influence, the realization of wider international communication.<br /> <br /> The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Today, countries are committed to spreading their own language and culture, so there is a fierce competition in international cultural promotion. In addition, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. At present, Confucius Institutes are prevalent all over the world, but the promotion strategy seeking for quantity and speed results in a serious shortage of teachers capable of teaching Chinese as a foreign language. According to statistics, there is a global shortage of at least five million TCSL teachers. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 31) Secondly, the lack of high-quality and localized teaching materials for Chinese has also become a bottleneck for the development of Confucius Institutes. The shortage of Chinese textbooks affects the depth of cultural communication of Confucius Institutes directly. Thirdly, Confucius Institutes are not capable of spreading the ideological depth of the Chinese culture. Although the textbooks are rich in content, they mainly focus on promoting folk culture by introducing Chinese food, tea and wine, traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts. Meanwhile, they rarely involve the ideological essence of traditional Chinese culture and the modern value of Chinese culture. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 32)<br /> <br /> The Confucius Institutes should fully explore the modern significance of Confucianism and cast the quintessence of Chinese culture, and strengthen the spread of the core idea of Chinese culture and its modern cultural value. The connotation of Chinese culture is very rich. What Confucius Institutes should spread is not all the contents of Chinese culture, but the contents with universal value that are different from other countries and represent the essence of Chinese culture. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions ====<br /> <br /> 儒家 Confucian school<br /> <br /> 儒学 Confucianism<br /> <br /> 儒教 Confucian religion <br /> <br /> 兼爱 Universal love<br /> <br /> 恕、忠、孝、悌、勇 forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage<br /> <br /> 仁、义、礼、智、信 benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith<br /> <br /> 学而优则仕 A good scholar will make an official<br /> <br /> 四书五经 the Four Books and Five Classics<br /> <br /> 天行健，君子当自强不息；地势坤，君子以厚德载物。As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.<br /> <br /> 天下兴亡，匹夫有责 Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country<br /> <br /> ====Questions ====<br /> <br /> 1. What’s the central ideas of Confucian culture?<br /> <br /> 2. What’s the difference among Confucian school, Confucianism and Confucian religion?<br /> <br /> 3. What do you think of the relationship between Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school, Legalist school?<br /> <br /> 4. What’s the Six Classical Arts?<br /> <br /> 5. What you think of the ancient influence of Confucianism?<br /> <br /> 6. Do you think Confucian culture still has its contemporary values in China? And why?<br /> <br /> 7. What do you think of the current situation of the development of the Confucian institute?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1. The central ideas of Confucian culture are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith.<br /> <br /> 2. Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism is a social stratification, and Confucian is a religion belief.<br /> <br /> 3. Confucian school emphasizes the code of conduct and the social order construction; Taoist school focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalist school serves the system construction of national political management; Mohist school emphasizes Universal Love and utilitarianism. Although Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school and Legalist school are different schools with different theories, they are not completely antagonistic. <br /> <br /> 4. The Six Classical Arts refers to propriety(礼), music（乐）, archery（射）, riding（御）, writing（书） and arithematic（数）. <br /> <br /> 5. The ancient influence of Confucianism should be analysed from a historical perspective. It was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. While contributing to intelligence development, spiritual guidance and order construction to some extent, it has also led to some negative effects in the long run. For example, it called for rigid feudal hierarchy and resulted in spiritual constraints. <br /> <br /> 6. Yes. Although Confucian culture has a history of thousands of years, it still has contemporary values in today's society. For instance, Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy and places a high priority on human value and dignity, which is still of profound significance; Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of &quot;benevolence&quot; and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy.<br /> <br /> 7. The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Nowadays, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. Joint efforts of all social sectors should be made to achieve the sustainable development of it. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 陈智斌, 杜艾红. (2017). 儒学、儒家、儒教之异同 [The Differences and Similarities of Confucian School, Confucianism and Confucian Religion]. ''审计月刊'' Audit Monthly. <br /> <br /> Li Chenzong 李承宗. (2002). 论儒家文化对培养现代爱国主义情感的积极作用 [On the Positive Effects of Confucian Culture on Cultivating Patriotism]. ''廊坊师范学院学报'' Journal of Langfang Teachers College. <br /> <br /> Li Fangping 李芳萍. (2013). 儒家思想对中国文化的影响研究 [A Study on the Influence of Confucianism on Chinese Culture]. ''前沿'' Forward Position.<br /> <br /> Li Xiaoyu 李晓愚. (2010). 儒家仁爱思想的当代诠释 [Contemporary Interpretation of Benevolence]. ''郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Zhengzhou University. <br /> <br /> Tan Su 谭苏. (2012). 论春秋战国时期的百家争鸣 [On the Competition of Ideas in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period]. ''兰台世界'' Lantai World. <br /> <br /> Wang Jie 王杰. (2004). 为政以德: 孔子的德治主义治国模式 [Rule of Virtue: Confucian’s Model of Governance]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C．<br /> <br /> Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 吴瑛, 提文静. (2009). 孔子学院的发展现状与问题分析 [The Development Status and Problems of Confucius Institute]. ''云南师范大学学报 (对外汉语教学与研究版)'' Journal of Yunnan Normal University. <br /> <br /> Xiang Chunling 向春玲. (2008). 儒家文化的现代意义 [On Modern Significance of Confucian Culture]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C．<br /> <br /> Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (1990). ''中国儒学思想史'' [The History of Chinese Confucianism]. 陕西：陕西人民出版社 Shaanxi: Shaanxi People’s Publishing House.<br /> <br /> ==Ch'ien Chung-shu - Liu Liu刘柳， 202070080596 MTI==<br /> <br /> ====Ch'ien Chung-shu====<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu (1910-1998), a well-known scholar, writer, translator and literary researcher, was born into an education family in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province. In Chinese academic circles, Qian was ranked with Rao Zongyi, a master in academic circles, and both were called &quot;South Rao and North Qian&quot;. He was admitted to Tsinghua University in 1929 and got to know Yang Jiang in 1932. Qian became famous soon after the enrolment, not only for the 15 mark of his mathematics, but for his excellent Chinese and English, especially full marks in English. Qian had an engagement with Yang the year after their acquaintance and went to study at Oxford University in England along with her. In 1937, he obtained the bachelor's degree from Oxford with the treatise ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries'', and his daughter Qian Yuan was born the same year. He wrote a great many profound literary works in his lifetime. When it comes to Ch'ien Chung-shu, people would think of his representative work ''Fortress Besieged'', which was published in 1947.<br /> <br /> As a realistic satirical novel, ''Fortress Besieged'' is known as &quot;The New Scholars&quot; in the 1940s. The novel is centralized on Fang Hongjian,who returned from studying abroad at the beginning of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression. It depicts the struggles in love, marriage,career and life of a group of intellectuals who were far away from the times and the people during the War of Resistance against Japanese Agression. It reveals their inner poverty, emptiness and lowliness, criticizes the dark reality of the Kuomintang-controlled areas, and reveals the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life. In the preface of the book, Qian said that, &quot;In this book I intended to write about a certain segment of society and a certain kind of people in modern China. In writing about these people, I didn’t forget they are human beings, still human beings with the basic nature of hairless, two-legged animals. &quot;The novel is like an X-ray mirror that reveals the deformed characters and ugly souls of those &quot;hairless and two-legged animals&quot; and analyzes the cultural matrix which is responsible for the deformed characters and ugly souls of these &quot;latest style&quot; literati. Yang Jiang said, &quot;The main connotation of ''Fortress Besieged'' is that those who are besieged by the city want to escape, while those outside want to rush in. This is what most people wish for in life, whether in marriage or career. &quot;The meaning of &quot;fortress besieged&quot; is also stated several times in the novel. It tells people that life is a besieged city everywhere, people have marriage and divorce, divorce and marriage in endless succession,with everlasting confusion and dilemma. The questions that Qian raised in the novel refer to a question of universal significance, which is the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life as a whole. In December 1990, the television series ''Fortress Besieged'' was broadcast on China Central Television(CCTV) and enjoyed great popularity.<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu has made significant achievements in literary research and literary creation. In particular, it is of great significance to carry forward and deny traditional Chinese culture scientifically and learn from foreign culture selectively. He has wrote the collection of essays ''Written in the Margins of Life''(1941), the collection of short stories ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts''(1946), and the novel ''Fortress Besieged''(1947). Both his essays and novels are wise and meaningful. Qian has read Chinese history, philosophy and literary classics in depth and has studied western old and new literature, philosophy and psychology. Many of his works, such as ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideaas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', have enjoyed high reputation in academic circles both at home and abroad.<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu viewd China and the world with a cultural criticism spirit. Based on his profound knowledge of Chinese and world culture, Qian has always shown a clear mind and a deep insight when observing Chinese and Western culture. He didn't reject any theories or doctrines, nor did he blindly follow any authorities. He devoted his life to promoting Chinese literature and art to the world. To this end, he not only explicated the profound meaning and unique value of Chinese culture in depth, but also pointed out its historical and regional limitations. He not only criticized the Chinese for their arrogance towards the local culture due to certain illusions, but also mercilessly eliminated the Westerners' prejudice centered on European and American culture due to ignorance. It is Ch'ien Chung-shu who has promoted cultural communication between China and other countries.<br /> <br /> November 21st,2020 is the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu. People often call him a well-informed scholar, but he is more of a down-to-earth writer and scholar. He was indifferent to fame and wealth and alaways took a rigorous and serious attitude towards academic research. We feel ourselves in an entirely new world when we read the subtle metaphors in ''Fortress Besieged'', while we read ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', we are amazed at Qian's erudition. People all over the world admire his talent, but in fact,it is his meticulous and diligent reading spirit that makes him a well-informed scholar. Many of his life experiences and the question of whether his scholarship was systematic or not have attracted much attention. Wang Shuizhao, professor of Chinese Department of Fudan University, who has studied and worked with Ch'ien Chung-shu for a long time, has recently published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'', in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements based on the first-hand historical data, his personal experiences and his own understanding of academia, and gives answers to the questions discueesed widely, such as Qian's experience of being falsely accused, whether there exists system in his scholarship and the collision of viewpoints between Qian and Chen Yinke.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries'' 《十七十八世纪英国文学中的中国》<br /> <br /> ''Fortress Besieged'' 《围城》<br /> <br /> Kuomintang-controlled areas 国统区<br /> <br /> ''Written in the Margins of Life'' 《写在人生边上》<br /> <br /> ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts'' 《人·兽·鬼》<br /> <br /> ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' 《管锥编》<br /> <br /> ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'' 《谈艺录》<br /> <br /> the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu 钱钟书诞辰110周年纪念日<br /> <br /> ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu '' 《钱钟书的学术人生》<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.What is Ch'ien Chung-shu's representative work? When was it published?<br /> <br /> 2.When was the TV series ''Fortress Besieged'' broadcast?<br /> <br /> 3.Do you know other works about Ch'ien Chung-shu? Can you list some of them?<br /> <br /> 4.Which book did Wang Shuizhao publish in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu? What does he talk about in this book?<br /> <br /> 5.Which sentence is your favoriate in ''Fortress Besieged''? <br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Ch'ien Chung-shu's representive work is ''Fortress Besieged''. It was published in 1947.<br /> <br /> 2.It was broadcast in December 1990.<br /> <br /> 3.''Patchwork:Seven Essays on Art and Literature''（《七缀集》） and ''Poetic Remains of an Ephemeral Life''（《槐聚诗存》）.<br /> <br /> 4.Wang Shuizhao published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'' in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu, in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements.<br /> <br /> 5.&quot;I want to be able to occupy the whole life of the man I love. Before meeting me, he would have had no past and would be waiting for me with a clean slate.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧， 202070080597，MTI==<br /> <br /> '''相声 Crosstalk'''<br /> <br /> ===The Development of Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> Crosstalk, in the ancient time was known as onomatopoeia, originally refers to imitate others’ voices. It was evolved and further developed from the folk opera in North China, and integrated with imitating oral skills and other folk art forms. It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty. It’s a folk vocal art that uses jokes or funny questioning and answering to make the audience laugh. In the early years of the Republic of China (1912-1949), crosstalk gradually developed from one-person ventriloquism to one person stand-up talk, and the name changed to cross talk. Later, it developed into stand-up crosstalk, dual crosstalk, and group crosstalk. And become a veritable form of art. After years of development, dual crosstalk has finally become the most popular form of crosstalk among audiences.In the late Qing Dynasty, crosstalk formed its modern features and styles. The language uses in crosstalk is mainly Beijing dialect, however, there are also “dialect crosstalk” in other regions of China. (360 Encyclopedia)<br /> <br /> <br /> Crosstalk is a original folk art in China, with a long historical tradition, deeply loved by the majority of the people. The once-dead crosstalk art has been reborn and developed very rapidly especially since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. It is no longer confined to several cities in the north, nor spread only within the citizens, but also spread from the north to the whole country, from the city to the countryside, and from the citizens to all strata. (Hou Baolin, 1982:01)<br /> <br /> ===Four Basic Skills in Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> Speaking, imitating, teasing and singing are the four basic artistic skills of crosstalk. “Speaking” means to tell jokes, stories, lantern riddles, drinking games, etc; “imitating” is to imitate all kinds of birds and animals, hawking, singing and the sound of different languages, etc; “teasing” is to gag and tease; “sing” means to sing Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity, so they are called Taiping) (1982:194), opera lyrics and songs. Crosstalk artists regard “speaking, imitating, teasing and singing” as their “four compulsory lessons”. For example, by saying “tongue twisters” or “reciting classical repertoires” to grasp the rhythm in language and correct the pronunciation. By learning all kinds of sounds to gain the ability to imitate. To practice singing skills by singing “Taiping lyrics” , opera lyrics and songs. (Hou Baolin, 1982:11)<br /> <br /> ===Characteristics of Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> First of all, crosstalk is the art of “speaking”, which belongs to the art of “performing with words”, it is different from drama that “performing with body movements”. This kind of performance has a close relationship between the actors and the audience and shortened the distance between the stage and the audience. The actors directly communicate with the audience and perform with the audience's cooperation and tacit understanding to obtain artistic effect. In this sense, crosstalk is a collective performance of actors and audiences. From the perspective of the audience, they are not standing on the opposite side of the actors and appreciating the stage performance passively and objectively, but creating artistic images with the actors. (Hou Baolin. 1982:02)<br /> <br /> Secondly, crosstalk is the art of laughter. Crosstalk uses laughter as a weapon to expose contradictions, shape characters and evaluate life. Without laughter, it can constitute any other arts, but not crosstalk and comedy. In other words, crosstalk has the characteristics of humor and satire. It reflects that life is not flat, but exaggerated and even deformed. China has a long tradition of satirizing emperors or high rank officials, its written record could be traced back to the Zhou (1046BC-256BC) and Qin (221BC-207BC) Dynasties. Satire is the product of class oppression. China has been in a feudalistic society for a long time, without political democracy and freedom of speech, the people often take circuitous methods to fight against the ruling class. Satirical art is like a weed under a boulder. Only through deformation and roundabout can this kind of art maintain to exist. (Hou Baolin. 1982:03)<br /> <br /> <br /> “Speaking” and “laughing” constitute the basic outline of cross talk art, which is a language performance art with comedy style. “Speaking”, as a kind of rap art, establishes the mode of crosstalk art, which is distinguished from drama art. “Laughing” is the artistic characteristics of crosstalk, which distinguishes it from other rap art forms. These two characteristics are interdependent and complementary. (Hou Baolin. 1982:04)<br /> <br /> Crosstalk belongs to the art of drama, but it is different from comedy. In comedy, the laughter of audience mainly comes from plot and comic characters, while in crosstalk it mainly comes from “baofu” (jokes). Sometimes it relies on the plot, sometimes it is not needed, but win the applaud of audience by the charm of language. “Baofu” must be expressed in the way of “dialogue” and “chatting” between the actors . (Hou Baolin. 1982:04)<br /> <br /> ===Famous Artists of CrossTalk===<br /> <br /> In Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) and Emperor Guangxu (1875—1908) periods, Zhu Shaowen (stage name “Qiong Bupa, which means not afraid of poverty”) was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art. Other famous crosstalk artists including Hou Baolin(1917-1993), a pioneering master of crosstalk. In his 60 years of art career, he has devoted himself to the research and development of crosstalk art and brought laughter to the audience. Under his leadership and promotion, crosstalk art has really entered thousands of households and reached a remarkable artistic peak. His crosstalk works including Drama Talks, Drunkenness and etc. Ma Sanli (1914-2003) is the son of the crosstalk actor Ma Delu. Ma Sanli devoted himself to the exploration of long-term artistic practice, and created the unique “Ma’s Style of Crosstalk”. He was the oldest, most experienced and most accomplished crosstalk leader in the cross-talk circle at that time. So was deeply loved and respected by all walks of life and the audience. Ma's cross talk enjoys wide popularity among the people. In Tianjin, it was a saying that “no branches of crosstalk did not learn from Ma”. His representative works including “Eating Yuanxiao(dumpling)”, “Selling Tickets” and “the Yellow Crane Tower” . Other famous crosstalk artists include Zhang Yongxi, Liu Baorui, Hou Yaowen, Jiang Kun, Feng Gong, Niu Qun and Guo Degang. (Baijiahao, 2018 )<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> speaking, imitating, teasing and singing 说学逗唱<br /> <br /> Taiping lyrics 太平歌词<br /> <br /> Baofu 包袱<br /> <br /> Drama Talks 《戏剧杂谈》<br /> <br /> Drunkenness 《醉酒》<br /> <br /> Selling Tickets 《卖挂票》<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.When did crosstalk form its format?<br /> <br /> 2.What is Taiping lyrics?<br /> <br /> 3.Who was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art ?<br /> <br /> 4.What are the four basic skills of crosstalk?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty.<br /> <br /> 2.Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity) is the content to be sang in the crosstalk.<br /> <br /> 3.Zhu Shaowen.<br /> <br /> 4.They are speaking, imitating, teasing and singing.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> 1.Hou Baolin，Xue Baokun，1982，《相声溯源》，People's Education Press<br /> 2.https://cul.sohu.com/20090619/n264630449.shtml<br /> 3.https://baike.so.com/doc/1925383-2037001.html<br /> 4.https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1590742532351773378<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> Go 围棋--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:04, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===GO - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI===<br /> Go is an adversarial game with the objective of surrounding a larger total area of the board with one's stones than the opponent[1]. As the game progresses, the players position stones on the board to map out formations and potential territories. Contests between opposing formations are often extremely complex and may result in the expansion, reduction, or wholesale capture and loss of formation stones.[2]<br /> <br /> A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board. One or more liberties enclosed within a group is called an eye, and a group with two or more eyes cannot be captured, even if surrounded.[3] Such groups are said to be unconditionally alive.<br /> <br /> The general strategy is to expand one's territory, attack the opponent's weak groups (groups that can be killed), and always stay mindful of the &quot;life status&quot; of one's own groups. The liberties of groups are countable. Situations where mutually opposing groups must capture each other or die are called capturing races, or semeai. In a capturing race, the group with more liberties (and/or better &quot;shape&quot;) will ultimately be able to capture the opponent's stones. Capturing races and the elements of life or death are the primary challenges of Go.<br /> <br /> Players may pass rather than place a stone if they think there are no further opportunities for profitable play. The game ends when both players pass or when one player resigns. In general, to score the game, each player counts the number of unoccupied points surrounded by their stones and then subtracts the number of stones that were captured by the opponent. The player with the greater score (after adjusting for komi) wins the game.<br /> <br /> In the opening stages of the game, players typically establish positions (or &quot;bases&quot;) in the corners and around the sides of the board. These bases help to quickly develop strong shapes which have many options for life (self-viability for a group of stones that prevents capture) and establish formations for potential territory. Players usually start in the corners because establishing territory is easier with the aid of two edges of the board. Established corner opening sequences are called &quot;joseki&quot; and are often studied independently.<br /> <br /> &quot;Dame&quot; are points that lie in between the boundary walls of black and white, and as such are considered to be of no value to either side. &quot;Seki&quot; are mutually alive pairs of white and black groups where neither has two eyes. A &quot;ko&quot; (Chinese and Japanese: 劫) is a repeated-position shape that may be contested by making forcing moves elsewhere. After the forcing move is played, the ko may be &quot;taken back&quot; and returned to its original position.[30] Some &quot;ko fights&quot; may be important and decide the life of a large group, while others may be worth just one or two points. Some ko fights are referred to as &quot;picnic kos&quot; when only one side has a lot to lose. The Japanese call it a hanami (flower-viewing) ko. <br /> <br /> Playing with others usually requires a knowledge of each player's strength, indicated by the player's rank (increasing from 30 kyu to 1 kyu, then 1 dan to 7 dan, then 1 dan pro to 9 dan pro). A difference in rank may be compensated by a handicap—Black is allowed to place two or more stones on the board to compensate for White's greater strength. There are different rule-sets (Korean, Japanese, Chinese, AGA, etc.), which are almost entirely equivalent, except for certain special-case positions.<br /> <br /> Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, there are essentially only two rules in Go:<br /> • Rule 1 (the rule of liberty) states that every stone remaining on the board must have at least one open &quot;point&quot; (an intersection, called a &quot;liberty&quot;) directly orthogonally adjacent (up, down, left, or right), or must be part of a connected group that has at least one such open point (&quot;liberty&quot;) next to it. Stones or groups of stones which lose their last liberty are removed from the board.<br /> • Rule 2 (the &quot;ko rule&quot;) states that the stones on the board must never repeat a previous position of stones. Moves which would do so are forbidden, and thus only moves elsewhere on the board are permitted that turn.<br /> Almost all other information about how the game is played is a heuristic, meaning it is learned information about how the game is played, rather than a rule. Other rules are specialized, as they come about through different rule-sets, but the above two rules cover almost all of any played game.[4]<br /> Although there are some minor differences between rule-sets used in different countries, most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules, these differences do not greatly affect the tactics and strategy of the game.<br /> <br /> Except where noted, the basic rules presented here are valid independent of the scoring rules used. The scoring rules are explained separately. Go terms for which there is no ready English equivalent are commonly called by their Japanese names.<br /> <br /> The two players, Black and White, take turns placing stones of their colour on the intersections of the board, one stone at a time. The usual board size is a 19×19 grid but for beginners, or for playing quick games, the smaller board sizes of 13×13 and 9×9 are also popular.[5] The board is empty to begin with. Black plays first, unless black is given a handicap of two stones or more (in which case, white plays first). The players may choose any unoccupied intersection to play on, except for those forbidden by the ko and suicide rules (see below). Once played, a stone can never be moved and can be taken off the board only if it is captured. A player may also pass, declining to place a stone, though this is usually only done at the end of the game when both players believe nothing more can be accomplished with further play. When both players pass consecutively, the game ends and is then scored.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Go 围棋 heuristic 启发式的<br /> adversarial game 对抗性游戏 intersection 交叉点<br /> board 棋盘 black 黑棋<br /> formation 阵型 white 白棋<br /> move 走棋 scoring rule 计分规则<br /> liberty 自由度 player 棋手<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1, What’s the basic principle of Go?<br /> <br /> <br /> 2,Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, What are other two essential rules in Go？<br /> <br /> <br /> 3, What countries have the most notable scoring rules differences?--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1, A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board.<br /> <br /> 2,The rule of liberty and the &quot;ko rule&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3, Most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Matthews, Charles (2004). Teach Yourself Go. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-142977-1.<br /> <br /> [2]NRICH Team, Going First, University of Cambridge, retrieved 2007-06-16<br /> <br /> [3]Iwamoto, Kaoru (1977). Go for Beginners. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 978-0-394-73331-9.<br /> <br /> [4]British Go Association, Comparison of some go rules, retrieved 2007-12-20<br /> <br /> [5]Kim, Janice; Jeong, Soo-hyun (1997). Learn to Play Go. Five volumes (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Good Move Press. ISBN 978-0-9644796-1-6.<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜,202070080598 MTI--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:21, 14 December 2020 (UTC)==<br /> <br /> ===The Four Most Handsome men in Ancient China===<br /> It is said that there were four most beautiful women in ancient times, and corresponding to that, it is worth mentioning that there were four most attractive men at that time.Despite that we consider these four men as attractive, this refers to more than just their appearance. They have a common feature: it proves that while their appearance is marvelous, they are also outstanding in literature. Namely, as a Chinese saying goes, they are endowed with both beauty and talent.<br /> These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> The allusion of “throwing fruit to fill a carriage” originates from Pan An, which resembles movie fans nowadays to see their idols. There is a comment on Pan An’s appearance: &quot;No more and no less.&quot; The history books also describe Pan An with three words “good-looking, well-mannered, and graceful”. Although these did not describe Pan An’s appearance in details, such as eyebrows and eyes or lips, from these side descriptions, we can know that Pan An’s appearance is far above ordinary people, and even his styles draw imitation from others. <br /> At the same time, Pan An is known as “the flower of a county in Heyang”, and he is also one of the few men who are compared with flowers to be praised for excellent appearance. The beauty of exterior only fails to last long in this world. Pan An's talent and temperament and the devotion to his wife are also often eulogized. Pan Yue showed his unusual talent since he was a child, and he was called a child prodigy by the villagers. In his early years, he was appreciated by an official and recommended as a scholar. <br /> Later, served as the magistrate of Heyang (now Meng County, Henan), he was diligent in political affairs, and advocated the people to plant more fruits and trees. The county was full of trees and peaches and plums everywhere, known as “Flower County”. During his administration, his political achievements were remarkable. Besides, Pan An holds a special place in the history of literature. He was good at composing verse and orders, expatiation, and skilled in the choice of words and building of sentences, which fully reflects the characteristics of Taikang literature that pays attention to the beauty of form. <br /> He was expert in composing Ci lyric of sorrow and admonishment, and his current works such as Widow's Fu, Mourning Poem and other famous works are all known for their narration and empathy. Pan An can be described as both internally and externally blessed.（Liu Xixue 2003,63-64）<br /> <br /> Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. There is a very popular legend about King Lanling. It's believed that King Lanling was a brave and supremely skilled general. However, because he looked very sweet and it seemed hard to frighten the enemy, he often wore a half-mask when fighting, which sounds very fairytale. <br /> Nevertheless, the beauty of King Lanling is beyond doubt and otherworldly. Book of Northern Qi Dynasty described that he was friendly looking and mentally strong, with beautiful voice and appearance.King Lanling spent half his life in military affairs, and made great achievements. While this gave him glory, it also brought bad luck. There is an old Chinese saying that the glow of a inferior from massive achievements will overshadow his superior. <br /> Although the King Lanling did not have the idea of usurping the throne, but the incumbent felt threatened because of his existence itself. In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> Song Yu (about 322 BC-298 BC), as it is widely rumored, a student of Qu Yuan, was born in the capital city of Song Dynasty during the Warring States Period (now Shangqiu, Henan). Song Yu was a writer of Ci lyric of State Chu in the late Warring States period, adept in Ci lyric and even acclaimed as a great poet after Qu Yuan' reputation. Later generations often referred to them as “Qu Song”. Rumors circulate that there are many Ci lyrics from him, and Book of Han records about 16 works, but many of them are lost today.<br /> His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on. He was the first to write about sadness from Autumn and to write about women. His description of women's nature exerts a great influence on later generations such as Cao Zhi. The goddess in Song Yu's The Fu poetry of Goddess embodies the essence of pre-Qin female beauty, recounting the beauty of the goddess of Wushan Mountain in details so much so that later generations have coveted for it for thousands of years.<br /> 16 works survived, among which Nine Discriminations is believed to be truly composed by him. It is equivalent to Qu Yuan's Li Sao or A lament in the history of Chinese literature. Both poets can be called the two shining pearls in Ci lyric at their times.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> <br /> Wei Jie (286-June 20, 312), a metaphysician and an official of the Jin Dynasty. Wei Jie was a noted talker and metaphysicist during the Wei and Jin Dynasties. He was appointed as an assistant of the prince in the matter of politics. In the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Yongjia(AD310), Wei Jie died at the age of 27. Both ancient books and ancients commented on Wei Jie's appearance. Wang Ji reckoned that, “A jade is on my side, and I feel like I am nobody”; “Wandering with Jiu is like sauntering with a pearl on the side, with him shining brightly.”<br /> History Retold as a Mirror for rulers authored by Sima Guang goes into detail: &quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot; Wei Jie not only have a mere marvelous exterior, but also he can discern metaphysics from his perspective. Wei Jie’s views always amaze the concerned parties. <br /> It is said that even three sons of the Wang family, are not as good as the first son of the Wei family, and the three sons of the Wang family were all well-known scholars at that time, and the Wei Jie could be regarded as unmatchable compared with the three in family background, appearance, and talents.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Pan An 潘安<br /> <br /> King Lanling 兰陵王<br /> <br /> Ji Kang 嵇康 <br /> <br /> Wei Jie 卫玠 <br /> <br /> throwing fruit to fill a carriage 掷果盈车<br /> <br /> scholar 秀才<br /> <br /> expatiation 铺陈<br /> <br /> Book of Northern Qi Dynasty 《北齐书》<br /> <br /> the Warring States Period 战国时期<br /> <br /> Book of Han 《汉书》<br /> <br /> Nine Discriminations 《九辨》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Wind 《风赋》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Goddess 《神女赋》<br /> <br /> the goddess of Wushan Mountain 巫山神女<br /> <br /> metaphysician 玄学家<br /> <br /> a noted talker 清谈名士<br /> <br /> History Retold as a Mirror for rulers 《资治通鉴》<br /> <br /> Widow's Fu 《寡妇赋》<br /> <br /> Mourning Poem 《悼亡诗》<br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1.Who are the four most handsome men at ancient time in China?<br /> <br /> 2.Who is Gao Changgong?<br /> <br /> 3.How did Lanlin King die?<br /> <br /> 4.What works did Song Yu compose?<br /> <br /> 5.Who are the two shining pearls in Ci lyric according to the passage?<br /> <br /> 6.What History Retold as a Mirror for rulers comment on Wei Jie?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.<br /> <br /> 2.Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. <br /> <br /> 3.In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King. <br /> <br /> 4.His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on.<br /> <br /> 5.Qu Yuan and Song Yu<br /> <br /> 6.&quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]刘细学.古代四大美男[J].文史天地,2003(06):63-64.<br /> <br /> [2]王真波.四大美男都是怎么死的[J].青年文学家,2008(11):59-60.<br /> <br /> ==Lo, Minh Thao==<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Mogao Grottoes--Lou Cancan 娄灿灿 student no.202070080599 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Mogao Grottoes===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The Mogao Grottoes, known as the Thousand Buddhas Caves, were built on the eastern cliff of Mingsha Mountain, 25 kilometers to the southeast of Dunhuang city. There are 492 caves (well preserved) today, containing over 2,400 painted clay statues and 45,000 square meters of murals and 5 timber structures on the cliff of the southern district. There are also more than 300 caves used as both living room and burying place for monks and painters on the cliff of the northern district. Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes,so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes. From the 4th until the 14th century, caves were constructed by monks to serve as shrines with funds from donors. (Fan Jinshi 2010，170)The major caves were sponsored by patrons such as important asclergies, local ruling elites, foreign dignitaries, as well as Chinese emperors. Other caves may have been funded by merchants and other local people such as women's groups. (Sha Wutian 2020, 122)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes]]====<br /> <br /> ===History===<br /> <br /> Mogao Grottoes were not built in one day. According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff. Later, monk Faliang（法良）came here and joined him cultivating in caves. Since then more and more caves have been excavated over a thousand year. (Whitfield 1990, 8) <br /> <br /> By the time of Northern Liang, small community of monks had formed at this site. The caves initially served only as a place of meditation for hermit monks. Later, they were developed to serve the monasteries that sprang up nearby. Members of the ruling families of Northern Wei and Northern Zhou constructed many caves here, and it flourished in the short-lived Sui Dynasty. By the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Mogao Caves had become a place of worship and pilgrimage for the public. In the Sui Dynasty, Hexi Corridor was controlled by central authority. The emperors were pious followers of Buddhism and they ordered to build stupas across the country. Therefore, more than 100 caves were excavated in Mogao Grottoes within 37 years. By the Tang Dynasty, the number of caves had reached over a thousand. During this period, Dunhuang became the main hub of commerce of the Silk Road and a major religious center. A large number of the caves were constructed during this era, including the two large statues of Buddha at the site, the largest one constructed in 695 following an edict a year earlier by Tang Empress Wu Zitian to build giant statues across the country. The site escaped the persecution of Buddhists ordered by Emperor Wuzong in 845 as it was then under Tibetan control. As a frontier town, Dunhuang had been occupied at various times by other non-Han Chinese people. After the Tang Dynasty, the site went into a gradual decline, and construction of new caves ceased entirely after the Yuan Dynasty. In the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, Mogao Grottoes were preserved and kept by Cao Yijin（曹议金). (MA Shichang 2010, 303) After that, his later generations governed Dunhuang Prefecture and constructed multiple family caves such as Cave 55. (Gao Xiujun 2016, 9) During the Ming Dynasty, the Silk Road was finally abandoned and Dunhuang slowly became depolulated and was forgotten by the outside world. Most of the Mogao caves were abandoned. The site, however, went back to a place of pilgrimage and worship by local people at the beginning of the twentieth century. On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings. Since then, Dunhuang has become well known throughout the world. Both Chinese and foreign scholars have made extensive studies on the findings.(Stein 1912, volume 2)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Taoist Wang Yuanlu.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Taoist Wang Yuanlu]]====<br /> <br /> ===Art===<br /> <br /> The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture and they vary from dynasty to dynasty. There are mainly three types of structural forms of Mogao Grottoes: Vihara, Chaitya and Hall with inverted funnel shaped ceiling. A Chaitya with a central pillar is the main form of the caves in the early period of the Sixteen States, with Northern Wei, Western Wei and Northern Zhou Dynasties included. The murals may be divided into seven sorts:Buddhist figures, Sutra illustration, Buddhist stories, Buddhist historical pictures, Chinese mythologies, donors and decorative designs. Buddhist stories in the murals can be divided into three types: Jataka（佛本生), Buddha’s life and fate story. A Jataka is a narrative which tells of the good deeds performed by Sakyamuni during his perious existence such as prince Sudanda giving up his body to feed the hungry tigers. As to sculptures, they were constructed on a wooden frame, padded with reed, then modelled in clay stucco and finished with paint.（Duan Wenjie 1994, 163) <br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Chaitya with a Central Pillar.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Chaitya with a Central Pillar]]==== <br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body]]====<br /> <br /> The artistic styles in the Sixteen States, which gradually turned away from being primitive and simple to an easy and graceful styles in the Northern Wei, manifested in figures with well-chiseled builds and emaciated looks. In Northern Zhou, the styles of figures show that Chinese art combining the influence of foreign and native styles gradually became more nationalized. The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs. The caves become spacious and more suited for large paintings, such as the Sutra illustrations and huge pictures of Buddha expounding sermons. Bold and vigorous, brush work was painted with intricate and flowing lines. For example, Lotus Sutra on the ceiling of Cave 420 displays a lot of episodes of mountains, forests, rivers, buildings and so on in a limitated space. The theme and art in the Sui Dynasty show an important devdelopment in traditional art and indicate a comimg glorious new era. In Tang Dynasty, the caves are large with an inverted funnel shaped ceiling. The murals consist mostly of huge paintings of stories from Buddhist Sutras with well-regulated scenes and well-balanced composition. The figures at that time have round and plump faces and curved eyebrows which expresses the aesthetical taste of the people living in Tang. The mural in Cave 220 contains vivid portraits of the Emperor and his ministers listening to a sermon. The ministers attending to Emperor are each bestowed with differrent appearances and expressions. Some are natural and graceful and some cautious. The well-proportioned painted statues were made with more consummate care and attention to the detail, showing us the solemn Buddha. In addition, very tall and colossal statues of Buddha began to be made. The outstanding one is an early Tang Dynasty statue 34 metres high in Cave 96. In 781-848A.D, Hexi region fell into the Tibetan. Hence, there was an interesting changes: the king of the Tibetan took the place of central-plain emperors in the wall-painting.( Fan Jinshi 2010, 175) <br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 251 in Northern Wei.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 251 in Northern Wei]]====<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty]]====<br /> <br /> <br /> By the time of the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, the grottoes carved in this period are very large and different in form and layout. The subject and style of the statues and murals remain the influence from Tang Dynasty, but the use of colours and the drawing techniques show a simple folk style. From the 9th century to 12th, the Uygur had been in Dunhuang. The artistic styles bear the imprint of both Han and Uygur. The Uygur murals are generally characterized by the simplicity of the subject, the looseness of the arrangement, the direct and rough brush strokes. The human figures have features of certain minority groups. In the Western Xia Dynasty(1036-1227), most of caves were repaired and renovated, and only 10 caves were built because of the limited cliffs. Compared to the Yulin Grottoes at the same time, painting of Dunhuang display the Pure-land Sutra, containing simpler content. Only 27 caves are extant in Yuan times(1227-1372). The murals in Cave 3, however, still remain the Tang and Song techniques, namely using different types of drawing to depict different parts of human figures such as iron-wire lines, orchid-leaf strokes and broken-reef strokes, etc. Since the 15th century, the Mogao Grottoes had gradually fallen into neglect in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. (Rong Xinjiang 1999, 248)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty]]====<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> hermit 隐士<br /> <br /> stupas 舍利塔<br /> <br /> Emperor Wuzong ofTang Dynasty 唐武宗<br /> <br /> Vihara 精舍<br /> <br /> Chaitya 支提窟<br /> <br /> stucco 灰泥<br /> <br /> Sakyamuni 释迦牟尼<br /> <br /> Sutras 佛经<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What do Dunhuang Grottoes refer to?<br /> <br /> 2.Who built the first cave and when?<br /> <br /> 3.In 1900, who found the treasure-house in Mogao Grottoes and what were stored in it?<br /> <br /> 4.How many aspects does the art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of and what are they respectively?<br /> <br /> 5.What are the characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes, so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes.<br /> <br /> 2.According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff.<br /> <br /> 3.On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings.<br /> <br /> 4.The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture.<br /> <br /> 5.The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Fan Jinshi 樊锦诗.(2010). ''敦煌石窟'' [The Caves of Dunhuang]. Gansu: The Dunhuang Academy 敦煌研究院. <br /> <br /> Gao Xiujun 高秀军.(2016). ''敦煌莫高窟第55窟研究'' [Research on the 55th Grotto of Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang].Lanzhou University 兰州大学.<br /> <br /> MA Shichang.(2010). Buddhist Cave-temples and the Cao Family at Mogao Ku, Dunhuang. MA Shichang,27(2),303-317.<br /> <br /> Rong Xinjiang 荣新江. (2010).'' 敦煌藏经洞的性质及其封闭原因'' [The Nature of the Dunhuang Library Cave and the Reasons for Its Sealing]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Sha Wutian 沙武田. (2020). 佛教供养与政治宣传——敦煌莫高窟第156窟供养人画像研究 [Buddhist offerings and Political Propaganda -- A Study on the Portrait of the Patron of the 156th Grottoes in Dunhuang].''中原文物'' Cultural Relics in Central Plain, No.215,118-128.<br /> <br /> Stein, M. Aurel. Ruins of Desert Cathay.(1912). Personal Narrative of Explorations in Central Asia and Westernmost China, volume 2. London: Macmillan.<br /> <br /> Suemori Kaoru. (2020).&quot;Thousand-Buddha images in Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes: Religious spaces created by polychromatic patterns&quot;. Kyoto: Hozokan. <br /> <br /> DuanWenjie. (1994). Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie. Abhinav Publications. p. 163.<br /> <br /> Whitfield, Roderick and Farrer, Anne, Caves of the Thousand Buddhas. (1990). Chinese Art from the Silk Route, British Museum Publications. P . 5-20.<br /> <br /> https://books.google.ru/books?hl=zh-CN&amp;lr=&amp;id=vYPNqlAMZWAC&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PP7&amp;dq=info:9v6pr21oST8J:scholar.google.com/&amp;ots=s-uXhnyDBp&amp;sig=u3H7MAh_OpGRS6Iwxoqx0rC5_fo&amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false<br /> <br /> https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogao_Caves<br /> <br /> https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=zh-CN&amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;q=mogao+grottoes&amp;oq=<br /> <br /> ==Four State-level Cultural Relics Luo Weijia罗维嘉 Student No.202070080600==<br /> <br /> ===Four State-level Cultural Relics===<br /> <br /> China, home to one of the world’s most ancient civilizations, abounds in cultural relics, from ancient tombs, architecture, instruments to handicrafts, historical books and so on. They embody rich information about history and culture and vividly display the process of Chinese cultural development. The astounding artistic and technological levels shown in those relics continue to impress people today.<br /> <br /> ====Houmuwu Ding====<br /> <br /> In ancient China, ding was a symbol of imperial power. Therefore, ding is often used in phrases and expressions in the Chinese language to imply authority. For instance, wending, literally “enquiring about ding”, means plotting to usurp political power, yiyan juiding, literally “One word of promise is equal to nine dings”, means a decisive comment.<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding,or Houmuwu Ding, was a very precious cultural relic, found in 1937 in Anyang of Henan Province (Zhang Peng:86-89).It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago. This square-shaped ding is the largest existing bronzeware in the ancient world. It is now housed in the National Museum of China in Beijing. <br /> <br /> Ding was a cooking vessel probably used to boil or cook food in the primitive society. At that time, dings were made of clay. During the Shang and Zhou (11th century-771 BC) dynasties, bronze cast technology reached a very high level in China. Therefore, people used bronze to cast ding. However, dings were no longer cooking utensils in ordinary people’s life but an object for important ceremonies to offer sacrifices. <br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding was cast by Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty as a ritual object for a ceremony to offer sacrifices to his mother. The three characters simuwu form an inscription on the inside of the sidewall. According to archeologists, si means sacrificial ceremony and muwu is the name of the emperor’s mother. Later on, Simuwu became the name of this huge ding (Zhang Peng:86-89).<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding is 1.33m high, 1.10m long and 0.78m wide, weighing 832.84kg. At that time, it needed 1000kg of metal and two to three hundred workers to produce it. This ding is solid in build, magnificent in appearance and was made with fine craftsmanship. The four pillar legs are thick and powerful. Each side has a blank space in the middle, surrounded by a band of decoration featuring taotie (animal faced creatures) and kuilong (one-legged dragons), symbolic of harvest and auspiciousness. Simuwu Ding represents the highest level of bronze cast technology in the Shang and Zhou dynasties.<br /> <br /> ==== The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi ====<br /> <br /> The chime bells, or bianzhong, are a kind of percussion musical instrument made of bronze. China is the earliest country to manufacture and use such instrument. Chime bells were divided into groups according to their size, temperament, pitch and were hang on a rack. A small hammer or wooden club is used to hit the bell to make a resonant and agreeable sound.<br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are the largest and the most complete ancient chimes existing today in China. They were unearthed from the tomb of Yi, the Marquis of Zeng, a small state of the Warring States Period (475 BC- 221 BC), in 1978. When they were found, all bells were still hanging on their rack. They are now preserved in Hubei Museum(Gao Nan:29). <br /> <br /> There are altogether 65 bells hung in eight groups on wooden or bronze bars. The rack, 10.79m long, 2.67m high, is made of three bars, namely, the upper, middle and lower bars, held up by six bronze warriors and a few round, wooden posts. The 65 bells weigh over 2500kg. The largest bell is 1.52m in height and weighs more than 203.6kg. The smallest bell is about 20cm in height and weighs 2.4kg (Gao Nan:29). It is extremely rare tosee a set with so many bells of such weight and size. <br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are exquisitely cast and look very elegant. To help artists to perform music, there are instructions on each bell with 3700 characters in all (Wan Quanwen:1-2). There are also words about the hanging indication and musical temperament that are called the “valuable music theory work”. The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi show that, as early as the Warring States Period, China already had a very rich musical culture. The chime bells still could produce a pure and accurate note after unearthed. The tone is excellent and the timbre is pure. <br /> <br /> After excavation of the chime, Chinese musicians created a melody entitled Bianzhong Yuewu (music and dance accompanied by chime bells), to once again demonstrate the charm of ancient Chinese music. <br /> <br /> ==== Jade Suit with Gold Thread ====<br /> <br /> Ordinarily, the texture of clothes is cotton, flax or silk. However, there were suits made of gold and jade, that is “Jade Suit with Gold Thread”.<br /> <br /> The emperors of the Han Dynasty believed that jade could prevent their corpses from decaying, and they regarded jade as full of dignity and nobility. Therefore, they used jade suits as their grave clothes. Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade separately that are called Jade Suit Sewn with Gold Thread, Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread and Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread.<br /> <br /> The two sets of jade suits of the Han Dynasty tomb unearthed in Mancheng of Hebei Province in 1968 revealed to the world the real features of such grave clothes (Li Yawen:38-39). Their owners were Liu Sheng, Prince Jing of Zhongshan, and his wife, Dou Wan, of the Western Han Dynasty(206 BC-25 AD). <br /> <br /> In appearance, a jade suit follows the shape of a human body. It consists of five parts, i.e., head mask, coat, trousers, gloves and shoes. Each part is made of pieces of jade. The size and shape of each jade piece was designed according to its position. Most jade pieces are shaped in square or rectangular form, but there are a few in trapezoid, triangle or multi sided shapes. Each jade piece is perforated at its corners, through which a gold thread goes through to sew the pieces together. Liu Sheng’s jade suit is rather large, 1.88m long and made up of 2498 pieces. The gold thread used for this suit is about 700g in weight (Li Yawen:38-39). <br /> <br /> Such refined suits made some 2000 years ago in the Han Dynasty indicate the high design level and excellent craftsmanship of that time. In fact, of course, the rulers’ dream of preventing their corpses from decaying could never be realized. The practice of wearing jade suits was banned during the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280).<br /> <br /> ==== Bronze Galloping Horse ====<br /> <br /> In 1969, a galloping horse in bronze was unearthed in an Eastern Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) tomb in Wuwei, Gansu Province in western China. The bronze statue is a famous representative sculpture of the Han Dynasty. Wuwei County leapt to fame with the discovery of this national treasure.<br /> <br /> The 34.5 cm-high bronze horse, covered with spots of verdigris, has a full and robust body. The prancing legs, flying tail, slightly dilated nostrils portray a galloping horse. What is ingenious about it is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow. That means the galloping horse is faster than a flying swallow (Wang Qian:10-11). The positioning of its four legs strictly conforms to that of a living horse and is highly praised by many local and foreign archeologists and artists. <br /> <br /> In this work, Chinese ancient artists combined realism and romanticism, and ingeniously integrated galloping horse and flying swallow through rich imagination, original conception and skillful craftsmanship (Wang Qian:10-11). The swift flying swallow sets off the amazingly fast speed of the galloping horse. According to analysis of its mechanics, Bronze Galloping Horse finds a center of gravity in the swallow to give the statue its stability. The romantic image of the swallow sets off the power and strength of the horse, providing a rich imaginative experience for viewers. <br /> <br /> Bronze Galloping Horse is believed to be a portrayal of the &quot;heavenly steed&quot; of Chinese legend. It is of high craftsmanship, fully expressive of the horse-breeding culture of China's western regions. It has become a symbol of Chinese tourism and a representative work that brings forth the time-honored cultural tradition of the Chinese nation and the oriental aesthetics to the world. The cultural relic is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> Houmuwu Ding 后母戊鼎<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding 司母戊鼎<br /> <br /> Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty 商王武丁<br /> <br /> taotie 饕餮<br /> <br /> National Museum of China 中国国家博物馆<br /> <br /> chime bells/bian zhong 编钟<br /> <br /> Marquis Yi 曾侯乙<br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi 曾侯乙编钟<br /> <br /> Bianzhong Yuewu 《编钟乐舞》<br /> <br /> Hubei Museum 湖北省博物馆<br /> <br /> Jade Suit with Gold Thread 金缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread 银缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread 铜缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Bronze Galloping Horse 铜奔马/ 马踏飞燕<br /> <br /> Gansu Provincial Museum 甘肃省博物馆<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1. What does ding symbolize?<br /> <br /> 2. When was Houmuwu Ding produced?<br /> <br /> 3.How many bells do the chime bells of Marquis Yi contain?<br /> <br /> 4.What is the size of the largest bell?<br /> <br /> 5.What kind of thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade?<br /> <br /> 6.When did the Jade Suit with Gold Thread unearth?<br /> <br /> 7.What is ingenious about the Galloping Horse?<br /> <br /> 8.Where is Bronze Galloping Horse preserved now?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Ding was a symbol of imperial power. <br /> <br /> 2.It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago. <br /> <br /> 3.They contain 65 bells.<br /> <br /> 4.The largest bell exceeds 1.5m in height and weighs more than 200kg.<br /> <br /> 5.Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade.<br /> <br /> 6.It unearthed in 1968.<br /> <br /> 7.It is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow. <br /> <br /> 8.It is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Zhang Peng 张鹏.(2020).青铜大师杜廼松:“司母戊鼎”名称不容置疑[No Doubt about the Name of Simuwu Ding].中国民族博览 (09):86-89.<br /> <br /> [2]Wan Quanwen 万全文.(2020).曾侯乙编钟[The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi].文史知识 (11):1-2.<br /> <br /> [3]Gao Nan 高楠.(2020).音乐中的国家宝藏——曾侯乙编钟[National Treasure in Music].琴童 (01):29.<br /> <br /> [4]Li Yawen 李雅雯.(2019)浅说满城汉墓中的金缕玉衣 [The Study of Jade Suit with Gold Thread Unearthed in Mancheng].文物鉴定与鉴赏 (03):38-39.<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Qian 王倩.(2020).青铜雕塑“马踏飞燕”的研究[The Study of the Bronze Sculpture ——the Galloping Horse].艺术品鉴, (26):10-11.<br /> <br /> == Architecture and Gardens, The Forbidden City Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴 Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> ===The Forbidden City===--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 08:30, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====I.Introduction==== <br /> The Forbidden City (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng) is a palace complex in Dongcheng District, Beijing, China, and with a total area of 720,000 square meters (180 acres). It lies in the center of Beijing's central axis. Today, the Forbidden City houses the Palace Museum, and was the former Chinese imperial palace and residence of the Emperor of China from the Ming dynasty (since the Yong Le Emperor) to the end of the Qing dynasty, between 1420 and 1924. The Forbidden City served as the home of Chinese emperors and their households and was the ceremonial and political center of the Chinese government.(Barmé, Geremie R 2018,26)<br /> The Forbidden City is a national AAAAA tourist attraction and was listed as the first batch of key cultural relics under national protection in 1961. What’s more, it was declared a world cultural heritage in 1987, and listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.(UNESCO,2007)<br /> ====[[File:A Panaroma view of the Forbidden City.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A Panaroma view of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====II.The Name of the Forbidden City====<br /> The common English name &quot;Forbidden City&quot; is a translation of the Chinese name Zijin Cheng (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng; English: Purple Forbidden City). The name Zijin Cheng first formally appeared in the period of Jia Jing. (Li Xieping1997, (04)29-31) In ancient China, the planning concept of &quot;harmony between man and nature&quot; was emphasized. The stars in the sky were used to correspond with the capital planning to highlight the legitimacy of the regime and the supremacy of imperial power. “ Zi ”, or &quot;Purple&quot;, refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star, The emperor of heaven lived in Ziwei palace, while the human emperor claimed to be the &quot;son of heaven&quot; who was ordered by heaven. His residence should be a symbol of Ziwei palace to correspond to the heaven emperor. “Jin” means that this splendid palace symbolizes supreme power and status of the royal family. In that case, this palace was forbidden, no one could enter and leave the palace without the emperor’s permission. Cheng means a city. Today, the site is most commonly known in Chinese as Gùgōng (故宫), which means the &quot;Former Palace&quot;. The museum which is based in these buildings is known as the &quot;Palace Museum&quot; (Chinese: 故宫博物院; pinyin: Gùgōng Bówùyùan).<br /> <br /> ====III.The History of the Forbidden City====<br /> <br /> When Hongwu’s son Zhu Di became the Yong Le Emperor, he moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, and construction began in 1406 on what would become the Forbidden City. Construction lasted 14 years and required more than a million workers. From 1420 to 1644, the Forbidden City was the seat of the Ming dynasty. (Yu Zhuoyun1984,18)In April 1644, it was captured by rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. He set fire to parts of the Forbidden City in the process of retreating to Shannxi. By October, the Manchus had achieved supremacy in northern China, and a ceremony was held at the Forbidden City to proclaim the Emperor Shunzhi as ruler of all China under the Qing dynasty. (Guo Moruo 1944,3.14) In the 22nd year of Kangxi's reign (1683), the reconstruction of the rest of the destroyed buildings of the Forbidden City was started, and it was basically completed in 1695.After being the home of 24 emperors – 14 of the Ming dynasty and 10 of the Qing dynasty – the Forbidden City ceased being the political centre of China in 1912 with the abdication of Puyi, the last Emperor of China. In 1933, the Japanese invasion of China forced the evacuation of the national treasures in the Forbidden City. Part of the collection was returned at the end of World War II, but the other part was evacuated to Taiwan in 1948 under orders of Chiang Kai-shek.After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, some damage was done to the Forbidden City as the country was swept up in revolutionary zeal. During the Cultural Revolution, however, further destruction was prevented when Premier Zhou Enlai sent an army battalion to guard the city.( Xie Mengyin&amp;Qu Wanlin2006, 11.7)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====IV.The Structure of the Forbidden City==== <br /> Firstly, The Forbidden City is a rectangle and symmetric in its layout. Its palaces are arranged along a north-south axis, on which the three main halls, the rear three palaces and the imperial garden are all located. This central axis not only runs through the Forbidden City, but also reaches Yongding Gate in the south, Drum Tower and bell tower in the north, and runs through the whole city.(Xie Li 2005,(03)100-102)<br /> Secondly, the Forbidden City is divided into two parts, the Outer Court and Inner Court. The Outer Court is the place where the emperor deals with political affairs. There are mainly three halls: the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony, and the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The Inner Court or Back Palace includes the northern sections, and was the residence of the Emperor and his family, and was used for day-to-day affairs of state. The inner court takes Palace of Heavenly Purity, Hall of Union and Palace of Earthly Tranquility as its center with six palaces in the east and six palaces in the west.<br /> <br /> ====[[File:The layout of the Forbidden City.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The layout of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====VI The Collections of the Forbidden City==== <br /> The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925, whose extensive collection of artwork and artifacts were built upon the imperial collections of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Part of the museum's former collection is now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. Both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.(Li Wei &amp; Wang Shuo 2005,6-22) <br /> The collections of the Palace Museum are based on the Qing imperial collection, including paintings, ceramics, seals, steles, sculptures, inscribed wares, bronze wares, enamel objects, etc. According to latest audit, it has 1,863,404 pieces of art. They are numbered by &quot;Gu&quot;, &quot;Xin&quot; and &quot;Shu&quot;. Except for the ancient books and documents, all the other collections are labeled with &quot;Gu&quot; and &quot;Xin&quot;. The number of ordinary cultural relics begins with the word &quot;Zi&quot;, and the ceramic specimens begin with the word &quot;Biao&quot;. The general catalogue is divided into 25 categories, and the numbers in each category are sorted from small to large. Many collections once lost and was brought to the Palace Museum, For example, Han Banquet map. And there are some exquisite collections like Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer, Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems and Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.(Website:The Collection of the Palace Museum )In addition, The Palace Museum has one of the largest collections of mechanical timepieces of the 18th and 19th centuries in the world, with more than 1,000 pieces. (Meng Fuxia 2012, (21) 73-74)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Han Banquet map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Han Banquet map]]====<br /> ====[[File:Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance]]====<br /> ====[[File:Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems]]====<br /> ====[[File:Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women]]====<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions==== <br /> palace complex 宫殿群<br /> <br /> central axis 中心轴<br /> <br /> the Palace Museum故宫博物院<br /> <br /> the Yong Le Emperor 永乐皇帝<br /> <br /> key cultural relics under national protection 国家重点文物保护单位<br /> <br /> world cultural heritage 世界文化遗产<br /> <br /> harmony between man and nature 天人合一<br /> <br /> the imperial garden 御花园<br /> <br /> the Hall of Supreme Harmony 太和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Central Harmony 中和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Preserving Harmony 保和殿<br /> <br /> Palace of Heavenly Purity (乾清宮)<br /> <br /> Hall of Union 交泰宫<br /> <br /> Palace of Earthly Tranquility 坤宁宫<br /> <br /> Han Banquet map 韩熙载夜宴图<br /> <br /> Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer陶彩绘女舞俑<br /> <br /> Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems十二生肖镜<br /> <br /> Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women画珐琅西洋人物鼻烟壶<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> 1. What’ s the meaning of “Zi” in the Chinese name Zijin Cheng?<br /> <br /> 2. When was the Forbidden City listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.<br /> <br /> 3.How many emperors have been lived in the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 4.How long did it take to build the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 5.Why some parts of national treasures are in the National Palace Museum in Taipei now.<br /> <br /> 6. What two parts can the Forbidden City be divided into?<br /> <br /> 7.When was the Palace Museum established?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.“Zi” refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star<br /> <br /> 2.In 1897.<br /> <br /> 3.24 emperors.<br /> <br /> 4.14 years.<br /> <br /> 5.Because both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.<br /> <br /> 6.They are the Outer Court and Inner Court.<br /> <br /> 7.The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Barmé, Geremie R(2008). The Forbidden City. Harvard University Press.26.<br /> <br /> UNESCO(2007). &quot;UNESCO World Heritage List: Imperial Palaces of the Ming and Qing Dynasties in Beijing and Shenyang&quot;.<br /> <br /> Li Xieping 李燮平. (1997) &quot;紫禁城&quot;名称始于何时[When did the name of the Forbidden City come into being?]. 紫禁城Forbidden City, (04) 29-31.<br /> <br /> Yu Zhuoyun(1984), Palaces of the Forbidden City, New York: Viking Press,p18.<br /> <br /> Guo Moruo 郭沫若.(1994) 甲申三百年祭[Commemorating 300th Anniversary of the Jia-Sheng Year]. 新华日报 New China Daily, 3.19.<br /> <br /> Xie Li 谢丽.(2005) 北京中轴线上的十七座门[Seventeen doors on the central axis of Beijing].紫禁城 Forbidden City, (03)100-102.<br /> <br /> Meng Fuxia 孟福霞. (2012)北京故宫空间布局构思探源——论中国古代宫殿建筑的美学精神[On the Origin of the Space Layout of the Palace Museum in Beijing--On the Aesthetic Spirit of Ancient Chinese Palace Architecture]大众文艺Popular Literature and Art, (21) 73-74. <br /> <br /> Li Wei&amp;Wang Shuo 刘薇,王硕.2005故宫文物南迁路线图揭秘[Unveiling the Route Map of the Cultural Relics of the Imperial Palace to the South] 华夏经纬网Jinwei Network, 6.22 http://www.huaxia.com/wh/gjzt/2005/00333230.html <br /> <br /> The Collection of the Palace Museum 故宫博物院馆藏https://www. dpm.org.cn /Home.html<br /> <br /> Xie Mengyin &amp; Qu Wanlin 谢荫明,瞿宛林. (2006) “文化大革命” 中谁保护了故宫 [Who protected the Forbidden City in the Cultural Revolution? ].人民网People’s Daily Online,11,7. http://history.people.com.cn/n/2014/0811/c372327-25441615.html<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Marriage Customs Mo Ling 莫玲 202070080602 &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【专业 is missing】&lt;/span&gt;==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 莫玲 Mo Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Marriage Customs===<br /> <br /> China is an ancient country of rites. When it comes to the most important thing in one’s life---marriage, Chinese people have developed a set of unique and grand ceremonies. Generally speaking, weddings in ancient China needed to be approved by parents and arranged by parents. <br /> <br /> China is an ancient country of rites. When it comes to the most important thing in one’s life---marriage, Chinese people have developed a set of unique and grand ceremonies. Generally speaking, weddings in ancient China needed to be approved by parents and arranged by parents. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【quotation is missing】&lt;/span&gt;<br /> ===Six Procedures===<br /> <br /> There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying. Na Cai is the begining of all the marriage procedures. It refersthat if a boy intends to marry a girl, firstly his family must invite a matchmaker to the girl's home to propose marriage. After obtaining the consent of the girl's family , the boy's family should entrust the matchmaker to make a proposal formally with some gifts. Usually, the most common gift is wild goose, which represents fidelity. Besides, mandarin ducks, phoenix and sheep are also frequently-used gifts. Wen Ming means that the boy's family ask the matchmaker to fetch the girl's name and date of birth. There are two purposes of this step: the one is to prevent the marriage of close relatives with the same surname; the other is to assure the compatibility of the potential bride and bridegroom through their “eight characters” of the birth moment. Naji happens after the matchmaker takes back the woman's name and eight characters. If divining an auspicious omen, the boy's family will inform it to the girl’s parents and decide to engage the marriage. What is more, Na Zheng is an important step when the boy sends betrothal presents to the girl and for courtesy the girl will send back part of the presents such as food and some clothes. Qing Qi means that the boy's family choose an auspicious day to hold the wedding ceremony and then dispatch the matchmaker to tell the girl’s family. Qin Ying is the last procedure of the six etiquettes, that is, the groom goes to the bride's home to take the bride to his home.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying. Na Cai is the begining of all the marriage procedures. It refers&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【refers to a practice that..】&lt;/span&gt; that if a boy intends to marry a girl, firstly his family must invite a matchmaker to the girl's home to propose marriage. After obtaining the consent of the girl's family , the boy's family should entrust the matchmaker to make a proposal formally with some gifts. Usually, the most common gift is wild goose, which represents fidelity. Besides, mandarin ducks, phoenix&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【？】&lt;/span&gt; and sheep are also frequently-used gifts. Wen Ming means that the boy's family ask&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【asks】&lt;/span&gt; the matchmaker to fetch the girl's name and date of birth. There are two purposes of this step: the&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【可删】&lt;/span&gt; one is to prevent the marriage of close relatives with the same surname; the other is to assure the compatibility of the potential&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【prospective】&lt;/span&gt; bride and bridegroom through their “eight characters” of the birth moment. Naji happens after the matchmaker takes back the woman's name and eight characters. If divining an auspicious omen, the boy's family will inform it to &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【inform sb of sth 】&lt;/span&gt;the girl’s parents and decide to engage the marriage. What is more, Na Zheng is an important step when the boy sends betrothal presents to the girl and for courtesy the girl will send back part of the presents such as food and some clothes. Qing Qi means that the boy's family choose an auspicious day to hold the wedding ceremony and then dispatch the matchmaker to tell the girl’s family. Qin Ying is the last procedure of the six etiquettes, that is, the groom goes to the bride's home to take the bride to his home.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ===Customs===<br /> <br /> In addition to the six steps mentioned above, there are many other customs in the traditional Chinese wedding ceremony. Generally speaking, ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker, many young people could not master their own marriage. Before wedding ceremony, men and women were not allowed to meet each other in that ancient people were very conservative and most girls were kept in boudoirs. If they met in private before marriage, it would be regarded as a kind of female infidelity and parents would also think it quite unlucky. Under this circumstance, newlyweds could only see each other until the day of marriage.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47-48)<br /> <br /> In addition to the six steps mentioned above, there are many other customs in the traditional Chinese wedding ceremony. Generally speaking, ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker, &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【 connective is missing】&lt;/span&gt;many young people could not master their own marriage. Before wedding ceremony, men and women were not allowed to meet each other in that ancient people were very conservative and most girls were kept in boudoirs. If they met in private before marriage, it would be regarded as a kind of female infidelity and parents would also think it quite unlucky. Under this circumstance, newlyweds could only see each other until the day of marriage.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47-48)<br /> <br /> On the wedding day, the boy’s family will hold a big banquet at home. Before setting out to pick up bride, the bridegroom should first worship his ancestors for the sake of safety and auspice during the process of picking up the bride. After that, the following step is the most grand one among the whole ceremony --- at the dusk moment, the groom and the bride, his parents as well as all the guests will gather together at the central room to witness the kneeling etiquettes of the couple, which consists of 4 steps: The first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber : the bride will be sent into the bridal chamber and the groom will drink with guests until night.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> On the wedding day, the boy’s family will hold a big banquet at home. Before setting out to pick up bride, the bridegroom should first worship his ancestors for the sake of safety and auspice during the process of picking up the bride &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【before or during？】&lt;/span&gt;. After that, the following step is the most grand one among the whole ceremony --- at the dusk moment, the groom and the bride, his parents as well as all the guests will gather together at the central room to witness the kneeling etiquettes of the couple, which consists of 4 steps: The first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber : the bride will be sent into the bridal chamber and the groom will drink with guests until night.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> After wedding ceremony, the couple must return to the girl’s home together at the third day, which is called “Huimen” or “Guiling”. This etiquette is indispensable. The groom should take some gifts for respect and change the way that he calls the bride’s parents, and the latter will also prepare a good meal for the couple’s coming.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> After wedding ceremony, the couple must return to the girl’s home together at the third day, which is called “Huimen” or “Guiling”. This etiquette is indispensable. The groom should take some gifts for respect and change the way that he calls&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【addresses】&lt;/span&gt; the bride’s parents, and the latter will also prepare a good meal for the couple’s coming.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ===Development===<br /> <br /> As time goes by, there are many reforms about marriage right now. Adults own the freedom to choose their spouse and they can meet each other every day if possible. Parents can’t master their “life event” any more.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47) In addition, many couples skip the cumbersome rites in the wedding ceremony. Some of them choose to hold the ceremony in the church with some close relatives and friends and some even finish it through travel.(Zhou Dandi &amp; Yue Shufa 2012,15)Nevertheless, most young people still adopt the main procedures of the traditional Chinese customs, some of which are handed down until right now. There still exist betrothal gifts and dowry, and many couples choose to wear red costumes. The groom should go to the bride’s home to escort her to the wedding and so on. Thus it can be seen that most traditional Chinese marriage customs are deep rooted in the hearts of Chinese people and shows--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC) a unique Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> As time goes by, there are many reforms about marriage right now&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【nowadays】&lt;/span&gt;. Adults own the freedom to choose their spouse and they can meet each other every day if possible. Parents can’t master their “life event” any more.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47) In addition, many couples skip the cumbersome rites in the wedding ceremony. Some of them choose to hold the ceremony in the church with some close relatives and friends and some even finish it through travel.(Zhou Dandi &amp; Yue Shufa 2012,15)Nevertheless, most young people still adopt the main procedures of the traditional Chinese customs, some of which are handed down until right now&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【the present day】&lt;/span&gt;. There still exist betrothal gifts and dowry&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【dowries】&lt;/span&gt;, and many couples choose to wear red costumes. The groom should &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【？】&lt;/span&gt;go to the bride’s home to escort her to the wedding and so on. Thus it can be seen that most traditional Chinese marriage customs are deep&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【deeply】&lt;/span&gt; rooted in the hearts of Chinese people and shows&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;【show】&lt;/span&gt;--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC) a unique Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Gao Xiaoqian. 高筱倩.(2017) 中国传统婚嫁习俗研究［The Research on Traditional Chinese Marriage Customs］戏剧之家[Drama House] 235.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yueyong. 张月莹.(2013) 中国近代婚嫁礼俗及婚姻观念转变的探索[A Study on the Change of Marriage customs and Marriage Concepts in Modern China] 松州学刊［Songzhou Academic Journal］ 47-48.<br /> <br /> Zhou Dandi, Yue Shufa. 周丹迪, 岳书法.(2012) 浅析近代以来中国婚嫁民俗的演变[On the evolution of Chinese marriage customs since modern times] 文化学刊[Cultural Academic Journal] 15.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> Na Cai 纳彩 <br /> <br /> Wen Ming 问名<br /> <br /> Na Ji 纳吉 <br /> <br /> Na Zheng 纳征<br /> <br /> Qing Qi 纳征 <br /> <br /> Qin Ying 亲迎<br /> <br /> Huimen 回门 <br /> <br /> Guiling 归宁 <br /> <br /> betrothal presents 彩礼<br /> <br /> the central room 堂屋<br /> <br /> bridal chamber 婚房<br /> <br /> “eight characters” of the birth moment 生辰八字<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.How many procedures are needed from the negotiation to the completion of marriage?<br /> <br /> 2.Did the ancient young people have the rights to decide their own marriage or not and why?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the kneeling etiquettes?<br /> <br /> 4.When the couple have to return to the girl’s home?<br /> <br /> 5.What changes have been made nowadays?<br /> <br /> 6.Please list some new wedding customs.<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying.<br /> <br /> 2.No, they didn’t have the right to decide their own marriage because ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker.<br /> <br /> 3.It consists of 4 steps: the first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber.<br /> <br /> 4.At the third day of the wedding ceremony.<br /> <br /> 5.Adults can choose their spouse by themselves and they can meet each other whenever they want; Some couples choose to hold the ceremony in the church some even finish it through travel, etc.<br /> <br /> 6.Examples:couple can choose to live in the either part of the two families; wedding ceremony can be hold in hotel; the bride can wear white wedding dress rather than the single red in the ancient time.<br /> <br /> ==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br /> <br /> ====Topic: Chinese cinema (dramas and movies) and its popularity and affection in Vietnam====<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac - Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 202070080603专业 is missing--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:16, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br /> <br /> ===Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac===<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:oyltacz.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]2020 is the year of rat according to the Chinese zodiac which consists of twelve animals used by people to name years. The traditional Chinese zodiac has been passed down for more than 2000 years since its origin(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). The twelve zodiac signs are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig, which are assigned in a repeating 12-year cycle(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). This traditional Chinese scheme was originated from China and then has enjoyed a popularity in many other Asian countries(The Editorial Board, 2010: 12-13). With its cultural connotation and time-honored impact, the Chinese zodiac have been engraved in every Chinese people. <br /> <br /> 2020 is the year of rat according to the Chinese zodiac which consists of twelve animals used by people to name years. The traditional Chinese zodiac has been passed down for more than 2000 years since its origin(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). The twelve zodiac signs are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig, which are assigned in a repeating 12-year cycle(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). This traditional Chinese scheme was originated from China and then has enjoyed a popularity in many other Asian countries(The Editorial Board, 2010: 12-13). With its cultural connotation and time-honored impact, the Chinese zodiac have(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;) been engraved in every Chinese people. <br /> <br /> ====Origin====<br /> <br /> Regarding the origin of the Chinese zodiac, there are various opinions but many of them are presented with no sufficient evidence. There are many myths explaining these animal signs and their arrangement. Among them the most enduring one is the Great Race. In this story, the Jade Emperor, Ruler of the Heavens, wanted to devise a way to measure time, so he organized a race. At the end, the first twelve animals who made it across the river were the winners and so they earned themselves a spot on the zodiac calender in the order they arrived(The Editorial Board, 2010: 6). Besides this folk story, some scholars claim the zodiac scheme was indeed derived from the Twelve Earthly Branches but did not occur at the same time while the Earthly Branches appeared. Since the Han Dynasty, the Earthly Branches have been used to record the time of day. Therefore some hold until that time, the 12 zodiac came into being as a supplementary to refer to the 12 periods of 24 hours. Since the original meaning of the Earthly Branches at that time was obliterated due to the passage of time, the ancient Chinese attached the Earthly Branches and the Ten Heavenly Stems to the zodiac(The Editorial Board, 2010: 5-7). There also stands an opinion that the zodiac signs were originated from the totem worship in the primitive society. According to some research on the origin of Chinese zodiac, there were only twelve earliest surnames in ancient China, which were derived from the names of the twelve animals in the Chinese zodiac scheme. Here the twelve animals refer to the totems at ancient times and different surname tribes use different animals as their totems. Therefore, the twelve animals of Chinese zodiac was developed from the totems of ancient tribes(The Editorial Board, 2010: 4-5).<br /> <br /> Regarding the origin of the Chinese zodiac, there are various opinions but many of them are presented with no sufficient evidence.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;there are various opinions,however,many of them are presented without sufficient evidences&lt;/span&gt;) There are many myths explaining these animal signs and their arrangement. Among them the most enduring(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;time-honored&lt;/span&gt;) one is the Great Race. In this story, the Jade Emperor, Ruler of the Heavens, wanted to devise a way to measure time, so he organized a race. At the end, the first twelve animals who (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;that&lt;/span&gt;)made it across the river were the winners and so they earned themselves a spot on the zodiac calender in the order they arrived(The Editorial Board, 2010: 6). Besides this folk story, some scholars claim the zodiac scheme was indeed derived from the Twelve Earthly Branches but did not occur at the same time while the Earthly Branches appeared. Since the Han Dynasty, the Earthly Branches have been used to record the time of day. Therefore some hold until that time, the 12 zodiac came into being as a supplementary to refer to the 12 periods of 24 hours. Since the original meaning of the Earthly Branches at that time was obliterated due to the passage of time, the ancient Chinese attached the Earthly Branches and the Ten Heavenly Stems to the zodiac(The Editorial Board, 2010: 5-7). There also stands an opinion that the zodiac signs were originated from the totem worship in the primitive society. According to some research(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;researches&lt;/span&gt;) on the origin of Chinese zodiac, there were only twelve earliest surnames in ancient China, which were derived from the names of the twelve animals in the Chinese zodiac scheme. Here the twelve animals refer to the totems at ancient times and different surname tribes use different animals as their totems. Therefore, the twelve animals of Chinese zodiac was developed from the totems of ancient tribes(The Editorial Board, 2010: 4-5).<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Folk Culture and Belief ====<br /> <br /> The zodiac sign not only can reveal one’s age, but also represents his or her personality, career prospects and way of life according to Chinese superstition. <br /> <br /> The zodiac sign not only can (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;can not only&lt;/span&gt;)reveal one’s age, but also represents his or her personality, career prospects and way of life according to Chinese superstition. (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;quotation is missing&lt;/span&gt;) <br /> <br /> The Chinese seem to believe that they have some affinity with the animals of the years in which they were born and that their personal traits and fortunes come under their mysterious influence. According to superstitious belief in China, Zodiac animals are combined with the Five Elements that consist of Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth, to tell one's destiny. Since people have their zodic sign's fixed elment, there are many folk beliefs based on this. For example, people born in the years of Metal Rat are believed to have a promising future; people born in the years of Fire Rat are deemed to be clever and intelligent and Wood Rat independent and self-respected(The Editorial Board, 2010: 40). <br /> <br /> The Chinese seem to believe that they have some affinity with the animals of the years in which they were born and that their personal traits and fortunes come under their mysterious influence. According to superstitious belief in China, Zodiac animals are combined with the Five Elements that consist of Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth, to tell one's destiny. Since people have their zodic(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;zodiac&lt;/span&gt;) sign's fixed elment, there are many folk beliefs based on this. For example, people born in the years of Metal Rat are believed to have a promising future; people born in the years of Fire Rat are deemed to be clever and intelligent and Wood Rat independent and self-respected(The Editorial Board, 2010: 40). <br /> <br /> Besides, since the zodiac is determined by the year of birth, there are many implications of one’s birth year. For example, some zodiacal preferences prevail in Chinese population. Chinese have always had a strong affection for the Dragon, so married couples prefer to give births in the year of Dragon. Since dragon is regarded as the auspicious and divine creatures, the children born in these years of dragon are believed to have fortune. These cultural preferences and folk beliefs have influenced prospective parents’ reproductive behavior in the Chinese society(Yip et al., 2002: 1804).<br /> <br /> Besides, since the zodiac is determined by the year of birth, there are many implications of one’s birth year. For example, some zodiacal preferences prevail in Chinese population. Chinese have always had a strong affection for the Dragon, so married couples prefer to give births in the year of Dragon. Since dragon is regarded as the auspicious and divine creatures(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;creature&lt;/span&gt;) , the children born in these years of dragon are believed to have fortune. These cultural preferences and folk beliefs have influenced prospective parents’ reproductive behavior in the Chinese society(Yip et al., 2002: 1804).<br /> <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese people believe certain animals get on better than the others, so the zodiac has had a great impact on marriage as well. Specifically, people who is born in the Year of Tiger would have perfect romance with Pigs, Rabbit with Dogs and Dragon with Roosters. On the contrary, some zodiac signs are believed to have misfortune if they are married with people of certain zodiac. As the Chinese idiom goes, if a dragon and a tiger fight each other, there will be one injured. This old says reflects that dragon and tiger are natural enemies according to the belief(The Editorial Board, 2010: 34-35). And this is the reason why men and women would like to evaluate their Bazi, the Eight Characters, before they get married. However, in reality, personality is related to one’s experience through the life journey rather than the pre-written zodiac signs. People born in the same year would have very distinctive personalities. Similarly, the destiny is also a result of people’s character and most decisions they’ll be making along the way. Of course the marriage is a more complex thing that cannot be deemed to have a pre-given outcome brought by the zodiac.<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese people believe certain animals get on better than the others, so the zodiac has had a great impact on marriage as well. Specifically, people who is(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;are&lt;/span&gt;) born in the Year of Tiger would have perfect romance with Pigs, Rabbit with Dogs and Dragon with Roosters. On the contrary, some zodiac signs are believed to have misfortune if they are married with people of certain zodiac. As the Chinese idiom goes, if a dragon and a tiger fight(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;fight against&lt;/span&gt;) each other, there will be one injured. This old says reflects that dragon and tiger are natural enemies according to the belief(The Editorial Board, 2010: 34-35). And this is the reason why men and women would like to evaluate their Bazi, the Eight Characters, before they get married. However, in reality, personality is related to one’s experience through the life journey rather than the pre-written zodiac signs. People born in the same year would have very distinctive personalities. Similarly, the destiny is also a result of people’s character and most decisions they’ll be making along the way. Of course the marriage is a more complex thing that cannot be deemed to have a pre-given outcome brought by the zodiac.<br /> <br /> ====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Chinese zodiac is a complex scheme which combines the traditional Chinese astrology in it. Based on the Five Elements theory, Yin and Yang system and Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches system, the traditional scheme have developed a profound connotation and implications through generation. Over thousands of years, this popular culture has affected people’s major decisions in naming, marriage, giving birth and attitude towards each other. But people have to consider zodiac in a rational and scientific way. Perhaps the zodiac may help us to understand what we’re given, but it cannot determine our destiny. We should treat it as the precious cultural heritage and explore the profound culture and historical traces embodied in it(The Editorial Board, 2010: 1-2).<br /> <br /> Chinese zodiac is a complex scheme which combines the traditional Chinese astrology in it. Based on the Five Elements theory, Yin and Yang system and Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches system, the traditional scheme have(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;) developed a profound connotation and implications through generation(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;generations&lt;/span&gt;). Over thousands of years, this popular culture has affected people’s major decisions in naming, marriage, giving birth and attitude towards each other. But people have to consider zodiac in a rational and scientific way. Perhaps the zodiac may help us to understand what we’re given, but it cannot determine our destiny. We should treat it as the precious cultural heritage and explore the profound culture and historical traces embodied in it(The Editorial Board, 2010: 1-2).--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 06:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> 《大中国上下五千年》丛书编委会(2010) The Editorial Board of the ''Five Thousand Years of Great China''（''Dazhongguo Shangxia Wuqiannian''） ''Series'',《中国生肖文化》''The Culture of Chinese Zodiac'', 北京：外文出版社 Beijing: Foreign Languages Press.<br /> <br /> Yip, Paul S.F.伊普, Lee, Joseph 李 and Cheung, Y.B.张 (2002).The Influence of the Chinese Zodiac on Fertility in Hong Kong SAR 论生肖对香港生育率的影响. ''Social Science &amp; Medicine''《社会科学与医学》, Volume 55, Issue 10 第55卷第10期, 1803-1812.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions=== <br /> <br /> Jade Emperor 玉皇大帝<br /> <br /> Ten Heavenly Stems 十天干<br /> <br /> Twelve Earthly Branches 十二地支<br /> <br /> Five Elements 五行<br /> <br /> Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth 金木水火土<br /> <br /> Eight Characters 八字<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.How long is the history of Chinese zodiac?<br /> <br /> 2.What are the twelve zodiac signs in order? <br /> <br /> 3.From what time the Earthly Branches was used to record time?<br /> <br /> 4.According to Chinese folk belief, what kind of characteristics do people born in year of rat have?<br /> <br /> 5.Which zodiac animal is mostly praised in China?<br /> <br /> 6.Can you name some pairs of zodiac animal that get along well with each other according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> 7.Which pair of animals that are natural enemies according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.More than 2200 years.<br /> <br /> 2.Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig.<br /> <br /> 3.Han Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 4.They are smart, adaptable, and have the will to fight, but, on the other hand, they are so over-ambitious and easy to fail.<br /> <br /> 5.Dragon.<br /> <br /> 6.Tiger and pig, rabbit and dog and dragon and rooster. <br /> <br /> 7.Dragon and tiger.<br /> <br /> ==Lisu People and Daogan Festival of Lisu Ethnic Minority Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏 202070080641==<br /> --[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 08:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Lisu people and Daogan festival====<br /> <br /> The Lisu ethnic group are the Tibeto-Burman ethnic group living in mountainous areas such as Burma, southwest China, Thailand, and Arunachal Pradesh in India.<br /> <br /> The Lisu ethnic group is the Tibeto-Burman ethnic group whose people live in mountainous areas such as Burma, southwest China, Thailand, and Arunachal Pradesh in India.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[File:Example1.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> There are about 730,000 Lisu people living in Lijiang, Baoshan, Nujiang, Diqing, Dehong and other counties in Yunnan and Sichuan provinces in China. The Lisu nationality is one of the 56 nationalities officially recognized by China. In Myanmar, the Lisu ethnic group is recognized as one of 135 ethnic groups with an estimated population of 600,000. Approximately 55,000 live in Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. They mainly inhabit remote mountainous areas. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> There are about 730,000 Lisu people living in Lijiang, Baoshan, Nujiang, Diqing, Dehong and other counties in Yunnan province and Sichuan province in China. The Lisu nationality is one of the 56 official nationalities recognized by China. In Myanmar, the Lisu ethnic group is recognized as one of the 135 ethnic groups with an estimated population of 600,000. Approximately 55,000 Lisu people live in Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. They mainly inhabit remote mountainous areas. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans. Each clan has its own name or surname. The most famous family clans in the tribal clans are Laemae pha, Bya pha, Thorne pha, Ngwa Pha (Ngwazah), Naw pha, Seu pha, Khaw pha. Most of the surnames come from their own hunter work in primitive times. But later, they adopted many Chinese surnames. Their culture has the same characteristics as the Yi nationality or Nuosu (Lolo) culture. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans. Each clan has its own name or surname. The most famous family clans are Laemae pha, Bya pha, Thorne pha, Ngwa Pha (Ngwazah), Naw pha, Seu pha, Khaw pha. Most of the surnames came from their own hunter work in primitive times. And later, they adopted many Chinese surnames. Their culture has the same characteristics as the Yi nationality or Nuosu (Lolo) culture does. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Daogan Festival (刀杆节) is a traditional festival of Lisu ethnic groups living in Lushui County(泸水县), Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture(怒江傈僳族自治州).Due to the death of the old artists, they were once lost in Nujiang Prefecture and recovered in recent years. They are mainly distributed in Luzhang Village(鲁掌镇), Luzu Village(鲁祖村) and Loma Village(洛玛村) of Lushui County(泸水县).(Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> Daogan Festival (刀杆节) is a traditional festival of Lisu ethnic group in Lushui County(泸水县), Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture(怒江傈僳族自治州).Due to the death of the old artists, the traditions were once lost in Nujiang Prefecture and were recovered in recent years. They are mainly distributed in Luzhang Village(鲁掌镇), Luzu Village(鲁祖村) and Loma Village(洛玛村) of Lushui County(泸水县).(Ernst, Gabriel 2019)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[File:Example2.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> ====Legend====<br /> <br /> During the Ming Dynasty, when people not belonging to the same clan of feudal China invaded the borders of Yunnan, the king sent Wang Ji (王骥), the ministry of war, to resist the enemy with troops. Wang Ji united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders. Later, Wang Ji was killed by traitors. To commemorate Wang Ji's great achievement and to pray for the souls of the brave soldiers who died bravely defending the border, the Li tribe held the &quot;Up and down the mountain&quot; event. (上刀山，下火海), and designated the 15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year as the Knife Gan Festival.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> During the Ming Dynasty, when people of different clans of feudal China invaded the borders of Yunnan, the emperor sent Wang Ji (王骥), the war department of the Chinese feudal ministry, to resist the enemy with troops. Wang Ji united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders. But later, Wang Ji was killed by traitors. To commemorate Wang Ji's great achievement and to pray for the brave soldiers who died bravely in defending the border, the Li tribe held the &quot;Going up to the mountain of swords and going down to the sea of ​​fire&quot; event. (上刀山，下火海), and designated the 15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year as the Knife Gan Festival.(Li Zhihuan,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Going up to the knife mountain and going down to the sea of ​​fire are the main custom performances of the Taozhen Festival, which reproduce the life experience of people living in mountainous areas as they climb the mountains and the hard spirit and skills of climbing.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> Going up to the mountain of swords and going down to the sea of ​​fire is one of the the main custom performances of the Taozhen Festival, which came from the life experience of people living in mountainous areas as they climb the mountains with the hard spirit and skills of climbing.(Li Zhihuan,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Performing====<br /> <br /> [[File:Example3.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> Pine trees were used as tool poles, iron knives as tool ladders, crinkled paper as flowers, and bamboo as flower sticks. When we go up the rice mountain and down the fire, we play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments under the knife pole. There are strict procedures and rituals from pointing flowers, pointing knives, playing knives, tying knives, tying flowers, welcoming flowers, and altars. Setting , knife pole , vertical pole , sacrificial dragon , knife stand and dismantling knife (in the sea of fire). Knife poles are usually called gold pillar, silver pillar or male pillar and female pillar respectively, representing the dead and the living. Thirty-six long sharp knives representing 365 days a year are tied to the sides of the ladder with paper flowers made of five-color paper. After the knife poles are tied, Heung Tong/Heung Tong (巫师) recites the words in his mouth and performs the knife dance with drum music. After the knife dance, to the sound of Suo na, gongs and drums, the knife bearer grasps the blade with both hands, steps on the blade with bare feet and then climbs up. When the knife-bearer reaches the top through the three scissors, the knife-bearer opens the lock of heaven, takes out the grains and flowers, spreads them out into the boiling crowd, and then places the red ribbon on the colored door, over which he sings the old prayer song, and then he comes down from the pole of the knife again. After that, he stepped barefoot into the burning charcoal fire, licking the burning plow with his tongue and biting the burning chains with his teeth, which showed the national spirit of the Li people and their superb performance skills.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> Pine trees were used as tool poles, with iron knives as tool ladders, crinkled paper as flowers, and bamboo as flower sticks. Before people going up the mountain and down the fire, they play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , Suo na (唢呐) and other musical instruments under the knife pole. There are strict procedures and rituals of pointing flowers, pointing knives, playing knives, tying knives, tying flowers, welcoming flowers, and altars. Settings, knife pole, vertical pole, sacrificial dragon , knife stand and dismantling knife (in the sea of fire). Knife poles are usually called gold pillar, silver pillar or male pillar and female pillar respectively, representing the dead and the living. Thirty-six long sharp knives representing 365 days a year are tied to the sides of the ladder with paper flowers made of five-color paper. After the knife poles are tied, Heung Tong/Heung Tong (巫师) recites the words in his mouth and performs the knife dance with drum music. After the knife dance, to the sound of Suo na, gongs and drums, the player grasps the blade with both hands, steps on the blade with bare feet and then climbs up. When he reaches the top through the three scissors, he opens the lock of heaven, takes out the grains and flowers, spreads them out into the lively crowd, and then places the red ribbon on the colored door, sings the old prayer song, and then he comes down from the pole of the knife again. After that, he stepped barefoot into the burning charcoal fire, licking the burning plow with his tongue and biting the burning chains with his teeth. All of these show the national spirit of the Li people and their superb performance skills.(Li Zhihuan,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Development====<br /> <br /> According to legend, it commemorates an ancient Han Chinese hero who showed great kindness to the Lisu people. The Lisu people made the anniversary of the hero's death a traditional holiday for their own people, and used symbolic rituals such as going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire to express their feelings of willingness to go through fire in return. On the day of the Knife Festival, several able-bodied men first perform the &quot;firewalking&quot; ceremony. They jump into the red-hot coals with bare feet and perform various stunts. On the second day, they sharpen 36 long knives and tie them to two 20-meter-high wooden racks with rattan strips, forming a knife ladder. With bare hands and feet, the performers climb to the top from the edge of the knives and perform various difficult moves at the top of the pole. Today, this thrilling traditional sacrificial ritual has evolved into a sporting event for the good people of the Lisu people to perform their stunts.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> According to legend, it commemorates an ancient Han Chinese hero who showed great kindness to the Lisu people. The Lisu people made the anniversary of the hero's death a traditional holiday for their own people, and used symbolic rituals such as going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire to express their feelings of willingness to go through fire in return. On the day of the Knife Festival, several able-bodied men first perform the &quot;firewalking&quot; ceremony. They jump into the red-hot coals with bare feet and perform various stunts. On the second day, they sharpen 36 long knives and tie them to two 20-meter-high wooden racks with rattan strips, forming a knife ladder. With bare hands and feet, the performers climb to the top from the edge of the knives and make various difficult performances at the top of the pole. Today, this thrilling traditional sacrificial ritual has evolved into a sporting event for the Lisu people to perform their stunts.(Li Zhihuan,2010)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> 1.Lisu people 傈僳族<br /> <br /> 2.&quot;Up and down the mountain&quot; event 上刀山，下火海<br /> <br /> 2.going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire上刀山，下火海--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.The Lisu tribe 傈僳族<br /> <br /> 4.clan 氏族<br /> <br /> 5.primitive times 原始时期<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.How many Lisu people live in Yunnan and Sichuan？<br /> <br /> 2.How many clans make up the Lisu people？<br /> <br /> 3.Who united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders？<br /> <br /> 4.Which day is the Daogan Festival？<br /> <br /> 5.What musical instruments do they play under the knife pole?<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.About 730,000 Lisu people. <br /> <br /> 2.The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans.<br /> <br /> 3.Wang Ji.<br /> <br /> 4.15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year.<br /> <br /> 5.They play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments.<br /> <br /> ====References====<br /> <br /> *Ernst, Gabriel (21 October 2019). &quot;'We try to not be Thai': the everyday resistance of ethnic minorities&quot;<br /> *&quot;Yunnan Province of China Government Web&quot;. Eng.yn.gov.cn.<br /> *李智环．Li Zhihuan. 傈僳族人口分布及形成原因分析 [Analysis of the Distribution and Causes of the Formation of the Lisu People] 《保山学院学报》， 2010 [Journal of Baoshan College], 2010<br /> <br /> ==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br /> Culture==Topic-Chinese Clothing== Phyo, Su Kyi, Student No-20191108000,Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-cultural Studies. <br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> <br /> Chinese Clothing has many ethnic groups with a long history while Han people dominate most periods in history. For thousands of years, generations of clothing designers have devoted themselves to building the Kingdom of Clothes, making the garments that cover the human body into an important component of Chinese culture. The progress of nation can be seen through its changes in clothing styles.Clothing manufacture in China dates back to prehistoric times, at least 7,000years ago. Archaeological findings of 18,000 years-old artifacts such as bone sewing needles and stone beads and shells with holes bored in them attest to the existence of ornamentation and of sewing extremely early in Chinese civilization. (www.topchinatravel. com, 2004)<br /> <br /> Chinese clothing has undergone continuous transformations throughout history,providing a reflection of the culture in place at any given time. A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry, and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive Chinese fashions through the ages. This illustrated introductory survey takes the reader through traditional Chinese clothing,ornamentation,and ceremonial wear, and discusses the importance of silk and the diverse costumes of China's ethnic groups before considering modern trends and China's place in the fashion world today.(Mei Hua-2010-page-1)<br /> <br /> A-Chinese traditional clothing<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional clothing contains rich cultural connotations.Today, after the reform and opening up, the clothing industry has developed vigorously. People gradually start pay attention to the local clothing culture, and pursue cultural connotation contained in clothing. For modern designers, the traditional clothing and its cultural background are their creation inspirations during creation phases,and they are also one of the expressive elements preferred by designers at home and abroad. Inheriting traditional clothing culture not only means that it needs us to turn the traditional clothing elements into a symbol, but also needs us to further understand the background and connotations of traditional clothing culture. The work of design without culture is like a gorgeous shell that can't stand the test of history. Only by grasping the inner spirit of traditional clothing culture, abandoning simple piled up work and patch-up work without connotation and learning the modern expressive methods of traditional clothing elements, one can design out the works which can touch people's heartstrings. (Jiangsu,2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Traditional clothing is the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics. Traditional clothing mutually integrates its unique style, comfortable fabric, bright colors,rich designs and exquisite craft elements to bring people impulsive feelings with visual communication. Traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics enjoys its unique artistic features in the style, color,fabrics,decoration and craft, ect. They are profoundly influenced by Chinese traditional culture ideas in the process of their formation and development and finally condensed into the national culture bearing Chinese culture features. These elements are the source of our inspiration in contemporary clothing design, and the use of these Chinese elements can help people to design out the clothing Chinese style.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional culture is an indispensable source of inspiration in fashion design. Putting the traditional elements into fashion design not only helps the native culture to extend itself, but also greatly promotes the culture exchanges in nationalities. Therefore, we should advocate the national advanced culture,make the Chinese traditional culture achieve the development in the clothing design, use the common language to express Chinese traditional culture essence, and integrate Chinese traditional element symbol into the spiritual elements of fashion design to make the national culture spirit and the language of the world integrate into the mainstream of modern clothing design.(Jiangsu,2016, page -3)<br /> <br /> ==Traditional Han Chinese Clothing (Han Fu):It refers to the attire worn byvthe Han people from the enthronement of the Yellow Emperor(about 2698BC) till the late Ming Dynasty (1368-1644AD).It became known as the Han Fu(fu means 'clothes&quot; in Chinese)because the fashion was improved and popularized during the Han Dynasty. It is usually in the from of long gown,cross collar, wrapping the right lapel over the left, loose wide sleeves and no buttons but a sash. Although simple in design, it gives different feelings to different wearers.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019-Aug-2)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Suit(Tang Zhuang):It is a combination of the Manchu male jacket ofvthe Qing Dynasty and the western style suit. It is usually straight collared,with coiled buttons down the front. Its color and design are in traditional Chinese style but tailoring is western.(www.topchinatravel. com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> ==Cheongsam(Qi Pao):Originated from the Manchu female clothes, it evolved by merging with western patterns that show off the beauty of a female body. Its features are straight collar, strain on the waist,coiled buttons and slits on both sides ofvthe dress. Materials used are usually silk, cotton and linen.Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire in the world today.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Tunic Suit(Zhongshan Zhuang) :Also called the Yat-sen Suit , it is designed by Dr.Sun Yat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire. It has a turn-down collar and four pockets with flaps. As Chairman Mao Zedong worn it quite frequently, it is also called the Mao Suit by westerners. It is the main attire from the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 till 1980,s. The country's leaders still wear it today when attending important occasions, such as military parades.(www.topchinatravel. com,2016,Auge-2.)<br /> <br /> B-Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements<br /> <br /> There are many old stories in ancient Chinese civilization, and Chinese traditional elements come up with the tenacity of the Chinese nations long history. Different times has their unique cultural connotations and form elements,which include Chinese architecture, costumes, traditional Chinese painting and folk art etc., and those cultural connotations and form elements are precious heritage that the ancestors leave to their off-springs. The change of dynasties in the history of our country lead to changes of cultural centers, which finally lead to the appearance Chinese traditional elements with different representative features in each historical periods, nations and regions. These elements include: Chinese silk ,cloth of brocade, hemp,blue printed fabric; chirpaur, Chinese -style chest covering, Chinese tunic suit, collar,surplice, mandarin and split etc.; colorful ethnic colors: such as bright red,green,yellow and blueetc.;Neolithic patterns, bronze patterns in Shang and Chou dynasties, ancient lacquer were pattern in Qin and Han dynasties, Buddhism patterns in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties and traditional decorative patterns in Tang,Sing and Qing dynasties. The essence of Chinese traditional culture which bear the role of inheriting national culture, and is the unique and external characteristic of Chinese nation.(Jiangsu,2016, page-3)<br /> <br /> ==The Aesthetic Performance of Design. Chinese traditional clothing of each dynasty has its own unique clothing style and design, but no matter how the style changes,the mainstream concept of traditional Chinese clothing always emphasizes symmetry and balance, and the clothing symmetry can be seen in sleeve, placket, hem,pattern ect.Chinese traditional clothing design is particular about proportion,such as the ancient Chinese woman dresses, short jacket unlined uper garment (named Ru)marching long dress , and it emphasizes the perfect proportion which hold that&quot;the upper part should be short, the below part should be long&quot;; in Song and Ming dynasties people the collocation of long BeiZi(a kind of dress that girls dress in ancient times) and short skirt, the &quot;long upper part,short below part&quot;ratio perfectly reflects the proportions beauty of the clothing.(Jiangsu,2016, page-5.)<br /> <br /> ==The Aesthetic Performance of colors. Green, white, yellow, red, black ,the five colors, form the Chinese traditional color system. They have obvious implied meaning and identification.Black stands for that the dark heaven, and yellow stands for the earth at dusj, and black and yellow stand for the heaven and the earth ,and they are mostly used in the Kings' clothing, About the colorific choice of Chinese traditional clothing the yellow and red which the historical role is prominent perform particularly well. In the late period of the Warring States as a royal color yellow appeared and became the supreme ruler's senior clothing color .People advocate yellow but don't prohibit yellow.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-6)<br /> <br /> In Chinese traditional clothing colors red has evoluted from the original noble characteristic tovthe civilians characteristic. It evolution has experienced a certain period of time. The original red uses magenta, red ,cinnabar to represent. It is the noble officials' clothing color.<br /> Many designers combine Chinese red and modern clothing design to embody the application of Chinese traditional clothing elements in modern clothing design.(Jaingsu,2016-page-7)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Chinese traditional culture is an indispensable source of inspiration in fashion design.Therefore, we should advocate the national advanced culture, make the Chinese traditional culture achieve the development in the clothing design.<br /> <br /> Trems and Expressions<br /> <br /> 历史-history, <br /> <br /> 期-period, <br /> <br /> 世代-generations, <br /> <br /> 服装-clothing, <br /> <br /> 设计师-designers , <br /> <br /> 装饰-ornamentation<br /> <br /> 中国服饰- Chinese clothing<br /> <br /> 服饰-Costumes <br /> <br /> 传统服装-Traditional clothing<br /> <br /> 服装设计-Clothing design<br /> <br /> 时尚设计-Fashion design <br /> <br /> 几代服装设计师-Generations of clothing designers <br /> <br /> 中国西装-Chinese Suit<br /> <br /> 旗袍-Cheongsam<br /> <br /> 中山装-Chinese Tunic Suit <br /> <br /> 中国传统元素-Chinese traditional elements <br /> <br /> ===Questions ===<br /> <br /> 1-What’s archaeological findings in Chinese fashions through the ages?<br /> <br /> 2-What's Traditional Clothing?<br /> <br /> 3-What's Traditional culture indispensable?<br /> <br /> 4-How is means Han Fu?<br /> <br /> 5-What's the popular Chinese attire?<br /> <br /> 6-How called was Chinese Tunic Suit?<br /> <br /> 7-What'are include Chinese traditional elements? <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 04:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Answers===<br /> 1- A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry,<br /> and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive chinese fanshions through the ages.<br /> <br /> 2-Traditional clothingis the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing<br /> culture with Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> 3-Chineset traditional culture is an indispensablevsource of inspirationin fashion<br /> design.<br /> <br /> 4-Han Fu is fu means clothes in Chinese. <br /> <br /> 5-Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire inthe world today.<br /> <br /> 6-It is also called the Yat-sen Suit,it is designed byDr.SunYat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire.<br /> <br /> 7-Chinese traditional elements include: Chinese silk,cloth of brocade, hemp, blue printed fabric.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 11:56, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> 1.Jiangsu.,(2016), “Influences of Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements on Modern Clothing Design”,<br /> <br /> Nanjing University of Finance and Economics,Soochow University,Published by Atlantic Press.<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.Mei Hua,(2010), `Chinese Clothing´, Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building,Cambridge CB28RU,UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press,NewYork<br /> www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title:www.cambridge.org/9780521186896<br /> Originally published byChina Intercontinental Press as Cinese Clothing(9787508516615)in2010©ChinaIntercontinentalPress.<br /> <br /> 3.https://www.topchinatravel.com/china-guide/history-of-chinese-clothing.htm<br /> <br /> 4.https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/clothing/--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 10:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br /> <br /> ===Chinese traditional dance===<br /> <br /> ==The Liquor Culture of China 瞿淼 Student No.202070080604==<br /> --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 08:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.The Origin of liquor in China====<br /> <br /> With a long history of liquor-making, China boasts a variety of vintage liquor, which is renowned at home and abroad. Penetrating in China’s entire history of civilization, the liquor culture plays a significant role in many aspects, such as cuisine, literature, and health care, of Chinese people’s daily life.<br /> As to the origin of Chinese liquor, opinions vary and no unanimous conclusion can be drawn, and the most widely accepted version is that Du Kang is the person who invented liquor. There are divergent views on Du Kang’s identity, so far, documents have been found which recorded his deeds in the Yellow Emperor era and Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties. And even his address is disputable. Some people think he lived in Baishui, Shaanxi province and was buried here, while others hold the opinion that he lived in Ruyang, Henan province. However, Du Kang is generally believed to be the Chinese Dionysus. According to the legend, one day it rained suddenly while Du Kang was herding the sheep. Hastily driving the sheep back to the sheepfold, he forgot some husked sorghum rice in a hollowed trunk by accident, and when he came back after a few days, the rice he left there became so fragrant that he couldn’t help tasting some. Surprisingly, it was palatable. This unexpected finding made Du Kang start to develop the liquor-brewing technique. Nowadays, Du kang has become the synonym of liquor in many places. Moreover, ancestral halls of Du Kang have been built in Baishui in Shaanxi province and Ruyang in Henan province to enshrine him. And the liquor produced in these places are called “Du Kang Liquor.”(Huang yixi, 2008, 12) <br /> <br /> ====2.The Types of liquor in Ancient China====<br /> With constant reform and innovation of the techniques of brewing liquor, thousands types of vintage liquor have been created in China. According to the different production techniques, Chinese liquor can be divided into fermented wine and distilled liquor.<br /> <br /> Yellow rice wine is the oldest fermented wine around the world. Shaoxing Wine, a famous specialty of Shaoxing, Zhejiang province, is the representative of yellow rice wine. It has a very long history, and the wine industry in Shaoxing was prosperous early in the Warring States period. Shaoxing wine looks yellow and clear, hence sugar is added in its raw material. The most prominent of Shaoxing Wine is that it’s fragrance improves with age. In addition to Shaoxing Wine, there are other famous yellow rice wine like Jiujiang Old Seal Wine, Mellow Wine and Dongwu Rice Wine and so on.<br /> <br /> Liquor and Spirits(Baijiu), a kind of distilled liquor, is divided into the following flavor types: sauce-flavor type, light flavor type, strong flavor type and other flavour types. Kweichow Moutai is a traditional Chinese specialty liquor. It is one of the world's three major distilled liquors on par with Scotch whiskey and French cognac. It is also the originator of Daqu sauce-flavored liquor with a history of more than 800 years. The style and quality of Kweichow Moutai is characterized by &quot;prominent sauce, elegant and delicate flavour, full-bodied, long aftertaste, and lasting fragrance in an empty cup&quot;. Its special style comes from the unique traditional brewing techniques formed over the years and the brewing methods are combined with the agricultural production in the Chishui River Basin, which is affected by the environment and seasonal production, retaining some of the original traces of local life. In 1996, Moutai's craftsmanship was identified as a state secret to be protected. In 2001, the traditional craft of Moutai was included in the first batch of national material cultural heritage. In 2006, the State Council approved the inclusion of the &quot;Moutai traditional brewing process&quot; in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage lists, and declared the world intangible cultural heritage.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Types of Drinking Vessel in Ancient China====<br /> Chinese people always pay attention to the beauty and delicacy of tableware, and we stress the exquisiteness and suitability of wine vessels when drinking. Therefore, drinking vessels as part of the liquor culture also have a long history and varied appearances.<br /> <br /> In different historical periods, due to the continuous development of society and economy, the production technology, materials, and appearance of wine vessels will naturally undergo corresponding changes; therefore, a wide variety of wine vessels have been produced. As early as the Neolithic culture period, pottery with shapes similar to later wine-ware, such as the pottery of the Peiligang culture period, appeared. The development of the liquor industry and the noble identity of the drinker have made it possible for liquor utensils to be differentiated from ordinary eating utensils. The quality of wine-ware often becomes one of the symbols of the status of drinkers. Bronze ware originated in Xia Dynasty, and the earliest bronze wine ware that has been discovered is from the Xia Erlitou culture period. Bronze ware reached its heyday in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and declined in the Spring and Autumn Period. The purpose of the Shang and Zhou drinking vessels was basically specific. In the Shang Dynasty, due to the development of the liquor industry and the improvement of bronze production technology, China's wine ware reached unprecedented prosperity. The bronze wine vessels of Shang and Zhou Dynasties were divided into liquor boiling vessels, liquor serving vessels, drinking vessels and liquor storaging vessels according to their purposes. Each vessel has many styles, some are in common styles, and some take animal shapes. Take Zun as an example, there are Elephant Zun, Rhino Zun, Niu Zun, Yang Zun, Tiger Zun, etc. During the Qin and Han Dynasties, lacquered wine utensils became popular in southern China. It became the main type in the Han Dynasty, Wei and Jin Dynasties, and its shape basically inherited the shape of bronze liquor vessels. Porcelain roughly appeared around the Eastern Han Dynasty. Compared with pottery, the performance of porcelain surpassed that of pottery. The shape of liquor glasses in the Tang Dynasty was much smaller than in the past, so some people think that distilled spirits appeared in the Tang Dynasty. The Song Dynasty was the heyday of ceramic production, and there were many exquisite wine vessels. People in Song Dynasty like to warm rice wine and drink it. So the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl were invented. People placed the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and poured hot water into the bowl to warm the wine. The representative porcelain wine-ware of the Ming and Qing Dynasty is the blue-and-white porcelain wine-ware.<br /> <br /> ====4.Drinking Order====<br /> As early as the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, drinking orders appeared at banquets in the Yellow River Basin. There are many ways to make wine orders. The way the literati and the ordinary people make drinking orders are naturally very different. Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc., while ordinary people use simple ways to act without any preparation. It requires a quick, witty, artistic and talented person to do liquor orders. The drinking order is of great significance to the transformation, enrichment and development of drinking rituals. It is not only an important means to add wine to the fun and to invigorate the banquet, but also to make Chinese culture enter the wine and become the Liquor Culture&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> 1.Du Kang 杜康<br /> <br /> 2.Chinese Dionysus 中国酒神<br /> <br /> 3.husked sorghum rice 秫米饭<br /> <br /> 4.Baishui 白水县（陕西渭南市辖县）<br /> <br /> 5.Ruyang 汝阳县（河南省洛阳市下辖县）<br /> <br /> 6.fermented wine 发酵酒<br /> <br /> 7.Distilled liquor 蒸馏酒<br /> <br /> 8.Yellow rice wine 黄酒<br /> <br /> 9.Shaoxing Wine 绍兴酒 <br /> <br /> 10.Jiujiang Old Seal Wine 九江成年封缸酒<br /> <br /> 11.Mellow Wine 醇香酒 <br /> <br /> 12.Dongwu Rice Wine 东吴老酒<br /> <br /> 13.Liquor and Spirits 白酒 <br /> <br /> 14.Kweichow Moutai 贵州茅台<br /> <br /> 15.sauce-flavor type 酱香型 <br /> <br /> 16.light flavor type 清香型 <br /> <br /> 17.strong flavor type 浓香型 <br /> <br /> 18.Daqu sauce-flavored liquor 大曲酱香型白酒<br /> <br /> 19.the Peiligang culture period裴李岗文化时期 <br /> <br /> 20.the Xia Erlitou culture period 夏二里头文化时期<br /> <br /> 21.Zun 樽 <br /> <br /> 22.injection vessel and bowl 注子和注碗<br /> <br /> 23.drinking order 行酒令<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.Who is generally believed to invent liquor in China? <br /> <br /> 2.What is the most prominent of Shaoxing Wine?<br /> <br /> 3.How to use the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl in the Song dynasty?<br /> <br /> 4.How do literati often make drinking orders in China?<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.Du Kang<br /> <br /> 2.It’s fragrance improves with age.<br /> <br /> 3.Place the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and pour hot water into the bowl to warm the wine.<br /> <br /> 4.Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc.<br /> <br /> ====Bibliography====<br /> *Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br /> <br /> *Li Fangzhou 李方舟. (1998) 酒令——酒文化的珍品[Liquor-a treasure of wine culture]. 质量天地Production Room.<br /> <br /> *Du Jinpeng 杜金鹏. (1995) 中国古代酒具[Ancient Chinese Wine Set]. 上海文化出版社 Shanghai Culture Publishing House.<br /> <br /> *Yang Li 杨 利. (2005) 酒文化及酒的精神文化价值探微[A Probe into Wine Culture and Spiritual Cultural Value of Wine]. 邵阳学院学报Academic Journal of Shaoyang University, 2005(02):82-83.<br /> <br /> *Xu Shaohua 徐少华. (1999) 中国酒文化研究50年[Research on 50 years of Chinese wine culture]. 酿酒科技Brewing Technology, 1999(06):15-18.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Fengqi 赵凤琦. (2014) 我国白酒产业可持续发展研究[Research on Sustainable Development of Chinese Liquor Industry]. 中国社会科学院研究生院CASS Graduate School.<br /> <br /> *Wng Jianguo&amp;Xu Liang 汪建国,徐亮.(2005)我国黄酒的特征及展望[Characteristics and Prospects of Chinese Rice Wine] 江苏调味副食品Journal of Jiangsu Seasoning Food, 2005(06):8-12.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jihua 丁季华. (1991) 中国酒文化的结构与功能[The structure and function of Chinese wine culture]. 历史教学问题History Research and Teaching, 1991(2).<br /> <br /> == China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH) - Rajabov, Anushervon student NO. 201921080005==<br /> <br /> ===China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH)===<br /> <br /> Introduction <br /> <br /> High-speed railway (HSR) in China is the longest network of high-speed railways in the world and is used most widely. The network of UNCC includes the recently built railway at the estimated speed of 200-350 km / h (120-220 miles per hour). The Chinese VSM accounts for two thirds of world high-speed railways. Almost all trains, the path and services of the HSR belong to the Chinese railway corporation under the CHINA Railway High Speed brand (CRH). The high-speed railway has developed rapidly in China over the past 15 years. CRH was put into operation in April 2007, the Intercity Line Beijing-Tianjin, which opened in August 2008, became the first HSR allocated passenger line. HSR applies to all administrative provincial levels, except Macau and Tibet. The total length of the HSR network reached 36,000 km (22,000 miles) in August 2020. The HSR construction boom continues, and the HSR network should reach 70,000 km (43,000 miles) in 2035. China's first high-speed trains were imported or built in accordance with the Technology Transfer Agreement with foreign trains manufacturers, including Alstom, Siemens, Bombardier and Kawasaki Heavy Industry Since the initial technical support, Chinese engineers have overpower the internal components of the train and built local trains produced by the CRRC State Corporation. The appearance of a rapidly accelerated railway in China has decreased in the way and changed Chinese society and the economy. The World Bank study has shown that &quot;a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality.&quot; where the sources are coming from?<br /> <br /> Definition and terminology <br /> <br /> High-speed trains in China are usually belonging to passenger trades of classes G, D and C. in class G trains (高 铁; Gāotiě; &quot;High-speed rail&quot;) are commonly used trains E In class D trains (动 车; Dòngchē; &quot;Electrical multiple unit&quot;) are presented by EMU trains operating at lower speeds, whether in high-speed or low-speed ways. The actual movement speed of class D trains can vary greatly. D211 Creament train from Guyang-east to Guangzhou-South along the High Speed Railway Guang-Guangzhou, a line with an estimated speed of 250 km / h, on average, 207 km / h per trip. The sleeping train D312 EMU between South Beijing and Shanghai at a low speed Beijing - Shanghai on average passing 121 km / h. Class C (c héngjì; “intercity”) trains that run on high-speed tracks at speeds above 250 km / h are also considered high-speed trains. where the sources are coming from ?<br /> <br /> Influence on airlines<br /> <br /> The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights. The effect of high-speed railway on airfare is most acute when traveling for less than 500 km (310 miles). By the spring of 2011, commercial airlines were fully stopped at previously popular routes such as Wuhan Nanjing, Wuhan Nanchang, Xi'an-Zhengzhou and Chengdu Chongqing. Flights along the routes with a length of more than 1500 km (930 miles) usually do not suffer. As of October 2013, half a speed of passengers were transported monthly on high-speed rail than in the country's airlines. where the source a<br /> Technologies <br /> Chinese High Speed Railway Controls Various Electric Forms of Trains, Hexie HAO Title (Simplified Chinese: 和谐 号; Traditional Chinese: 和 諧 號; Pinyin: Héxié Hào; Harmony) is for designs which are imported from other nations and designated CRH-1 to CRH-5 and CRH380A (L), CRH380B (L) and CRH380C (L). CRH compositions are designed for fast and convenient movement between cities. The weakness of intellectual property Hexie HAO creates obstacles to China in the export of its products related to high-speed railways, which leads to the development of a fully recycled railway franchise called Fuxing Hao (Rejuvenation) that based on local technologies. where are coming from?<br /> <br /> 4 + 4 HSR network <br /> <br /> The network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km. Most of the lines follow existing routes and are for passenger traffic only. These are known as Passenger Lines (PDL). Several sections of the national network, especially along the southeastern coastal corridor, have been built to connect cities that previously had no rail links. These sections will carry both passenger and cargo. High-speed trains on HSR corridors can usually reach speeds of 300-350 km / h (190-220 mph). On mixed HSR lines, passenger trains can reach a maximum speed of 200–250 km / h (120–160 mph). This ambitious national grid project was slated to be built by 2020, but government incentives have significantly shortened the construction timeframe for many lines. where the sources are coming from ?<br /> <br /> Advantages <br /> <br /> HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances that: Increases economic productivity and long-term competitiveness by increasing rail capacity and unifying labor markets. Moving passengers onto high-speed lines frees up older railways to carry more cargo, which is more beneficial for railways than for passengers whose fares are subsidized. Boosts the economy in the short term as high-speed rail construction creates jobs and stimulates demand in the construction, steel and cement industries during the economic downturn. 110,000 workers were mobilized for the construction of the Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway. Facilitates economic integration between cities and promotes the growth of second-tier cities. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains. where the sources are coming from ?<br /> <br /> Wenzhou accident <br /> <br /> On July 23, 2011, two high-speed trains collided on the Ningbo-Taizhou-Wenzhou railway in the Lucheng district of Wenzhou city, Zhejiang province. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped. Signals failed, causing another train to stop a stopped train. Several carriages derailed. State Chinese media confirmed 40 deaths and at least 192 people were hospitalized, including 12 seriously injured. The train accident in Wenzhou and the lack of accountability by rail officials have generated public outcry and heightened concerns about the safety and management of China's high-speed rail system. Concerns about quality and safety have also influenced plans to export cheaper high-speed train technology to other countries. In the aftermath of the deadly disaster, the Chinese government has suspended approval of new rail projects and began security checks on existing equipment. where the source are coming from?<br /> <br /> Terms and expressions<br /> <br /> 高 铁 - High-speed rail<br /> 动 车 - Electrical multiple unit<br /> 和 諧 號 – Harmony<br /> 復興號 - Rejuvenation<br /> <br /> Questions <br /> <br /> 1. What does the World Bank research say?<br /> 2. What forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights?<br /> 3. How many high speed rail corridors are there in the 4 + 4 HSR network? What is their total length?<br /> 4. What caused the accident?<br /> 5. What are the benefits of HSR?<br /> <br /> Answers<br /> <br /> 1. The World Bank study has shown that &quot;a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality.&quot; <br /> 2. The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights.<br /> 3. The 4 + 4 HSR network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km. <br /> 4. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped.<br /> 5. HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains.<br /> <br /> References misssing<br /> <br /> ==Language, The Chinese Language - Seydou, Sagara, Student No:201911080004,Major:Translation Studies===<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> China is a very big country with a large population, multi-ethnic,and multi-lingual. Each etthnic groups may have its own lingo, or dialects. There are great differences between these dialects because of pronunciation. For example, if people in different places use their dialects to talk, they may not be able to understand each other, and the situation may lead to embarrassment and understanding. Therefore, the Chinese people communicate with each other in a common language, Putonghua, also known as Mandarin in Western countries. Cheng Aimin (2019, 124)<br /> <br /> ==Putonghua and Dialects==<br /> <br /> Putonghua is the national language of China, and Chinese is the most widely spoken language in the world. More than one billion of the world's populations are Chinese speakers. The Chinese population is already one fifth of the population of the world and is rapidly expanding its presence everywhere and influence many people around the world. Cheng Aimin (2019, 25) <br /> It is the modern standard Chinese language with the Beijing pronunciation as its standard pronunciation, the northern dialect (also known as Mandarin, the official language in the past) as its basic dialect, and the modern vernacular as its grammatical norm. Therefore, the northern dialect sounds more like Putonghua than other dialects. Putonghua is a standardized language, which is legally used all over the country. In 2000, the law of the People’s Republic of China on common languages and characters established the legal status of Putonghua and standardized Chinese Characters as the national language and writing system. Putonghua is also one of the six working language of the United Nation and an important means of communication between China and foreign countries. According to statistics from ethnologist, in 2015, 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, but there were still about 400 million people who spoke dialects or minority languages. Article 19 of the constitution of the People’s Republic of China stipulates that ‘’ Putonghua is widely used by the state ‘’, and the third week of September is the national Putonghua Publicity week. We often hear some sayings like this: ‘’ Learn Putonghua well and you will have friend all over the world.’’ Chinese dialects are usually divided into seven groups: northern dialect Wu dialect, Hunan dialect, Jiangxi dialect, Hakka dialect, and Cantonese dialect and Fujian dialect. Most northern are close to Putonghua and easy to understand a non-native speaker. Cheng Aimin (2019, 126) <br /> <br /> The dialects in China differ greatly. Speaking Putonghua allows the Chinese people to communicate better with each other and promote the development of economy and culture everywhere. However, the promotion of Putonghua cannot be achieved in a short time. The Chinese government plans to enable more than 80% of Chinese people to speak Putonghua by 2020. (C.Gov art 10. 2017)<br /> Only by learning Putonghua can you communicate with people from all parts of China and event with Chinese –speaking people all over the world. While striving to promote Putonghua among the people of the whole country, China also pays special attention to the protection of dialects, which should not be lost after learning Putonghua. . Cheng Aimin (2019, 126)<br /> <br /> ==Ancient Chinese and Modern Chinese ==<br /> Over the past three thousand years, Chinese has undergone a long period of development and changes, and has been constantly interacting with the languages of other nations. Ancient Chinese and written Chinese characters are not exactly the same as they are now. When we visit Chinese historical sites, we often see couplets, poems, and inscriptions. Most of them are written in classical Chinese and traditional Chinese characters. Classical Chinese is a written language formed on the basis of the spoken language in the pre-Qin period. Cheng Aimin (2019, 127) <br /> <br /> By the time of the Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties (the 7th century to the 10th century), the spoken Chinese had changed greatly and had significant differences with the classical style of written Chinese. The pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar had changed greatly. But all the time, some people still insisted on writing in classical Chinese, while others wrote in the commonly used vernacular (spoken Chinese). The Four Classical Novels created in the Ming and Qing dynasties, The Dreams of the red Chambers, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, The Outlaws of the Marsh and the journey to the west, are all representative works of the ancient vernacular. After the May 4th movement in 1919, China launched a vernacular movement advocating ‘’my hand writes my speech’’. Since then, the vernacular has gradually been more widely used in the whole society, and modern Chinese has gradually developed and formed. Compared with ancient Chinese, modern Chinese absorbs a lot Western grammar and has added many disyllabic words. Cheng Aimin (2019 ,128)<br /> <br /> ==Idiomatic Phrases- Idioms, Proverbs, Common Sayings, and Allegorical Sayings.==<br /> Many phrases with fixed meanings in Chinese have been handed down from the ancient times. Mastering these phrases will make your language more authentic and vivid. For example, ‘’Lofty mountains and flowing rivers ‘’. Playing the lute to the cow’’ ‘’prescribing medicine according to symptoms’’, and ‘’ pleading guilty by carrying a rod on one’s back’ ’these phrases, often contain four Chinese characters each, are called idioms. They are quite formal and often originate from ancient historical stories, fables, myths and legends, or literary works. Sometimes we cannot guess the meaning of an idiom simply according to the meaning of the words. For example, 崇山峻岭，流淌的河流 ‘’lofty mountains and flowing rivers’’ means meeting someone who can really understand and appreciate them, while吹牛的长笛 ‘’ Playing the lute to the cow’’ means the casting pearls before swine. Wendy Abraham: (2018 ,115)<br /> There are also proverbs, common sayings, and allegorical sayings created and passed down by the common people in spoken language, which are quite colloquial and emotional, reflecting the unique culture of China.<br /> Proverbs are common and easy -to understand fixed phrases used orally, often explaining a truth. For example, ‘’ if you are not in charge of a home, you don’t know how expensive the firewood and rice, if you don’t have children, you don’t know kinds your parents are.’’ ‘’Seeing is better than hearing 100 times, and doing is better than seeing 100 times’’ Cheng Aimin (2019, 129)<br /> Common sayings mostly come in a three –character format, but there are also other formats. In addition to the literal meaning, there are deep metaphorical extensions. For example, 吹牛皮 ‘’blow cow skin’’ (meaning bragging or boating) ‘给某人. 穿紧身鞋 ‘’give SB . Tight shoes to wear ‘’ ( meaning making things hard for SB), ‘为外国人工作时的消磨时间‘’kill time when working for foreigners ‘’ ( loafing on the job) , 提一个黑锅 ‘’ carry a black pot’’ ( taking the blame for the fault of others ) , 钉在眼睛里 ‘’ nail in the eyes’’ ( thorn in the flesh ), 狗腿 ‘’ dog leg’’ ( hired thug) , 不管3x7 = 21 ‘’regardless of 3x7= 21’’( regardless of consequences, in the spite of anything ), 打不了八极 ‘’ can’t hit with eight poles’’ ( extremely distant or unrelated ). (Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002,232)<br /> An allegorical saying is divided into two parts. It is like a riddle: The first part is a metaphor, and the second part is an explanation. There are two types of allegorical sayings: homophonic and figurative. Example of the homophonic type ‘’ the nephew carries a lantern – to light up the uncle’’ (pronounced the same ‘’ as before ‘’ in Chinese); ‘’the monk opens an umbrella – no hair and no sky ‘’ (‘’ no hair ‘’ is pronounced similar to ‘’ lawless ‘’ in Chinese). Examples of the figurative type: ‘’ A mute person takes a dose of bitter medicine- they can’t say it is bitter ‘’; ‘’ Mice go to the street – everybody shouts and beats them.’’ Cheng Aimin (2019.130)<br /> <br /> ==Language policy==<br /> While vigorously promoting Putonghua, the Chinese government has also promulgated many policies to protect dialect and minority languages. In order to promote Putonghua, China promulgated the Chinese Pinyin Program in 1958. Pinyin (the standard Chinese sound- spelling system) is widely used in Putonghua promotion, international Chinese teaching, foreign exchange and other fields. It has become an important tool for reading Chinese characters, learning Putonghua, training and improving reading and writing ability. With the popularization of modern information technology, pinyin is widely used to input the Chinese characters on computers and mobile phones. Pinyin affects all aspects of social life. In translation, Chinese names of people, places, food, and even some cultural concept with Chinese characteristics (Such as Beijing, pingpang, Shaoling, Gongful) are directly spelled with Pinyin, which is therefore an important standard for translation and a bridge for international exchange. Minglang Zhou: (pp.71-95).<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion.== <br /> Today, an increasing number of people from other countries now want to learn Chinese language and culture and also many universities from different countries throughout the world offer Chinese language courses because Putonghua is also an open door to a huge job market in all of the countries where Putonghua is the language of commerce like Mainland China, Taiwan and Singapore. Learning Chinese can help to make a better future for everyone. Abundant opportunities for governments and business careers as well as scientific and cultural exchanges await the student of Chinese. The China market is blossoming after decades of global isolation. As China is rapidly becoming a world economic power as it opens its doors to foreign investment expands its infrastructure, those who know Chinese will be valuable to business.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> Cheng Aimin.(2019), ''中国概况'' [Understanding China]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> Minglang Zhou: Language Policy in the People’s Republic of China (p.71-95), Wendy Abraham: let’s talk Mandarin Chinese: 1,001 real-life phrases and Idioms. Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37) Article 10 Putonghua and the standardized Chinese characters shall be used as the basic language in education and teaching in schools and other institutions of education, except where otherwise provided for in laws.<br /> The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002)<br /> ===Terms and expressions===<br /> Lingo: 林戈<br /> Putonghua: 普通话<br /> Await student:等待学生<br /> Pinyin: 等待学生<br /> Lofty: 崇高：<br /> Vernacular: 白话：<br /> Swine: 猪：<br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1. Why Putonghua is spoken in United Nations Organization?<br /> 2. How many people speak Putonghua in China and around the world?<br /> 3 .Why Chinese government is promoted Putonghua among many others languages?<br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1. Because it is an important means of communication between China and foreign countries.<br /> 2. According to ethnologist 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, and according to the10 most spoken languages in the world Chinese (and all of its varieties such as Mandarin) is by far the most spoken language across the world with 1.31 billion speakers.<br /> 3. Because Putonghua is become an international language and it also facilitate understanding between different ethnic groups in China.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=113424 2020-12-17T06:13:04Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 专业 is missing--Mo Ling (talk) 08:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language, under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> <br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> <br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾:<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> <br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> <br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory.Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory.Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.(标题格式错误，大小写不统一，名利场是书/杂志，需要斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》(标题格式错误）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles.（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180)<br /> <br /> Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles.（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). （双引号没引完）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation.<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory(Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br /> <br /> According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> <br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====（标题之间需要隔一行）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64). <br /> <br /> On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68). <br /> <br /> Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br /> <br /> In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br /> <br /> There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br /> <br /> At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br /> <br /> The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br /> <br /> (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br /> <br /> (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br /> <br /> (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br /> <br /> (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br /> <br /> (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br /> <br /> (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br /> <br /> (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). <br /> <br /> From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br /> <br /> Exampe 1: <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. (符号之间隔开）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22).<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. <br /> <br /> From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br /> <br /> What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1964).''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''《翻译理论与实践》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Jan de Waard.(1986) ''From One Language to Another''《从一种语言到另一种语言》. Nashville: Thomas Nelson托马斯·纳尔逊出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''《语言、文化与翻译》.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Thackeray,William萨克雷.（2006）. ''Vanity Fair''《名利场》.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie陈岷婕.(2013).浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[On Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Nida’s “functional Equivalence”].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju郭丁菊.(2013).功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance from the Translation of Vanity Fair].Harbin:Northeast Forestry University东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong李建中.(2009)中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Beijing:Peking University Press北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai谭凯.(2011)严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance” and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence].青年作家Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi王运熙,Gu Yisheng顾易生.(2007).中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Shanghai:Shanghai Classics Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复(2009).《天演论》译例言[Preface to Evolution and Ethics].Beijing:The Commercial Press商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi杨必.(2013)《名利场》[Vanity Fair].Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei张妍梅.(2019).功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of Vanity Fair from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory].Lanzhou:Lanzhou Jiaotong University兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi张曦.(2014).翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on :Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House中国学术期刊电子出版社(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤.(2006).奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考[Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s Functional Equivalence]. Journal of Fujiann Medical University福建医科大学学报(3)62-65.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;专业 is missing&lt;/span&gt;--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;perspectives&lt;/span&gt;). Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors.By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;pointed out&lt;/span&gt;) the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;incorrect structure and obscure sentence meaning&lt;/span&gt;) By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;that&lt;/span&gt;)the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;originated from&lt;/span&gt;)his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;linguistics&lt;/span&gt;) was exerted in both of their equivalence theory(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;theories&lt;/span&gt;). Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;meanings&lt;/span&gt;) into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;wanted&lt;/span&gt;) to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;factor&lt;/span&gt;) to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;in front of&lt;/span&gt;) its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language&lt;/span&gt;). In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language&lt;/span&gt;). Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Approaches&lt;/span&gt;)=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;defined&lt;/span&gt;) by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;perspectives&lt;/span&gt;). The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;have offered guidances&lt;/span&gt;) to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;distinguish linguistic from cultural untranslatability &lt;/span&gt;)for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;possessing&lt;/span&gt;) many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian，2009：413）, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei(whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang, 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: ）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.(Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to see the world, meanwhile, more and more foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Cultural Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of public signs in tourist attractions is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of various natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br /> <br /> This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br /> <br /> === The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br /> <br /> After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br /> <br /> In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br /> <br /> <br /> ====Translation Purpose====<br /> As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990) <br /> <br /> ====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br /> As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Content and Form of Translation ====<br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br /> Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br /> As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br /> There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br /> <br /> ====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br /> When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br /> <br /> However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br /> <br /> Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br /> For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. 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During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br /> <br /> Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. <br /> <br /> This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> --[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces the background and development of translation strategies. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis combines the characteristics of the two kinds of texts to explore the translation strategies that suits for the two types, including domestication, foreignization, omission and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br /> <br /> ===KEY WORDS===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍翻译策略的背景和发展，然后描述新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的特点和翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译等的翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles which have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the background, development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restruction and generalization in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis, as well as point out the drawbacks and advantages. <br /> <br /> ===2.Theoretical Framework===<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Background and development of Texts’ styles===<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts means a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules. <br /> <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997) <br /> <br /> ===2.2 Main functions of texts=== <br /> <br /> ===2.2.1The Referential Function===<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> ===2.2.2The Expressive Function===<br /> <br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> ===2.2.3The Appellative Function===<br /> <br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Main Text - types===<br /> <br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br /> <br /> ===2.3.1 The Expressive Texts=== <br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> ===2.3.2 The Informative Texts===<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> ===2.3.3 The Vocative Texts===<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> ===3.Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br /> <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br /> <br /> ===3.1 Language Characteristics===<br /> <br /> ===3.1.1 For literary stylistics===<br /> ===Vividness===<br /> In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as &quot;trump&quot;, &quot;usher&quot; and &quot;is borne&quot;, the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br /> <br /> ===Emotional expression===<br /> As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br /> <br /> ===Connotation===<br /> Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized &quot;State&quot; can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.1.2 For journalistic===<br /> Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br /> <br /> ===Truthfulness===<br /> First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br /> <br /> ===Newness===<br /> If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br /> <br /> ===Objectivity===<br /> The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br /> <br /> ===Political Relevance===<br /> Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br /> <br /> ===2.3.2 Translation principles=== <br /> Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original. <br /> <br /> ===For Literary===<br /> Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles. <br /> <br /> ===Equivalence-based principle=== <br /> Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br /> <br /> ===Accuracy-based principle===<br /> No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br /> <br /> ===For Journalistic style===<br /> Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability. <br /> <br /> ===Purpose-based principle===<br /> Purpose&quot; is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br /> <br /> ===Accuracy-based principle=== <br /> The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br /> <br /> ===Readability-based principle===<br /> Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br /> <br /> ===4.Translation strategies===<br /> Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br /> <br /> ===4.1Translation strategies in literary style===<br /> In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br /> <br /> ===4.1.1 Domestication===<br /> Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book The Translator’s Invisibility called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.<br /> Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness <br /> of expression… and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br /> which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br /> <br /> ===4.1.1.1 paraphrasing===<br /> <br /> Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br /> <br /> Example1<br /> <br /> ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br /> unceasingly.<br /> <br /> TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br /> Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br /> <br /> TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br /> <br /> The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br /> <br /> ===4.1.1.2 Adaptation===<br /> <br /> In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br /> <br /> Example2 <br /> <br /> ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br /> <br /> TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br /> <br /> Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br /> <br /> Example3<br /> <br /> ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br /> <br /> TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br /> <br /> TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br /> <br /> TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br /> There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br /> <br /> ===4.1.1.3 Replacement===<br /> <br /> Example 4 <br /> <br /> ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br /> <br /> This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric. <br /> <br /> ===4.1.2 Foreignization===<br /> <br /> Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> ===4.1.2.1 phonetic compensation===<br /> <br /> Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br /> <br /> Example5 <br /> <br /> ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br /> <br /> TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br /> <br /> Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br /> <br /> 4.1.2.2 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br /> <br /> Example6<br /> <br /> ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br /> <br /> TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br /> <br /> TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br /> <br /> 4.1.2.3 Amplification<br /> <br /> Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br /> <br /> Example 7<br /> <br /> ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br /> <br /> TT: The Lun-yu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br /> <br /> In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.2Translation strategies in journalistic style===<br /> <br /> ===4.2.1Amplification===<br /> <br /> Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br /> <br /> Example 8 <br /> <br /> ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br /> <br /> TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br /> <br /> There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br /> <br /> Example 9<br /> <br /> ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br /> <br /> TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br /> <br /> “比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 10<br /> ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br /> <br /> TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br /> <br /> “评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br /> <br /> ===4.2.2 Omission===<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br /> <br /> Example11 <br /> ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br /> TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br /> As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br /> <br /> Example12 <br /> <br /> ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br /> <br /> TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br /> <br /> As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br /> <br /> ===4.2.3Imitation===<br /> English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br /> <br /> Example 13 <br /> <br /> ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br /> <br /> TT:双心记 <br /> <br /> This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br /> <br /> Example14 <br /> <br /> ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br /> <br /> TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br /> <br /> This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br /> <br /> ===4.2.4 Restruction===<br /> The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br /> <br /> Example 15 <br /> <br /> ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br /> <br /> TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br /> <br /> “A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br /> <br /> Example16<br /> <br /> ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br /> <br /> TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br /> <br /> In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br /> <br /> Example 17<br /> <br /> ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br /> <br /> TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br /> <br /> The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily. <br /> <br /> ===4.2.5 Adaptation===<br /> Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br /> attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br /> <br /> Example 18<br /> <br /> ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br /> <br /> TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br /> <br /> “Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br /> <br /> Example 19<br /> <br /> ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br /> <br /> TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br /> <br /> “Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br /> <br /> Example 20<br /> <br /> ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br /> <br /> TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br /> <br /> If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion===<br /> The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br /> ===6. References===<br /> [1] McNair, Brain. (1998). The sociology of Journalism. A Hodder Arnold Publication<br /> [2] Munday, Jeremy, 2001, Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications [M], London and New York: Routledge.<br /> [3] Newmark, P. Approaches to Translation ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br /> [4] Nord, Christiane. Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6<br /> [5] Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br /> [6] Venuti, L. 1995. The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation. London &amp; New York: Routledge.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5&diff=113419 2020-12-17T05:56:21Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602 英语笔译 */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第五部分(Part 5)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Translation Thoughts=<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Creative Treason of Literature Translation-李玉 Li Yu==<br /> <br /> ==On the Analysis of Three Kinds of Beauty in ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence-林敏 Lin Min 202020080616==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;林敏 Lin Min &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation, aiming to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language in a translation. Xu Yuanchong introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties” principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book, he said that the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem. This thesis is going to use such two theories to compare and analyze the two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond in our nation --Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version with some typical and representative examples, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.This thesis is divided into five parts: the first part roughly describes the purpose, method and significant of the study; the second part introduces the general idea and two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond; The third part introduces two translation theories functional equivalence and three beauty principle; the fourth part, some typical examples are selected and two theories are used to compare study the two versions. The fifth part summarizes the whole thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Functional Equivalence, Three Kinds of Beauty<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 功能对等理论指导下《荷塘月色》英译本“三美”的传达<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 功能对等论是翻译理论中最重要的理论之一。功能对等论的目的是实现源语和目标语之间的功能对等。许渊冲在《毛泽东诗词四十二首》序言中提出的译诗的“三美”原则，即音美，意美和形美。本篇文章将利用这两个基本原则，通过一些有代表性的例子对译本进行比较学习，学习研究两篇文章是否符合功能对等。本篇论文共分为五部分，第一部分介绍了本研究的目的、意义和方法；第二部分介绍了《荷塘月色》的大意和两个英译本；第三部分对两个翻译原则：功能对等论和“三美”原则做了简要地介绍；第四部分选取了有代表性的例子，运用了两个理论对两译本进行了对比学习；第五部分对全文进行了总结。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 功能对等论，三美原则<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> With the advent of globalization as well as the development of Chinese economy, more and more Chinese literary works have been introduced abroad. Prose is one of the important part of China’s literature.However there is still not enough attention to the introduction of Chinese prose, especially Chinese modern prose. <br /> <br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''，the well-known lyric prose, written by the famous author Zhu Ziqing, has made a huge influence on the development of Chinese prose. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer's depressing mood. For this prose is a typical example of Chinese modern prose, many translators have given their translations of it, such as Zhu Chunshen, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang, Li Ming and Wang Jiaosheng. A large number of scholars have analyzed its different versions making great contribution to the prose translating. <br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation. Functional equivalence theory introduced by Nida, refers to the fact that the translation does not take rigid correspondence between words and structures as the standard, but aims to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language. The theory emphasizes that“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。<br /> <br /> Here, this paper selects This thesis selects two of the most famous English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen's version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, to compare and study, based on Xu Yuanchong's “Three Beauty” principle under the guidance of functional equivalence. This thesis will compare and analyze the two English versions, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> === 2. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' and Its English Versions ===<br /> Before comparing and analyzing the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' , we need learn some necessary information about the author who wrote it and the relatively background. At present, the two famous English versions are Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version .<br /> <br /> ====2.1 ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is the classical of lyric prose written by Zhu Ziqing in Tsinghua University, Beijing on July 1927，which depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer’s depressing mood. It was published in the Novel Monthly, one of the new literary journals which enjoys the reputation of “the first journal in the China’s literary world” in the 1920s.（Han,2018 ）Since it was published, the article has received both high praise and fierce criticism. From this perspective, it has witnessed the history of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> In this prose, the author is sleepless and sits in his yard to enjoy the cool in the evening. Suddenly, it occurred to his mind that the lotus pond where he passes every day and the pond must be different at night with the moonlight. So, the author wandered lonely on a cinder footpath around the lotus pond, he feels that he is a “free man”. As he sees the pond cover with trim lotus leaves and white lotus flowers, hearing the sounds of the cicadas and the frogs, Zhu thinks that &quot;this animation was theirs alone, I had no part in it（Yang ,1990 ）.&quot;<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Two English Versions ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is one of Zhu Ziqing’s masterpieces and was selected into Chinese textbook. Most scholars say that the prose is “文质相称，形神俱美” which has attracted an amount of scholars and students.（Chen ,2018）The prose has been introduced to foreign countries in different languages, especially in English since the May 4th Movement. The notable translations include Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, Li Ming’s version and Wang Jiaosheng’s version. This thesis choices Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version. Both Zhu ’s version and Yang’s version are faithful to the original meaning and concise to the sentence structure and close to the original style. But Zhu prefer to employ literal translation and Yang uses the free translation, like the words “热闹” ,“冷静”, “群居”and “独处”, Zhu translated these as “a serene and peaceful life”,“a busy and active one”, “being in solitude” and “in company”, in contrast Yang’s translation is “excitement and stillness”.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Basis of Theory ===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Functional Equivalence Theory ====<br /> The first scholar in history to propose the equivalence effect is the British translation theorist Alexander Fraser Tytler in 1790. He defined the “good translation” in his book ''A Brief Introduction to Translation Principles''. He introduced that the good translation completely transfers the advantages of the original work to another language, so that the target language readers can clearly understand and feel strongly as the original readers do. This is to say that a good translation should be able to produce the same effect as the original in different linguistic societies. Then, the German translation theorist Kaul called it a comparable effect in his book ''The Art of Translation'' in 1896.<br /> <br /> Nida’s translation theory was formed in the 1960s and introduced to China in the 1980s. The functional equivalence principle is one of his central translation ideas. In 1964, Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Toward Science of Translating'', proposing to shift the focus of translation research from the attention of static text information to reader’s attention to the dynamic information of the text. In ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida defined this theory again. He proposed that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. Here, the dynamic equivalence refers to the functional equivalence. The basic point of functional equivalence is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by readers with that of the recipient of the target text. It requires the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the original text when understanding the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Three Kinds of Beauty ====<br /> Xu Yuanchong ,the highly respected translator and famous professor, is known as “the only person who translates Chinese poems into English and French”. He introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties”principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book ,he said that “the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem.”(Xu, 2003) Xu Yuanchong said that “in translation, the beauty in sense is the most important, beauty in sound comes next and the last is beauty in form, when it is difficult to achieve them all, translator should stress beauty in sense.”(Xu, 2003)And professor Xu also claimed that the “Three Beauties” principles can use in researching and studying the translation of prose.<br /> <br /> ===4. On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence ===<br /> Zhu Ziqing used a large number of rhetorical devices and reduplicated words to describe the beauty of the lotus pond under the moonlight at night, to express his gloomy and upset mood, which brings great difficulty to translation, in his famous prose--''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. This part is aimed at using the functional equivalence theory and Xu Yuanchong’s theory of “Three Beauties” to analyze wheatear the two English versions of such prose achieving the degree of function equivalance.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 ====<br /> Words are the basic meaning of sentences. G •Leech divided “meaning” into two categories: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(Leech,1987) The conceptual meaning is the meaning that we can find in dictionary, and the associative meaning is the actually meaning of the word in the special context. It is a truly universal acknowledge that the meaning of the sentence is not simple addition of word meaning. Thus, the translator should find the conceptual meaning and the associative meaning of the original, especially the associative meaning. Here are some typical examples:<br /> <br /> Example 1: “这几天心里颇不宁静。”（Zhu Ziqing , 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu ’s version: “I have felt quite upset recently.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang ’s version: “The last few days have found me very restless.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> This sentence is the first sentence in the first paragraph. Here “不宁静” refers to “quite uncomfortable”, which can be translated as “upset, restless, untranquil, disquieting and so on”. However, considering Zhu Ziqing’s patriotic feeling and his responsibility for his wife and kid, he cannot devote his whole life to the great revolution. Therefore “不宁静” in the context means the author is anxiety, because he want to change his condition. Zhu Chunshen translated it as“upset”which means“unhappy or disappointed because of something unpleasant that has happened”in the ''OED'', which emphasized the unhappy mood. And Yang Xianyi employed it as “restless”, which means “unable to stay still or happy where you are, because you are bored or need a change ” in the ''OED'', which stressed on one needing a change. It is clear that the word “restless” is more exactly than the word “quiet” in this sentence.<br /> <br /> However,“宁静”has an end rhyme“ing”and neither“upset”in Zhu’s translation nor“restless”in Yang’s version opted the words with the same end rhyme for they both focused on the meaning. And such sentence in original text is a 9 characters short sentence with no subject, Yang translated it into 9 words,used the“the last few day”as the subject, while Zhu’s version only has 6 words and selected “I” as the subject. Therefore, Yang’s version is expressive to the original in this sentence and it retains the beauties of form and sense in this sentence at the same time. In short, the two versions are good translation, but the Yang’s version is much better from this point. <br /> <br /> Example 2“这是一条幽僻的路；白天也少人走，夜晚更加寂寞。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: It is peaceful and secluded here, a place not frequented by pedestrians even in the daytime; now at night, it looks more solitary......”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “It is off the beaten track and few pass this way even by day, so at night it is still more quiet.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> The word “幽僻” means “安静和人迹罕至” here. Zhu rendered the word “幽僻” into “peaceful and secluded”, emphasized that there is silent and private. Yang employed it into “off the beaten track” which means no one knows here and quiet. From this perspective, both translations are very similar in understanding the writer’s meaning.<br /> <br /> However, the word “幽僻” is an adjective word with two meanings: quiet and not disturbed by other people. Zhu’ s version “peaceful and secluded” ,are two adjective words and has two similar meanings, which keep the form and sense of the original sentence. In conclusion，according to the “Three Beauties” principle, Zhu’s translation is much better than Yang’s for it retains the form of the original.<br /> <br /> Example 3: “这路上阴森森的，有些怕人。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “The foliage, which, in a moon-less night, would loom somewhat frighteningly dark.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “ On nights when there is no moon the track is almost terrifyingly dark.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> In this sentence, Zhu Ziqing uses “怕人” to describe the atmosphere of the air on the road and his feeling of walking on this path at such a night. “怕人” referred to “令人害怕的” in Chinese, it is an adjective to present his feeling. “Frightening ” means “making you feel afraid”, and “terrifying” means “to make somebody extremely frightened”in the ''OED'' , which can be regarded as synonyms. Both use the adverb to translate the adjective “怕人”. But in Zhu’s translation, “the foliage” is “frighteningly dark” and in Yang’s version, “the track” is “terrifyingly dark”. Both translators have their own understanding of the original content, but the both translations are faithful to the word “怕人”. We could say the two translations achieve the beauty in sense. However, in “Three Beauties” principle, we should consider the beauty in form and sound. As for sound ,the last sound of “怕人” is [en] in Chinese, but both “frightening” and “terrifying” has the same end sound of [en]. As for “frightening” and “terrifying”, the last sound of these are [iŋ] which could be regarded as the similar pronunciation with [en] .So, the two translations achieved beauty in sound from this aspect. In all the both versions are great from this perspective.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 ====<br /> The two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond do a good job in two aspects: “grammaticality”and “idiomaticness”. This part will analyze their features of“clarity”and “ organization”.(“stylistic adaptability” will be analyzed in the next part)<br /> The first is the“clarity”. A qualified translation should be fluent and easy to understand. Here it does not means the two versions have grammatical mistakes.Readers should not be confused by the cultural and social background of a word. In Moonlight over the Lotus Pond ,there are also some words with Chinese cultural or social characteristic. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> Example4 : “我悄悄地披了大衫，带上门出去。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “ Shrugging on an overcoat, quietly, made my way out, closing the door behind me.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang ’s version: “I quietly slipped on a long gown, and walked out leaving the door on the latch.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> The words “大衫”and“带上门” with Chinese characteristics, cannot be simply translated, the translator should carefully apt the best words owing to their traits.<br /> <br /> First of all,“大衫”is means “身长过膝的中式单衣”. Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xianyi employed this word into “overcoat” and “gown” respectively. The overcoat is a long warm coat worn in cold weather. And the gown is a long loose piece of clothing. At the beginning of the prose, the author sits in his yard to enjoy the cool. So, it is hot and the overcoat is not suit for summer. Then, the Chinese people in the later Qing Dynasty and the period of Republican, especially the men who were educated, preferred wearing the long and loose clothes. Thus, “大衫” translated into “grow” is more proper than “overcoat ”. By doing so, readers can correctly understand the meaning of the original text and draw a picture in his mind without confusion: why he wears a thick coat in summer.<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, a house with a courtyard has two doors, the gate of yard and the door of house in China, and when the owner need to go out for a short time, he will not lock the gate of yard, just as the Chinese people says “我一会就回来，别锁门”. Thus the word “带上门出去” translated as “leaving the door on the latch” in Yang’s version is more faithful to the original meaning than the word “closing the door ” in Zhu’s translation. In this sense, readers can receive more information about Chinese cultural or social background.<br /> <br /> To sum up, both two versions of this sentence are fluent without any grammatical errors and successful convey the meaning of original. However, Yang masterly selected the words “long gown” and the expression “leaving the door on the latch” .<br /> <br /> Example5 : 月光如流水一般，静静地泻在这一片叶子和花上。薄薄的青雾浮起在荷塘里。叶子和花仿佛在牛乳中洗过一样；又像笼着轻纱的梦。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: The moon sheds her liquid light silently over the leaves and flowers, which, in the floating transparency of a bluish haze from the pond, look as if they had just been bathed in milk, or like a dream wrapped in a gauzy hood.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: Moonlight cascaded like water over the lotus leaves and flowers, and a light blue mist floating up from the pool made them seem washed in milk or caught in a gauzy dream.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> In order to make the translation more authentic and smooth English, both Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xiangyi used the translation method of combination to combine the original three sentences into a long sentence, but the two versions have their different features. As for the form of the translation, Zhu Chunshen rendered his translation in three segments, short parts and long parts combined that is similar to the original sentence.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 ====<br /> Style is a difficult and hot issues of literary translation. Leech defined style as “the way in which the language is used in a given context, by a given person, for a given purpose and so on”.(Leech,2001:10) Many scholars believe that although the style is not translatable to some extent, the translation should still strive to reproduce the style of the original text. Liu Zhongde emphasized the importance of being close to the style of the original text in his the three-character principle of translation--faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness. Zhu Guanqian also believed that “对原文忠实，不仅是对表面的字义忠实，对情感，思想，风格，声音节奏等必须同时忠实。” (Zhu Guangqian,1984:447)So how should the translator reproduce the original author’s style?<br /> <br /> In the following part, the author of this thesis is going to compare the two English versions, and is based on the translation of rhetorical devices , to discuss whether or not the two versions can reproduce rhetorical effects of the original. This thesis focus on the analysis of metaphor, personification and other rhetorical devices, and selects several fragments of these rhetorical devices as the comparison of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example 6: 叶子出水很高，像亭亭的舞女的裙。层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花......正如一粒粒的明珠，又如碧天里的星星，又如刚出浴的美人。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927) <br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: ...reaching rather high above the surface, like the skirts of dancing girls in all their grace. Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms... like scattering pearls, or twinkling stars, or beauties just out of the bath. (Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: ...which rose high out of the water like the flared skirts of dancing girls. And starring these tiers of leaves were white lotus flowers... like glimmering pearls, stars in an azure sky, or beauties fresh from the bath.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)<br /> <br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing used three extremely beautiful metaphors to form a parallel construction, to enhance the language strength, to express his love of lotus, gives people endless feeling of beauty. <br /> <br /> The author uses “亭亭的舞女的裙” to describe the lotus leaves above the surface, vividly and lively depicted the lotus leaves as the skirt of the dancing girls, which is beautiful and charming. Zhu Chunshen rendered“亭亭” into “in all their grace”, though the meaning is relevant, there is an inappropriate: the metaphor here uses to focus on the dance dress rather than dancing girls, so it is not correctly using too much words to modified the dancer. Yang Xianyi added the word “flared “before the “skirts of dancing girls”, which seems out of thin air. However, “flared” referring to the cloths being “wider at the bottom edge than at the top”, the word is more appreciated and reproduces the scene of lotus leaves. In general, Yang handling of metaphor the first sentence is the most appropriate, also can best affect the beauty of sense.<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing used “一粒粒的明珠”, “碧天里的星星”and “刚出浴的美人” to describe the “白花 ”. The writer used three different things to describe the lovely lotus blooms. As for the form and sound, Zhu Chunshen employed “一粒粒的明珠” and “碧天里的星星” into two same phrases “scattering pearls” and “ twinkling stars ”which end with “-ing”, which is well-read and looks greater; while Yang translated them into two sentences in different forms, which differs from the original form for such sentence is just faithful to the literal meaning of original. As for the clause “刚出浴的美人”, Zhu’s translation is similar to Yang’s.<br /> <br /> All in all, Yang’s version is more appreciated for keeping the sense of beauty in the first sentence of this fragment. And Zhu’s version better reproduces the beauties of sound and form. <br /> <br /> Example 7: “层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花，有袅娜地开着的，有羞涩地打着朵儿的......”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms, some in demure bloom, others in shy bud ...”.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “And starring these tiers of leaves were white lotus flowers, alluringly open or bashfully in bud ...”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)<br /> <br /> “袅娜”and “羞涩”are the words used to describe people;“袅娜” uses to describe elegance posture and expression, especially women’s and girls’. Zhu Chunshen rendered “袅娜” into “demure”, which means “behaving in a way that does not attract attention to herself or her body; quiet and serious” in the OED, which seems inconsistent with the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated it into “alluringly”, which refers to attractive and exciting in a mysterious way in the dictionary. It seems much appropriate. Then as for the word “羞涩”, Zhu translated it into “shy” and Yang’s version is “bashfully”. Both the two words can use to describe people, and use to translate the word “羞涩”. However, the word “bashful” means “shy and easily embarrassed” which is more appropriate to reproduce the beauty of sense. Moreover, yang’s translation retains the beauty of form, because “羞涩” in original text is a adverb, and “bashfully” is a adverb too. Therefore, it is obvious that Therefore, it is obvious that Yang’s version is more appropriate.<br /> <br /> Example8: “微风过处，送来缕缕清香，仿佛远处高楼上渺茫的歌声似的。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “A breeze stirs, sending over breaths of fragrance, like faint singing drifting from a distant building”. (Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “The breeze carried past gusts of fragrance, like the strains of a song faintly heard from a far-off tower.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)<br /> <br /> Synaesthesia is the production of a sense impression relating to one sense or part of body by stimulation of another sense or part of the body. The author uses “歌声” to describe the fragrance of the lotus flowers. Here the fragrance of flowers is originally the sense of smell, but the author written it as a melodic song, the sense of hearing. Zhu Chunshen used “breeze...breaths...building” and “fragrance...faint...from”to describe the faint sound of the song which is vividly and close to the original text. And Zhu employed an alliteration, “drifting from a distant” to make the readers feel the dynamic beauty of lotus and achieve the same effect as the original text.In general, Zhu’s version is more appropriate for he reproducing the beauties of sense and sound .<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> We learn from the study and comparison. We develop from the study and comparison. While we are accumulating English and Chinese knowledge and practicing translation skill, we should also study others’ translations carefully. Through comparative study, we can improve ourselves.<br /> <br /> Through the comparative analysis of these two English translations, we will find that functional equivalence theory has been fully embodied. Functional equivalence theory is a bridge connecting world cultures, fully reproducing the original text through form equivalence, content equivalence，so that the readers of the target texts receive the same feeling as the readers of the original. Functional equivalence theory not only has a wide range of applications now, but in the future, functional equivalence theory will certainly play its role in promoting the exchange and development of various cultures and promoting the prosperity of the world’s culture.<br /> <br /> ===6..Reference===<br /> * Leech G N,(2001) Short M H.Style in Fiction:A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2001:10.<br /> * Chen Bohui.陈波慧(2018).汉英叠词对比及其英译——以《荷塘月色》两个英译本为例.[ Comparison of Chinese and English Reduplication and Their English Translation——Taking the Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' as an example ].海外英语.[''Overseas English'']. 2018.7<br /> * Han Zhengshun, Wang Jian.韩征顺,王健. （2008）月朦胧,荷朦胧,雾蒙蒙,意浓浓——《荷塘月色》四译文“模糊美”研究. [A Study on the “Fuzzy Beauty” of the Four Translations of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''] .西安外国语大学学报.[ Journal of Xi’an International Studies University] 第16卷　第4期.Vol. 16 Issue 4<br /> * Liu Huiqun.刘慧群(2015).《荷塘月色》修辞翻译管窥[ A Glimpse of Rhetorical Translation of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'']. 语文学刊 [''Chinese Journal'']外语教育教学[Foreign Language Education and Teaching ].2015年第10期. 2015, Issue 10<br /> * Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲.(1978)毛泽东诗词四十二首.[Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong]. 洛阳：中国人民解放军外国语学院[Chinese People's Liberation Army Institute of Foreign Languages] 1978.<br /> * Yang Xianyi, Gladys Yang杨宪益，戴乃迭(1990,5). ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. 英语学习[''English Learning''], 1990(5).<br /> *Yuan Lei.袁雷.功能对等理论指导下的散文英译及三美分析——《荷塘月色》的两个英译本比较[ On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence]贵州师范大学.[Guizhou Normal University]<br /> * Zhu Ziqing.朱自清(1927).荷塘月色[''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''].全日制普高高一语文第一册第 5 课.[General High School Chinese Book 1 Lesson 5],原载 1927年7月10日《小说月报》第18卷第7期[originally published in ''Novel Monthly''].北京：人民教育出版社[ Beijing: People’s Education Publishing Society] <br /> * Zhu Chunshen.朱纯深(1992). ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''.中国翻译.[''Chinese Translation'']. 1992, (1).<br /> <br /> ==Lexical Gap between English and Chinese and its translation strategies 孟莹 Meng Ying==<br /> <br /> ==On Form and Spirit in Translation -文偲荇 Wen Sixing, 202020080649==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 文偲荇 Wen Sixing &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Both the form and the spirit should be pursued in translation, which is a dialectical relationship. However, in translation, it often loses its spirit because of various factors that lead to excessive pursuit of formal resemblance. It is very important to deal with the problem between the formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance in translation. While emphasizing the spiritual resemblance, do not forget the formal resemblance. If possible, try to achieve a balance between the two, and make a choice in the specific context. Only in this way can the translation realize the new unity of the form and content of the source language in the target language. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Formal resemblance; Spiritual resemblance; Form and Content; Dialectical unification<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 论翻译中的形的贴合与神的韵味<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 翻译时应追求形神兼备，这两者是一种辨证关系，但在翻译时常常会因为各种因素导致过度追求形似而失去神韵。处理好翻译中形似与神似之间的问题至关重要。在强调神似的同时不要忘记形似，在可能的情况下尽量达成两者之间的平衡，而在特定的语境下也可做出取舍，才有利翻译在译入语中实现传达原语形式和内容新的统一。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 神似与形似；形式与内容；辨证统一<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> ====1.1 Definition====<br /> Formal resemblance means that when translating, the target text should be consistent with the original text in terms of words, sentence structure, expression and figurative means. And spiritual resemblance means that when translating, we should try to keep the spirit and charm of the original work and achieve the artistic effect of the original work.<br /> <br /> &quot;Form&quot;, in translation activities, is the most important refers to &quot;language&quot;. And &quot;deformation&quot; is what we call &quot;language transformation&quot;. From the source language to the target language, &quot;deformation&quot;, that is, &quot;language transformation&quot;, is inevitable. The change of sound and shape, as well as the combination of sound, shape and meaning should also be changed. And &quot;spirit&quot;, to use the terminology of contemporary linguistics, refers to the product of &quot;linguistic activities&quot;. From the point of view recognized by the current translation circle, &quot;spirit&quot; refers to &quot;meaning&quot; to a large extent, but the problem lies in the definition of &quot;meaning&quot;, and the linguistic field has not formed a unified view. In fact, many debates about &quot;spirit&quot; and &quot;form&quot; are more or less rooted in the understanding of &quot;spirit&quot; and &quot;form&quot;.（Xu Jun 2003:01）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Spiritual resemblance in Translation====<br /> The spiritual resemblance is first put forward by Fu Lei(1950). He said, &quot;As far as effect is concerned, translation should be like painting. What is sought is not resemblance in form but resemblance in spirit.&quot; Zhu Shenghao also put forward the idea of &quot;keeping the spirit of the original&quot;. He said, &quot;The aim of the book is to preserve the spirit of the original as far as possible. Must be forced to seek the next, also must be clear and clear words, faithfully convey the meaning of the original; However, the hard translation with word-for-word contrast is not appreciated &quot;. “神”, means the spirit of the original. Good literary works always have rich feelings, profound artistic conception, strong appeal and strong artistic effect. <br /> <br /> ===2. The relationship between Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Correlation====<br /> Yan Fu, said in &lt;Theory of natural selection&gt;, &quot;Three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expression and elegance&quot;. &quot;Faithfulness&quot; means that the meaning does not differ from the original text, that is, the translation should be accurate, not deviate, not omit, and not add or subtract meanings at will. &quot;Expression&quot; means not sticking to the original form, but making the translation smooth and clear; &quot;Elegance&quot; means that the words chosen in the translation should be appropriate and the article itself should be quaint and concise. In translation, it is difficult to be faithful to the ideological content of the original text. However, if you correctly understand the original text without &quot;expressing&quot; it in a smooth translation, it is equivalent to no translation. Therefore, emphasis should be placed on &quot;expressing&quot; at this time. Since then, the expression of translation has become the focus of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance is two different means of translating expression, question of &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; in translation also is one of the most discussed and most difficult fundamental issues to be unified. &quot;The relationship between form and spirit, which directly reflects the relationship between signifier and signified, which is closely related to the means and ends of translation. The so-called means is the transformation of form, while the end is the rebirth of spirit.&quot;by Xu Jun(2003:01). Fundamentally speaking, &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; are interdependent. No &quot;form&quot; means no &quot;spirit&quot;. <br /> <br /> However, the saying that &quot;sprit follows form&quot;, which we often emphasize, gives form the primary character as the material basis for spirit's existence. &quot;Form&quot; is concrete, and the relationship between &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; involves every aspect of human life. The discussion about &quot;body&quot; and &quot;soul&quot; is, to a certain extent, a dispute about the relationship between &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot;. &quot;soul&quot; and &quot;flesh&quot; in religion, &quot;substance&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; in philosophy, &quot;form&quot; and &quot;content&quot; in literature, etc, all originate from the fundamental problem of &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot;. &quot;As far as translation is concerned, the question of &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; can be said to be an obvious paradox. The contradiction lies in the fact that &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; are interdependent and inseparable in nature, while the fundamental task of translation is to achieve the rebirth of &quot;spirit&quot; through &quot;form&quot; transformation&quot;. Xu Jun(2003:02)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 In translation, numerous factors may cause the Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance out of step====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Metaphors and Associations=====<br /> Due to the different ways of expression in the two languages, the metaphors and associations used in SL(source language) are often unacceptable to TL(target language) readers, or TL readers cannot understand them at all. Or from the surface structure, target language is similar to source language said, but in the sense is not exactly the same, even lost a thousand miles. In this case, for example, the expression form of source language is still used in translation and try to be similar in appearance, which is bound to form a semblance, with similar appearance and spirit completely lost.<br /> <br /> ex）&quot;A man may break a word with you,sir,and words are but wind.&quot;(SL)<br /> <br /> “先生，跟你说话的人可能会失言，而言语总会随风而逝。”(TL)<br /> <br /> &quot;Break a word with you&quot; and &quot;words are but wind&quot; are all metaphors in English that may be difficult for non-native speakers to understand when translated.<br /> <br /> ex）&quot;The rain came down in long knitting needles.&quot;(SL)<br /> <br /> “雨滴像长长的编织针一样落下。”(TL)<br /> <br /> &quot;Long knitting needles&quot;, is a special thing that exists in the context of a native speaker, so non-native speakers are likely to have no accurate concept of it, so it's hard to fully grasp the metaphor even with an honest translation.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 The cultural differences=====<br /> The translator and the author have different cultural backgrounds, so their understanding of the original text is naturally different. This difference in understanding is mainly due to the influence of preconceived notions. This is a pervasive cultural phenomenon.<br /> <br /> ex）He is really the man in the moon(SL) <br /> <br /> “他是个真正的月老”(TL)*<br /> <br /> “他是个真正远离世俗的人”(TL)<br /> <br /> In Britain, people traditionally think of the dark shadow of the moon as a person. The moon is far from the earth, the people in the moon of the nature, he must be unknown to the human world. So He is really a man in the moon means &quot;He is really a man out of the world&quot;(他是个真正远离世俗的人). Under the influence of traditional Chinese culture, once people see the image words &quot;moon&quot; and &quot;man&quot; combined together, they will naturally think of &quot;Yuelao(月老)&quot;——The legendary god of marriage, which leads to the deviation in translation. (Niu Chuangyue,2006:215)<br /> <br /> ex）He is always politically correct(SL) <br /> <br /> 他总是政治正确(TL)*<br /> <br /> 他说话四平八稳(TL)<br /> <br /> Many people take this sentence that &quot;He is always politically correct&quot; as &quot;He is always correct in politics&quot;, which is in line with the Chinese mindset, but it's not what it says. Politics in Chinese refer to principles of thought and ideology while in English politics refer to how they approach people. &quot;He is always politically correct&quot; is not &quot;He is always correct in politics&quot;, but &quot;He's smooth talking.&quot;<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 The context of languages changes=====<br /> The surface layer of words, is a relatively fixed objective reality; And its deep, namely its connotation, but often because of the person's subjective will shift. For language learners and users, it is not difficult to get familiar with the surface, but to grasp the connotation of its continuous shift. To grasp the connotation of words is to analyze the actual meaning of users in a specific context, which is also known as &quot;understanding&quot; in translation. The change of context can be divided into subjective and objective. The so-called subjective change refers to the meaning given to words by users for certain needs; And the objective change is the change in meaning caused by the natural environment.<br /> <br /> ex) Made in China(SL)<br /> <br /> （由）中国制造(TL1)<br /> <br /> （在）中国制造(TL2)<br /> <br /> Made in China was, of course, “由中国制造”, before western multinationals entered the country. But when multinational companies enter China, the products they set up in factories in China are still marked &quot;Made in China&quot;, but they are not “由中国制造” but “在中国制造”. Made in China, likewise, is different by circumstance, either “由中国制造” or “在中国制造”, of which its connotation is different. Therefore, when understanding the original text, it is not enough to just focus on the literal itself, More attention should be paid to the impact of changes in social history and context.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.4 Human factors=====<br /> &quot;Language is a dog&quot;. It means that people are subject to language. In fact, this metaphor only illustrates one aspect of the relationship between man and language, namely, man's passive adaptation to language changes. Such passive adaptation certainly exists objectively. But a closer look reveals that the so-called passive adaptation is also due to some human factors rather than the powerful inertia of non-language itself.<br /> <br /> On June 20, 2005 British farmers grow potatoes held a noisy protest in London, protesting the Oxford English dictionary, included the couch potato (refers to passive while sitting idly spend your leisure time, especially all day watching TV or DVD), think it said the potatoes too unhealthy, so strongly asked the Oxford English dictionary, delete the entry with couch slouch replace the couch potato.<br /> <br /> This event vividly illustrates the human element of semantic change. Potato is originally a plant without any emotional factors, but it has been artificially given some kind of associative meaning. In a sense, of course, this is an expression of the richness of language, but this richness comes at the cost of deducing the actual meaning of specific concepts. If we compare documents from hundreds or thousands of years ago with the languages we speak today, we will find a general phenomenon that today's languages are much more complex and abstract than those of old. The reason is that we are constantly deducing the semantic meaning of specific concepts or words for various rhetorical purposes. In the concrete application of language, such deduction exists objectively and is also the concrete manifestation of the normal function of language communication. However, in translation, the translator should try to avoid the appearance of such deduction and manifestation, or at least control it within a certain limit, which may lead to the semantic variation of the primitive concept in the translation.（Zhang Rui 2015:117）<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Balance of Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance in Translation====<br /> Of course, it is best to retain the original spirit in translation, but is form and spirit necessarily contradictory? The answer is clearly no. This is because sometimes formal resemblance is spiritual resemblance. The ideological content and emotional charm of a literary work must be expressed in a certain form. Sometimes the original text has some metaphors or associative images, vivid and lifelike, with strong appeal, the emotion and artistic conception appear on the paper, and the source language habits are also close to the target language. At this time, keeping the original form of the translation actually plays a role of spirit evocative. By keeping this form, the translation can achieve the unity of form and spirit. <br /> <br /> ex) He was a friendly and very hospitable man.(SL)<br /> <br /> 他是个友善而又十分好客的人。/他为人友善，热情好客。(TL)<br /> <br /> ex)Though somewhat pompous, he was an entertaining companion.(SL)<br /> <br /> 虽然有些浮夸，（仍不免承认）他是个娱人的伴侣。(TL)<br /> <br /> ex)He was a man of good understanding and talents.(SL)<br /> <br /> 他为人通达而富有才情。(TL)<br /> <br /> ex)There are people to do everything for money.(SL)<br /> <br /> 为了钱什么事情都有人做。/有些人为了钱无所不为。(TL)<br /> <br /> The above examples show that, at some point, Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance can achieve a harmonious unity. Proper formal equivalence not only helps to preserve the language style of the original text, but also enriches the expression form of the target language. Such expression can achieve both the form and the spirit of the target language, on the one hand, it can retain the form of the original language, on the other hand, it cannot lose its spirit.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Choice====<br /> <br /> =====2.4.1 The pursuit of spiritual resemblance first=====<br /> But in more cases, Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance cannot be both.In the translation of literary works, the pursuit of a similar-looking translation lacks vitality. It would be best if the two languages can have both formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance. However, due to great differences in thinking mode, cultural basis and language structure of the two languages, especially the target language and the source language belong to two different language families with great cultural differences, it is difficult to achieve the unity of the formal resemblance and the spiritual resemblance. In this case, if the blind pursuit of form similarity, the pursuit of language structure, vocabulary, grammar and other aspects of equivalence, will make the translation stiff, obscure, difficult to understand. For example, in English-Chinese translation, translators with low proficiency are often unable to get rid of the linguistic structure and form of the original text, resulting in a large number of European languages appearing in the Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> Professor King Shenghua(2006), a famous Hong Kong translator, once criticized this Europeanized language and called it &quot;translated style&quot;. &quot;What is 'translated style' ?&quot; she said. “The word 'translationese' in English. In the past, it has been called the &quot;translation cavity&quot;, which means the translation has a strange-sounding, and unbearable tone of European language. However, up to now, the &quot;translation cavity&quot; is no longer enough to describe this phenomenon, because the evolution so far has formed a style, which appears not only in the translation, but also in the daily life of writing, meeting and communication.” This phenomenon is not conducive to the development of translation. From the following examples, you can see the awkwardness of pursuing only the form of translation. <br /> <br /> ex)There was much traffic at night and many mules on the road with boxes of ammunition on each side of their pack—saddles and gray motor trucks that carried men, and other trucks with loads covered with canvas that moved slower in the traffic.(SL)<br /> <br /> 晚上交通甚繁，有许多骡子走过，鞍子驮着军火箱子，灰色的摩托货车装着人，此外，还有一些装货的货车，上面用帆布盖着，走起来慢一点。(TL)*<br /> <br /> 夜间，这里运输繁忙，路上有许多骡子，鞍子的两侧驮着弹药箱，灰色的卡车上坐满了士兵，还有一些辎重车辆，用帆布盖着，在路上慢慢的行驶着。(TL)<br /> <br /> Boxes, motor trucks, and trucks were used to identify the “军火箱子”,“摩托货车”, and “装货的货车”, totally be loyal to the source language. But in literary translation, the translation needs to consider the specific context. The writing background of this article is the period of war, so the translator should also put these words in the specific writing background of war, i.e. the “弹药箱”, “卡车”, “辎重车辆” in the next translation. The translation here obviously violates the original meaning and is a kind of betrayal to the original text. However, this kind of betrayal is the result of the translator's proper re-creation after considering the writing background of the original text. That is to say, in the process of translation, the translator lays emphasis on the spiritual resemblance of the original text, and thus abandons the formal resemblance in part.<br /> <br /> ex)“原始森林景区是一个最具自身特点的生态观光区。放眼沟畔，‘林涛万顷接天碧，幽谷百丈入地青’ 的峡谷奇观，总会让人长久驻足; 登上矗立于沟畔的望火楼极目远眺，会真切体验登临泰山那种‘会当凌绝顶，一览众山小’的感觉。”(SL)<br /> <br /> “The scenic primitive forest, as an eco-tourism place of interest, possesses its distinctive style. No tourists will not take time to enjoy the canyon spectacle: the vast expense of trees choiring in the wind and the deep valley dressed in green stretches long and deep. When climbing up the fire-watching tower and gawking into the distance, touristscanexperiencethesense: &quot;I have now ascended the mountain's crest that dwarfs all peaks under my feet&quot;, just as standing on top of Mount Tai. ”(TL)<br /> <br /> “Artistic creation originates from a different national (aesthetic standard). As for the translation of artistic conception, some uncertain factors, such as language structure, narrative method, aesthetic method and context creation, often make it difficult for the translation to realize the absolutely correct &quot;equivalence&quot;. The implication of this is that contextual translation has a lot of arbitrariness (i.e., asymmetrical equivalence) and is often not limited to any theory. This arbitrariness is reflected in the inspiration generation and Aesthetic creation of the translator in the process of translation. In other words, the translator is affected by the artistic conception of the original text, arouses infinite emotion and artistic conception, and naturally puts this feeling into the translation. The key lies in the expressiveness, that is, the fluency and accuracy of the narration, and the completion of the transformation from one kind of beauty to another. ”(Zhang Ju,2011:76)<br /> <br /> =====2.4.2 Formal resemblance first=====<br /> The choice of formal resemblance is preferred, mostly in the case of neat alignment and elegant form. For example, the translation of Chinese couplets, or poems, such as antithetical couplets, is a very important form of text.In the translation of general text, content is the primary form. However, when translating poetry, both content and form must be paid equal attention to. For poetry, form is often an integral part of the content that cannot be divided.<br /> <br /> ex)《芣苢》：“采采芣苢，薄言采之。采采芣苢，薄言有之。采采芣苢，薄言掇之。采采芣苢，薄言捋之。采采芣苢，薄言袺之。采采芣苢，薄言襭之。”(SL)<br /> <br /> Gathering plantain, Here we go plucking it; Gathering plantain, Here we go picking it. Gathering plantain, Quick fingers strip it; Gathering plantain, By handfuls pull it. Gathering plantain, Here we fill skirts with it; Gathering plantain, Belt up full skirts. (translated by Yang Xianyi)(TL)<br /> <br /> ex)You say that you love rain, but you open your umbrella when it rains...<br /> You say that you love the sun, but you find a shadow spot when the sun shines...<br /> You say that you love the wind, But you close your windows when wind blows...<br /> This is why I am afraid; You say that you love me too...(SL)<br /> <br /> 你说烟雨微芒，兰亭远望；后来轻揽婆娑，深遮霓裳。<br /> 你说春光烂漫，绿袖红香；后来内掩西楼，静立卿旁。<br /> 你说软风轻拂，醉卧思量；后来紧掩门窗，漫帐成殇。<br /> 你说情丝柔肠，如何相忘；我却眼波微转，兀自成霜。(TL)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in order to maintain the evenness and the artistic conception of the poem, many images and function words that were not in the original text were added in the translation. Thus it can be seen that it is of course ideal to achieve spiritual resemblance in translation, but it is also a choice to achieve formal resemblance. As long as it conveys the connotation of the original text and achieves functional equivalence, it should be regarded as a success.<br /> <br /> ===3. Discussion on Form and Spirit===<br /> It should be noted that in the history of translation, the thinking about &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; has been going on almost all the time. In the 20th century, there have been many heated discussions about &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; in Chinese literary translation, and the focus of the discussions is mainly on whether translation should seek formal resemblance or spiritual resemblance. On the surface, it does not seem to be a problem whether the translation should seek resemblance in form or in spirit, because seeking resemblance is not and should not be the purpose of translation. <br /> <br /> “However, those who advocate formal resemblance believe that only by seeking formal resemblance first can the spiritual resemblance be guaranteed. But the school that advocates spiritual resemblance thinks, shape resemblance is hard to find, can rely on spiritual resemblance only. The former pursues the first appearance and then spirit, and &quot;both form and spirit&quot; is the best realm; The latter takes &quot;spiritual resemblance&quot; as the only pursuit, and clearly puts forward that &quot;what the translation seeks for is not in appearance but in spiritual resemblance&quot;. Due to the difference in emphasis between the formal resemblance school and the spiritual resemblance school, there are also differences in translation methods. The former advocates literal translation while the latter advocates free translation.”(Xu Jun,2003:02)<br /> <br /> The discussion of form and spirit in translation can be traced back to Mao Dun's article &quot;Responsibility and Efforts of New Literature Researchers&quot;, published in &lt;Fiction Monthly&gt; (1921), in which he proposed that &quot;the most important artistic color of a literary work is the spirit of the work. Chen Xiying also published &quot;on Translation&quot; in &lt;New Moon&gt;(1929), proposing the theory of sculpture and painting. He pointed out that &quot;translation is the same as painting, of course, imitation is the most important. But the imitation art of a original painting uses the same brush color, while the original text of a book and the translated text use very different languages. Due to different tools, the methods vary greatly.&quot; Chen also divides translation into three levels, formal resemblance, meaning resemblance and spiritual resemblance. Chen's &quot;Three Levels&quot; theory is similar to Zhu Shenghao's &quot;Three Levels&quot;: (spirit, interest and charm, and rigid translation) theory in translation of Shakespeare's plays. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong, a famous translator and professor of Peking University, also put forward the theory of &quot;three likings&quot;, based on his own experience in poetry translation. In the &lt;Art of Translation&gt;, he said, &quot;In order to convey the beauty of meaning, sound and form of poetry, the degree of meaning resemblance, sound resemblance and shape resemblance in the translation can be changed.&quot; Jiang Feng, a translator, pursues &quot;Resemblance in form followed by resemblance in spirit&quot;. He said in the afterword of translation of &lt;Selected Shelley poems&gt; that &quot;In translating poems, one should strive to be alike in form and spirit&quot;, because &quot;Spirit lives in form, and those who lose his form are bound to perish his spirit&quot;. Bian Zhilin, also advocated that the translated poems should be translated in accordance with the original form.<br /> <br /> Therefore, as far as translation is concerned, Mao Dun and Fu Lei advocate the emphasis on spiritual resemblance rather than formal resemblance, Jiang Feng advocates both form and spirit, while Bian Zhilin advocates that form resemblance is spiritual resemblance.<br /> <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> In the process of translation, to achieve the dialectical unity of form and spirit, at least two aspects need to be considered: one is the restriction of form on content; the other is the stylistic meaning of form itself. We should not only consciously convey the content of the original text, but also convey the formal meaning, so as to achieve a new unity of form and content in the target language, to produce a better translation and achieve a harmonious unity between form and spirit. However, in some cases the formal resemblance is the spiritual resemblance. The two are not completely separated, but there is a part of you and a part of me in each other. Sometimes the formal resemblance is bigger than the spiritual resemblance, and sometimes spiritual resemblance is bigger than the formal resemblance. This is the dialectic of things, if we insist on consistency, it will backfire. Therefore, we should not only get a thorough understanding of the original text, in-depth study, strive for both form and spirit, grasp the key points and master them thoroughly, but also be prepared to abandon the form of the original text, grasp the essence of the original text, use appropriate form, the original text for artistic recreation, so as to strive for the ideal effect of spirit resemblance.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> Cui Yonglu. 崔永禄. (2002). 得意不可忘形——试论翻译中形与神的辨证关系. [Pride must not Be Lost in Shape -- On the dialectical relationship between form and God in Translation]. 天津外国语学院学报. [Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University] 1-5. <br /> <br /> Li Zhengguo. 李振国. (2016). 从奈达的功能对等理论视角探析英汉翻译中的“形神兼备”——以程雨民的《初次与约翰逊见面》译本为例. [An Analysis of &quot;Both form and Spirit&quot; in English-Chinese translation from the Perspective of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory -- A case study of Cheng Yumin's First Meeting with Johnson]. 贵州师范学院学报. [Journal of Guizhou Normal University] 92-94. <br /> <br /> Niu Chuangyue. 牛喘月. (2006). 形与神俱,不可分离——从语义与语境的演变看中医翻译中的“常”与“变”. [Form and Spirit are inseparable -- &quot;Chang&quot; and &quot;Chang&quot; in TCM Translation from the Perspective of Semantic and Contextual Evolution]. 中西医结合学报. [Journal of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine] 215-220.<br /> <br /> Pang Xuefeng. 庞学峰. (2013). 翻译中的文质之争与神形之辩. [The quality of the text and the form of the debate in translation]. 赤峰学院学报(汉文哲学社会科学版). [Journal of Chifeng College (Chinese Philosophy and Social Sciences edition)] 150-151. <br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). “形”与“神”辨. [&quot;Form&quot; and &quot;Spirit&quot;]. 上海外国语大学学报. [Journal of Shanghai International Studies University] 57-66.<br /> <br /> Zhang Ju. 张巨. (2011). 汉英意境翻译中的形与神. [Form and Spirit in Chinese-English translation of Artistic Conception]. 江苏外语教学研究. [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu province] 74-78.<br /> <br /> Zhang Rui. 张蕊. (2015). 从形与神之矛盾看“翻译者即背叛者”. [From the contradiction between form and Spirit, &quot;translator is a traitor&quot;]. 鸭绿江(下半月版). [The Yalu River (second Half)] 122+117. <br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaoman. 张小曼. (2006). 诗歌翻译中的形神问题——以杜甫《望岳》一诗的英译为例. [The Problem of Form and Spirit in Poetry Translation -- Taking The English translation of Du Fu's Wangyue as an example]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版). [Journal of Hefei University of Technology (Social Science edition)] 157-160.<br /> <br /> ==Book Analysis: The Way of Transaltion: Theories and Applications 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing==<br /> <br /> A shallow Analysis of the Book--The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications<br /> Abstract: The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications closely circled around the mutual relationship between translation theory and practice to make explanation about translation studies. This article aims to make a summary about the original text, which includes a brief translation history, the present situation about the translation study, the detailed analysis about the “cultural turn” as well as some important redefined concept about translation studies and the deep reflection about the translation studies. The author would like to make some analysis about the book from different perspectives, includes the introduction, major contend, academic contributions, strength and weakness etc.<br /> <br /> Key Words: translation theory and practice; “cultural turn”; medio-translotology; translation study; textual purpose<br /> <br /> I. Introduction<br /> <br /> 1. About the Background<br /> As we all know, the theory and practice are interrelated with each other closely. Since the beginning of the social practice and people began to work, human beings know exactly how to use their wisdom to accumulate their experience. So did translation activities. Translation activities began from the fact that human beings used language to communicate. At the early stage, it was mainly serving to the purpose of ideology. With the development of formal translation activity, translation activities diversified. Since the contemporary and modern times, translation studies have been prospered across the world. In the west, the representatives were scientific linguistics, philological school. In China, we mainly focused on the study of literature translation at that time. After the May 4th Movement as well as the contemporary event called reform and opening up, we Chinese citizens appealed to learn the advanced western approaches and theories. As western advanced theories were introduced into China, different areas of scientific studies like theory of literature and art, psychology, philosophy and sociology provided rich contends and materials for the study of translation, which helped the later became an independent and disciplinary subject. However, after Cultural Turn, translation studies followed this trend. They no longer solely targeted at the translation activities and theories, but also included other spheres which concerned about various aspects of human activities (Cao Minglun, 2003). This made translation studies lose their defined focus on translation research itself. Since the translation studies were transitioned into other spheres while the translation activities kept its own sphere, the relationship between the two was no longer closely interrelated with each other. Therefore translation teaching jobs and translation and interpretation activities have become worse. Because of this, it turned to be an urgent need to establish a systematic and cohesive guiding system about translation theories and practice.<br /> <br /> Thus, the publishment of the book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications quickly won the praise and good comments from translators and students majoring in translation. At the same time, this book provided a systematic and scientific study for translation teaching practice and researches. <br /> <br /> 2. '''About the author'''<br /> Cao Minglun, professor as well as doctoral supervisor of Sichuan University, received his doctor degree at Peking University. He majored in the studying of British and American literature, translation studies, literature translation and the study of comparative culture. During his three years at Peking University, Professor Cao systematically studied the present translation researches and the realistic problems. Combined with his decades of translation experience, he dived into the study translation books and monographs. Through the combination of logical researches and provision of living samples, the combining approach of diachronic review and synchronic research, Professor Cao built up a systematic academic system about translation practice and theory by transcending various subjects, providing research direction for our researchers.<br /> The book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications published in 2007 and revised in 2013, was the most famous representation of him. The author would like to introduce this book in the following and make some analytical comments about it based on his understanding and facts.<br /> <br /> II. '''Main body'''<br /> <br /> 1. '''The brief introduction'''<br /> From the point of view of Professor Cao, the interrelationship between translation practice and theory can be summed up with six characters, which are “mutual construction, mutual supplementation and mutual manifestation”. Centering on the relationship between translation theories and practice, the book The way of Translation Studies explained effectively how to analysis properly this kind of relationship. This book is divides into eight chapters; each of them clearly focuses on how to manifest the relationship based on different perspectives. First of all, in the first chapter, it made a vivid review about both the eastern and western translation history which highlights the fact that the two are closely interrelated with each other since the beginning of the translation activity. Second, in the second chapter, the book targeted on the contemporary situation of translation theory and practice and pointed out the essential matters. The author then made a thorough research about “the Cultural Turn” and the origin of the discipline of Translation Studies. He pointed out the urgent problem of the focus of translation research and the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice. Thirdly, the author reaffirmed respectively about the concept of translation, its aim as well as the tasks of translation studies in a logical manner. In his strong belief, the content of translation will not lose with the diversification of scientific researches. Translation should be regarded as the activity of the transformation of linguistic signs. Fourthly, the author made a detailed description of the present situation of translation theory and practice. Then he taught us how to combine both the theory and practice together, which provides us with a practical approach to further study the relationship between translation theory and practice. During this process, the author pointed out that the purpose of translation should be focused on the transformation of the texts itself rather than other purposes and he also proposed the concepts of “textual purpose” and “non-textual purpose”. Besides this, Professor Cao borrowed Benjamin’s appeal to the translators ’tasks, pointing out that a translator must be loyal to the original book and the translation version should not stick to one type and be independent. In terms of the translation standard, Professor Cao made a clear distinguish between translation studies and medio-translatology and he emphasized the weak points of new criticism. In the next chapter, that is chapter five, the Professor draw a line between translation study and translation theory. The concept of translation study includes translation theory, translation history and translation analysis. At the same time, he creatively established “the location map of translation theory”, they are “introvert ontology” and “extrovert comprehensiveness”. The six and seven chapters made a detailed reviewed about the translation theory and practice. For the theory part, researches did not provide strong evidence and lack of prove and identification, the translation of terms and translation nouns did not consist with each other and the logical problems about thinking pattern and language organization. He also tackled on the recognition process to prove whether it was objective. Finally, Professor proposed the effective way of combining translation theory and practice together, pointing out the scientific approach for translators. Above all, the whole book followed by severe and strict scientific demonstration of the relationship between translation theory and practice, providing us with effective approach to combine both the practice and theory together during which process, the systematically theoretical guidance was constructed. This all contributed to an excellent academic book rich in content and vivid in demonstration. <br /> <br /> 2. '''The Specific Exposition'''<br /> To be more specific, in the second chapter, Professor Cao made a description about both the east and west contemporary translation study. Since many scholars have previously contributed the reasons of the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice to the phenomenon called “cultural turn”, Professor Cao had done a great program in the study of “cultural turn”. For example, to discover why the imbalanced situation between translation study and theory appeared, Professor Cao did quite a lot of comparative study of the previous scholars’ work. He found out that a lot of intellectuals had already discovered the problems, believing that translation theory and practice were broke up with each other for quite long time. Many scholars thought the most severe problem was that translation theory did not focus on the practice itself but other spheres like human activity or cultures etc. Therefore, the Professor made a thorough investigation about the history after “cultural turn”. During this process, he discovered that decades of years of “annual overview” towards translation study had severe problems published in Chinese Translation Journal. In fact, translation study in China did not establish comprehensive and scientific study towards translation practice. The name of this subject is called Translation Studies, the author made a deep exploration of this name. Among which, the most impressive one should belong to translation study’s concept of Holmes by Tury as well as the four research fields divided by Bassinet in the late 1980s. This transition made a great impact on the happening of the phenomenon of “cultural turn”. Besides this, Professor Cao did a thorough research about the book written by Bassinet and the other person named “Translation, history and culture”. In the introduction part, the content can be called the announcement of “cultural turn”. Before the translation subject became an independent subject, it was considered in the fields of literature. In the announcement part, Professor pointed out that the review about the translation study in the fields of literature helps to give power to let translation get independent. <br /> <br /> While in terms of the origin of the term ‘Translation Study”, the Professor made a detailed and scientific study about a period of history about scholar Holmes. In 1972, from August 21st to 26th, the Third International Applied Linguistics Seminar was opened in Copenhagen. The American Scholar Holmes, the Professor of Amsterdam University attended this conference and he also handed in the paper named “The Nature of Translation Studies”. This paper used a third length to revise the formal name of translation study. For the English alone, the previous used names were Science of Translation, Translation Theory, Translatology, and Translatistics. In Holmes’s view, he points out that the names above had their respective weakness as the names of these translation versions did not have a solitary direction, this would greatly impact the future development of this subject because people found it hard to have a common consensus. Therefore, he recommended using Translation Studies as the set name of this subject. In the later part of this article, Holmes set this subject as an empirical discipline and set the research scope as well as designs the disciplinary framework. However, in the later ten years, although the name Translation Studies was widely accepted, Holmes’ design and plan did not receive wide response. Until he was passed away two years later, his paper collections “Translated! Paper on Literary Translation and Translation Studies, 1988” was published. His translation philosophy won the positive response and recognition from the translation circle and was widely considered the establishing announcement of the subject of Translation Study. (Gentzler, 1993:92/2004:933). In 1995, Toury in his book Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond, he constructed Toury’s concept of translation study as Holmes’ basic “map” of Translation Studies :(Toury, 1995:10).<br /> <br /> From this map we can see, the blueprint of Holmes can be grand and his written one can be regarded as much greater.(Holmes, 1988:72-73). As we can see from this above picture, translation study is divided into two dimensions, one is the pure theory and the other is applied linguistics. According to Holmes’ explanation, the branch of descriptive translation study, that is function-oriented DTS will gradually developed into socio-translation study, while the process-oriented DTS will developed into socio-translation study(Holmes,1988:72-73). However, in his explanation, Holmes did not neglect totally those questions that translators concerned about for 2000 years. For example, Translation Critics and the Translator Training in Applied Translation study, while in the theoretical part, for the text-type restricted analysis and problem restricted type, they were picked out for specific analysis. For the original purpose of his revising of the subject’s name was to make itself more inclusive and open. However, the so-called Manipulation School positively accepted this name. But they tend to analyze translation study from the background of translation study. This has led to the mistaken perception that Translation Studies refers to the study of literary translation and translations. (Shuttleworth&amp; Cowie, 2004:183). Due to this, Bassinet divided translation into four spheres in 1980, that is History of Translation; Translation in TL culture; Translation and Linguistics; Translation and Poetics.(Bassnett,1991:7-8/2004:16-17). Based on this, we can tell translation is sometimes combined with literature study, which must be paid attention to by Chinese scholars. What’s more, the cultural turn in translation studies urges intellectuals to lay great importance to the study of the independent development of translation. By analysis, the result can be that translation unit would be more put as the culture as the unit but not the word in linguistics or text in literature. Thus, this contributed to the later development of cultural turn. <br /> <br /> From this above, we can see that Professor did make a thorough investigation in great detail to make analysis about the origin of the term Translation Studies and the history of cultural turn. By learning and studying previous scholars like Shuttleworth, Holmes and Toury and so on, it would make it easier to understand how translation become independent and how it was transitioned from the branch of literature to translation itself.<br /> Second, when it comes to the responsibility of the translator, Professor Cao made a specific analysis and defines again about the real purpose of this task. First of all, he makes a clear definition about translation, regarding it as an activity of the transformation of semiotics between different languages. Next, he thought that translation study should not focus on other spheres but the text itself, because if we analyze other fields like culture or anything else we would find it easy to lose the original analysis of translation activity itself but to talk about other things that have no direct relationship with the translation activity thus it will be too superficial and lack of depth.<br /> <br /> The core issue of translation study should be centered on its concept, aims, tasks and standard and so on. Despite in the micro-aspects, western theories like deconstruction, new criticism and teleology was not studied clearly in China, we should still make clear understandings about this theory. In the response to what kind of responsibility a translator should bear, Professor Cao copied Benjamin’s view. In Benjamin’s book, The Task of Translators, the author divides into two parts, one is to analyze the idea readers and the other is to describe the idea translators. In this book, Benjamin vividly describes what kind of qualities an adequate translator should have; these are divided into 11 points containing the key elements demonstrating from two perspectives, one is the science and the other is theology. Benjamin thought qualified translators must obey the original sentence and the textual style. Translators must obey the original text and thus transform the source language into the target language from a purified manner.<br /> <br /> 3. '''The writing features'''<br /> 1.1 '''Complete system with extensive quotations'''<br /> In the second chapter, the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice is described. However, the author has found the common root of the problems in the studies of many eastern and Western scholars. Among them, The Chinese scholar Mr. Long Luo pointed out that the most serious problem in China's translation circle is the disconnection between theory and practice. Professor Alby argues that modern scholars seem to have forgotten to look at translation from the perspective of translation practice itself. Translation scholars seem to pay more attention to the relationship between translation and human culture, ignoring the relationship between translation theory and translation activities themselves. After more than ten years of investigation, the author found that the imbalance between the two is also due to the &quot;annual review&quot; of Chinese translation studies. For this reason, the author makes a research on the &quot;cultural turn&quot; which causes these problems and the source Translation Studies of the subject name. Second, the second chapter on the definition of translation and literary translation learning concept, reference many translation books, such as &quot;equivalent translation exploration&quot;, &quot;contemporary translation theory&quot;, &quot;translation&quot;, &quot;the basic framework of the translation in China&quot; in these books to find the definition of translation and from an introduction to comparative literature, the theory of comparative literature &quot;and other books found in the corresponding to the concept of translation study, the author detailed comparative analysis of the two, and by logical reasoning, analyze their difference in addition, the authors also find problems, points out that translation scholars into the difficulty of translation study, The final reason for the imbalance between translation theory and practice caused by regression. And, the author in view of the status quo proposed the problems effectively, citing industry scholar ji, scholar GuZhengKun’s point of view, emphasizes the necessity of the combination of theory and practice, emphasis on translation theory must be given priority to with translation studies, cultural studies is complementary, define the nature of good translation, purpose, combining introverted text research and export-oriented text research.<br /> In the third chapter, in the process of defining the concept and connotation of translation, a large number of previous researchers, including Venuti and Philophor, are quoted and compared.<br /> <br /> 1.2 '''Logical and philosophical Explanation'''<br /> At the beginning of the third chapter, the understanding of translation is discussed. The definition of translation will not change with the progress of practical activities, and the attribute of translation is the unchangeable concept of the transformation of language symbols. Fourth chapter, the first first, the author applies the formal logic to define the concept of translation, with the method of analogy to clarify language information and the relationship between language carrier, then the author is to distinguish between translation concept connotation and denotation, secondly, the author applies the theoretical thinking of philosophy to translation after the concept of qualitative to define the nature of translation activity, is art or science of translation activities, to make a strong argument to translation and the relationship between translation and classified, then respectively for the purpose of translation, tasks, and standard is defined. First, the author proposes two pairs of concepts: textual purpose and non-textual purpose, textual behavior and non-textual behavior. As mentioned in the preceding chapter &quot;cultural turn&quot;, known as translator for the purpose of present diversification trend, the purpose of the text should be stressed again and again, which is the core of the translation purpose, translation study of the text itself, rather than in the service of other USES, such as ideology, culture, aesthetics and other text purpose can be used as a reference. Secondly, the author reinterprets Benjamin's The Translator's Task and divides the concept of deconstruction into two parts. The translator's task is to &quot;make foreign books understood by non-foreign language readers&quot;. As for the standard of translation, the author introduces the concepts of new criticism, deconstruction and translation mediology, and points out the connections and differences between them and translation studies, so as to help us better grasp the methods of translation studies. The fifth chapter, the author of modernism puts forward the concept of &quot;translation theory location map&quot;, can be seen as an extension of the translation purpose, respectively, introverted and export-oriented comprehensive text, introverted text should be closely around the translated text itself to research, and export-oriented comprehensive for translation text such as interdisciplinary field theory to provide support for translation study.<br /> <br /> 1.3 '''Powerful Critism with strong evidence'''<br /> Throughout the full text, from the status quo of the theory and practice of the second chapter, especially the book in the last few chapters, the author through a large number of reading and rely on the accumulation of translation practice for a long time, have been put forward for the theoretical study and practice of translation problems in reality, the relationship between problem, theory research example, textual research is lax, citing uncertainty, terminology translation and the translation is not unified, there thinking logic and language logic problem, theory and problems such as monotonous and argument, and the question of whether cognitive process is objective, translator translation practice have a &quot;betrayal&quot; of the problem of the wind, vision, objective, to the point, In the last chapter, the author elaborated on the relationship between pure theory and translation, provided a way to combine theory with practice, and improved a complete methodology and action guide for us to better combine theory with practice.<br /> <br /> III. '''Conclusion'''<br /> From all of these analyses above, the author has explained the book following the order of introduction part including the background and the introduction of the author, the main body part which includes the major contend and the specific explanation as well as the writing features. Professor Cao made an overview towards the history of both the east and west translation history, the proper description of the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice, the careful and strict definition about the core concepts of translation theory such as the purpose, aim, translators’ tasks and standards. Besides this, Professor Cao also locates the situation of translation theory by distinguishing the translation theory and mediotology. In the end, he also returned to the present problem about the breaking up of the relationship between theory and practice. To solve this, he teaches us on how to study the pure theory and then how to combine theory with practice, which provides a practical guidance for translation study and teaching activities. <br /> <br /> In the following, the author would like to make some comments about this book.<br /> Frist of all, this book closely centered on the relationship between translation theory and practice to make scientific explanation and study in a very logical and scientific manner. Since the beginning of translation activities, theory and practice have become interrelated with each other closely. Both in the east and the west, translation practice has been paid great attention to while translation theory closely followed the translation activities. At the very beginning translation activity has been focused on the democracy and ideology purpose. With the development of the society, human activities have been prosperous thus translation activities become more diversified and vivid. From translation history, the current situation of translation theory and practice, the defined concept of translation purpose and tasks as well as standard to the effective approach of translation practice and theory, Professor Cao opened a new area of translation study which covers a wide range of multidisciplinary subjects and areas. <br /> <br /> Hence, Professor Cao strict academic attitude and research spirit deserves to learn.<br /> <br /> Second, in the process of defining several concepts such as translation aims, purposes, translators’ tasks as well as translation standard, Professor Cao introduced many useful terms such as textual purposes, translators’ tasks and the translation study and mediotology and textual purpose and non-textual purpose etc., among these newly introduced concepts, some of them are pioneered and innovative. Thus, from this we can see, the author is very creative while following the principle of scientific researches. The most impressive theory is his own theory called “translation theory location”, which vividly introduced us the defined circle of translation circle and research range. This translation map is divided into two parts, one is “introvert ontology translation theory” and the other is “extrovert comprehensive translation theory”. He point out that scholars working on the extrovert should pay attention to the following four aspects, the academic results and theoretical approaches of translation issue should be to enrich translation theory while not to replace it, when you study some phenomenon of translation restricted with certain social context, cultural background and ideology, researches must take the limitation of time and locality into consideration but not assentation, when we analyze translation as a certain behavior with certain purpose relates to society, culture, politics or economy, we must distinguish between textual and non-textual behavior, textual purpose and non-textual purpose and the last is the research about the translation version analysis on the culture of the target language, while in China, it belongs to the branch of comparative literature called mediotology. Academic study must be very strict and severe which need to be logical and scientific.<br /> <br /> Third, the construction of the book is independent, for example theoretical analysis is combined with problem solving, and conclusion is combined with new problem rising. For example, as Professor Cao made a detailed description of the present relationship of translation theory and practice, he introduced the term translation study and analyzed the origin of culture turn. Translation study includes several aspects like translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. As translation study is a borrowed term, Professor Cao made a research in China to define the real concept of translation activity. He made a thorough distinguish between translation study and the mediotology in comparative literature. The borrowed term translation study brought us a lot of reflections and lessons. He proposed some urgent and practical issues whether translation theory should be combined with practice and how to avoid the crisis of the discipline. We should keep a calm and practical attitude to keep the features of this subject. Based on the practical researches, Professor Cao could analyze the thesis and propose proper scientific construction towards translation circle in China. Since in China translation study mainly focuses on the study of literature and besides this, comparative literature would more or less pay attention to the fields of literature but not translation. However, the Professor made a clear distinguish between translation study and mediotology and argued that translation study includes translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. This helps to set a clear definition towards translation study and effectively avoid translation study’s confusion.<br /> <br /> Last but not the least, the language use in the whole text is very beautiful and comfortable. Although Professor Cao uses a lot of samples and evidences as well as a lot of historical samples, the transition is very smooth and he would also quotas many poems and history which makes his article seem more poetic and vivid. Through long terms of translation practice, there is no doubt that Professor Cao had a rich experience in translation practice and strong base of translation basis. What’s more, Professor Cao also had a very specific purpose for translation study. He is not only an excellent translator, professor and scholar, but also a very responsible educator and practitioner. <br /> <br /> To sum up, Based on the above analysis, the author elaborates on the current imbalance between translation theory and practice, and puts forward targeted solutions, which provide the direction and action guide for translation research and translation teaching. In addition, the author can benefit a lot from his rigorous academic attitude, rigorous theoretical system construction and critical logical thinking. First, Professor Cao Minglun's full text is fluent in writing and appropriate use of professional vocabulary, which fully reflects his profound academic accumulation and solid foundation of academic research. In addition, more importantly, Professor Cao's logical reasoning ability provides reference for the author's future academic research. The author uses rigorous logical thinking to accurately explain these concepts, both in terms of defining the relationship between translation theory and practice, and in terms of defining the relationship between translation concepts, objectives and tasks. Third, the author in the process of building the book chapters, layer upon layer, closely around the core of the theory and practice of the main line, from the macroscopic roughly summed up as above summary review, described the status quo, put forward the problems to solve the problem, finally the logical context is very clear, from the micro level above, each chapter, cited fully detailed, illustration, contrast analysis, the most important thing is that the author according to the research of the early learning put forward their own theoretical system or solution to the problem. Translation is indeed a cross-cultural discipline, but the study of translation must be closely centered on the translated text itself and supported by the theories of other disciplines, such as comparative literature studies and linguistic studies. Finally, the author uses standard words and the language is exquisite, which reflects the strong academic writing ability. The above contents are the valuable wealth of the author's future theoretical learning career!<br /> <br /> '''Reference:'''<br /> <br /> Bassnett,Susan and André Lefevere .Translation, History and Culture[M].London and New York: Pinter Publishers.<br /> Mark Shuttleworth，Moira Cowie：翻译研究词典[M]．外语教学与研究出版社，2005<br /> 谢天振，王宁 翻译学:作为独立学科的求索与发展 [M]．复旦大学出版社，2017<br /> 曹明伦，翻译之道 ：理论与实践 [M]．保定：河北大学出版社，2007<br /> 甘雪梅 ．2010．“学 、“术 共生 ，“道”、“器”互彰——评曹明伦教授 《翻译之道：理论与实践》一书[J]．湖北 函授大学学报，(5)：110-111<br /> 黄中习．2008．努力构建翻译理论与实践的和谐关系——翻译之道理论与实践介评[J]．北经济学院学报 ，(10)：150一l51<br /> 朱蕤 ．2010．对翻译研究 “文化转向”的反思—— 以 《翻译之道 》为伽 R1．福建省外国语文学会2010年年会 ．厦门<br /> <br /> =Translation Strategies=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Study on the Translation Strategies, Translation Methods and Translation Techniques in Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao==<br /> <br /> ==Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” to “Visibility” 胡百辉 Hu Baihui==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;胡百辉 Hu Baihui 202070080590&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This chapter is on translator’s subjectivity from translator’s “invisibility” to “visibility”. As we all know, the translator is the subject of translation, by whom the meaning of the translated text is conveyed. However, the invisibility of translator has always been emphasized in the traditional theory of translation. Until 1970s, with the “cultural turn”, the translators’ role has been redefined and their subjectivity in translation has caught much attention. As a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with. Translators should give full play to their subjective initiative and deal with the relationship between them.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> translator’s subjectivity, invisibility, visibility.<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 译者主体性：从“隐形”到“显性”<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 本章从译者的“隐形”到“显形”论述译者的主体性。众所周知，译者是翻译的主体，翻译文本意义的传达是通过译者实现的。然而，传统译论一直强调译者在翻译中“隐形”。直到20世纪70年代出现了翻译研究的“文化转向”，才重新定义了译者的角色，其主体性才得到关注。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点，我们不能简单说译者的角色从“隐形”转化为“显性”，而是从多个方面探讨，并且关注和解决其面临的挑战。译者要合理发挥自己的主观能动性，合理地处理二者之间的关系。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 译者主体性；“隐形”；“显性”。<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The translator's “invisibility” and “visibility” have always been a controversial topic in the field of translation, both of which have their own theoretical basis and purpose; however, both of them are the result of the exertion of the translator's subjective initiative. These arguments are not to prove who is right and who is wrong, but to enrich the arguments in the process of proving their own views or persuading others, so as to perfect the relevant theories.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 128)<br /> <br /> For a long time, the translator's subjectivity has been one of the focuses of scholars, but we have always neglected the role of translators in translation activities. It was not until the “cultural turn” in the 1970s that translators and some scholars began to study and discuss this issue. There are some translation theories in the West that face the target culture. So with these translation theories that face the target culture, the scholars will inevitably do some research in translator’s subjectivity.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129) <br /> <br /> At present, there are many researches on translator's subjectivity in China. This shows that the study of translator's subjectivity is deepening day by day. The translator should not continue to be invisible in the process of translation. The translator's subjectivity will directly affect the translator selecting words and sentences and the style of translation. In short, at present, the status of translator and translator's subjectivity are highly praised in the field of translation studies. However, it should be emphasized that in today's information technology era, the translator's subjectivity is not only valued, but also faced with great challenges.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> ===Translator's Subjectivity===<br /> <br /> Traditional translation theories often neglect the study of translator's subjectivity, but tend to explore the linguistic level of the translated text. Therefore, translation, as a dynamic process, is often ignored and the translator's subjective factors are not paid enough attention. Actually, the traditional translation view, on the one hand, holds that translation is not creative and can not be compared with creation. On the other hand, it is against advocating the translator's subjectivity and creativity, and requires the translator to worship the original author, which also tends to the original. &quot;And the traditional role of translator was identified as the “servant” of the author, while assessing fidelity to the original text was primary. Pulled between the two poles: fidelity and treason, the translator faced the dilemma of lacking independence and subjectivity&quot;(Shufen Huang 2019, 100). Now it seems that this view of negating translator's subjectivity is unreasonable.<br /> <br /> As mentioned in the abstract, attention to the translator’s subjectivity did not arise until 1970s, when Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefevere have come up with the idea of “the cultural turn”. They stated that translation is not the simple transform between two languages, it goes in special cultural environment. &quot;And studies on the role of translators as well as the function of their subjectivity in the translating process have begun to flourish. However, the role of the translator and his subjectivity have been renewed and affirmed with the development of translation theory and translating activities. In the transitional years for translation studies, new translation theories were proposed&quot;(Shufen Huang 2019, 100). &quot;Those influential translation series, such as the polysystem theory and manipulation school have integrated researches on translator’s subjectivity into their massive system respectively&quot; (Zhiwei Gu 2017,24). At present, the study of translator's subjectivity is emerging in an endless stream.<br /> <br /> ====1. Definition of translator's subjectivity====<br /> <br /> According to Za Mingjian and Tian Yu, translator’s subjectivity can be defined that on the premise of respecting the translation text, the translator shows his subjective initiative in order to achieve the purpose of translation. Its basic characteristics are the cultural consciousness, humanistic character, cultural and aesthetic creativity of the translator. And the essential characteristics of the translator’s subjectivity refer to the translator’s “active cultural consciousness”, “human character” and “ascetic creativeness”.(Zha MIingjian, Tian Yu 2003, 22)<br /> <br /> ====2. Related theories on translator's subjectivity====<br /> <br /> In the 1970s, some scholars proposed the idea of “culture turn”, and since then many scholars such as Susan Bassnett (1980), Theo Hermans(1985), Andre Lefevere(1992), Tejaswini Niranjana (1992), Lawrence Venuti(1995), and Douglas Robinson (1997) have made studies on translator’s subjectivity. The issue of translator's cultural identity and subjectivity has naturally become an important research topic. While in China, some scholars studying in translation theory have conducted in-depth study in the translator’s subjectivity since 1980s. In recent years, there are many papers on the study of translator's subjectivity.<br /> <br /> In the following, the studies on translator’s subjectivity will be introduced by typical schools.<br /> <br /> =====2.1 Polysystem theory=====<br /> <br /> This theory is introduced by Tynjanov, and he argues that &quot;elements do not exist in isolation, but always in an interrelationship with other elements of other systems&quot; (Even-Zohar, Itamar 1979, 287). Actually, Tynjanov is a cultural theorist, but his polysystem theory has made the study on translator more popular. But his pioneering work continues to exert considerable influence on translation, particularly when studying translation in emerging cultures or cultures in crisis. He said, it is necessary to include translated literature in the polysystem. &quot;And through studies on the translated edition, it provides a feasible way to reconsider issues like the proper translator, suitable network on translation edition, translating adequacy and so on. This theory ushers in the cultural shift paves the way for the appearance of manipulation school&quot; (Zhiwei Gu 2017,24).<br /> <br /> =====2.2 Manipulation school=====<br /> <br /> The name of manipulation school was given by the title of a collection of essays edited by Theo Hermans(1985), The Manipulation of Literature:Studies in Literature Translation, which gathers a number of studies by scholars such as Van Gorp and Andre Lefevere. &quot;From the point of view of the target literature, all translation implies a degree of manipulation of the source text for a certain purpose&quot; (Hermans 1985, 30), said Hermans. They sited that &quot;translating is rewriting”, which is the foundation of the manipulation school. They have made the translation studies shift from the source-text oriented to target-text oriented. In their opinion, translators have their own feelings for the source text, and they respond to their intuitive feeling, and render the source text in the target culture.<br /> <br /> ====3. Factors influencing the translator's subjectivity====<br /> <br /> The exertion of translator's subjectivity runs through the whole process of translation activities. When different translators read the same article, their understanding varied. Also when selecting words, choosing translation strategies, the translators would have their own opinions. Understanding the factors that influence the translator's subjectivity makes great contribution to the study of the translator's translation style and characters.(Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)<br /> <br /> =====3.1 The historical background of translator=====<br /> <br /> The historical background determines the criteria of value evaluation of translation, which also leads to the trend of mainstream translation style. The era in which translators live will limit the breadth and depth of their understanding. Therefore, the former translation standards may no longer conform to the contemporary development. It took a long time for the translator's position to rise from invisibility to visibility. Yan Fu, a famous translator in China at the end of the 19th century, has put forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. At this time, China was written in classical Chinese, so the “elegance” here means that the translation should be elegant and be translated in classical Chinese. <br /> <br /> Since the May Fourth New Culture Movement, vernacular gradually replaces classical Chinese. Translators begin to translate a large number of classic works of Marxism Leninism, literary theory, progressive literary works of Soviet Union and other countries. Therefore, the translation at this time emphasizes the plainness and energy. So in 1979, Liu Zhongde, a translation theorist, has come up with a new translation criteria of “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, which is accepted by the majority now. Different background determines different criteria of translation value, and the change of criteria also leads the trend of mainstream translation style, with obvious era brand.(Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)<br /> <br /> =====3.2 Translator's bilingual cultural competence=====<br /> <br /> The translator's bilingual cultural competence includes linguistic knowledge and cultural knowledge. When translating an article, the translator accepts the cultural influence of the original text and brings the translation into another culture. The coordination of the two cultures reflects the translator's bilingual cultural ability,which directly affects the translator's choice of translation strategies. In general, if the translator has a strong native language ability, he tends to choose the “domestication” strategy when translating the foreign language into the native language. On the contrary, when translating the native language into a foreign language, the translator often uses the strategy of “foreignization” because he can't find the corresponding foreign language expression.(Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21) <br /> <br /> This is often seen in the translation of literary works and proverbs. It rains dogs and cats, which means it rains heavily. When translating into Chinese, it should be “大雨倾盆”. If this sentence is translated words by words, the target readers will not understand it. In fact, it is obvious in translation whether a translator's bilingual ability is good enough.If not, it will often make errors.<br /> <br /> =====3.3 Understanding of the original=====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, only when the translator has a thorough understanding of the meaning of the original can he accurately convey the meaning of the original to the readers. As a saying goes,&quot; A thousand readers make a thousand Hamlets &quot;. There is a growing tendency to believe that it is the reader that decides the meaning of the literary text. <br /> <br /> Zhu Shenghao, a famous translator, has translated a lot of Shakespeare's works in his life. Shakespeare's works began to be introduced and translated in China at the beginning of last century. Zhu Shenghao is recognized as an early translator of Shakespeare's works in China, and his translation style has also been highly recognized. Different from the chronological arrangement of the Oxford edition, he divides the works into comedy, tragedy, historical drama and zaju, which are arranged in a self-contained system. Since he has a thorough understanding of the original, he could rewrite and rearrangement it and his translation text is well received at home and abroad. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 22)<br /> <br /> In a word, the process of translation is also a process of recreation. And under the new study of translation theory, the translator's subjectivity is encouraged and supported, but it needs to be limited. In the process of translation, the translator can always choose their preferred translation strategy and style, and fully develop your own style and characteristics in the translation. In this kind of recreation, it is always restricted by the original work, and can't be separated from the original meaning. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 22)<br /> <br /> ===The influence of translator's invisibility and visibility on translator's Subjectivity===<br /> <br /> In literary translation, the word &quot;invisibility&quot; refers to &quot;the translator should insist on the translation in a smooth and accurate way, and can not add the translator's emotion&quot;; while &quot;apparent&quot; is put forward according to the opposite of &quot;invisibility&quot;, which means that the translator can put his own subjective feelings into literary translation, At the same time, in literary translation, translators can make use of the fact that there are some differences in the transformation of language symbol system to make reasonable and appropriate explanation of words, sentence processing, space structure reconstruction and other forms of translation through their own understanding.(Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 71) <br /> <br /> Cultural differences refer to different cultural styles in different cultural environments. Cultural differences also provide a more free creative environment for translators' translation. They can display their own unique styles by refining words, sending sentences and making sentences. This difference leads to the inevitable existence of the translator's &quot;appearance&quot;.(Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 71)<br /> <br /> '''1. Translator's invisibility'''<br /> <br /> 【麻烦同学参照上面副标题的格式改一下 不要加粗 是用的等号】<br /> The traditional translation theory focuses on the issue of language, focusing on how the ideal translator should do and what kind of requirements a perfect translation should achieve. It tries its best to eliminate the translator's traces in language and cultural transformation, and faithfully and completely convey all the information of the original work.<br /> <br /> Under the traditional translation theory, the translator should be invisible, that is, to achieve &quot;transparency&quot; and &quot;invisibility&quot;. The &quot;transparency&quot; of the translation requires the translator to strive to achieve fluenct, while the &quot;invisibility&quot; refers to that the target readers should not see the trace and influence of the translator when reading the translation text. &quot;The translator's invisibility depends on the following three conditions, which are often emphasized in the traditional translation theory: first, the translator should not incorporate his own subjective idea into the translation; second, the translator should not show his own personality in the translation; third, the translator should take the original text as the basis.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2003). <br /> <br /> In a word, &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;equivalence&quot; should be achieved in translation. The criterion of &quot;faithfulness&quot; also contributes to the tendency of traditional translation theories to neglect the translator's subjectivity. The traditional translation theories would emphasize to eliminate the differences in language, even some extreme domestication translation, even cultural differences. In domestication, the translator seems to be invisible. But the fact is that in order to meet the requirements of the target language and cultural norms, and get the recognition of the target language readers, the translator will spare no effort to exert his subjective initiative, which is the process of subject intervention. In this process, the translator should give full play to his subjectivity and bring his subjective idea into play. Therefore, on the surface, the translator seems to be &quot;invisible&quot;, but in essence, this &quot;invisibility&quot; is also the result of the translator's subjective initiative, which is the translator's conscious choice and abandonment.(Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 72)<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2. Translator's visibility'''<br /> <br /> In the 1970s, some scholars proposed the idea of “culture turn”, and since then many scholars have made studies on translator’s subjectivity. The issue of translator's cultural identity and subjectivity has naturally become an important research topic. The most familiar one is the Translator's Invisibility by American scholar Lawrence Venuti. In this book, he put forward the concepts of “foreignization” and “domestication”. According to his view, “domestication” emphasizes fluency and smoothness in order to minimize the exotic flavor in the translation and provide a natural and fluent translation for the target language readers.(Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006) <br /> <br /> However, “foreignization” is intended to break through the conventions of the target language, retain the exotic flavor in the original text, and inject the linguistic and cultural differences in foreign texts into the target language. He called on translators to &quot;resist&quot; and adopt poor translation. &quot;Venuti believes that foreignization translation can not bring about the improvement of faithfulness. On the contrary, it is a misuse of faithfulness. Not only will some features of the original language be lost, but also new things will be added.&quot; (Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)<br /> <br /> As a result, the translator appears and the independent status of translation is revealed. In the actual translation process, the translator deliberately uses the &quot;resistance&quot; translation strategy to deliberately retain the expression and sentence pattern of the original text, so as to avoid the smooth translation, so that the readers can clearly feel that what they are reading is the translation, thus feeling the existence of the translator, reflecting the creativity of the translator and highlighting the role of the translator.(Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)<br /> <br /> ==='''The challenge of translator's Subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> As the focus of translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be limited to the transformation from being ignored to being valued, but should be found and faced up to the challenges it is facing from a comprehensive perspective.<br /> <br /> '''1. The challenge of modern information technology to translator's Subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of modern information technology, translation activities can be completed efficiently in a short time. In the past, translation was time-consuming and laborious, and the executor was the translator. Now, with the emergence of translation software and machines, the subject of translation activities has been increased in the traditional sense. These modern technologies have become the active elements in translation activities, which has caused a challenge to the translator's subjectivity. In some occasions where the requirements for translation are low and there is a certain tolerance for translation errors, translators have completely retired from the background. Because software and machines are supported by powerful corpora, they cover a wide range of fields, can process all kinds of texts, and can produce high-quality translations in a short time. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the target language readers can quickly get the original translation through the translation software or machine. In addition, in other occasions where translation requirements are high, translators with the help of translation software and various tools can not only shorten the translation time, but also obtain the translation with high accuracy. However, without the help of translation software and other tools, the translator needs to spend time to mobilize the initiative of all aspects, which can not be as fast and efficient as the machine assisted.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> There is no doubt that a series of modern information technology assisted translation work has played a positive role, which requires the translator not only to have the consciousness of language operation, cultural characteristics, artistic creation, aesthetic standards and humanistic character, but also to closely combine his own ability with modern information technology and have the ability to skillfully apply translation software and various auxiliary tools, However, the excessive dependence of translators on translation software can not be ignored.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> Some translators are eager for quick success and instant benefit, and make use of translation software and machines to make them become money making accelerators and produce poor quality translation works. In the mixed translation market, there are not a few translators who completely rely on machine for translation with only minor modifications. In the absence of machine translation, translation activities mainly rely on the translator's mental operation, and the translator's subjectivity can be brought into full play. <br /> <br /> But now, with the shortcut of translation, some translators can't help being lazy, which makes the most important part of the translation activities to fully display the translator's demeanor and play the translator's subjectivity lose its significance and turn into mechanical language output. In this process, the translator is satisfied with the convenience of machine translation and ignores the full play of the translator's subjectivity. Although translation tools can speed up the translation and improve the quality of translation in the process of translation activities, the excessive dependence on translation tools poses a challenge to the translator's subjectivity.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> '''2. The challenge of the era to the translator's Subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> In the past, professional translators always had to practice a lot of translation, combined with their preferences and strengths, to be able to translate works of interest to people. Many famous translations were produced at that time. Now, with the “one belt, one road” and the common destiny of mankind, the political, economic and cultural exchanges between China and other countries are becoming more frequent. More and more translators need to be served as bridges. The increasing number of translators and the professionalization of translation make translation a means of livelihood. <br /> <br /> The common existence of translation companies makes the threshold of becoming a translator too low, which reduces the requirement of translators' competence to a certain extent. From the recruitment information released by various companies, it can be found that many companies place too much emphasis on the language proficiency of interpreters, and they do not attach importance to translation experience or request to check relevant translation works, and neglect to investigate whether the translator's subjectivity, which reflects their profound skills, is fully exerted in their works. At present, the requirement of the translator's ability to survive in the field of translation has been reduced. Translation activities have become a kind of assembly line operation, and the translators participating in the assembly line have also changed from elite translators with strong translation ability to mechanical translation product producers.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129) <br /> <br /> From this point of view, professionalization also challenges the translator's subjectivity. With the continuous updating of the information in various fields, the powerful corpus behind the translation software and machine can not be updated automatically, so it is necessary for the translator to explore the untranslated fields in order to obtain the relevant corpus to fill the corpus. From this point of view, as the subject of translation activities with individual thinking, translators must be prior to machines. If they excessively rely on modern technology, they will despise their initiative of thinking and choosing translation strategies in the process of translation, and can not give full play to the translator's subjectivity.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> '''3.The rational exertion of translator's subjective initiative'''<br /> <br /> The translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;manifestation&quot; are both the manifestation of subjectivity, and have their specific social and theoretical background. &quot;Translation is the active creative activity of the subject and the author's own language experience. Only through the translator's translation and interpretation can the text survive. The original text needs the participation of the translator's subject to help it obtain new life. The objective &quot;uncertainty&quot; needs to be filled and processed by the translator, so that the original intention of the composition can be revealed &quot;(Wang Zhengliang, Ma Tan, 2010). <br /> <br /> However, this kind of filling and processing is not random. Before translation, translators should first confirm whether their own conditions and temperament can adapt to the original text, and then translate the original composition. If the translated text is translated and interpreted at will, it will exaggerate the translator's autonomy to control the original work, and overemphasizes the translator's intervention in the work and the translator's interpretation space. Even under the banner of respecting the translator's identity and status and highlighting the translator's subjectivity, it is difficult to avoid the suspicion of &quot;overcorrection&quot;. In this process, we should pay attention to the influence of the mainstream ideology and Poetics in the historical background of the translator.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 130) <br /> <br /> When there is a conflict between the ideology of the translator and the ideology of the target culture, there are many translators in history who delete and change the original content in order to conform to the mainstream ideology and exert their subjective initiative. When the source language poetics is different from the target language poetics, the translator also needs to play an active role in mediating the differences between the two poetics, so as to make the translation get new life in the target language.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 130)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Many scholars have put forward their own views on the translator's subjectivity. However, few scholars have mentioned the challenge to the translator's subjectivity. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the challenges faced by translators' subjectivity. On the one hand, translators are required to improve their ability to exert their subjective initiative, closely integrate their own abilities with modern information technology, learn and skillfully apply various translation software, search tools, corpus and other auxiliary tools to improve the speed and quality of translation, On the other hand, the translator should be warned not to rely solely on the tool while neglecting the translator's subjectivity. The translator's subjectivity is an important support for our translation research and translation activities. We must face up to the challenges and actively deal with them.<br /> <br /> Translation is a process of gradual development and change, not a process of translating one language into another. Translators should fully understand, be familiar with and be familiar with the cultural differences in the original language in order to realize the true transmission of the original content. According to &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;manifestation&quot; in contemporary literary translation, we should know &quot;invisibility&quot; when necessary to ensure the fluency of language. According to Venuti's viewpoint of &quot;invisibility or invisibility is to make the translator invisible&quot;, we can better understand the meaning of &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator, and pay attention to the application effect of &quot;manifestation&quot; when necessary, which can not only make people pay attention to the translator, At the same time, it also reflects the cultural differences and image understanding in the process of reading. Therefore, the choice of &quot;invisible&quot; or &quot;explicit&quot; in translation is worth considering.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1] Even-Zohar, Itamar. (1979) &quot;Polysystem Theory&quot;. Poetics Today (1) 287.<br /> <br /> [2] Hermans, Theo. (1985) &quot;The Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;. London and Sydney: Croom Helm. (12) 30.<br /> <br /> [3] Lan Hongjun 蓝红军. (2017) 译者主体性困境与翻译主体性建构[J] [Translator's subjectivity dilemma and construction of translation subjectivity]. 上海翻译Shanghai Translation Journal (2) 21-27.<br /> <br /> [4] Li Hua, Li Guochao 李华,李国超. (2019) 文学翻译中译者的“隐身”与“显形”——以《第十个人》翻译中人物形象的塑造为例[J] [The translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;manifestation&quot; in Literary Translation--Taking the creation of characters in the translation of the Tenth Man as an example].智库时代 Think Tank Tines (42) 130-132.<br /> <br /> [5] Li Yingying, Lan Jie 李盈盈,兰杰.(2014) 浅谈翻译中的译者主体性[J] [On the translator's subjectivity in Translation]. 考试周刊 Weekly examination (24) 21-22.<br /> <br /> [6] Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 李铮;杨贤玉. (2011) 论译者的“隐形”和“显形”[J] [On the translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;visibility]. 邢台学院学报 Journal of Xingtai College (26) 71-72.<br /> <br /> [7] Shufen Huang. (2019) “A Study of the Translator’s Subjectivity in Literary Translation--Exemplified by the English Version of The Border Town”. Open Journal of Social Sciences(JSS) (7) 100. <br /> <br /> [8] Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 王玉,田翠芸. (2020) 从译者的“隐形”“显形”到“忘形”谈译者主体性[J] [Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” and “Visibility” to “Complacency”]. 华北理工大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of North China University of science and Technology (SOCIAL SCIENCE EDITION) (28) 128-131.<br /> <br /> [9] ZhaMingjian, Tian Yu 查明建,田雨.(2003). 论译者主体性—从译者文化的边缘化谈起[J] [On Translator's Subjectivity -- from the Marginalization of Translator's Culture]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1) 22.<br /> <br /> [10] Zhiwei Gu. (2017) &quot;On Zhang Peiji's Prose Translation from the Perspective of the Translator's Subjectivity&quot;, English Language and Literature Studies (1) 24.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 06:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility - 马智星 Ma Zhixing==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;马智星 Ma Zhixing 202020080625&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> '''translator's view;translation behavior;invisibility;'''<br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> '''翻译观；译者行为；隐形'''<br /> <br /> ==='''Ⅰ.Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory'''===<br /> '''In the 1980s, culture, rather than text, emerged as the Unit of translation, bringing cultural studies into a new stage of translation theory: Cultural Theory of translation. This change is called the &quot;cultural turn&quot; in the field of translation studies. Andrea, a representative of the Cultural School of Translation Studies, is an important theoretical figure in the field of contemporary Western Comparative Literature and Translation Studies. The translation studies school originally originated in Europe, and Lefevere's profound insight enriched and advanced the further development of this theory in the United States and the world.<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory is a well-known theory in the Cultural School of Translation Studies. Lefevere regards translation as a rewriting of the original and a manipulation of the original, which breaks the traditional thinking of evaluating translation with the original as the criterion. Lefevere's manipulation theory generally refers to the process of translation, adaptation, compilation, criticism and editing of literary works. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and a form of creating another text image Literary criticism, biography, film, drama, parody, reader's guide, compilation of history, criticism and editing are all rewriting of the text, which are all forms of creating another text image. In other words, translation creates the literary and cultural images of the original text, the original author, and the original text. And all rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics.(Bassnett &amp; Lefevere, 1990:8) <br /> Lefevere studies translation in a broad sociocultural context, emphasizing the role of ideology, mainstream poetics and culture. Translation is bound to serve certain ideology and poetics. In his view, &quot;rewriting&quot; is &quot;manipulating&quot; . It can &quot;manipulate&quot; literature and &quot;culture&quot; , the positive aspect of which is to help the evolution of literature and society through the introduction of new concepts, new literary genres and new means of expression. The rewriting of different historical periods should be controlled by ideology and mainstream poetics, and finally be related to power and become a means to serve it. The three elements of Lefevere's manipulation theory are set out in translation, rewriting, and the manipulation of literary fame. In his opinion, translation can not truly reflect the original work, mainly because it is always manipulated by three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.<br /> <br /> Ideological<br /> ideology refers to a system of ideas that reflects the interests and requirements of a particular economic form, class or social group. Its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. . Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communicative activity, will inevitably be affected by ideology. Lefevere points out that ideology has a great influence on translation, which exerts a subtle influence on the translator's thinking and translation activities. Ideology influences the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Under the control of ideology, the translator may add, delete or change the original text at will, making the translation serve his own political purposes. At the same time, different translators will form their own ideology because of their different personal experience, educational level, social and cultural environment, etc. . If a translated work wants to enter into the social and cultural system of the target language, it is bound to be restricted by the corresponding social and ideological standards. If the translation violates or offends ideological taboos, it will be difficult to spread smoothly in the target language culture, and may even be banned. Through the analysis of famous translators such as Lin Shu's works, we can clearly feel that it was controlled and influenced by the ideology and poetics of Chinese society at that time. Ideological manipulation of translation can be reflected in the influence on the purpose of translated novels, the choice of translated texts and the application of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Poetics<br /> Poetics is a theory about poetry and the study of poetry and its techniques. It is also a theory about literature and art. The formation of poetics occurs in a certain period, which is often a choice for some types of practice at that time, while excluding other types. According to Lefevere, the methods of translation adopted by translators are carried out under the restriction of certain poetic factors. The study of poetics is as small as a word, as large as a sentence, the style of the whole text and the translation strategies. Translation greatly influences the interpenetration of different literary systems, not only by successfully introducing the image of a writer or a work into another literary system, but also in the introduction of new literary means into a certain poetics. In lefevere's opinion, as the manipulator of translation, such rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because in the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. The rewriting of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriter works. In order to conform to the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the work is rewritten and to be accepted by as many readers as possible, the rewriter often makes some adjustments to the original work. Some masterpieces have also been dealt with to varying degrees so that they can be adapted to the cultural background of different social and historical conditions. In the development of translation theory, more and more attention has been paid to the indispensability of poetics in translation. Poetics is concerned with what literature should or could be, and has two components, &quot;One is a list of literary techniques, genres, themes, typical characters and situations, and symbols; the other is an idea of what role literature plays or should play in the overall social system. &quot; To a certain extent, the poetic factors also determine the social role that the translation will play and the degree of its influence. The aesthetic sense of poetry in a work will disappear if the significance is emphasized but the poetic factors and the literary brilliance are ignored.<br /> <br /> The power of patronage<br /> Lefevere regards literary translation and other forms of rewriting as one of the social systems. This literary system has two controlling factors, one is the internal factor of the literary system, which is made up of various professionals such as critics, critics, teachers and translators The other is a patron who works outside the system and is &quot;generally more interested in the ideology of literature than in the poetics of Literature&quot; , &quot;The powers (people or institutions) that promote or discourage literary reading, writing or rewriting, such as religious groups, classes, government departments, publishing houses, mass media organizations, can also be personal forces&quot; (Lefevere, 1992:17) <br /> In Lefevere's theory of the three elements, the most important factor is the power of the sponsor, who is always in charge of the whole process of translation. Translation itself is not an isolated act, but closely related to political, social and economic factors. Most translators translate well and safely within the space allowed by the social and political authority of their times. As &quot;any force that may contribute to the production and dissemination of literary works and may hinder, prohibit and destroy literary works&quot; (Chen Dehong, Zhang Nanfeng, 2000:176) , the power of patron can play a role through ideology, economic interests and social status. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the trend of translation activities, the development of translated literature and the social status of translators. For example, Yan Fu, as a translator and thinker, although he had his own clear goals and ideas in selecting translation materials, he was also an official appointed by the Qing government, therefore, his selection of translation materials is also controlled by the ideology of the sponsors. There is also a series of translations, translated or edited by Lin Yutang, that are closely related to the requests and suggestions of his patrons, the Pearl Buck and her husband. <br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has opened up a new perspective for translation studies, which has shifted researchers'attention from the internal factors of the text to the external factors of the text, such as ideology, poetics and the power of patronage, this is of great significance to translation studies. Manipulation theory broadens the horizon of translation studies from text to culture. In recent years, with the rise of the Cultural School of Translation, the Study of translation from the perspective of the three elements of manipulation theory has become increasingly attractive.'''<br /> ===''' Ⅱ. Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility'''===<br /> ==='''Ⅲ.The association of Lefever and Venuti's theory'''===<br /> ==='''Ⅳ.Conclusion'''===<br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,1992.<br /> <br /> [2]郭建中.当代美国翻译理论[C].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [3]施建伟.林语堂传[M].北京:十月文艺出版社,1999.<br /> <br /> [4]陈德鸿,张南峰.西方翻译理论精选[M].香港:香港城市大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [5]Bassnett,Susan and André Lefevere .Translation, History and Culture[M].London and New York: Pinter Publishers.<br /> <br /> [6]Lefevere,Andre.Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame[M].London: Routledge,1992a.<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Business Contracts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 胡瑾 Hu Jin 202070080591 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization in China and the increasing frequency of modern commercial activities, commercial contracts are particularly vital in order to ensure the smooth progress of commercial activities. In a business contract, it is required to ensure that the expression of any text in the contract is accurate as far as possible, and the same is true when translating it. Contracts provide vital basis for the smooth development of business and the protection of rights. Accurate and vivid translation of contracts has an important impetus to the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations and the resolution of disputes. Therefore, it is of practical significance to study the translation of business contracts. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory, equivalence is first realized in meaning and then in form. Dynamic equivalence is used to break the static equivalence and maximize the meaning of the translation. This thesis gives a preliminary introduction to the translation of business contracts, studies the application of functional equivalence theory in contract translation, and puts forward some major translation skills and methods, which will be of some guiding significance to the future translation of business contracts, thus avoiding unnecessary disputes between the two parties.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> business contract; Functional Equivalence Theory; contract translation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中国全球化进程不断加快，现代商务活动日益频繁，为了确保商务活动的顺利进行，商务合同的签订显得尤为重要。在商务合同中，要求尽量确保合同中的每一个文字都表达准确，在对其进行翻译时也是如此。合同是确保业务开展顺利和进行权利保障的重要依托，对合同进行准确生动的翻译对业务的开展和权利、义务的保障以及出现争议时的解决等有着重要的推动力。因此，研究商务合同的翻译有一定的现实意义。根据奈达的功能对等理论，对等首先在意义上实现，然后在形式上实现，利用动态对等，打破静态对等，使译文意义最大化。此课题初步介绍了商务合同的翻译，研究了功能对等理论在合同翻译中的应用，提出了一些主要的翻译技巧和方法，对今后商务合同的翻译具有一定的指导作用，从而避免合同双方出现不必要的纠纷。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 商务合同；功能对等理论；合同翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since China promoted the Silk Road Economic Belt, China's economic exchanges with other countries in the world have been increasing day by day. China's exports volume is also increasing, and goods are exported to other countries in the world. In 2013, China overtook the United States as the world's largest trading nation. In this context, in order to ensure the smooth progress of transactions and reduce trade friction and disputes, commercial contracts, which have legal effect, have attracted more and more attention. Contract translation belongs to the category of legal translation. Accurate translation of contracts plays an important role in the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations, and the resolution of disputes. However, commercial disputes in China's foreign economic and trade business are very common, and many disputes are caused by various problems in contract translation. Therefore, they should be guided by scientific translation theories. (Jin Di 1998，112)<br /> This paper mainly includes 3 chapters. The first chapter is the introduction of business English contracts, including the definition of business contract, the categories of business contract, and the linguistic features of English business contract. (Jin Di 1998，115)<br /> The second chapter introduces the theoretical framework of functional equivalence translation, including Nida's main principles and viewpoints of functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> The third chapter is the main part of the article, including the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. (Jin Di 1998, 115)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 General Introduction of Business Contract===<br /> <br /> This chapter first introduces the definition of business contract and the categories of business contract, and then analyzes the linguistic features of English business contract from lexical, syntactic and textual levels respectively. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> As an important link in foreign trade activities, business contracts have always been valued by people. Article 2 of The PRC Contract Law clearly stipulates that Commercial contract refers to the agreement clauses that are formally concluded according to law, notarized and must be abided by jointly in order to determine their respective rights and obligations during certain commercial cooperation between the parties concerned. It can be seen from this that a commercial contract is the result of the consensus reached by the parties and is a civil legal act. A legally established contract shall take effect from the date of its establishment and shall be legally binding. This provides a legal guarantee for effectively avoiding trade frictions. However, special attention should be paid to the fact that China's Economic Law on Foreign Contracts stipulates that commercial contracts can take many forms, such as formal contracts, letters of intent, memorandum, agreements, commissioned purchase orders, etc. But no matter what form it takes, it should be signed in writing. The oral agreement cannot be submitted to the court as evidence after the dispute occurs.(Ma Huijuan 2005, 24)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Categories and Structure of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> Based on different standards, business contracts can be divided into many categories. According to the contract maker, they can be divided into sales contract (made by the seller) and purchase contract (made by the buyer); according to the subject matter, they can be divided into technology transfer contracts, processing contracts, foreign labor contracts, and agency agreements, etc; according to the details of the contract, they can be divided into sales contract, sales confirmation letter, purchase contract and purchase confirmation letter; according to the price terms used in the contract, they can be divided into CIF contract, FOB contract and goods arrival contract, etc.<br /> Although there are many types of commercial contracts, the structure of commercial contracts is generally relatively fixed, generally including three parts: preface, text and contract end. The first part is the preface, which generally includes the name of the contract, the parties to the contract, the date of signing and the place of signing. The second part is the main body of the contract, which mainly stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties to the agreement, the specific conditions of the traded goods, such as commodity name, quantity, total value, delivery date and validity period, port of shipment and destination, insurance and confidentiality clauses, payment clauses,etc. The third part is the end, which mainly includes the signatures of all parties to the agreement, the language of the contract, the number of copies of the contract and the explanation of the validity of the contract. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 27)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 A Contrastive Analysis of Stylistic Features of Chinese and English Business Contracts====<br /> <br /> English business contract is a solemn style with the highest degree of formality among all styles of English. A comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English business contract in terms of vocabulary, syntax and discourse will be made in this chapter. (Wang Yang 2009, 13)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Lexical Features of Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> As the most basic semantic constituent unit, vocabulary plays the most basic and important role in the whole contract text. When reading any text, the characteristics of words can often reflect the characteristics of the whole text. Therefore, it is necessary to study the characteristics of vocabulary so as to lay a foundation for the study of the whole text. (Wang Yang 2009, 30)<br /> <br /> First of all, the use of archaism is the most prominent feature in international business contract English. The extensive use of archaic words in business contracts and legal styles fully reflects their solemn and serious style, which is related to the social function of English style of business contracts and the particularity of international business. The archaism most commonly used in business contract English are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中)，therein-after(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于). (Wang Yang 2009, 34)<br /> <br /> In contrast, some classical Chinese words are often used in Chinese business contract terms, such as“兹、若”. This is to reflect the conciseness and clarity of the Chinese contract text. However, strictly speaking, Chinese business contract terms are more straightforward, the classical Chinese vocabulary is less frequently used, and the stylistic features are not as obvious as English business contracts. (Wang Yang 2009, 36)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the use of synonyms is another feature of English business contracts. Two or more synonyms are often used together in English business contracts. This is to make the terms of the contract more precise and accurate, and to avoid ambiguities and omissions as much as possible, for example, by and between, sole and exclusive, make and enter into, etc. (Wang Yang 2009, 37)<br /> <br /> However, we must note that synonyms are not commonly used in Chinese business contracts. This is mainly because of the differences in expression habits between Chinese and English and the differences in legal and cultural traditions between countries. (Wang Yang 2009, 38)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, as a contractual document with legal effect, legal terms are also used in the contract. In formal English business contracts, drafters often use “convene” instead of “hold or assemble”; “dispatch” instead of “spread out or handout”; “terminate” instead of “stop”. Similarly, in Chinese business contracts, interpreters use“承诺”to indicate “commitment”;“撤销”to indicate“cancel”instead of “取消”;“裁决” to mean “decision” instead of “决定”. Finally, the contract contains many professional knowledge and terminology. (Wang Yang 2009, 40)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.2 Syntax Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> Besides vocabulary, the syntax of business contracts also has their own characteristics, such as common clauses, declarative sentences, passive voice, modal verbs, etc. <br /> <br /> The most obvious feature in business contracts is the use of subordinate clauses. They are in obvious positions to explain, restrict and supplement the meaning of the main sentence. The positions of these clauses are relatively flexible. For example, attributive clause can be placed together with the central word or separated from the central word. A noun can be modified by multiple attributive clauses, and an attributive clause can also modify multiple nouns. The adverbial clause of time can be placed either at the beginning of the sentence or at the middle and end of the sentence. (Wang Yang 2009, 44)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the positions of attributive clauses and adverbial clauses in Chinese are relatively fixed. The adverbial clause of time is usually next to the modified verb because there is no temporal change in Chinese verbs. Declarative sentences are clear in meaning, division of powers and responsibilities, objective and fair in stating facts, and conform to the requirements of business contract terms. Therefore, they are frequently used in Chinese and English business contracts, but interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences are seldom used. (Wang Yang 2009, 45)<br /> <br /> Passive sentences are also quite common in business contracts. The passive voice is often used when there is no need to clearly indicate the sender of the behavior and the emphasis is placed on the object of the behavior. (Wang Yang 2009, 47)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.3 Textual Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> The textual features of Chinese and English business contracts are mainly reflected in textual cohesion and textual structure. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> In business contracts, whether Chinese or English, contextual cohesion is realized by adding conjunctions or repetitions of words, which indicates the logical relationship between sentences and reflects the rigour and solemnity of business contract language. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 45)<br /> <br /> The discourse structure of Chinese and English business contracts is basically the same, with highly stylized features. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 47)<br /> <br /> This kind of consistency is not only to obtain formal uniformity, but also often mainly due to the requirements of meaning, so that readers have the impression that the contents expressed by clauses with the same sentence pattern are equivalent in the legal effect of the contract.① (Liu Miqin 1998, 310-312)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 General Study of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This chapter introduces Nida's functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida first proposed the“dynamic equivalence”theory, then further developed the theory, emphasizing the equivalence of two aspects, namely“formal equivalence”and“dynamic equivalence”.“Formal equivalence”emphasizes the form and content of the information itself and believes that the translation should be close to the original structure. “Dynamic equivalence”refers to“reproducing source language information from semantics to style with the closest (original) natural equivalent in the recipient language”.② (Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward 1986, 113-120 ) Tan Zaixi（谭载喜） pointed out, in this definition, there are three key points: 1. Natural, the translation cannot have a translation cavity. 2. Closeness, referring to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of nature. 3. Equivalence, which is the core. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 23-27)<br /> <br /> After the proposal of dynamic equivalence, many disputes have arisen. It is considered as free translation or live translation. In order to change people's misunderstanding of it, Nida pointed out:“Everything in the text is meaningful, including speech forms, so forms cannot be sacrificed easily.”④ (Nida, E. A 1993, 119-130) Therefore, he replaced“dynamic equivalence”with “functional equivalence”. There is no essential difference between the two, but the latter highlights the concept of“function”.<br /> <br /> On the question of which level equivalence should be reflected, Nida pointed out that in addition to content and form equivalence, style equivalence should also be considered. (Nida, E. A 1993, 119-130)<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida divided functional equivalence into“maximum functional equivalence”and“minimum functional equivalence”since absolute equivalence is impossible to achieve. The so-called“maximum functional equivalence”means that the target readers can understand the original text in a way consistent with the original readers and further appreciate the original text while“minimum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand how the original readers understand and appreciate the original through their understanding of the target text. (Nida, E. A 1993, 154)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Researches on Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Abroad, Beekman(1972: 32) pointed out:“Nida's functional equivalence theory makes theorists and translators believe that a good translation must be able to convey the meaning and dynamics of the original text at the same time.”⑤ (Beekman 1974, 191-221)<br /> <br /> Wilss(2001: 51) stressed:“Nida's functional equivalence theory can be applied to translation practice because it can achieve effective translation.”⑥ (Wilss 2001, 72-86) <br /> Venuti said:“Functional equivalence theory also eases the debate between translators on“domestication” and “foreignization” from the perspective of language and culture.”⑦ (Venuti 1995, 76-89)<br /> <br /> At home, Jin Di(金堤) put forward“equivalence theory”on the basis of“functional equivalence theory”, and applied it to the translation of Ulysses, which illustrates the feasibility of“functional equivalence” theory in practical translation. Tan Zaixi made a comprehensive and systematic summary of the formation process of Nida's translation theory and its profound connotation. In addition, in the CNKI database, retrieval using“functional equivalence theory” as the key word shows that there are 2444 related articles in various core journals and magazines. (Jin Di 1998, 122)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Applicability of Functional Equivalence Theory to E-C Translation of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> At present, there are no authoritative translation principles and standards for commercial contract translation, but the three principles of contract translation put forward by Ma Huijuan(马会娟) are highly recognized: First, the words used are accurate and the translation is complete. The translator shall not add, delete or change any information contained in the contract at will. The language of the translation shall be accurate, complete and natural. Second, the organization is clear and the format is equivalent. The translation should correspond to the original text format as a whole and reproduce the structural features of the source language as much as possible. Third, the translation should be in line with the stylistic characteristics of the contract. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 134)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory emphasizes content equivalence, form equivalence and style equivalence. These three requirements are consistent with the three principles above put forward by Ma Huijuan respectively. Both of them limit the translation standards from the aspects of content, form and style. Therefore, the functional equivalence theory can be fully applied to the translation practice of business contracts. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 154)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Business Contract Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This part focuses on the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. Combining with actual translation cases, this chapter analyzes the common problems in contract translation and puts forward corresponding solutions. (Miao Xipu 2011, 78)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Equivalence at the Lexical Level====<br /> <br /> Vocabulary is the basic component of sentences and chapters. In the specific translation process, if vocabulary translation is not handled well, sentence and chapter translation will be impossible. (Miao Xipu 2011, 98)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Equivalence of Technical Terms—Literal Translation and Free Translation=====<br /> <br /> The contents of business contracts involve all trades and professions, and there are many subject matters, including many professional knowledge and terminology, which is a big obstacle for many translators who do not know the professional knowledge of the industry. Therefore, before translation, translators should understand the relevant industries involved in the contract and master the necessary knowledge in the industry so as to avoid the layman's words and semantic errors in the translation, which will affect the accuracy and formality of the contract and cannot achieve functional equivalence. (Miao Xipu 2011, 116)<br /> <br /> Example1:The balance 80% ( Eighty percent ) of the contract value shall be paid against irrevocable L/C at 360 days sight to be accepted by both parties. <br /> 译文：合同金额的80%（百分之八十）以不可撤销信用证的方式在交单的360 天予以支付。<br /> <br /> Many words in the contract appear in the form of letter abbreviations. As shown in this example,“L/C”is the abbreviation of letter of credit, which is translated literally into“信用证”. This is a well-established translation method in the industry, which can reflect both the equivalence of meaning and the professionalism of language expression. (Liao Ying 2005, 23)<br /> <br /> Example2:“The seller shall present the following documents required for negotiation or collection to the banks.”<br /> 译文:“卖方应向银行提交议付或托收所需的下列文件。”<br /> <br /> In this sentence,“negotiation”and“collection”are both technical terms of the contract, they are translated into“议付”and“托收” respectively, instead of“谈判”and“收取”. The expressions not only conform to the professional expression of the economic and trade industry, but also accurately reflect the meaning of the original text and achieve the meaning and style equivalence emphasized by the functional equivalence theory. (Liao Ying 2005, 34)<br /> <br /> Example3:“UNIT PRICES: FOB Xingang, Tianjing USD 22 150.00 per unit (US Dollars twenty two thousand, one hundred and fifty only)。”<br /> 译文:“单价: FOB天津新港, 每辆22150.00美元（贰万贰仟壹佰伍拾美元）。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“FOB”is an abbreviation of “Free on board”. It can be translated into “FOB” by free translation or by shifting translation. This is mainly because the readers of business contracts themselves are professionals in the industry. They usually exchange price terms in the form of English letters and abbreviations in their daily work. Therefore, when translating such price terms, their source language expressions can be retained. (Liao Ying 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Equivalence of Archaism—Omission, Addition and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Archaisms are rarely used in modern English, but they are still common in business contracts. They can not only reflect the formal rigour of business contracts, but also highlight the conciseness and clarity of language. The archaisms most commonly used in English business contract are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中), hereinafter(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于), etc. (Miao Xipu 2011, 118)<br /> <br /> Example1:“The parties hereto shall, first of all, settle any dispute arising from or in connection with the contract through amicable negotiation.” <br /> 译文:“合同双方首先应该通过友好协商，解决因合同而发生的或与合同相关的争议。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“hereto”means“本协议的、本合同的”. It can be translated with omission. The contract subject relationship is clear, literal translation will only lead to redundant repetition of the translation, so there is no need to translate it. (Liao Ying 2005, 50)<br /> <br /> Example2: Now, therefore, in consideration of the recitals set forth above and the mutual covenants, promises, and agreements contained herein, and other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged, the Parties do hereby agree as follows: <br /> 译文：因此，考虑到上述陈述和本协议中包含的共同契约、承诺和协议，以及其他良好和有价值的对价，双方特此达成如下协议，特此确认其接收和充分性。<br /> <br /> In this example, herein usually means“此中，于此”. But such translation here will confuse readers. Therefore, we can adopt addition and translate it into“此协议中”. Although this expression is not as concise as“于此”, accuracy is the first requirement in contract translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 53)<br /> <br /> Example3: After arrival of goods at port of destination, the buyer shall apply to China Commodity Inspection Bureau (hereinafter referred to as CCIB) for a further inspection as to the specifications and quantity/weight of the goods.<br /> 译文：货到目的港后，买方将申请中国商品检验局(以下简称商检局)对货物的规格和数量重量进行检验。<br /> <br /> In this case, the original meaning of“hereinafter”is“以下，在下文中”. Its original meaning is directly inserted into the sentence, which not only accurately expresses the original meaning, but also makes the translated language natural and smooth, meeting the requirements of functional equivalence theory. (Liao Ying 2005, 63)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Equivalence of Formal Words—Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> “Functional Equivalence”emphasizes the transmission of reading experience, requiring the translator to transmit not only language functions but also legal functions, so as to enable the target readers to feel the reading experience of the original readers. (Miao Xipu 2011, 122)<br /> <br /> Example1: The agreement does not operate as an acceptance of any conflicting terms and conditions and shall prevail over any conflicting provision of any purchase order or any other instrument of Customer. <br /> 译文：本协议不接受任何与本协议产生冲突的任何条款。若在乙方订单或任何文件中出现与本协议相冲突的条款，应均以本协议为准。<br /> <br /> Example2:“Time of shipment: within 15 days after receipt of the advance payment and the L/C of balance value to be accepted by the × Bank.” <br /> 译文:“装运日期：收到预付款且剩余货款的信用证被××银行承兑后的15天内装运。”<br /> <br /> In the first example, although the basic meaning of“胜过”is also expressed, it is usually translated into“以....为准” or “效力高于”in legal texts. In the second example, the common meaning of“accept”is “接受”, but in legal translation it is usually translated as “承兑”. Formal words are usually translated according to conventions, so the difficulty in translation lies not in the choice of translation strategies, but in the grasp of semantics and the reproduction of style. (Miao Xipu 2011, 113)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.4 Equivalence of Juxtaposition—Contracted Translation=====<br /> <br /> English business contracts often use two or more synonyms to ensure the uniqueness of words meaning. The functional equivalence theory emphasizes the equivalence of meaning and form, but in the actual translation process, the absolute equivalence between the two, that is, the “maximum functional equivalence”proposed by Nida, is impossible to realize. (Miao Xipu 2011, 115)<br /> <br /> Example1:“The agreement is made and entered into on April 16, 2007 by and between Party A and Party B.”<br /> 译文:“此合同由甲乙双方于2007年4月16日达成。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“made and entered into”and“by and between”are juxtaposed by two pairs of synonyms. When translating, these words only need translate once, which is called contracted translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 83)<br /> <br /> Example2: This agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the subject matter hereof and supersedes all prior agreements, understanding, warranties, representations, negotiations and discussion, whether oral or written, of the parties except as specifically set forth herein.<br /> 译文：此合同是双方就合同主体所达成的全部协议，将取代双方过往所有口头或书面的协议、理解、声明、保证、谈判和讨论，在此明确阐明的除外。<br /> <br /> In this example, several synonyms are juxtaposed to make the terms of the contract include all relevant matters as much as possible so as to make the writing strict and clear. Here, we can adopt literal translation strategy, keeping the total number of words listed in the original text, and looking for the corresponding Chinese words to achieve the double equivalence of content and form. (Miao Xipu 2011, 116)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Equivalence at the Syntactic Level====<br /> <br /> Cliches are commonly used in official document and usually have a fixed translation method. Passive sentences and subordinate clauses have long sentence patterns and complicated logical relations, which tests the translator's translation ability and logical expression ability. (Miao Xipu 2011, 122)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Conventional Phrases—Imitation Translation=====<br /> <br /> There are many cliches in business contracts, which are common at the beginning and end of contracts. (Miao Xipu 2011, 139)<br /> <br /> Example1:“In consideration of the mutual covenants contained in this agreement, the parties agree as follows:”<br /> 译文:“考虑到本协议中的共同承诺，协议双方约定如下:”<br /> <br /> Example2:This Agreement may be executed in two or more counterparts, each of which shall be deemed an original and all of which together shall constitute one instrument. <br /> 译文：本协议可签署两个或两个以上的副本，每一副本构成本协议的一份原件，所有副本构成一份法律文件。<br /> <br /> Although the original expression of each text is not the same, the basic meaning is the same. A relatively fixed translation method has been formed, so the translators should know the common expressions in advance, or look for the parallel text to imitate the translation. (Miao Xipu 2011, 140)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Equivalence of Passive Sentence=====<br /> <br /> Passive voice is a typical language structure in English business contracts. It can effectively reflect the objectivity and fairness of contracts. However, unlike English, passive voice is seldom used in Chinese. Therefore, in translation, we usually use various translation strategies to convert passive voice into active voice. The most common translation strategy is conversion, that is, the object of the original text is converted into the subject, and the subject is converted into the object. (Miao Xipu 2011, 150)<br /> <br /> Example1: This Contract is made by and between the Buyer and the Seller whereby the Buyer agree to buy and the Seller agrees to sell the commodity in attached Annex according to the terms and condition stipulated below: <br /> 译文：买卖双方同意按下述条款购买出售附件中的商品并签订本合同： <br /> <br /> Example2: Agent shall be entitled to nominate mandate other third parties to act upon behalf of Agent in generating business to the Parties, as Agent’s sole discretion. <br /> 译文：代理人有权自行指定、授权其他第三方代表代理人为缔约方带来业务。<br /> <br /> From the first example, “by and between” is used as adverbial in the sentence. The object“the Buyer and the Seller” is the originator of this sentence, which is transformed into the subject of Chinese, and the recipient of the action“this contract”is transformed into the object of Chinese, thus the passive sentence of English is transformed into the active sentence of Chinese. In addition, some passive sentences in business contracts can also be translated into active sentences without changing the subject of the original sentence, as shown in the second example. (Miao Xipu 2011, 158)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Equivalence of Long Sentence—Combination, Division and Reconstruction=====<br /> <br /> Long sentences must contain many clauses and modifiers, and their writing ideas are quite different from those of Chinese. Therefore, how to split the sentences into several parts, how to extract the core meaning of complex logical relations and how to reorganize Chinese are the three major difficulties. (Miao Xipu 2011, 188)<br /> <br /> Example1: Agent’s undertaking and obligation is to search, locate and refer (lead) potential and prospective clients/customers to Principal who are seriously interested, ready, willing and able to apply for the Product. <br /> 译文：代理人的责任和义务是为委托人寻找、定位和推荐（引导）潜在的、真正对本产品感兴趣、准备好且愿意申请的客户。<br /> <br /> This is a restrictive attributive clause. We often adopt a combination method, translating the subordinate clause into“...的” and putting it before the modifier in the form of adjectives. This is mainly due to the structural differences between English and Chinese. The attributive elements in Chinese are not as flexible as the attributive clauses in English. (Miao Xipu 2011, 190)<br /> <br /> Example2: The parties may not assign or transfer this Agreement or any of its rights and obligations under this Agreement without the prior written consent of the other party, which shall not be unreasonably withheld. <br /> 译文：未经另一方事先书面同意，缔约方不得出让或转让本协议或本协议项下的各项权利和义务，此要求不得被无理拒绝。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a non-restrictive attributive clause. Since this clause and the antecedent are not closely related and generally play an explanatory role, we often use division method in E-C translation. That is to say, the two should be separated and naturally combined by repeating antecedents. (Miao Xipu 2011, 192)<br /> <br /> Example3: Should Principal be reasonably sure that Agent violated this rule, or should any client/customer present proof of such violation, Agent will not be entitled to its omission for the particular client or group of clients and Principal may terminate this Agreement with immediate effect at its own discretion. <br /> 译文：如果委托人有理由确定代理人违反了此项规定，或如果有客户提供了其违反此项规定的证据，代理人将无权享这一客户或这一组客户的佣金，委托人可自行终止本协议，即刻生效。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a adverbial clause. The structure of“should+subject+verb”belongs to the unreal conditional sentence. But there is no such usage in Chinese. Therefore, we can reconstruct the original text according to the logical structure of the original sentence and adjust the word order appropriately to make it natural and more in line with the Chinese expression habits. (Liao Ying 2005, 103)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Equivalence at Textual Level====<br /> <br /> The text consists of sentences, so the following focuses on the cohesion and format of the text. (Miao Xipu 2011, 218)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Text Cohesion=====<br /> <br /> Text cohesion is realized through the use of conjunctions and lexical repetition, reflecting the rigour and solemnity of business contract language. (Miao Xipu 2011, 228)<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> Thereafter, this Agreement shall be renewed automatically for successive additional one-year terms under the same terms and conditions unless either party chooses not to continue the relationship and provides written notice 30 days prior to the natural expiration of the existing one-year term. <br /> 译文：此后，本协议应以同样的条款自动延期一年，除非任何一方选择解除合作关系，并在一年合同期满前30天提交书面通知。<br /> <br /> Here, explicit connectives,“thereafter, and, unless”are clearly translated, which is conducive to textual cohesion and indicates the logical relationship between sentences. Therefore, we can translate them into “此后、和/并、除非”, which not only realizes the formal equivalence between the translation and the original, but also achieves the semantic equivalence. (Liao Ying 2005, 213)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Text Format=====<br /> <br /> As one kind of legal documents, commercial contracts are highly normative and have strict writing format. Therefore, attention should be paid to the corresponding format in translation. (Miao Xipu 2011, 238)<br /> <br /> Contract No: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Date: Aug. ××,2013 <br /> <br /> The Buyer: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Representative: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> The seller: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××<br /> <br /> Representative: ××××××<br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> 译文：合同编号：×××××× <br /> <br /> 日期：2013年8月×号 <br /> <br /> 买方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：×××××× <br /> <br /> 卖方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：××××××<br /> <br /> Here, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the contract text, and keep the format of the translation and the original text in alignment during translation. Firstly, capital words with the first letter should be emphasized in terms consistent with Chinese expression habits. Secondly, the parts marked in bold or italics in the contract shall still be marked in bold or italics in the translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 223)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> To sum up, according to the requirements of functional equivalence theory on translation quality, commercial contract translation should meet the following standards:<br /> <br /> In terms of content, first, the translation language should be natural and fluent and conform to Chinese expression habits. Second, pay attention to the professionalism of the language expression in the translation, avoid using colloquial expressions, and achieve the meaning equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)<br /> <br /> In terms of format, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the commercial contract text and try our best to achieve the formal equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)<br /> <br /> In terms of language style, the translation should retain the original language style as much as possible. The business contract language is professional and solemn, so the translation should reproduce the strict and formal legal style of the original text on the premise of ensuring accurate content and natural language. (JIn Di 1998, 298)<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes and summarizes specific contract terms and puts forward countermeasures. Although the translation strategies given in this paper have certain universality, the research text is slightly narrower than that of the whole commercial contract text research. Due to the space limitation, the cases provided are limited. Therefore, the scope of the research text should be broadened and analyzed from a broader research perspective in future research. (JIn Di 1998, 310)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> [1] Beekman, J. &amp; John C. Translating the word of God [M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974. <br /> <br /> [2] Catford, J. C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965. <br /> <br /> [3] Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> [4] Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986.<br /> <br /> [5] Nida, E. A., and R Taber, Charles. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. New York: E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1969.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995.<br /> <br /> [7] Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [8] Yallop, C. The construction of equivalence[A]. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2001.<br /> <br /> [9] Dun Guangang 顿官刚. (2002). 经贸英语词汇的特点及翻译[Characteristics and Translation of Business English Vocabulary]. 山东外语教学 Shandong Foreign Language Teaching Journal.<br /> <br /> [10] Liao Ying 廖瑛. (2005). 实用公关英语[Practical English PublicRelations]. Shanghai: University of International Business and Economics Press 对外经济贸易大学出版社. <br /> <br /> [11] Liu Miqin 刘宓庆. (1998). 文体与翻译[English Varities and Translation]. Beijing: China Translation Corporation Press 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> [12] Jin Di 金堤. (1998). 等效翻译探索[Translation Theory and Practice Series]. Beijing; China Translation Corporation Press 中国对外翻译出版公司. <br /> <br /> [13] Ma Huijuan 马会娟. (2005). 论商务文本翻译标准多元化[On Diversification of Business Text Translation Standards]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal. 24-154.<br /> <br /> [14] Miao Xipu 苗锡璞. (2011). 功能对等理论指导下的商务英语翻译[Business English Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory]. 内蒙古财经学院学报 Journal of Inner Mongolia. 78-238.<br /> <br /> [15] Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史[A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> [16] Wang Yang 汪洋. (2009). 浅析商务合同的词汇与句法翻译技巧[The Lexical and Syntactic Features of Business Contract and its Translation]. 科技文汇 The Science Education Article Collects. 13-47.<br /> <br /> ==The identity of translator in translation activities张毓婕 Zhang Yujie==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In translation activities, translators have freedom in the choice of texts to be translated and translation strategies. They also have freedom in the choice of ways to understand the author’s emotions and values and reproduce the connotations and cultural flavor of the text. And Only when translators truly realize what roles they should play in translation activities and play these roles well can they create high-quality translations. Therefore, the translation is deeply imprinted by the translator, and the roles of the translator have become an important issue that cannot be ignored in translation studies. And with the development of translation studies, the issue of translator's identity has received due attention. This article also discusses the issue of translator’s identity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> identity of translator, translation activities, roles of today’s translator <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 论翻译活动中译者的身份<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 翻译活动中，译者既可以在翻译文本、翻译策略的选择上发挥主观能动性，也可以在对作者情感和价值观的理解、语言的选择、文化风味的重现上发挥主观能动性。而只有译者真正认识到自己在翻译活动中应该扮演什么角色并且扮演好这种角色，他们才能创造出高质量的译作。因而译作深深地打上了译者的烙印，译者的身份角色成为翻译研究中不可忽视的一个重要问题。而随着翻译实践的发展，译者的身份问题受到了应有的重视，本文也对这一问题进行了探讨。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 译者的身份，翻译活动，当今译者的角色<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translators’ playing roles well in translation is vital to the accomplishment of high-quality translations. Therefore, the identity of translator is an important issue in translation studies and we should pay much attention to it. As for this paper, first of all, it makes an analysis of the importance and necessity of valuing the issue of translator’s identity. Then, it expounds different kinds of roles translators have played in the history. Next, it concludes the features of the changes of translator’s identity and its complexity. Finally, from the perspective of today’s translators, it shows what roles today’s translators should play with today’s development of society and technologies, so as to explain how can we make more contributions to culture and development of the world.<br /> <br /> ===1.The importance and necessity of valuing the issue of translator’s identity===<br /> Two scholars Zhong Weihe and Zhou Jing made the following overview: as the subject of translation, translators need to respect the objective translation environment and fully understand the cultural needs of the target language, and they must also show their self-consciousness through subjective initiative. For example, they can show it through language operation, cultural characteristics, artistic creation, aesthetic standards, and humanistic character. In addition, they must give full play to their autonomy, initiative, purpose, creativity, and acceptance. This is the subjectivity of translation. （Zhong and Zhou, 2006）The two scholars not only pointed out the objective conditions that translators need to consider in translation activities, but also further explained that translators need to stimulate their subjective initiative and creativity, which is very enlightening. As the subject of translation, the translator’s activity is the specific translation behavior, that is, the conversion between two different languages and cultures. He can be creative and active in the choice of the text to be translated, the order of translation and translation strategies. The translated version is also deeply imprinted by the translator. Although the translation is derived from the original, it is no longer the original and have a new life. In addition, the translator can not only give the original work a new life, but also decide which new life to give it, so that it will be presented to the target language readers in an acceptable appearance. Therefore, the identity of the translator runs through the entire translation activity and is closely linked to the original and translated work. It is an important issue worthy of our attention.<br /> <br /> ===2.Different kinds of roles translators have played in history===<br /> <br /> ====2.1The identity of translator under the source language centralism====<br /> Under the source language centralism, the purpose of translation is to reproduce the author’s original meanings and the highest standard of translation is being faithful to the original text. In these translation theories, translators’ cultural status is marginalized, and many of these translators are invisible, given various kinds of humble titles and roles.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1Translator as a servant=====<br /> There are certain common cognitions and understandings of the identity of translators in China and western countries. Due to their long-exist limitations in public awareness of translation activities and the low social status of translators, translators were once generally regarded as playing the &quot;servant role&quot; in both East and West.<br /> <br /> John Dryden compares a translator to a slave, thinking that the &quot;slave&quot; can only work in someone else's manor, manuring and pruning the grapes, while the wine produced belongs to the owner. （Tan, 1991）<br /> <br /> American modern translator Weinberger complained that although his translation works had attracted millions of readers, there was no his name on the cover of the translations, so he was merely an unsung hero.<br /> <br /> Yang Jiang also said in her book Experience of Failures-Trial Translation: At least, this is a hard job, because translators as servants have to follow the master and cannot be self-assertive. Moreover, a servant serves two masters at the same time: one is the original text, and the other is the readers of his translation. (Jin and Huang, 2019)<br /> <br /> The identity of servant requires translators to be completely faithful to the original text, adhere to the source-centered and author-centered theory, and not be affected by their own emotions and values. Playing this kind of role, the translator should only faithfully convey the connotation of the text and the author's original intention, so he just like a slave in shackles without personal freedom, and can only follow the author in anywhere. Of course, it is true that translators’ playing a role as a servant can help translators to faithfully restoring the author’s intention and not distorting his original meanings so that meet the requirements of “faithfulness” and “loyalty”, but this kind of theory ignores the translator’s subjectivity and will place translators in a very low social status. Just as an ancient craftsman did not have the right to sign his name on his carvings, a translator also doesn’t have this kind of right and is neglected in their translations. Therefore, this theory reveals various prejudices and disregard of public for translators. And even in today’s China with prosperous economy and society, most people still hold the view that translation is merely the mechanical conversion of the source language and the target language. They believe that if they understand English, they are absolutely qualified for the job of translation. At the same time, a lot of issues such as a chaotic translation market, low salary for translators, talent shortage in translation and gloomy employment prospects are very prominent. What’s more, even in the Chinese translation circles, there are long-exist serious problem of &quot;seeing things but not people&quot;. Translators have a low status in the literary world and are treated with indifference and contempt. And their fruits, that is, translations, are not valued or even recognized on many occasions.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2Translator as an invisible person=====<br /> One topic that has been heatly debated for a long time in the translation world is that whether translators should be invisible or visible in translation. The translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;visibility&quot; have their own purpose and theoretical basis respectively, but both &quot;invisibility&quot; or &quot;visibility&quot; are translators’ own choices made after deliberations.<br /> Venuti, the translation theorist of deconstruction, explained invisibility in his monograph The Translators Invisibility: A History of Translation with Norman Shapiro's words and he thought that the translation should be transparent so that it does not look like the translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass. There are only small imperfections on the glass like scratches and bubbles. Of course, the ideal is to have nothing. The translation should never cause readers to feel that they are reading the translation. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu also had similar points of view and he stated in the article The Translation of Lin Shu that: The highest standard of literary translation is &quot;sublimation&quot;. In translation, if you can not only do not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched due to the differences of language habits, but also completely preserve the original flavor, then it has met requirements of “sublimation”. In the seventeenth century, someone praised this kind of translation as &quot;the transmigration of souls&quot; of the original text, whose body was changed and the spirit remained the same. In other words, the translation should be so faithful to the original that it does not read like the translation, because the original work will never read as if it is translated from somewhere else. （Qian，1984）<br /> <br /> The French translation theorist Munin once wrote in his translation monograph Les Belles Infideles: &quot;The ideal translator, as defined by Gogol, should turn into a glass, so transparent that readers can’t even feel its existence.<br /> <br /> The &quot;invisible&quot; identity of the translator means that the translator can reproduce the spiritual essence and style of the source text naturally, so as to achieve the &quot;transparency&quot; of the translation and the &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator. The translation needs to be fluent and natural, in line with the reading habits of the target language readers, and translators should avoid obscure word choice and mechanical sentence conversion. While reading the translated text, readers should not feel the existence of the translator and the influences he exerts on the text. And when the translator is nowhere to be seen and felt in the text, we can say that the translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; has been achieved. This requires translators to pay attention to three points that are often emphasized in traditional translation theories: one is that the translator should not incorporate their own emotions and values in the translation; the second is that the translator should not show his or her own personality in the translation; the third is that in translation the author should be based on the original text and follow the author in each choice. （Xu，2003）<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Translator as a painter=====<br /> Dryden once compared the translator to a painter. He advocated the translation view of comparing translation to painting: In translation, a translator should regard the original text as a model, and use his own colors to express the power and effect of the original text. The earliest Chinese translator who used metaphor like this was Chen Xiying. He believed that: translation is the same as a painting, although imitation is the most important, the colors used in the copy of a painting and the painting itself are the same. While the languages and strategies used in the original text and the translated version are totally different. On the other hand, a person who can appreciate the original painting has the ability to appreciate the copy one, while most people who can read the original book cannot read the translated version, and most people who can read the translation cannot understand the original text. This is the first difficulty the translator will face. &quot;And Chinese are much more familiar with Fu Lei’s statement: “In terms of effect, translation should be like a painting, and what you should restore is not the form but the spirit.” This theory extracts the common characteristics of translation and painting, and vividly elaborates the process and details of translation activities.<br /> <br /> ====2.2The identity of translator under the translator centralism====<br /> In 1980s, there was a cultural turn of translation studies in western countries from language translation to cultural translation. Translation theorists began to study translation with valuable theories from other subjects such as Semiotics, Hermeneutics, Philosophy, Literature and so on, which helped them to improve the traditional translation models. The subjectivity of translators were valued at that time and there appeared various kinds of roles of translators which emphasize the creativity, imagination, and activity of translators. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1Translator as a manipulator=====<br /> The manipulator status of the translator originated from the manipulation school. Manipulation school was an important part of the cultural school of translation studies in the 1980s. It was developed in the category of comparative literature. The main representatives are Hesman and Lefevre. Hesman said: From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for a certain purpose. Lefevre combines translation studies with power, ideology, patronage, and poetics and believed: “Translation, of course, is a rewriting of the original text. Rewriting is manipulation.” （Lefevere, 2010）The manipulation school is different from those schools that put &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;faithfulness&quot; in the most important place. Its representatives believe that translation is the manipulation and rewriting of the original text, the translator is the manipulator of the text, and the translation and the original text are both important. This theory is contrary to the original work-centered theory and author-centered theory, and is subversive to the previous translation theories. It shifts the focus of translation from the original author to the translator, which is conducive to improve the status of translators. They also particularly emphasized the status of culture in translation and the significance of translation to culture. They believed that the purpose of translation is not to simply complete the conversion of words, phrases and sentences, but to achieve cultural correspondence, so that the cultural meanings conveyed by the translation is consistent with the cultural meanings in the original text. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2Translator as a writer=====<br /> Women and translation have been long connected with each other for both of them occupy very humble positions. The traditional view holds that translation is considered as a secondary work dependent on and subservient to the original text, just as women are inferior to men under patriarchal power. <br /> <br /> Feminist translation theory came into being in a wave of opposition to this kind of traditional thought. It combined feminism and translation, and its representatives put forward many translation viewpoints influenced by feminism, providing a new perspective for translation studies and subverting the traditional translation theory. The representatives of feminist translation theory include Sherry Simon, Lori Chambelain, Luise von Flotow, etc. Thus, translation studies “began to distrust the traditional hierarchical order and gender roles, and began to question the faithful rules and universal standards of meaning and value.&quot; They believed that translators should not be faithful to the original text or the author, but the identity and discourse power of women. The purpose of translation is to make language speak for women, improve their status and liberate women through language. Feminist translators revealed many sexist words and phrases in translation, re-examined the relationship between the original text and the translated version, advocated rewriting translation strategies, and required feminist intervention and rewriting of the original text. In this way, feminist translation theorists improved the status of translators and helped them to go to the front of the stage from behind the scenes, playing the role of an author.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3Translator as a conqueror=====<br /> As a social practice activity, translation is also a product of political thoughts and ideologies in a sense. When translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously affected by their political stance and ideologies, and the translator’s cultural identity and cultural attitude are always political. Therefore, the translated text is not exactly equivalent to the original, because in the process of translation, translators will add their own feelings and values to the translated version. What's more, some people think that translators are aggressors, and the purpose of translation is to impose one culture on another, such as the translations serving as a tool for the construction of subjectivity of colonialism in the process of colonization and maintaining cultural hierarchy after the end of the colonial era. This type of translation is used as a tool for political purpose and is just like a conqueror. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.4The translator's &quot;independent&quot; status=====<br /> Post-colonial research in the field of modern translation believes that translation has three functions: (1) the means of colonization (2) the lightning rod for cultural inequality (3) the tools of decolonization.(Robinson, 1997) As is mentioned above, when translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously influenced by their own political stance and ideologies, and thus become a tool for cultural expansion and maintaining cultural hierarchy in the colonial era. Similarly, this tool can also be applied to the activities of anti-colonialism. In fact, in the process of anti-colonialism, translation has also played an important role, providing a stage for anti-colonialism activities and becoming a tool used by the colonized to get rid of the colonial yoke and weaken cultural hegemony.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.5Translator as a creative rebel=====<br /> The term creative rebellion comes from French literary sociologist Robert Escarpit. He holds the view that translation is rebellious, because it puts the work in a completely unexpected reference system (referring to language); Translation is creative, because it gives the work a new look and makes it more comprehensive. So that readers can have a brand-new literary exchange. （Escarpit, 1987）That is to say, on the one hand, this theory believes that translation is creative, that is, in the process of translation, in order to restore the original contents and cultural flavor, the translator must use his creativity and imagination to find suitable words and styles in the target language to stimulate readers to have similar associations. This is a kind of creative work that can give the original work a new life in a new language. On the other hand, translation is rebellious. When using the target language to restore the connotations of the original text, the translator must discard some of the original form. Creative rebellion can be divided into three types: the creative rebellion of the translator, the creative rebellion of the recipient, and the creative rebellion of the receiving environment. The creative treason of the translator can be conscious and unconscious, such as personalized translation, mistranslation, omission, compilation, adaptation and so on.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.6Translator as a language quality controller(Li and He, 2018)=====<br /> In recent years, with the development of the world economy and Internet technology, computer-assisted translation has become more and more popular. It has overturned the traditional translation model and most of the work of language conversion is completed by computers instead of translators. However, although the computer can complete the task of translation, the translated texts usually don’t have a very high quality and need to be improved by human translators. Especially in literary translation, as we all know, when translating a literal work, translators need to have sufficient cultural background knowledge, and in the process of literal translation, they must put themselves into the author’s context and fully understand his emotions, attitudes and values in order to create translations with high quality. This is something that computer translation software are unable to achieve. Therefore, translators play the role of processing, modifying, and polishing the texts produced by computers. They are the controllers of language quality, making up for the flaws in the translation given by the computer, ensuring the fluency of the translation and choosing an appropriate style for it. This identity of the translator does not mean that the translator is marginalized again and in a low position. On the contrary, translators are playing an irreplaceable role in ensuring the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> ===3.The features of the changes of translator’s identity and its complexity===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The identity of translators changed from invisible to visible, from subordinate to dominant, from author-centered to translator-centered. ====<br /> At the beginning, due to the limitations of people’s understanding about translation activities, translators had low social status, and most of them played the roles of &quot;invisible man&quot;, &quot;slave&quot;, &quot;servant&quot; and &quot;painter&quot;. The author and the original text were the center of translation activities, while the translators were marginalized. Later, with the cultural turn of translation studies, translators gradually got rid of the shackles, moved from behind the scenes to the front stage, and became the subject of translation activities. （Yao, 1996）This feature is reflected in translation views of manipulation school, feminist translation theories, creative treason translation views and post-colonial translation views. At that time, translators played many other roles, such as &quot;manipulator&quot;, &quot;writer&quot;, &quot;creative rebel&quot;, &quot;conqueror “and so on. Nowadays, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have gained more roles such as &quot;language quality controller&quot;, &quot;learners of new technology and new knowledge&quot; and so on. Although part of the translator's work is done by a computer now, this is not a manifestation of the translator's marginalization again, but a manifestation of the translator's freedom and subjectivity. Therefore, translators today should grasp the trend of the evolution of the translator's identity, give full play to their subjective initiative in translation practice, and avoid becoming servants or slaves of the original text. At the same time, this does not mean that the translator can distort the author’s original meaning arbitrarily. Translation is just like “dancing with shackles&quot;. On the one hand, we should be faithful to the author and adhere to certain translation principles. One the other hand, we can adjust our translation strategies according to our purposes of translation and find a good way to restore the feelings, values and attitude of the original author as well as cultural flavor of the original text. In this way, the translator can present a high-quality translation to readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The identity and status of translators are closely connected with the era in which they live.==== <br /> Throughout the history of translation studies at home and abroad, the role of the translator was ignored in the early translation studies due to the limitations of the times, and translators had a low cultural and social status. It was not until the cultural turn in the 1970s that translators truly moved from behind the scenes to the foreground. We can say that the shift of the focus of translation studies and the change of the identity of translators are deeply influenced by the time and cultural backgrounds. For example, in the 1970s, the slogan &quot;women must be liberated from language, and women's liberation must start with language&quot; emerged and translation had always been in a position similar to that of &quot;women&quot; in its own hierarchical structure. Therefore, the feminist translation theory rose and its representative translation theorists revealed discriminations in the field of translation, and liberated women by liberating translation. Another example is that many translated works under colonial expansion and anti-colonial struggle have obvious ideological characteristics, and translators of that time hoped to use culture as a tool to achieve certain political goals. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation activities are complex, and so is the identity of translator.====<br /> In different times, the identity of translator is complicated. Faced with different works, the identity of translator changes, because we have different purposes and needs when translating different works. Even when the translator is only faced with one work, in many cases, the identity of the translator will not be a single one, but a combination of multiple identities. It is the integration of these identities that makes the translation more smooth and complete. For example, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have multiple identities such as &quot;learner of new knowledge and new technology&quot;, &quot;selector of the style&quot;, and &quot;controller of language quality&quot;. We can say that translators can play different roles for different translation purposes and requirements as well as in different steps of translation.<br /> <br /> ===4. The roles of today’s translators===<br /> ====4.1 Dancers in shackles. ====<br /> Historically, there are many arguments about whether translators should be visible or invisible, servant or master. From today’s point of view, translators should keep a balance between them. They should not merely follow the author’s steps, and be the “servant” of the original text, nor should they believe that they can distort and rewrite the original text arbitrarily. Instead, they should act as a dancer in shackles: He should not only be faithful to the original text, adhere to specific translation standards and principles, carefully consider the choice of words and sentences, but also give full play to his subjective initiative and choose the most appropriate, natural and easily acceptable languages to convey the connotations of the original text.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Megaphones of real problems.====<br /> Feminist translation theory combined feminism with translation, and at that time translation became a tool for women to fight for independence and liberation. This reflects that translations are instrumental in reflecting social problems and seeking appropriate solutions to them. Excellent translation theorists can not only pay attention to the text translation itself, but also pay attention to the reflecting and solving of realistic issues in the field of translation and using translation as a tool to reasonably convey their appeals to the public on behalf of a specific group.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Learners who keep up with the time.====<br /> Translation is progressing with the time developing. If you stand still, you will lose out, and so will translators. They need to continuously learn new translation theories and accumulate more experience in practice in order to create excellent translation works. In addition, they must continue to learn new technologies and other new knowledge, such as computer-assisted translation technology, so that they can not only keep the traditional translation model in mind, but also find better ways to translate. In this way, they can adapt to the society and technological development more easily, and create high-quality translated works more efficiently. What’s more, translators should also pay attention to hot issues happened around the world, because translators should not only practice their translation skills, but also learn more new culture, which is vital in translation in the future.<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Promoters of cultural communication.====<br /> Translators are the bridges between the source language and the target language, the author and the readers. Translators with profound knowledge in language skills and cultural backgrounds can accurately grasp the connotations of the original text, reproduce the original style, convey cultural messages, and bring readers to foreign authors with unique emotional attitudes and values. With the globalization, today's world is characterized by frequent economic, political, and cultural exchanges between China and the West. Translators play the role of cultural communicators of the world. But this is different from the “conqueror” in the context of colonial expansion in the past, because China has long respected the diversity of world culture and treated the culture of every country and nation equally, so the purpose of translation activities for today’s translators is not cultural aggression but spread valuable Chinese culture to other countries and receive the essence of other countries' cultures. The role of today’s translators is the promoter of communication of cultures.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The identity of translator is an important issue of translation studies. Throughout the history, translators have played various kinds of roles in translation. At the beginning, translators had a low cultural status and are given such roles as “servant” and “invisible man”. And the subjectivity and creativity of translators were ignored in translation studies. Later in 1970s, with the cultural turn in translation studies of western countries, translators got much more attention and walked from behind the scenes to the front stage, and various kinds of roles are given to them such as: “manipulator” “writer” “creative rebel”. The status of translators had been improved. Then with the development of society and technology, translators are playing more roles such as “language quality controller” “new learner” and “selector”. From the changes of the translators’ identity, we can conclude many features of it and realize what roles should today’s translators play in order to give full play to their creativity and subjectivity, so as to create wonderful translated versions.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1] Venuti (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility'': London and New York: Routledge. <br /> <br /> [2] Robinson, D (1997). Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theories Explained: Manchester: St.Jerome Publishing. <br /> <br /> [3] 埃斯卡皮，罗贝尔(1987).文学社会学-罗•埃斯卡皮文论选:杭州：浙江人民出版社. <br /> <br /> [4] Lefevere, Andre (2010). ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame'': Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> [5]仲伟合、周静（2096），译者的极限与底线-试论译者主体性与译者的天职，外语与外语教学（07）：42-46。<br /> <br /> [6]谭载喜（1991），西方翻译简史，北京：商务印书馆：153。<br /> <br /> [7]许钧（2003），翻译论，武汉：湖北教育出版社。<br /> <br /> [8]杨武能（2003），再谈文学翻译主题，中国翻译（03）。<br /> <br /> [9]李晖，郝思源（2018），计算机辅助翻译中的译者身份研究，校园英（17）。<br /> <br /> [10]钱钟书（1984），林殊的翻译，北京商务印书馆。<br /> <br /> [11]姚亚平（1996），中国当代修辞学，广州：广东教育出版社：37。<br /> <br /> [12]金圣华，黄国斌（1996），因难见巧-名家翻译经验谈，香港：三联书店有限公司。<br /> <br /> ==Study of Domestication and foreignization in Cross-cultural Translation 顾东方 Gu Dongfang 202070080635==<br /> <br /> 顾东方 Gu Dongfang<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's economic globalization, international cultural exchanges are expanding, and translation as a communication tool is also crucial. As a form of cross-cultural and cross-linguistic communication, translation is a kind of communication and interaction between two cultures with very different social backgrounds and cultural traditions. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, the application and selection of translation strategies should not only reflect the translator's style, but also directly affect the audience of the translated work among the target language readers. In 1995, Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization , in The Invisibility of Translators. domestication and foreignization are both opposed and unified, i.e. there is no such thing as absolute domestication or absolute foreignization. This paper will discuss the selection and application of domestication and foreignization in cross-cultural translation, based on the two translation strategies themselves and actual translation cases, so that translators can use these two translation strategies more flexibly in translation to better convey the meaning of the original texts and make the translations reach more readers, and thus promote the communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication and foreignization; cross-cutural; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在经济全球化的今天，国际间文化交流也在不断扩大，而翻译作为一种交流工具也显得至关重要。作为一种跨文化、跨语言交际的形式，翻译是一种社会背景与文化传统很不相同的两种文化间的交流与交往。因此，在跨文化翻译中，翻译策略的运用与选择不仅仅要体现出译者的风格，也会直接影响译作在目的语读者中的受众程度。美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出了归化与异化两种翻译策略。归化与异化，既对立又统一，也即绝对的归化或者绝对的异化都是不存在的。本文将从归化与异化这两种翻译策略的本身出发，并结合实际翻译案例，来探讨归化与异化在跨文化翻译当中的选择与运用，使得译者能够在翻译中更灵活地使用这两种翻译策略，更好地传达出原作的意蕴，使译作受众于更多的读者，以此促进不同文化之间的交流。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化与异化；跨文化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> === Definitions of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Domestication is to localize the original language and focuses on the target language or readers by conveying the original text in the way target readers are familiar with. In order to close the readers of target texts.Domesticated translation requires the translator to speak like a native author, and the translation must become authentic to the native language if the original author is to speak directly to the readers. It helps the reader to better understand the translation and enhances the readability and enjoyment of the translation.<br /> Foreignization is that the translator tries not to disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader can get closer to the author&quot;. In translation, it means to accommodate the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorb foreign expressions, require the translator to approach the author, and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the original content. The purpose of the foreignization strategy is to consider about the differences in national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationalities and linguistic styles, and to preserve the exoticism of the translated text for the readers.<br /> <br /> ===The relationship between literal translation and free translation ,and domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Historically, foreignization and domestication can be seen as extensions of, but not identical to, literal and free translation. The terms &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot; are English translation version. Literal translation is a kind of method or text that keeps the original content and the form of the original text. Free translation means that it keeps only the content of the original text, not the form of the original text. Literal translation appeared during the May 4th Movement, emphasizing the need for faithfulness to the original text so that the translation can be &quot;expressive&quot; and &quot;elegant&quot;. Literal translation does not mean translating word for word in mechanical way. Since English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate them word for word. Literal translation is to fully and accurately clarify the meaning of the original work, without any distortion or random addition or deletion of the original ideas to maintain the original style. Sometimes even the original mood or emotion, such as anger or embarrassment, sarcasm or irony, joy or happiness, should not be ignored. Fu Si Nian and Zheng Zhenduo both advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, literal translation is the overriding rule. The work of Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren, The Collected Works of Extra-territorial Novels, is regarded as the representative of literal translation. The free translation, on the other hand, starts from the meaning and requires only the main idea of the original text to be expressed without excessive attention to detail, but a natural flow of the translation. In translation, if we cannot directly adopt the structure and expression of the original, we must change the sentence structure and expression to convey the meaning of the original according to the form and characteristics of the expression. Since there are many differences between the original language and the translated language in word order, grammar, changing forms and rhetoric, we can only use appropriate ways to convey the meaning of the original and reproduce the effect of the original. Mr. Jing-Shen Zhao once said, &quot;A smooth and fluent version is better than one that focuses only on fidelity to the original&quot;. Obviously, Mr. Zhao was in favor of foreignization, and so did Mr Yan Fu. Foreignization has been used in many works of Yan Fu, for example, the Evolution and Ethics is a typical example . In literal translation, faithful to the original form should be placed first, followed by faithful to the original content, again the fluency and popularity of translated language; while in free translation, faithful to the original content should be placed first, translation language fluency and popularity of the second, but free translation is not limited to the form of the original. Some scholars often discuss literal translation, free translation and domestication and foreignization together, which is understandable, but it is necessary to make a distinction. Based on the level of language and culture,domestication and foreignization focus more on the use of language from the perspective of cultural differences and are a kind of translation strategy, while literal and free translation is a translation technique, which is only at the level of language. There may be only one main translation strategy for a text or a work, but each strategy may use both literal and free translation methods, and each method serves the general direction of the translation strategy. The choice of the main translation strategy depends on the purpose of the translation, if it is to maximize the understanding of foreign cultures or cross-cultural comparative study, then the main focus is on foreignization; if it is to understand the information or story development through reading, then the domestication may be the best choice. Taking the translation of the famous work Dream of the Red Chamber as an example, there are two versions by two masters, Yang Xianyi and Hawkes, the former adopts foreignization to deal with the cultural factors in the language, that is, to keep the source culture as much as possible in the translation, while Hawkes adopts domestication in order to avoid the conflict between two different cultures, Chinese and English.(Wang Ying 2007)<br /> <br /> ===National and international research on the development of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> <br /> ===The history of the development of domestication and foreignization abroad.===<br /> The German translator Schleiermacher, in his work, On the Different Methods of Translation, elaborated the need for translations to bring the reader as close as possible to the original author, and for the first time introduced the concepts of domestication and foreignization.<br /> At the same time, in the British academic circles of the time, domestication was the main translation strategy, but Francis Newman in England, when discussing the transl ation work on Homer, advocated that translators should consciously translate in the ancient language to emphasize the heterogeneity of the work.<br /> In the 1960s A.D., Nida proposed the theory of domestication for the first time in many structuralist theoretical works, and since then the climax of the debate on domestication and foreignization rose on the stage in western translation field . In Nida's view, domesticated translation does not need to stick to the form of the original text, but only needs to express the content with the closest and most natural equivalent in the translated text to achieve equivalence.<br /> The French theorist Antoinette Bellman deplored the tendency of eliminating foreignization in translation through the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot;. He said: &quot;The proper theoretical goal of the translation action is to accept heterogeneity as it is.&quot; This view seems to have an impact on Venuti's strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot; .<br /> In his book The Invisibility of the Translator, Italian scholar Venuti discusses the &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator by combining the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization for the first time. He strongly advocates foreignization and questions domestication, arguing that domestication is essentially a means of cultural colonization by Western colonizers. At the same time, he also suggests that the purpose of translation is not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express linguistic and cultural differences.(Liu Ping 2008)<br /> <br /> ===Domestic development history on domestication and foreignization===<br /> The earliest translations of Buddhist scriptures have included the debate between assimilation and dissimilation. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the translator Zhiqian pioneered the translation style of using free translation instead of transliteration, which had far-reaching significance and influence in history.<br /> At the end of the 19th century, several other great translators emerged in Chinese history, and Yan Fu was one of them. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, foreign powers invaded extensively and the Chinese nation faced an existential crisis, under such a background, Yan Fu believed that translation must be carefully chosen based on the social and historical reality of the country into which it is translated. In the translation, the translator should take the literary tradition of the nation and the specific historical and cultural purpose as the main purpose, combining the cultural and linguistic background of the readers. The translator should not focus on how to be &quot;faithful to the original&quot;, but how to adapt to the social and cultural choices of the time.<br /> With the rise of the May 4th New Culture Movement, many translators tried to learn from foreign literature in order to transform literature and society.Lu Xun's most famous dictum relating to translation was &quot;I'd rather be faithful than smooth&quot;, and advocated &quot;preserving the foreign flavor as much as possible&quot; and &quot;the need for exoticism&quot;. <br /> After the founding of New China, China's translation industry entered the third high point, and a large number of Western and Soviet works were introduced, which was connected with the spiritual needs of people at that time. After the reform and opening up, with the influx of Western translation ideas, &quot;foreignization&quot; has emerged. Many scholars have put forward the idea that &quot;Foreignization is primary while domestication is supplementary&quot;.(Liu Ping 2019)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===domestication and foreignization of cultural exchange translation===<br /> <br /> ====the relationship between culture and language====<br /> In a broad sense, culture refers to the material and spiritual wealth created and accumulated by human beings in the course of social development; in a narrower sense, it refers to the ideology of society and the system of organizational constructs that corresponds to it. Culture has the following four basic characteristics 1) culture is owned and shared by all members of a society; 2) culture is acquired rather than inherited; 3) culture is biologically based; and 4) culture is based on a symbolic system. The relationship between language and culture is between the part and the whole; language is a subsystem of culture, and language cannot exist apart from culture; it embodies all the beliefs and emotions of a cultural group. Language and culture interact and influence each other and are inseparable. Based on the close relationship between language and culture, more consideration should be given to cultural factors in translation research, which means that translation research should be carried out in a more macro context. Translators should be aware of enough cultural differences when dealing with the cultural differences between the original language and the target language. Due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese, many English and Chinese phrases, although literally having the same or similar meanings, are inherently different. Therefore, a word-for-word translation without considering cultural factors can lead to ambiguity.（Wang Hongwei 2002）<br /> <br /> ==== Translatability and untranslatability of cultures====<br /> On the one hand, the similarity of human experience worldwide contributes to the translatability of cultures. In this regard, Nida has said that &quot;all human beings eat, work, sleep and procreate, and they produce objects such as furniture, tools and vehicles. They also organize themselves into families, clans, internal and external groups, nations and inter-national organizations. They have a conscious similarity in their views of the universe, values, religion and supernatural forces. In fact, the different groups of people in the world have much more in common with each other than they do with each other.&quot; It is the similarity of the cultures of different peoples that allows people of different cultures to understand each other and makes translation possible. Nida thus states, &quot;Linguists and anthropologists have discovered that what binds human beings together far outweighs what alienates them, and this is the basis for generating communication.&quot; Many expressions that are unique to one culture can be found almost identically in a culture and become the best evidence of cultural translatability.<br /> On the other hand, each people has a culture that is distinct from the others, which hinders mutual understanding with the others and may even cause cultural shock. Due to different cultural inheritances, the languages of different nationalities have their own symbol systems and lexical, syntactical and grammatical characteristics, which often make them untranslatable. For example, the Chinese phrase &quot;客上天然居，居然天客&quot; is one of the examples of untranslatable culture.(Wang Hongwei 2007)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Factors influencing cultural translation strategies====<br /> <br /> =====Motives and objectives of translation=====<br /> <br /> Different motivations and purposes for translation lead to different translation principles and methods<br /> <br /> =====Text type=====<br /> <br /> Different texts influence the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord, translation can be divided into instrumental translation, which refers to the means of transferring information from the source language to the target language, and documentary translation, which refers to the means of transferring information about communication activities from the source language to the target language. This type of translation emphasizes the transmission and conveyance of information and mainly includes non-literary writing, including advertising, media writing, scientific writing, propaganda and announcements, etc. With this method of translation, which is guided by the culture of the target language, the information that needs to be conveyed can be better expressed and accessed. The other type of text is documentary translation. This type of translation refers to the presentation of real communicative activities and information to the target language readers. The term &quot;documentary translation&quot; is appropriate for translating (language-)-specific expressions, where translation of language and content are equally important. eter Newmark distinguishes between communicative and semantic translation of such texts, emphasizing the &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot; of the message. &quot; in order to achieve the same effect on the readers of the original language as on those of the target language. Although this type of translation is a subjective process, the translator will attach great importance to the effect of the translation on the reader's mind. By reorganizing and rearranging the order of sentences, the translator will eliminate obscurities and ambiguities in order to achieve &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot;. Most non-literary writing, informative articles and books, as well as textbooks, bulletins, standardized writing, and novels are suitable for this type of communicative translation; because it emphasizes the need to have the same effect on both the original and target language readers, it often uses expressions that are customary and easily understood in the language in which they are written. Thus, communicative translation is equivalent to naturalized translation, where the translator's preference for idiomatic expressions is produced or determined by the translator's preference for the target language. Semantic translation attempts to get as close as possible to the exact meaning of the original text in terms of wording. Semantic translation focuses on the expression of the exact meaning of the content in order to preserve as accurate a style of the original text as possible. This type of translation is an objective process during which the translator focuses only on whether the translation is precise and retains the flavor of the original text. In this type of translation, the translator tries to preserve the semantic and syntactic structure of the original text, as well as the tone of the original text, etc. semantic translation applies to autobiographies, private correspondence, personal emotional texts and quotations. A semantic translation is equivalent to an alien translation in an attempt to achieve the preservation of the flavour of the original, due to the translator's original language preference.(Wang Hongwei2007)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Acceptance by readers=====<br /> In the past, traditional translation theories placed one-sided emphasis on extra-author-centred and text-centred research, neglecting the involvement of translators and target language readers. Modern reception aesthetics considers the reader not as an unimportant and unnecessary perspective, but as a historical, active and creative factor in the relationship between author, text and reader. This is why different people have different interpretations of the same text of Hamlet. Naida was influenced by the acceptance of the aesthetic sub. His theory and practice of translation are very much focused on the readers' reflection. He pointed out that &quot;Judging the validity of a translation does not stop at the comparison of word meanings, grammar and rhetoric; what is important is the extent to which the recipient is able to understand and appreciate the translation correctly.&quot;(Wang Hongwei2007)<br /> <br /> ====the cultural school of translation====<br /> In 1990, the representatives of the cultural school of translation, Bassnett and Lefevere, in their co-edited book Translation, History and Culture, formally proposed the slogan of &quot;Cultural Turn of Translation&quot;, which also marked the official emergence of the cultural school of translation. In the following years, they published several monographs, individually or together, discussing about the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. In the following years, they published several monographs, either individually or jointly, to discuss the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. Unlike the literary or linguistic schools of translation in the past, the cultural school is a school with a strong &quot;revolutionary&quot; element in translation theory, and some people even consider their views to be &quot;subversive&quot; to the previous translation theories. This is mainly because they especially emphasize the status of culture in translation and the importance of translation to the spread of culture and the promotion of social and cultural progress. Other translators, such as Lambert and Robyns, argue that translation is more accurately regarded as a communication activity between two cultures than as a bilingual conversion activity. Therefore, they believe that translation activity is a cultural conversion. In recent years, Chinese scholars have done some research and reflection on the essence of translation. In the researches of many scholars, under the current globalization environment ,the importance of translation to cultural exchange and communication is getting more and more attention from people. For example, Lv Jun proposes that &quot;translation is a kind of cross-cultural information exchange activities, and its essence is dissemination. To a certain extent, the viewpoint of Chinese scholars and the Western cultural schools can be said to echo each other. Language is not only a carrier of information, but also a carrier of culture. Therefore, in essence, translation as a kind of inter-linguistic communication, it is not only the conversion of language information , but also the transplantation of cultural information. Therefore, in essence, translation is not only a language information conversion, but also a cultural communication activity.(Wang Hongwei2007)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===discussion domestication and foreignization from translation examples===<br /> <br /> ====Application of domestication in English-Chinese Translation====<br /> Chinese famous writer Mo Yan has won the Nobel Prize for Literature for a series of works including Fatigue of Life and Death (2006) and Frog (2009) and American sinologist Ge Haowen should also be credited , who was called “the only midwife of Mo Yan’s works”.Ge's translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out reflects his consistent principle: &quot;The author is writing for the Chinese, while I am translating for foreigners,translating is a process of rewriting”. Ge Haowen did a lot of rewriting and compilation based on respecting the original work, and in the translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out, the domesticated translation reflects his relentless pursuit of &quot;accuracy&quot;, &quot;readability&quot; and &quot;acceptability&quot;. (Zhou Yongkun 2019) <br /> <br /> 例一： 常言道‘螃蟹过河随大流’，‘识时务者为俊杰’，不要顽固不化，不要充当挡路的石头，不要充硬汉子。<br /> <br /> Join the commune and stop working for yourself, end your quest for independence.Stop being headstrong,and an obstructionist.<br /> <br /> “螃蟹过河随大流” is a two-part allegorical saying in Chinese folks . It means &quot;following the majority of people to speak or act&quot;. A post-slip is a short, witty phrase that can be used as a philosophical and wisdom-boosting phrase. A man who knows the times is a hero&quot; is an idiom derived from a historical allusion, meaning &quot;only those who can recognize the trend of the times can become heroes and heroines&quot;. Ge Haowen domesticated these two slang expressions: first, because they have the same meaning as the one that follows: &quot;Don't be stubborn ...... don't be a tough guy anymore&quot;, which is used to kindly advise people who are unable to see the current affairs of the day, but are still stubbornly stubborn. The deletion of these two daily phrases does not affect the main content of the narrative and the expression of ideas in the context. Secondly, there is the concern that the translation may not produce the desired effect of depth, image, and humor as the source language. And then there is the fact that the target language readers are relatively unfamiliar with Chinese slang, so it is better to delete it directly than to translate it to increase the readers' reading burden and affect their understanding and grasp of the whole text. Ge Haowen's domesticated translation method reflects his holistic view of discourse as a unit<br /> <br /> 例二：但一个二十多岁就当了县级领导干部的人，和农村姑娘结婚的可能性几乎是零，无论她貌如西施还是色比婵娟。<br /> <br /> There was no chance that a leading country-level cadre in his twenties would ever actually marry a peasant girl , no matter how pretty or fetching she might be.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaojun ,Xishi, Diao Chan and Yang Yuhuan were the main characters with unique beauty at that time in historical illusions ,named as “Four Beauties in ancient times”.In the original work, Mo Yan chose only two historical figures, &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, to contrast and emphasize the beauty of rural girls. In the process of translation, Ge did not translate &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, nor did he make any commentary, but took into account the target audience's alienation from the historical allusion to the Four Beauties. Therefore, he adopt a domesticated translation method to make a simplification, breaking the constraints of the original language and enhancing the readability of the translation, without deviating from the original meaning.(Zhou Yongkun 2019) <br /> In the above example, when dealing with unfamiliar allusions or common sayings and proverbs, Ge Haowen boldly rewrote and deleted them, translating the work from the reader's point of view, so that the target readers will be pleased with his translation.<br /> 5.2 The Application of Foreignization in English-Chinese Translation<br /> The nature of foreignization is such that it deals with elements of the original language that are culturally distinctive, and the result of the translation is to bring in new forms of expression that are different from the mother tongue and the cultural connotations attached to them. Language is an open system with a strong capacity for absorption and inclusion. With the deepening of communication among countries and peoples, various languages have been enriched to different degrees, and variant translation plays a more important role in this process. In Chinese, the terms &quot;internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot; are used to refer to the &quot;Internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot;. &quot;Time is money&quot;, &quot;ivory tower&quot;, &quot;washroom&quot;.... (crocodile tears), &quot;black humor&quot; , and &quot;qi gong&quot; ), &quot;taijiquan&quot; , &quot;kong fu&quot; , &quot;typhon” These words did not originally exist in the Chinese and English language systems. However, translators make a large number of words with exoticism in the way of foreignization more popular and acceptable among the massive culture . Therefore, foreignization is not only beneficial to introduce local history and culture to foreign countries, but also gives local readers the opportunity to understand foreign customs and realize the purpose of cross-cultural communication.<br /> （Wang Ying 2007）<br /> 例一.打破铁饭碗<br /> <br /> Break the”iron rice bowl”<br /> <br /> &quot;Iron rice bowl&quot; is a Chinese idiom, in Chinese we compare &quot;rice bowl&quot; to an occupation, while &quot;iron rice bowl&quot; refers to a stable job, no doubt, it is difficult to convert such words with obvious Chinese characteristics into the target language through the method of &quot;domestication&quot;, but foreignization not only retains the imagery of the source language, but also introduces the unique culture of China to Western readers.<br /> 例二.下海<br /> <br /> A.to jump into the sea of business<br /> <br /> B.To turn professional<br /> <br /> In the early days of reform and opening up, the word “jumping into the sea of business” was popular, mainly meaning the trend of doing business.For this new phenomenon ,translators adopt different methods. Text A used foreignization and direct translation while the later domestication. In comparison, the former was more expressive and vivid, conveying the meaning of source language in a proper way.<br /> Domestication and foreignization is more apparent in the literary translation. Here I will take the translation of Dream of the Red Chamber as an example and compare the translations of Mr. and Mrs. Yang Xianyi ,and Mr. Hawkes. The translation of Dream of the Red Chamber by Yang Xianyi and his wife is a typical representative of foreignization, which is highly praised by domestic readers, but some scholars have conducted a survey and found that it is far inferior to the British sinologist David Hawks in terms of the number of borrowed readers, citations and reprinted editions. Why the &quot;cold shoulder&quot;? Let's find out by comparing and analyzing some examples of the two translations.<br /> <br /> 例一.刘姥姥道: “这倒不然。谋事在人，成事在天。咱们谋到了，靠菩萨的保佑，有些机会，也未可知。”<br /> <br /> A.“ Don’t be so sure,” said Granny Liu. “Man proposes, Heaven disposes. Work out a plan,trust to Buddha,and something may come of it for all you know.”<br /> <br /> B.“ I wouldn’t say that.”said Grannie Liu.”Man proposes, God disposes.It is up to us to think of something. We must leave it to the good Lord to decide whether He’ll help us or not. Who knows, he might give us the opportunity we are looking for.”<br /> <br /> Dream of the Red Chamber is a literary work full of Buddhist and Taoist thoughts. Yang Xianyi and Hawks have different approaches to the phrase“谋事在人，成事在天”， which also reflects different religious thoughts. In Yang's translation, &quot;God&quot; is replaced by &quot;Heavenly Father,&quot; which is in line with the Chinese religious belief that Heavenly Father in control of everything, while retaining the religious flavor of the source culture. However, Hawks gave priority to the religious background and acceptance of the English readers, so he adopted the English proverb directly without any modification, thus transforming the Buddhism and Taoism in the East to Christianity in the West, in accordance with western religious belief and thinking ways.<br /> The two translations have their own merits. The choice of translation strategies is based on different objectives. Mainly depending on the foreignization stategy, Mr. and Mrs. Yang tried to spread Chinese literature classics and convey Chinese traditional culture originally.However, they didn't get the desired results.One of the main reasons is that Mr. and Mrs. Yang regard faithfulness as the first priority and overemphasize the foreign culture of the translated works, neglecting to consider the reception environment and the recognition of the target readers.（Wang Ying 2007）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> With the continuous expansion of international cultural exchanges, the human cultural gap is gradually narrowing, language as an important carrier of culture has also been affected by the same, an appropriate increase in the use of &quot;foreign&quot; translation,can not only inject the new elements into domestic culture, but also promote the spread of local culture, achieve cross-cultural exchange and accelerate the process of &quot;cultural globalization&quot;. It should be pointed out foreignization is not at the expense of forgetting one's own culture, on the contrary, it is based on the familiarity with other cultures, and then carry out painstaking, creative translation work. To give more attention to &quot;alienation&quot; translation is not to deny, reject the domesticated translation method, because domestication and foreignization play an irreplaceable rol in the target language and culture.Therefore, the two translations will always co-exist and complement each other. Flexible use of foreignization and domestication is the real way of addressing the cultural conflicts. (Xiong Bing 2003)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> 1. Wang Ying王瑛. &quot;跨文化翻译中的归化和异化.&quot; 内蒙古财经学院学报(综合版) 03(2007):83-87.<br /> <br /> 2. Zhou Yongkun周永堃. &quot;归化异化在跨文化翻译中的选择与运用——以《红楼梦》和《生死疲劳》为例.&quot; 邵阳学院学报(社会科学版) 18.01(2019):103-108.<br /> <br /> 3. Wang Hongwei王红卫. &quot;跨文化交际翻译方法:归化和异化策略.&quot; 西南民族学院学报(哲学社会科学版) 9(2002):250-253.<br /> <br /> 4. Xiong Bing熊兵. &quot;文化交流翻译的归化与异化.&quot; 中国科技翻译 16.003(2003):5-9.<br /> <br /> 5. Liu Ping刘苹. &quot;中国翻译史上的归化和异化.&quot; 滨州学院学报 24.001(2008):74-75.<br />  <br /> <br /> ==The Translation Strategies of Chinese Political Discourse under the Standard of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; 202070080585 高明珠 Gao Mingzhu 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With the development of globalization, the political communication among countries is more and more frequent, and the translation of political terms has gradually become one of the heated topics in the translation field. Political discourse translation is challenging, because not only does it concern the relationship between countries, national status, political attitude and other important issues, but also it is developmental. Political neologisms will keep emerging, and some political terms will contain new connotations with the advancement of the times. In addition to the above characteristics, Chinese political discourse has many affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases, metaphors.In 2008, Yang Mingxing and other scholars put forward the &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; based on Eugene Nida's &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; theory for the translation of Chinese political discourse, which pointed out that the translation of political discourse should follow the three principles of &quot;political&quot;, &quot;dynamic&quot; and &quot;balanced&quot;. On the basis of some related papers, this chapter will sum up the specific strategies such as supplement, omission, keeping or converting analogical body, adding explanation and narration for translating Chinese political discourse with characteristics of having lots of affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases and metaphors following the guidance of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> political equivalence Chinese political discourse translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着全球化的发展，各国间的政治交流愈加频繁，政治话语的翻译也逐渐成为翻译界讨论热点之一。政治话语的翻译是具有挑战性的，不仅是因为它关系到国与国之间的关系、国家地位、政治态度等重要问题，而且因为政治词汇是发展性的，政治词汇中会不断有新的词汇涌进，且某些政治词汇会随着时代的发展而增加新的内涵。而中国政治话语除了具有以上特点，它还有多词缀、缩写、四字短语[1]，多用隐喻等修辞手法的特点。2008年，杨明星等学者针对中国政治话语的翻译，基于尤金·奈达的“功能对等”理论提出了“政治等效”翻译标准，该标准指出政治话语的翻译要遵循“政治性”、“动态性”、“平衡性”三大原则。本文基于相关文献，总结出在该标准下，对中国政治话语在具有多词缀、缩写、四字短语及多采用隐喻这几个特点下的翻译可采用的具体的翻译策略，如增补法、省略法[1]、喻体保留法（完全保留、部分保留）、喻体转换法、喻底补充法、喻义直叙法[2]等。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 政治等效 中国政治话语 翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction of Background===<br /> <br /> Political discourse is a communication carrier or one kind of discourse behaviors that elaborate a country's foreign policies, governance mechanisms or political ideas, including oral expression and written expression. Oral expressions includes leaders' speeches, the contents conveyed by various government agencies' press conferences, and written expressions includes diplomatic documents, white papers, legal provisions, treaties, agreements and communiques issued by relevant state agencies. With the improvement of China's comprehensive national strength and the continuous expansion of its global influence, the study of the translation standards, principles, strategies of Chinese political discourse has become an important topic in the field of translation. A study in 2019 has shown that domestic political discourse translation studies started in 2000 and entered a stage of rapid development with the convening of the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012. The current research hot spots of political discourse translation include the translation of Xi Jinping's speeches and works, the application of various translation laws and interpretive theories, the principle of political equivalence and the theory of ecological translation(Chu Xingjun 2020,36).<br /> <br /> ===2. The Significance of Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> This chapter holds that the significance of political discourse translation mainly involves two aspects----politics and linguistics. Firstly, in terms of politics, translating political discourse is to facilitate the political communication between countries, show the country's political attitude, theory and policy to the outside world. Political discourse translation plays a significant role in promoting the relationship between the countries, taking one’s stand, safeguarding one’s national interests and shaping one’s national image and so on. Secondly, in terms of linguistics, political terms are developmental. With the advance of the times and the rapid development of the world, new political terms will constantly emerge, which is also the process of language expansion. The study of the translation of new words is not only the bounden duty of translators, but also of great significance to the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Difficulties in Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> The difficulties are mainly reflected in three aspects. Firstly, the translator should correctly understand the political connotation of the source language and translate it as the target language faithfully. Secondly, different expression ways between two languages. There are rare equivalent words in both languages, so when translating the source language as the target language, the expression habits of the target language users should be taken as account, so as to facilitate the target language users to accurately understand the original meaning. Especially, Chinese political discourse often present metaphor rhetoric which may not be easy for foreigners to understand, thus when translating such words, methods that we can adopt not only include literal translation, transliteration plus explanation, but also sometimes it would be better to translate those words on the basis of the target language’s culture to make the translation more vivid and help readers understand the meaning accurately. In a word, be more flexible in adopting methods according to different cases; Finally, the same political term may have different meanings in different contexts, or it may require translators to adopt different translation methods in different contexts. In addition, the connotation of some political terms will develop with the advance of The times. Therefore, translators should keep up with current events and deal with them flexibly in translation.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Connotations of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal and connotation of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard<br /> <br /> In 2008, US Department of Defense mistranslated the term &quot;韬光养晦&quot; to propaganda &quot;China threat theory&quot;. Therefore, based on Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, a scholar, Yang Mingxing, proposed the translation concept of &quot;political equivalence&quot; for the first time from the perspective of international relations and diplomatic analysis (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). The connotation of this concept mainly involves three aspects: firstly, the translator needs to truthfully convey the political thought of the source language as well as the speaker; secondly, when translating, the translator should choose the target language according to the expression ways that the target language users get used to, so that the information and political thoughts brought by the target text to the target language users are equivalent to those brought by the source text to the source language users; Thirdly, in different contexts and historical backgrounds, the connotations of political discourse will be different. Translators' translation should keep pace with the times and be determined in accordance with the situation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). In 2012, Yang Mingxing and other scholars further proposed three prominent principles or characteristics of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; translation standard: political, balanced and dynamic (Yang Mingxing, Yan Da 2012, 35). Among them, political nature, namely accurately grasping the political connotation of the source language, is the most prominent characteristic, which is determined by the strong political color of the political terms themselves. Balance means to strike a balance among source language, target language, speaker and audience without focusing on either side, and strive to make the effect produced by the translation in the foreign readers be similar or equivalent to that produced by the original text in local readers. Dynamic means that the equivalent process mentioned above is a dynamic equivalent process. Because political terms’ connotation changes with the advance of the times and varies from different contexts, translators need to keep pace with the times, follow up the connotation development of political terms, and translate flexibly according to different situations. In 2018, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed a compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + aesthetic representation&quot; on the basis of the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; (Yang Mingxing, Qi Jingjing 2018,15). This standard was put forward in the context of the appearance of ancient poetry in political discourse. Besides meeting the requirements of &quot;political equivalence&quot; mentioned above, this standard asks to take the literary beauty of ancient poetry and prose, such as rhythm, form, artistic conception, etc as account. In January 2020, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed another compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + image representation&quot; based on the frequently used the rhetoric device metaphor in political discourse(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2018,41). The purpose of realizing &quot;image reproduction&quot; and &quot;aesthetic reproduction&quot; is basically similar, both of which are to reproduce the aesthetic experience of the original text. In October 2020, Yang Mingxing and some other scholars made a review of several major diplomatic event in the Sino-British diplomatic history and put forward that the realization of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard should not only rely on the translator's ability, but also have some connections with the national policy of translation, translation system and equal speaking rights between two countries, among which equal speaking right is the key to realize &quot;political equivalence&quot;(Yang Mingxing 2020,05).<br /> <br /> (2)The differences between “political equivalence” and “functional equivalence” put forward by Nida<br /> <br /> &quot;Firstly, the 'equivalence' emphasized by Nida does not pay enough attention to the political connnotations of the original text in translation, ignoring the particularity of diplomatic or political discourse, and that whether the original text and translation are quite consistent in political standpoint and political connotation. Secondly, although functional equivalence pays attention to the information equivalence between the original text and the translated text, it does not pay enough attention to the real intention of the speaker or writer of the original text, because the literal meaning of the original text cannot be equal with the political standpoint and ideological connotation of the speaker or writer. Thirdly, the 'dynamic' concept Nida proposed in 'functional equivalence' theory ignores the dynamic changes in context and connotation of original text and translation. However, for diplomatic or political discourse, the connotations of the political terms do not remain unchanged. It changes constantly with the speaker's context, political tendency and historical background at that time. On the other hand, the target language is also dynamic, because the meaning and usage of the target language are constantly changing, the translator must keep track of the latest development of the target language and the domestic political and cultural background of the target audience &quot;(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> In a word, the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; is an important theory aiming at the translation of foreign affairs, diplomacy and political discourse, and provides theoretical guidance and normative requirements for the translation of political terms.<br /> <br /> ===5. Requirements of “Political Equivalence” for Translators ===<br /> <br /> First of all, translators should grasp not only the meaning of the original text, but also the political intention of the speaker or the writer, because sometimes the literal meaning of Chinese words in the political discourse cannot fully represent the real intention of the speaker or the writer.What translators should do is to learn more about the related background knowledge before the translation and keep pace with the worldwide current events in daily life, and choose the proper translation strategies according to specific situations to make the translation be in line with the context and political background of the speaker or the writer as well as the audience or reader, which is the key to the realization of &quot;political equivalence&quot;.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)<br /> <br /> Secondly, translators should treat both the source language and the target language equally, and grasp the relationship between the speaking country and the receiving country. The translation of political discourse should not only aim at correctly understanding and expressing China's political thoughts, but also fully consider the national emotions, language habits and identity psychology of the receiving country, which requires the proper selection and use of the target language. If the translation only focuses on one side, it will be difficult to achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; and even cause political events.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, translators should know well about the differences between English and Chinese customs, cultures, national emotions and ideologies.As we all know, translation is not only the transformation of language symbols, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication behavior. The translation of political discourse is closely related to the cultural background of language. Due to the differences between China and West in way of thinking and language environment, corresponding words in English and Chinese may have different national emotion and political connotation.For example, sometimes we may meet idioms, metaphors, allusions, myths and fables in the political discourse which are the quintessence of a nation's language with its own characteristics. They formed and developed on the basis of different culture and living environmnet, so it is necessary to strictly distinguish their differences in cultural connotation and political orientation which are the difficulties and key points in political discourse translation.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, translators should also know well about the differences between the two languages.In English, there are many grammatical rules different from Chinese, such as tense, voice, subjunctive mood, singular and plural, case, article, etc. If translators deal with these special expressions improperly, these expressions will hinder the realization of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; in translation. (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, to achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; in political discourse translation, the translation strategies cannot be single, rigid but flexible and diversified. In addition, the translation either cannot be confined to the primitive form of the original text and the original or even several extended connotations of the words in it,instead,translators should recognize the real connotations of the political terms according to the context and different occasions. Translators should make the necessary adjustment and bold choices in supplement and omission to the language form of the original text in accordance with the context and the real thoughts of the speaker or the writer and the background of the political relationships between the two countries.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)<br /> <br /> lastly, translators should ensure the political correctness in the translation of political discourse using their knowledge reserves. Many countries have such sensitive issues as appellation, ethnicity, religion, sovereignty and territory. These are the &quot;minefields&quot; of political translation. When translating, one must handle it carefully and respect the language and cultural habits of the other party, otherwise it will easily lead to &quot;translation storm&quot; and affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation. (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)<br /> <br /> ===6. Translation Strategies under The Standard of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of the standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot;, the following translation strategies are provided for reference on the characteristics of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> (1) Characteristics of Chinese political discourse<br /> <br /> Affixes are often seen in Chinese political discourse such as “化” in &quot;现代化&quot; and &quot;城镇化&quot;, so are abbreviations like &quot;‘十四五’规划&quot;, &quot;四个自信&quot;, etc., and four-character phrases such as &quot;和平共处&quot;, &quot;和而不同&quot;, etc. Besides, metaphor is also used frequently in Chinese political discourse such as &quot;‘老虎’、‘苍蝇’一起打&quot;, among which &quot;老虎(tiger)&quot; and &quot;苍蝇(flies)&quot; refer to officials accused of bribery and corruption. So, how do we translate these words that have Chinese language characteristics but need us to take their political implications as consideration? Pointing at these characteristics, some scholars have proposed specific translation strategies based on the &quot;political equivalence&quot;standard.<br /> <br /> (2) The strategies of supplement and omission for affixes, four-character phrases and abbreviations(Wu Jing 2014, 30)<br /> <br /> ① supplement<br /> <br /> The supplement strategy is to add words appropriately in the translation so as to convey the meaning of the original text accurately. In the foreign translation of Chinese political terms, this strategy is mainly applicable to two situations. Firstly, the abbreviation, which is a refined utterance of many political words for the convenience of memory. When the target language users don’t have relevant knowledge or language background about those abbreviations, supplementary explanation plays its role. Secondly, four-character phrases. Four-character phrases are typical examples of Chinese expressions. In order to conform to the expression habits of the target language, these condensed words should be supplemented and explained so that the audience can understand the meaning of the original text correctly.<br /> <br /> The strategy of supplement can be applied to the following situations: firstly, supplement relevant knowledge background. For example, “‘十四五’规划”is translated by China Daily as “the 14th Five-Year Plan(2021-25) for economic and social development”. In the translation, “十四”is translated as “the 14th” and“五” is translated as “Five-Year”, which adds category words to those numbers and time horizon as well as the nature of the plan to the content; Secondly, supplement detailed content to abbreviations. For example,“四个自信”is translated as “confidence in the path, theory, system and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics.”<br /> <br /> ②Omission<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belong to two kinds of language families, having great differences from vocabulary to the sentence structure, expression ways, etc. There are very little equivalent words in the two languages, so in order to make the translation smoother and be more in line with the expression ways of the target language, translator can use the strategy----omission, namely omitting those expressions without practical significance but hindering translation work, on the basis of being loyal to the original text.<br /> <br /> The strategy of omission is often used in the process of translation from Chinese to English, and the translation of Chinese political terms is no exception. For emphasizing, Chinese political leaders often use parallel sentences or repeated words, so we can omit those repeated words in the translation. For example, “治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字仍然在扩大。”can be translated as “Governance, trust, development and peace deficits continue to grow.” In addition, there are situations where multiple sentences express the same meaning, in which omission is also available. For example, “改善人民生活，增进人民福祉。”can be translated as “improve people’s livelihood”.<br /> <br /> (3) Translation strategies for metaphor<br /> <br /> Metaphor refers to the use of known figurative concepts to explain abstract concepts in diplomatic discourse. The translation standard and strategies of metaphor are determined by their inherent special attributes, which are not only the key factors to select their translation strategies, but also the important yardstick to test whether those strategies are applicable(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41). Metaphor is an objective phenomenon that has existed in political discourse for a long time. Its special attributes are reflected in political discourse, such as high political sensitivity, high cultural load and strong national characteristics. In view of the strong political sensitivity of diplomatic discourse, plain and direct words in political discourse is often empty of words, which is difficult to produce obvious communicative effect in foreign relations. In most cases, metaphorical discourse can be used to imply and disseminate a country's diplomatic ideas, attitudes and positions to achieve better communication effects (Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41).<br /> <br /> Through reading relevant papers, this chapter finds that the translation strategies proposed by scholars for metaphorical rhetoric in political discourse are mainly as follows(Long Xinyuan, Li Qiuxia 2020, 27):<br /> <br /> ① Literal translation of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> Although English and Chinese belong to different language families, and the cultural background and geographical area on which they live are also different, language is created by human beings, and human emotions always have something in common. At the same time, human beings live in the same world, especially in an increasingly integrated world like today, where the communication between human beings and the collision between cultures are inevitable. As a result, we are becoming more tolerant and understanding of different cultures and languages. When translating metaphorical words with cultural characteristics, we can render the metaphorical words in literal translation under the condition that the audience can understand them correctly, which is easier to arouse emotional resonance and cultural identity.<br /> <br /> For example, “新时代的长征路” is translated as &quot;Long March of the new era&quot;. The original text compares China's development path in the new era to the new Long March. In Chinese history, the Long March was a bloody road trodden by the communist party of China to save the country and the people. On the one hand, the literal translation of &quot;The Long March&quot; retains the historical allusions used in the original text, so that the audience can understand its meaning only by a simple association. On the other hand, it is more conducive to show the national spirit of China.<br /> <br /> ② Substitution of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> After all, differences are greater than similarities between different languages, so sometimes adopting literal translation in the text using metaphor does not make the audience clear, but may mislead. However, different metaphorical entities are often used to express the same abstract concept between Chinese and English. At this time, in order to make the audience better understand and accept the original metaphor, translator can replace the original metaphorical entities with those referring to same thing in the target language, which can also improve the external communication effect of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> For example, foreign ministry spokesman Hua Chunying once said:”The US wants to make China a scapegoat(对于美国的花式‘甩锅’，我们不想接也不能接。).”“甩锅”is an internet buzzword in China used to vividly express the meaning of shifting the blame onto someone else. And “scapegoat” originates from an allusion in the Bible which has the same meaning with the Chinese word “甩锅”(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41), so translator made a conversion between the two words. In this way, English readers can better understand the political connotation of the original sentence. However, if adopting literal translation, English readers won’t understand.<br /> <br /> ③literal translation+explanation<br /> <br /> In some other cases, either literally translating those metaphorical entities or using corresponding ones to substitute them cannot eliminate the language barrier caused by cultural differences, then translator can adopt the strategy of “literal translation+explanation”, which is to literally translate the metaphor entity and then add explanation to it. In this way, the translation not only keeps the cultural characteristics of the source language while making English readers be clear with the meaning of them, but also contributes to the spread of Chinese culture to the outside world.<br /> <br /> For an instance, “不能腐的笼子越扎越牢”is translated as “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption has been strengthened”. The Chinese words “笼子”refers to the strict management institutions against corruption set up by Chinese government. Comparing the institution to the cage makes the action of fighting against corruption become more vivid. However, for English readers, it is hard to understand the original political connotation according to a simple word “cage”, so translator needs to add some explanations like “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption.” As a result, the meaning is clear and vivid.<br /> <br /> ④abandoning the figurative body and translate its connotation directly<br /> <br /> Metaphor, as a figure of speech, is highly culture-loaded, while political discourse is a kind of words with high political sensitivity. These characteristics make the translation of Chinese political discourse more difficult, and it is inevitable that translators may meet the situation where they cannot easily balance and take all these characteristics into consideration. At this time, the translator should choose to abandon the figurative body and keep the metaphorical meaning, after all, it is the first important thing to convey the correct political implication.<br /> <br /> For example, “保障‘米袋子’、‘菜篮子’安全”is translated as “ensure the security of grain supply and non-staple food supply”,among which the Chinese words “米袋子(rice bag)”and“菜篮子(vegetable basket)”refer to major grain supply and non-staple food supply respectively. Because rice is the staple food in most ares of China while vegetable is the complementary food, such a metaphor is very vivid and down to earth. However, it's hard for foreigners to understand the meaning of &quot;rice bag&quot; or &quot;vegetable basket&quot; without a similar living environment, so we have to discard the original figurative body and translate its meaning directly.<br /> <br /> ===7. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the summary of the above-mentioned translation strategies pointing at different situations in translating Chinese political discourse, we can see that every strategy follows the three principles under the standard of &quot;political equivalence” ---- political, balance and dynamic. Every translation strategy takes the correct transition of the political implications of the original text as the first rule, namely being political; and then keeps the cultural or linguistic characteristics of the original text as much as possible, namely keeping balance; additionally, adopting appropriate translation strategies according to different contexts or situations, namely being dynamic. The translation of political discourse has its particularity and is of great importance, so it is necessary to be careful when choosing translation strategies. Translators should not only have high linguistic literacy and fair political standpoint, but also keep up with current events, correctly and fully understand the political meaning of the original text, and make specific analysis according to different contexts and occasions to adopt the most appropriate translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===8. References===<br /> <br /> [1]楚行军. 中国政治话语翻译研究二十年(2000—2019)[Studies on the Translation of Chinese Political Discourse over the past 20 years(2000-2019)]——基于中国知网的分析[J]. 焦作师范高等专科学校学报,2020,36(03):24-27+40.<br /> <br /> [2]吴静. 基于“政治等效”的中国政治新词翻译策略解析[An analysis of translation strategies of Chinese new political terms on the basis of &quot;political equivalence&quot;][J]. 兰州文理学院学报(社会科学版),2014,30(01):95-98.<br /> <br /> [3]龙新元,李秋霞. “政治等效+认知趋同”：认知翻译观视阈下的政治文本翻译研究[&quot;Political Equivalence + Cognitive Convergence&quot; : A Study of political Text translation from the perspective of cognitive Translation][J]. 天津外国语大学学报,2020,27(05):104-120+161.<br /> <br /> [4]杨明星. 论外交语言翻译的“政治等效”——以邓小平外交理念“韬光养晦”的译法为例[The application of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; in diplomatic Language Translation -- Taking Deng Xiaoping's diplomatic idea &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2008,(05):90-94.<br /> <br /> [5]杨明星,闫达. “政治等效”理论框架下外交语言的翻译策略——以“不折腾”的译法为例[Translation strategies of diplomatic language under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;-- Taking the translation of &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2012,35(03):73-77.<br /> <br /> [6]杨明星,齐静静. 外交修辞的复合性翻译标准:“政治等效+审美再现”——以国家领导人外交演讲古诗文为例[The composite translation standard of diplomatic rhetoric: &quot;Political equivalence + aesthetic reproduction&quot; -- taking the ancient poems and essays in diplomatic speeches of national leaders as an example][J]. 中国外语,2018,15(06):89-96+109.<br /> <br /> [7]杨明星,赵玉倩. “政治等效+”框架下中国特色外交隐喻翻译策略研究[A research on translation strategies of metaphors in diplomatic discorses with Chinese characteristics under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence plus&quot;][J]. 中国翻译,2020,41(01):151-159+190.<br /> <br /> [8]杨明星,张琰. 中英外交翻译中“政治等效”与话语平等辩证关系分析——从马戛尔尼使华到共建“一带一路”(1792-2019)[Dialectical relationship between &quot;political equivalence&quot; and discourse equality in diplomatic translation between China and Britain -- from macartney's mission period to &quot;One Belt And One Road&quot; period(1792-2019)][J]. 上海翻译,2020,(05):24-29+94.<br /> <br /> ==Classification, Chinese translation methods and Strategies of Russian Proverbs - 张虎 Zhang Hu==<br /> &lt;center&gt;张虎Zhang Hu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Russian proverbs are produced under the specific cultural background and have rich cultural connotations. They are an important part of Russian language and culture. However, there are great cultural differences between Russian and Chinese, and the language forms of Russian and Chinese proverbs have their own characteristics. This paper attempts to classify Russian proverbs and explore the translation methods and Strategies of Russian proverbs.(This article only discusses the Chinese translation of Russian proverbs, the English translation of proverbs is for reference only.)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Russian proverb，classification，Chinese translation methods，translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 俄语谚语的分类、汉译方法及策略<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俄语谚语于特定的文化背景下产生，具有丰富的文化内涵，是俄语语言文化的重要组成部分。 而俄汉两族文化差异较大，俄汉谚语语言形式各具特色，俄语谚语的翻译问题成为一个难题。本文试对俄语谚语进行分类，探究俄语谚语的翻译方法及翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 俄语谚语；分类；汉译方法；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Proverbs are a genre of folk literature（Wang Yanrong 2013,114) , and they are simple, popular and meaningful fixed sentences commonly used by the people. Generally speaking, proverbs are rhythmic in form, including various life phenomena in content, rich in educational significance, vividly reflecting the cultural connotations and characteristics of a nation, and are the result of wisdom of the broad masses of people and the essence of a national language（Zhou Changyu 2006,5). Therefore, understanding proverbs is an effective way to understand a nation. Proverbs of different nationalities have their own characteristics. The translation of proverbs among different nationalities has become an important issue in translation studies. This paper attempts to explore the translation methods and principles of Russian proverbs.<br /> <br /> ===2.Classification of Russian proverbs===<br /> The formation of Russian proverbs is inseparable from the production, life, customs, religion, culture and history of the nation, and has a distinctive national style. The Russian and Chinese languages belong to different language systems, and there is a big difference in the way of expression. In order to fully understand Russian proverbs and grasp the translation methods of Russian proverbs, this article first compares Russian and Chinese proverbs, and divides Russian proverbs into three categories based on the degree of consistency between Russian and Chinese proverbs, namely “complete consistency” and “partial consistency” and “complete inconsistency”（Wang Yanrong 2013,114).<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Classification of Russian proverbs====<br /> &quot;Complete consistency&quot; means that Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs are completely consistent in terms of thinking and figurative meaning. Such Russian proverbs can be found in Chinese that fully correspond to them. The number of such proverbs is relatively small, but they reflect the cultural commonality between the Russian and Chinese languages, indicating that the two peoples are similar in cognitive mode, thinking mode and personality characteristics between the two countries(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114).<br /> <br /> For example, there is an ancient Chinese proverb in the Biography of Zhao Chongguo, The History of the Former Han Dynasty in ancient my country “百闻不如一见.” The meaning of this sentence is “it is better to see once than to hear a hundred times,” which expresses that hearing more is not as reliable as seeing it. And there is a widely used proverb in Russian “Лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать.(Jia Shufen 1996,146)” They are completely consistent and show that the people of the Russian and Han ethnic groups have the same understanding of the importance of “seeing with their own eyes.” <br /> <br /> Another example is “Из искры возгорится пламя” in Russian. It was first written by Decembrists, famous Russian poet, A. I. Odoevsky(А. И. Одоевский) in reply to Pushkin’s support of Decembrists’ revolution, and was later written by Lenin. The application in Iskra is well known and circulated. The Chinese counterpart “星星之火, 可以燎原(A single spark can start a prairie fire)” is widely known and become a proverb because of Mao Zedong's articles(Chen Ying 2000,89). <br /> <br /> Similarly, &quot;Беда не приходит одна.&quot; and &quot;祸不单行(Misfortune never come alone)(Jia Shufen 1996,6)&quot;, &quot;Сытый голотного не разумеет.&quot; and &quot;饱汉不知饿汉饥(Fatty people do not know hungry people are hungry)(Jia Shufen 1996,378)&quot;, &quot;Близкий сосед лучше дальней родни.&quot; and &quot;distant relatives are not as good as neighbors&quot;, “Одно дерево - не роща, одна птица - нестая” and &quot;孤树不成林，孤鸟不成群(A single tree does not form forests, a lone bird does not form flocks)(Wang Jinhua,Zhang Li 2006,76)&quot;, etc., are completely consistent in image and meaning.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Partial consistency====<br /> &quot;Partial consistency&quot; means that Russian proverbs are the same or similar in thinking, cultural image or meaning to Chinese proverbs. Such Russian proverbs can find corresponding or related proverbs in Chinese to a certain extent. The large number of such proverbs reflects the differences in the understanding of different things and phenomena between nationss(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114).<br /> <br /> For example, the Russian proverb &quot;Расти как грибы после дождя&quot; means &quot;grow like mushrooms after rain&quot;, which means that things develop rapidly. Due to factors such as geographical location and natural environment, Russia is rich in mushrooms, and mushrooms grow rapidly after rain in Russia. In the same way, our country's &quot;雨后春笋(bamboo shoots in spring)&quot; have also grown rapidly, becoming a proverb that expresses the rapid development and emergence of things(Chen Ying 2000,90). This pair of Russian and Chinese proverbs uses the same thinking mode and different cultural images to express the same meaning. <br /> <br /> Another example is the Russian proverb &quot;Первый блин комом.&quot; It means that the first time you make a cake, you will always make a dough, which means that the first attempt is always easy to fail. The &quot;блин&quot; in the proverb is the unique Russian food &quot;Russian pancake&quot;, which reflects the distinctive national characteristics. In Chinese, the proverb &quot;三脚难踢，开锣的戏难唱(It's hard to kick the first three feet, and it's hard to sing the gongs)&quot; uses images such as &quot;三脚(three feet)&quot; and &quot;开锣的戏(plays with gongs)&quot; to express that things are difficult at the beginning of attempts, and that &quot;万事开头难(everything is difficult at first)&quot; meaning. The two are very similar in their embodied meanings.<br /> Some other examples included in this category are:<br /> <br /> (1)Два медведя в одной берлоте неуживутся. 一个洞穴中不会住两只熊(Two bears in one berlot won't get along)(Lei Yumei 2014,114).<br /> <br /> (2)И Москва несразу строилась. 莫斯科不是一下就建成的(And Moscow was not built immediately)(Chen Ying 2000,89).<br /> <br /> (3)Гром не грянет, мужик не перекрестится. 不打雷，农夫不祷告(Thunder won't strike, the man won't cross)(Yang Min 2017, 202).<br /> <br /> (4)Скарть со стола, и дружба сплыла.桌布一撤，友谊全无 (Scrap off the table and friendship floated away)(Lei Yumei 2014,114).<br /> <br /> These Russian proverbs correspond to the Chinese &quot;一山不容二虎(The mountain cannot accommodate two tigers)&quot;, &quot;一口吃不成个胖子(You can't make a fat man with one bite)(Chen Ying 2000,90)&quot;, &quot;临时抱佛脚(Temporary holding a Buddha's feet)&quot;, and &quot;人走茶凉(No sooner has the person gone away than the tea cools down)(Lei Yumei 2014,114)&quot;. These sets of corresponding Russian and Chinese proverbs have different cultural images, but the meaning is the same.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Complete inconsistency====<br /> There are some Russian proverbs that have nothing to do with Chinese proverbs either in image or meaning. Such Russian proverbs can be classified as &quot;completely inconsistent&quot;(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114). The Russian and Chinese ethnic groups have their own unique national cultures. The differences in political economy, geographical environment, climate characteristics, vegetation, animals, historical allusions, living customs, religious beliefs, etc. have given birth to a series of ethnic proverbs(Yang Min 2017, 200).<br /> For example, the literal translation of the Russian proverb &quot;Дело-табак&quot; is &quot;事关烟草（it's about tobacco.）&quot; What does it mean? It turned out that the boatmen on the Volga River used to hang tobacco bags around their necks to prevent the tobacco from getting wet. This sentence was used to remind people that the water depth is close to the neck. It has now been used to express &quot;things are bad, the situation is not good&quot;. (Chen Ying 2000,90)<br /> <br /> Another example is the Russian proverb &quot;Хвалилась синица, что море зажжет.&quot; literally translated as &quot;山雀吹嘘要把大海点燃(The tit boasted to light the sea)&quot;. This proverb comes from an allusion in Krylov’s fable: &quot;The tit yelled everywhere that it was going to burn the sea. The news reached the animals' ears. Everyone ran to see the result, but the sea did not dry up. Everyone ran to see the result, but the sea did not dry up. &quot;This proverb satirizes those who like to brag, but can't get things done. Such ethnic-specific proverbs are sometimes difficult to understand, and it is necessary to trace their roots to understand their meaning(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).<br /> <br /> These three types of Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs have different levels of consistency in content, and the degree of difficulty of understanding also varies. Therefore, in the translation process, it is necessary to select one or a combination of multiple translation methods for translation according to different proverb classifications to achieve the purpose of &quot;prescribe the right medicine&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chinese translation methods of Russian proverbs===<br /> Chinese and foreign translation theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; to Qian Zhongshu's &quot;Concept of Transcendence&quot;; from Qu Qiubai's &quot;Concept of Equivalence&quot; to &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A•Nidar Or &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. We can see that the central point in their proposition is that the translation should faithfully express the meaning of the original text and reflect the appearance of the original text(Sheng Yichao 2009,110). <br /> <br /> On the basis of this important point of view, we analyze the classification of Russian proverbs and apply various methods comprehensively in order to obtain a more perfect translation. Specifically, there are the following methods: translation method, set translation method, literal translation method, free translation method, borrowed translation method, and added word and annotation method(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Equivalent translation(对译法)====<br /> &quot;Equivalent translation&quot; is directly using Chinese proverbs corresponding to Russian proverbs for translation. When using this translation method, the information conveyed by the literal and image meanings of Russian and Chinese proverbs should be the same. This translation method can correctly convey the pragmatic information contained in the image of the original language, enhance the readability of the translation, while completely retaining the rhetorical color of the original language, so that readers can understand the original text most accurately(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).<br /> <br /> This translation method is applicable to the &quot;completely consistent&quot; Russian proverbs mentioned above. For the Russian proverbs listed in 1.1, the existing proverbs in Chinese proverbs can be directly used as translations, and for example:<br /> <br /> (1)Век живи, век учись. 活到老,学到老。(Live and learn.)<br /> <br /> (2)Капля камень точит. 滴水穿石。(Constant dripping wears away a stone.)<br /> <br /> (3)Куй железо, пока горячо. 趁热打铁。(Strike while the iron is hot.) (Jia Shufen 1996,135)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Corresponding and literal translation====<br /> In the Translatology Dictionary , the translation method “corresponding” is interpreted as the mutual translation of synonymous idioms. If the content, form, and rhetoric color of the target language roughly match the target language, then it is possible to adopt this method(Fang Mengzhi 2003,111). If the images and metaphors are the same or similar, this translation method is more appropriate; while the literal translation method is based on the form of the original text, which retains the metaphor, image and national characteristics of Russian proverbs. These two methods can be used simultaneously in translation practice.<br /> <br /> “Corresponding” is suitable for the translation of &quot;partially consistent&quot; Russian proverbs introduced in 1.2 of this article. &quot;Partially consistent&quot; Russian proverbs can be found in Chinese with corresponding proverbs with different images but the same or similar meaning. At this time, if the “equivalent translation” is adopted, readers will be misunderstood and the translated language will lose the national characteristics of Russian proverbs. Therefore, when translating such proverbs, the original image should be kept as much as possible and the expression form of Chinese proverbs should be used. In addition to the examples already mentioned above, there are similar ones:<br /> <br /> (1)Ложка дёгтю в бочку мёду. 一勺焦油坏了一桶蜜(A spoonful of tar breaks a bucket of honey), referring to the Chinese proverb &quot;一粒老鼠屎坏了一锅汤(A mouse poop breaks a pot of soup)&quot;(Jia Shufen 1996,145)<br /> <br /> (2) Нет дыма без огня. 无火不生烟(No fire, no smoke)， refers to the Chinese proverb &quot;无风不起浪(No wind, no waves)&quot;(Jia Shufen 1996,240).<br /> <br /> (3) Шила в мешке не устаишь. 口袋藏不住坠子(Pendant cannot be hidden in the pocket）, refers to the Chinese proverb &quot;纸包不住火(Paper cannot keep fire)&quot;(Jia Shufen 1996,303).<br /> <br /> Such Russian proverbs refer to the expression form of Chinese proverbs. On the basis of retaining the language structure characteristics of Russian proverbs, they do not lose the national cultural characteristics of Russian proverbs. They are successful translations. “Corresponding” uses the expression form of Chinese proverbs to make the translation easier to be accepted by readers. While using the translation method “corresponding”, in fact, the literal translation method is also used. The two are closely combined to maximize the original image and style(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Free translation and loan translation====<br /> The national cultures of China and Russia are quite different. When Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs use completely different figurative images, the figurative images in the literal original text will make the translation difficult to understand and accept, or cause misunderstandings. Using “corresponding” to translate Russian proverbs may cause deviation in understanding. In order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text, free translation can be used for translation at this time. Free translation refers to a translation method that readjusts the structure of the original text on the basis of the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the original text clearly in a new way of expression. <br /> <br /> For example, the Russian proverb &quot;Язык до Киева довезёт. 舌头（语言）把你带到基辅。(The tongue (language) brings you to Kiev)&quot; Kiev is an ancient city in the former Soviet Union. In ancient times, Kiev was called the mother city of the Russians and one of the most famous cities (Chen Ying 2000,90). Therefore, as long as you ask for directions, you will find Kiev. Therefore, this Russian proverb actually emphasizes the importance of &quot;язык&quot;. The literal translation will obviously make readers puzzled. However, it can be translated as &quot;有嘴走遍天下（With a mouth to travel all over the world）&quot; through free translation, which is more appropriate and easy to understand(Zhou Changyu 2006,39). <br /> <br /> &quot;На воре шапка горит(Jia Shufen 1996,176).&quot; is literally translated as &quot;小偷的帽子着火(The thief's hat is on fire)&quot;. If you don’t understand the source of the proverb, you cannot understand its meaning. This proverb originated from a story: Someone found a thief stealing, so he shouted in the crowd, &quot;The thief's hat is on fire.&quot; When the thief heard it, he involuntarily looked at his head and exposed himself and was arrested. . Through free translation, this proverb can be translated as &quot;the thief has a guilty conscience&quot;, so that the meaning of the original text can be more accurately conveyed to the reader(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).<br /> <br /> There are always commonalities and individualities in Russian and Chinese national cultures. Therefore, as mentioned in 1.2, there are cases where Russian and Chinese proverbs express the same or similar meanings in different cultural images. In this case, when the differences between Russian and Chinese proverbs are too prominent, you can also consider loan translation to translate, that is, by analyzing the internal meaning of Russian proverbs, borrowing Chinese proverbs with different images but expressing the same meaning for translation(Zhou Changyu 2006,39). E.g:<br /> <br /> (1) Семь раз примерь, один раз отрежь.三思而后行(Jia Shufen 1996,345)。(Look before you leap.)<br /> <br /> (2) Всякая лисица свой хвост хвалит. 王婆卖瓜，自卖自夸(Jiang Xiuhua 1999,166)。(Every cook praises his own broth.)<br /> <br /> (3) Горбатого могила исправит. 禀性难移。(Human nature is hardly changed.)(Ye Fanglai 1987,102)<br /> <br /> Using this translation method, the translation is not exactly the same as the original, and the content and form of the two are also very different. This distinguishes the loan translation method from the equivalent translation counterpart translation method and the “corresponding”. In fact, the loan translation method can be regarded as a variant of the free translation method, because the loan translation is actually an expression made by re-adjusting the structure of the original text on the basis of understanding the meaning of the original text. But it should also be distinguished from free translation, because the loan translation method borrows the proverbs already in Chinese. This method has lost the image in the original proverb and cannot be called a perfect translation method. It should be avoided as much as possible(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Addition and annotation====<br /> Addition and annotation are compensatory translation methods, which supplement and reveal the cultural information in the original text.(Wang Yanrong 2013,114), the two explanations in the translatology dictionary are &quot;to add some words according to the needs of semantics, rhetoric or syntax in translation, so as to faithfully and smoothly express the ideological content of the original text.&quot; And a translator's compensation method in order to fully express the original semantics and style in the process of translation is to help achieve the equivalence of translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2003,111)<br /> <br /> Many Russian proverbs may produce pragmatic failure after literal translation. In order to avoid this failure, we can use the method of adding words or adding notes to introduce the image and cultural background of the original text in the form of annotation. This method makes the translation more vivid and intuitive, while retaining the image of the original text, showing the national characteristics of Russian proverbs(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).<br /> <br /> For example, the Russian proverb &quot;И на солнце есть пятна.&quot; is literally translated as &quot;太阳上也有黑点。(There are black spots on the sun.)&quot; This translation is obviously difficult for readers to accept and understand, but if the Chinese proverb &quot;金无足赤，人无完人(Gold can't be pure and man can't be perfect.)&quot; with the same meaning is added after it to reveal its connotation, “太阳上也有黑点—金无足赤，人无完人。(There are also black spots on the sun—Gold can't be pure and man can't be perfect.)” This form of translation can allow readers to understand the meaning of the proverb clearly and keep the original image in Russian proverbs(Zhou Changyu 2006,40). <br /> <br /> Another example is &quot;В Тулу со своим самоваром не ездят.&quot; literally translated as &quot;不要带着茶炊去图拉。(Don't take a samovar to Tula.)&quot; This Russian proverb has a strong Russian national color. Tula was once famous throughout the country for the production of samovars, and was the center of Russia's metallurgical industry and metal manufacturing. Taking the samovar to Tula, which is rich in samovars, actually means &quot;make an unnecessary move&quot;. This proverb is very vivid. Russians can naturally understand and understand its meaning, but as Chinese readers who do not understand Russian culture, it may be difficult to understand the literal translation of this proverb. <br /> Therefore, this proverb can be translated as &quot;带着茶炊去图拉—多此一举(Bring a samovar to Tula--make an unnecessary move)&quot;, or add a note in brackets: &quot;Tula is famous for making samovars.&quot; In this way, readers can not only understand the meaning of proverbs, but also intuitively feel the cultural elements of Russia. It can said as killing two birds with one stone(Zhou Changyu 2006,40). This translation method is often used in the situations described in 1.3. Examples also include:<br /> <br /> （1）За двумя зайцами погонишься ни одного не поймаешь. 一人追双兔，到头两手空—一心不可二用。(One man chases two rabbits, and in the end two hands are empty--no man can do two things at once.)<br /> <br /> （2）На языке мёд а в сердце лёд. 嘴上甜似蜜,心里冷若冰—笑里藏刀。(Sweet as honey on the mouth, cold as ice in the heart--hide a dagger in a smile.)<br /> <br /> The above-mentioned several Chinese translation methods of Russian proverbs have their own advantages and disadvantages. In the practice of Russian proverb translation, we should not be limited to one of them. We should make a specific analysis according to the specific situation, flexibly use different translation methods, and learn from others' strong points, so as to achieve a harmonious translation.<br /> <br /> ===4. Translation strategies of Russian proverbs===<br /> <br /> Russian proverbs are concise in language, rich in meaning, vivid in image, beautiful in rhythm and strong in national color. It is not easy to translate them into Chinese accurately and vividly. In the practice of Russian proverb translation, we should pay attention to the translation strategies in addition to the flexible application of various translation methods.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Trace the origin and accurately interpret====<br /> There are great cultural differences between Russian and Chinese. When interpreting Russian proverbs, translators are likely to stay on the surface of the text and interpret the meaning from the text, resulting in misunderstanding and translation errors. Therefore, when translating Russian proverbs, especially those with historical or national background, we should carefully examine their allusions, trace back to the source, and accurately interpret the hidden meanings of proverbs.<br /> <br /> For example, the Russian proverb &quot;Недосол на столе, а пересол на спине.&quot; is literally translated as &quot;菜淡了在桌上，菜咸了在背上。(The dish is light on the table, and the dish is salty on the back.)&quot; This proverb can be traced back to the time of serfdom. Salt was a very valuable thing at that time, and those who wasted salt will be punished. Russians usually have salt shakers on their tables. If the dishes are weak, you can add salt at will, but if they are salty, the cook will be punished by whipping his back. Therefore, the basic meaning of the proverb is that if the dish is cooked, salt can be added, and if the dish is salted, the cook will be beaten. (Ma Weiqun, Zhang Xiaoyun 2008,149)<br /> However, this proverb was once translated as &quot;多一事不如少一事(One thing more is worse than one thing less)&quot; or &quot;宁缺毋滥(It is better to leave a deficiency uncovered than to have it covered without discretion)&quot;. This kind of translation is obviously not appropriate. It is &quot;taking the words too literally&quot; without understanding the historical background(Ye Fanglai 1987,101). <br /> <br /> Similar proverbs include &quot;Была бы спина, а то будет вина.&quot; literally translated as &quot;只要有脊背，就会有过错(As long as there is a back, there will be fault)&quot; , this Russian proverb also contains the cultural image of &quot;back&quot;. As mentioned above, whipping the back was a common punishment method at that time. At the same time, since the whipped person violated the discipline, not the law, there was a certain degree of randomness in determining the punishment object and the degree of punishment. (Sheng Yichao 2009,110)<br /> <br /> Therefore, this proverb actually expresses the meaning of &quot;欲加之罪，何患无辞(Give a dog a bad name and hang him)&quot;. If you don't know Russian history, you can't understand the meaning of this proverb. Therefore, it is very important to study the allusions of proverbs and understand their deep cultural meanings.(Sheng Yichao 2009,110)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Retain characteristics and respect national culture====<br /> Proverbs are the cultural crystallization of a nation and have distinctive national characteristics. When translating Russian proverbs, attention should be paid to the comprehensive use of multiple translation methods, to maximize the retention of national characteristics, not only to restore the original image and style, but also to reflect the national cultural connotation, while taking into account the reader's understanding and acceptance. At this time, we may use the methods of addition and annotation mentioned above, and try to avoid over-domestication of Russian proverbs, and respect the national culture. We should analyze it in the specific original text and translate it flexibly(Zhou Changyu 2006,42).<br /> <br /> For example, the Russian proverb &quot;Не всё коту масленица, бывает и великий пост.&quot; is literally translated as &quot;a cat does not celebrate the festival of Marriage every day, and it always has a Lent.&quot; Readers who do not understand the Russian national culture may not understand the meaning of this proverb, if you add a comment at this time, “In Russian festivals, the 7-day Maslenitsa can best reflect the traditions of the Russian nation. (Sheng Yichao 2009,110)<br /> The “Ross-Robs Festival” originated from the Orthodox Church. The 40-day fast in the Orthodox During the period, people are forbidden to eat meat and entertainment. Therefore, in the week before the start of Lent, people indulge in joy and every family pay close attention to eating meat to make up for the ascetic life during the fast period.&quot;If the background cultural knowledge contained in the proverb is revealed, readers will be able to more clearly understand the meaning of the proverb &quot;good times will not last long, and a feast is hard to come by&quot;.(Sheng Yichao 2009,110)<br /> <br /> Another example is the proverb &quot;Не учи рыбу плавать. 不要教鱼儿游泳(Don't teach fish to swim)&quot;. Some people have translated the proverb as &quot;不要班门弄斧(Don't go to teach hewing to the God of Carpenters)&quot;. This translation borrowed and translated the image in the original text into a well-known allusion(“班门弄斧”) image in Chinese people. The distortion of the cultural connotation in proverbs is excessive domestication, so it is not appropriate.(Zhou Changyu 2006,42)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Pay attention to expression and focus on language use====<br /> <br /> On the one hand, as a unique language form, proverbs are popular among the people, and they are a kind of spoken language style with the characteristics of spoken language style. Therefore, in the translation of Russian proverbs, the characteristics of easy to understand and easy to speak should also be reflected in the translation; On the other hand, as the famous Russian linguist A. A. Potebnya（А. А. Потебня） said, proverb “is a short literary work”. Proverbs are also a kind of folk literature, which is actually a literary form. We should pay attention to the aesthetic characteristics of proverbs in translation(Zhou Changyu 2006,43).<br /> <br /> For example, if the proverb “Не учи рыбу плавать.” mentioned above is translated as “不要教鱼儿游泳(Don’t teach fish to swim)”, obviously the literal translation method will accurately retain the original metaphorical image while retaining the colloquial nature of the proverb. It is easy to understand and the translation of &quot;不要班门弄斧(Don't go to teach hewing to the God of Carpenters)(“班门弄斧”is an Chinese allusion)&quot; is blunt and overly written(Zhou Changyu 2006,43). <br /> <br /> Another example is &quot;Слово серебро, молчание золото&quot; literally translated as &quot;雄辩是银，沉默是金(eloquence is silver, silence is gold)&quot; to express the phonology in the original text very well and make people read it catchy. If the Chinese proverb &quot;是非只为多开口，烦恼皆因强出头(Right and wrong just for more mouth, worry all because of strong)&quot;, although the meaning is the same, it loses the metaphorical image and popularity of the original text; as for the aesthetic characteristics, the translation of the Russian proverb &quot;Красна птица пером, а человек умом.&quot; &quot;鸟美在羽毛，人美在头脑(The beauty of birds is in the feathers, and the beauty of people is in the mind.)&quot; This translation adopts the method of literal translation, while preserving the original image, it also restores the structure of the original text and the rhetorical symmetry, which conforms to the aesthetic characteristics of the original text(Zhou Changyu 2006,44).<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In short, Russian and Chinese are two very different languages, and the proverbs of the two ethnic groups also have their own characteristics in language form. The translation must take into account the unique style, connotation and meaning of the original text at the same time, while maintaining the fluency of sentences, perfect expression, and achieving the harmony and unity of sound, rhyme and meaning. It is by no means easy, and it is a major test for translators. Translators should not only have a thorough understanding of the original text and the cultural background of the original text, and be proficient in tempering words, but also should flexibly use various translation methods, master translation strategies, and strive to accurately express the profound meaning of Russian proverbs.<br /> <br /> ===6. References===<br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of Liaison Interpreting from the Perspectives of Reception Aesthetics and Translator-Centered Theory 李璐伊 Li Luyi==<br /> &lt;center&gt;李璐伊 Li Luyi 202020080612 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In a time of increasing intercultural communication, the working scenes of liaison interpreters are increasingly complex, and the role of interpreters are still controversial. From the perspective of aesthetics of reception and translator-centered theory, this paper analyzes the role positioning of liaison interpreters in terms of customers' expectations on the role of interpreters and their own understanding of the role of interpreters, and develops corresponding strategies for different types of liaison interpreters.<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> Liaison Interpreting；Positioning of Interpreter；Reception Aesthetics ；Translator-Centered Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在跨文化交际日益频繁的今天，联络口译译员的工作场景日益复杂，而其角色定位还存在争议。本文拟通过接受美学和译者中心论的视角分别从客户对口译译员的角色期待以及口译译员自身角色认识两方面分析了客户对口译员的角色期待和口译员对自身的角色定位，并针对不同联络口译类型制定了相应的应对策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 联络口译；译员角色定位；接受美学；译者中心论<br /> <br /> ===I. Introduction===<br /> In a broad sense, where there is a society, there is intercultural communication, which usually refers to the communication activities carried out by people in different cultural backgrounds. With the acceleration of globalization in recent years, cross-cultural communication has become increasingly frequent and complex. Susan Bassinet once argued that translation is by no means a purely linguistic act, it is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is spoken, and that translation is the communication within or between cultures.<br /> <br /> This view is also reflected in his book ''Translation, History and Culture''“Translators are allowed more liberties on what one might be tempted to call‘the purely linguistic level,’ certainly if the translation is not meant to‘represent’ the original in the translators' culture, but simply to help translators refine their knowledge of their own language.”(Bassnett, Susan; Lefevre, Andre 1996,4). <br /> <br /> As an important bridge in intercultural communication, interpretation is real-time, which requires interpreters to adjust their interpretation strategies in the new era to meet the increasing demand for interpreting.<br /> <br /> Translation studies is a relatively young research field, the current translation studies work an obvious trend to written translation studies, with less attention in the study of interpreting, this is probably due to the earlier tradition of the translation studies -- In the past, people only discussed the translation strategies of literary classics. As for this point, some scholars have proposed before that &quot;in terms of translation theory research itself, only written translation theory research is paid attention to rather than interpretation research, especially the study of specific problems in the process of interpretation by interpreters&quot; (Liu 2014,141- 143).<br /> <br /> We believes that the reasons for this situation are as follows: first, the corpus of written translation recorded in the form of words are easier to preserve than the interpreted corpus, and the research is also easier to retrieve the corpus of written translation; Second, Culture-related content is more common in translation than in interpretation. In addition, at present, the entry point of interpretation studies on cultural issues in liaison interpreting is often limited to a specific interpreting scene. For example, Zhao Xiaomei makes an analysis of the role of medical liaison interpreters, and believes that interpreters should abandon the tradition of complete neutrality in the process of interpreting (Zhao 2020, 105-108). However, different interpreting scenes have different requirements for interpreters, so the study confined to a specific scene does not accord with the actual situation that interpreters must be in multiple settinfs to interpret.<br /> <br /> In addition, many Chinese liaison interpreting studies are practice reports of MTI majors, lacking systematic theoretical discussion. Against such a background of translation studies, it is very necessary to study liaison interpretation from the perspective of receptive aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;. The value of this study lies in: first, it provides a new theoretical perspective for liaison interpretation analysis; Second, it provides coping strategies to solve the cultural barriers of interpreting in intercultural communication.（Wang 2020,39-40/Mao 2020,33-34）<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, interpretation is divided into consecutive interpretation and simultaneous interpretation according to its working mode, while it is divided into two-way interpretation and one-way interpretation according to the direction of interpretation. The liaison interpretation we discuss here is a typical two-way interpretation. We generally believe that liaison interpretation is a kind of interpretation which is different from conference interpretation and has a variety of working scenes, and it's working mode is mainly consecutive interpretation. Henri van Hoof, when talking about liaison interpretation earlier, described it as an interpreting practice existing in business negotiations (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,12).<br /> <br /> This is the early propositions which business interpretation is equivalent to liaison interpretation, and in the later long period of time has been recognized and widely used, but this description has obvious limitations. With the development of society and the diversification and complexity of interpretation scenes, the connotation of liaison interpretation has been expanded to include various forms of interpretation within the society or within the community. Later, R. Bruce W. Anderson (1976/2002) generically described liaison interpreting as a &quot;tripartite communication&quot; model, which is characterized by the emphasis that liaison interpreting is an activity in which two monolingual speakers communicate through a bilingual interpreter (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,14).<br /> <br /> Of course, this definition is more in line with the current practical understanding of liaison interpreting, but it is also difficult to distinguish the specific forms of liaison interpreting because of the high generality of its description. According to Anderson's point of view and the definition of conference interpretation, liaison interpreting is a &quot;bilateral interpreting&quot; within the society, rather than an international conference interpreting for representatives of several countries. Therefore, not only business interpretation, but also legal interpreting and guide-interpreting should be included in liaison interpretation.<br /> <br /> Based on the &quot;reader-centered theory&quot; of reception aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; of &quot;Eco-translatology&quot;, this paper mainly adopts the method of literature research and takes liaison interpreters as the object to discuss customers' expectations on the role of interpreters and interpreters’ awareness of their own role, so as to seek interpreting strategies in different situations of liaison interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===II. Reception Aesthetics and Translator-Centered Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.Reception Aesthetics====<br /> Reception aesthetics, also known as reader-centered theory, is a critical approach in literary studies, developed in the 1960s by H.R. Jauss and Wolfgang. Iser. This theory is different from the previous critical method which is centered on author or works. It turns to the critical method which is centered on readers' aesthetic acceptance and aesthetic experience. Phenomenology and modern hermeneutics are the theoretical basis of reader-centered theory, and the term &quot;reception aesthetics&quot; was first introduced in Hans Robert Jauss's essay ''Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory'', which is a manifesto for reception aesthetics to become an independent school (Jin 2002, 264-267). Izer once said, &quot;Reception aesthetics advocates the reader's initiative and creative ability. Reading is not a passive perception but an active creative activity. The transformation of the reader's role can be said to be an epoch-making transformation in the development of literature&quot;(Guo，1997，338-339). There are several important concepts in reception aesthetics. The first is the &quot;the horizon of expectations&quot;， which Jauss coined. Jauss believes that due to the complex reasons of individuals and society, readers who are the subject of receiving literature often have established thinking orientation and concepts in their psychology before and during the process of literature reading (Wang 2020, 198-199). The second concept is the &quot;response-inviting structure&quot;, which was proposed by Iser. Iser considers the meaning of a text to be indeterminable, so the meaning of a text would never have been generated by itself, but there is a &quot;text blank&quot; in the text that only the reader can fill (Jin 2002,274). &quot;Text blank&quot; can induce the reader to think aesthetically. Reception aesthetics in interpreting is reflected in that the success of a interpretation product largely depends on the response of the recipient to the work and whether the recipient has generated aesthetic pleasure, and the evocation of the text and the satisfaction of the recipient have become the criteria for evaluation of interpretation products. From the perspective of reception aesthetics, interpreting serves the recipient completely.<br /> <br /> ====2.Translator-Centered Theory====<br /> The concept of &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; is closely related to &quot;Eco-translatology&quot; put forward by Professor Hu Gengshen. &quot;Eco-translatology&quot; is a new concept, and there are still many controversies and misunderstandings about it among Chinese scholars. In the opinion of Leng Yuhong, &quot;If we want to construct a systematic and complete “Eco-translatology Theory”, the first thing to be overturned must be the 'translator-centered'!&quot; (Leng 2011, 72-73). The main reason for his conclusion is that he has a misunderstanding of &quot;translator-centered&quot;. Leng Yuhong believes that the &quot;translator-centered&quot; puts the &quot;translator&quot; above the &quot;original text&quot; and the &quot;recipient&quot;, and takes the translator to an extreme like “translation-center theory”. Some other scholars believe that, on the one hand, the &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; fails to break through the dichotomization of subject and object; on the other hand, it is interpreted from the perspective of concrete operation instead of philosophical reasoning. Therefore, it lacks an organic connection with the anti-centrism and equality core contained in the Oriental ecological wisdom (Luo 2017-65). Then professor Hu retorted, the &quot;translator-center&quot; concept, in the process of translation is mainly reveals the &quot;leading&quot; role of the translator in the translation process, specifically refers to the translator in the translation process must first &quot;adapt to&quot; the ecological environment of translation, and then, the translator in according to the ecological environment of translation to decide on the &quot;choice&quot; of translation , which includes the translator &quot;selective adaptation&quot; and &quot;adaptive selection&quot; and so on, all the translation behaviors of translation activity is determined by translator, this is the core and intention of &quot;translator-center theory . In other words, the translation system is pluralistic, and the translator should actively adapt to the environment in the process of translation, instead of destroying the relationship between each subject in the translation system to reach the dominant position. Professor Hu also emphasizes the distinction between &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; and &quot;subjectivity&quot; in order to emphasize the dynamic role that translators can play in translation (Hu 2013, 208, 218-219) . Yin shuqiong also believes that ecological paradigm is not a commonality between translation studies and natural ecosystems, but a feature shared by all social science research systems (Yin 2017, 56-62). Hu (Hu 2017, 63-68) said that Yin's erroneous conclusion is based on a misunderstanding of the concept of &quot;paradigm&quot;, and that “Eco-translatology” and its &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; are the common beliefs of recent translation scholars, rather than emphasizing that they are unique to translatology and natural ecosystems. In addition, there are many arguements about “Eco-translatology” and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; in China, we think that the “translator-centered theory” under the perspective of “Eco-translatology” not mean that &quot;translator&quot; above the &quot;source language&quot; and &quot;recipients&quot;, but hope from the perspective of &quot;translator&quot; thinking about the problems in the translation process and the solution to the problem, emphasizes the &quot;translator&quot; actively adapt to the social scene and positive response to this strategy.<br /> Then, what is the relationship between the &quot;reader-centered theory&quot; of reception aesthetics and the &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; of Eco-translatology studies? We think that the two are dialectical unity, reception aesthetics require the translator to fully consider the recipient's cultural quality and cognitive levels, but completely according to the requirements of the recipient to make the choice of translation strategy and translation quality evaluation is too biased, because recipient's aesthetic of translation products too subjective and lack of professionalism, and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; advocate that the difficulties encountered in the translation should be solved by translators according to their professional judgment and also encourages translators to seek more change through its own development strategy. Of course, &quot;reader-centered theory&quot; and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; are not diametrically opposed, and translator-centered theory also requires translators to consider the needs of recipients of translation products. It can be said that &quot;reader-centered theory&quot; is a reference item of &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;, and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; is a further development of &quot;reader-centered theory&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===III. Positioning of liaison interpreter===<br /> In the field of interpretation, there have always been different opinions on the principle of fidelity of interpretation products: some people believe that &quot;sentence by sentence translation&quot; should be carried out, and interpretation products should be faithful to the original text in form. That is, the interpreter should &quot;be like a megaphone&quot; ; Some people believe that interpreters should take into account the cultural context in which communication takes place, and that interpretation products should be faithful to the &quot;meaning&quot; of the original text, that is, the central meaning expressed by the speaker .(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,153)<br /> <br /> However, there are significantly more supporters of the latter than the former. This is similar to the debate on the principle of translation in translation studies: literal translation v.s. free translation. The discussion of translation principles is generally focused on literature. At present, we generally believe that different translation strategies should be adopted according to different literary genres and themes. It is also similar in the study of interpretation. Liaison interpreters should adopt different interpreting strategies according to different interpretation scenes and themes. The difference between liaison interpretation and translation comes from R. Bruce W. Anderson's &quot;tripartite communication&quot; theory.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,14）<br /> <br /> Liaison interpreters are directly facing customers when interpreting, and their interpreting products will be delivered to customers in a timely manner, so the quality of their translation products depends entirely on customers' judgment at present. So when we think about the role of the liaison interpreters, one of the most important references is what the client expects of the interpreter. In addition, the interpreter acts as a bridge between the two sides in communication, and the role of the liaison interpreter is more prominent than that of other types of interpreters. Therefore, the positioning of the interpreters on themselves is also very important. In addition, another characteristic that distinguishes liaison interpreters from other types of translators is that liaison interpretation is often in a dynamic and diversified scene, unlike other translators who are only in a single translation scene. Therefore, analysis of the interpretation scene is also a part that cannot be ignored when discussing the role positioning of the interpreter.<br /> <br /> ====1.Client's Expectation of the Interpreter's Role====<br /> From the perspective of reception aesthetics, clients will estimate and expect interpretation products in advance according to their reading experience and aesthetic taste. Donova-Cagigos talked about the measurement and judgment of interpretation quality, and believed that if &quot;faithfulness&quot; could not be quantified, it could only be relevant to specific communicative occasions so the results of the clients expectation investigation, such as the user's preference for the delivery of the main idea over the full translation, can be used as an important criterion for rating accuracy and omission (Pǎchhacker 2010，169). This requires the liaison interpreter to adjust his/her role to the client's expectations. Each user's knowledge base, education level and other aspects of the difference will lead to their expectations of liaison interpreters change. We divide clients' expectations on interpreters into two categories: one is that interpreters are expected to interpret faithfully, neutrally and impartially, without mixing their own interpretation with concise output of source language information; The other is to expect interpreters to add their own explanations through omission, addition and other interpreting techniques when interpreting source language information, so as to make interpreting products better understood.<br /> The role expectations of the above two kinds of clients depend largely on the nature of the clients and the purpose for which the clients accept the interpretation. The first kind of clients who hope interpreter completely follow the principle of &quot;faithfulness&quot; , have a comprehensive understanding of the areas involved in interpretation, they receive interpretation mainly for the purpose of obtaining extended knowledge of known fields or general information, or because of the limitation of interpretation theme requires an interpreter to stay neutral, such as legal interpreting . In this regard, Collados Aís studied the requirements on the interpretation quality standards of the interpreting clients who are experts and found that the subjects did not give low marks to the content errors in the &quot;pleasant to hear&quot; interpretation, but scored them according to other standards. The principle of &quot;faithfulness&quot;, which the clients attach most importance to, did not play a corresponding role in the evaluation (Pǎchhacker 2010，171). The second group of clients expect interpreters to go beyond &quot;translation machines&quot; and become helpers who can answer their own questions and facilitate communication. Such clients generally have little knowledge of the fields involved in the interpreting content, and the purpose of receiving interpreting of them is to understand a completely unfamiliar knowledge field and acquire as much new knowledge as possible.<br /> <br /> In practice, most clients prefer the latter, which is also determined by the nature of liaison interpreting. One characteristic of liaison interpreters is that interpreters often act as &quot;escorts&quot; (Zhan, 2010,3). As an example, the author accompanied the &quot;Confucius Institute&quot; visiting group of South Korea's Wonkwang University during undergraduate years., for the purpose of cultural communication, the school asked the author with the delegation visit to cultural sites such as Hunan Provincial Museum, the author's main role in the trip is interpreter, but due to the particularity of interpreting theme, the author needs to explain the names of cultural relics and supplement relevant historical knowledge to the delegation members, so while interpreting, the author also plays the role of a tour guide.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Interpreter's Position on Themselves====<br /> In the perspective of Foucault's power theory, the interpreter is no longer the traditional &quot;transmitter&quot;, and the subject consciousness of the interpreter is highlighted. In the practice of interpreting, the interpreter's cognition of his/her status, ability and value is an important manifestation of the interpreter's subjectivity (Wang 2019,14). In liaison interpreting, as a person directly involved in communication and proficient in bilingualism, the liaison interpreter must have the advantage of adopting appropriate interpretation strategies according to power distribution in a communication. From the perspective of &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;, liaison interpreters also have the obligation to adapt to different interpreting environments and coordinate the discourse of communication parties. Then the following situations usually occur:<br /> In order to ensure the quality of their interpretation products and promote the progress of communication, liaison interpreters tend to go beyond the act of interpretation itself and make supplementary explanations of the content of interpretation that may cause communication barriers, either intentionally or unintentionally. Or when the interpretation content is of a strong national or national nature, liaison interpreters will inevitably have a tendency to protect the rights of their own country and nation and increase the discourse power of their own country and nation. Of course, in general, interpreters will try their best to follow the principle of &quot;faithfulness&quot; in interpretation, and the ratio of &quot;faithfulness&quot; to &quot;creativity&quot; depends on the &quot;choice&quot; made by the liaison interpreter according to the translation environment.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Role of Interpreter under Different Liaison Interpreting Types====<br /> =====3.1.Business Interpreting=====<br /> Business interpreting is different from other liaison interpreting. First, business interpreting usually takes place in the context of cooperative project negotiation. In communication, the monolingual speakers respectively represent the interests of their enterprises and, usually, the interests of the countries where the enterprises are located. Secondly, the communicative parties usually have the purpose of long-term cooperation. Third, the content of business interpreting usually contains a large number of professional terms and figures; Fourth, business interpreters are usually permanent employees of one side of the communication. Fifthly, advanced diction is usually used in business interpretation. Due to the above characteristics of business interpreting, it is necessary for liaison interpreters to have the following accurate understanding of their role positioning.<br /> <br /> First, business interpreters are channels to convey &quot;meaning&quot;. This is the basic professionalism of an interpreter. Liaison interpreting is also known as bilateral interpretation. The existing bilateral interpretation model is based on the &quot;tripartite communication&quot; model. As one of the three parties, the liaison interpreter, like the Internet connecting two terminals, undertakes the task of processing the communication information between the two parties.Second, business interpreters are debaters for the benefit of their clients. Because of the long-standing relationship between liaison interpreters and clients, clients tend to treat the interpreters they hire as their &quot;inside&quot; colleagues (Zhang 2014，29). In many business communication situations, clients represent the interests of their own enterprises and are in a fast-changing vanity fair, and the business interpreters employed by them, as bilingual and with certain knowledge of the business, are bound to be the target for clients to seek help.Third, business interpreters are mediators of the negotiation atmosphere. In business negotiations, it is often the case that the two parties in communication fight for their own interests and the negotiation comes to a deadlock. Business interpreters have the obligation to use interpreting strategies and techniques to soften the atmosphere and act as a buffer when both sides are using increasingly extreme language and tone.Fourth, a business interpreter is also a professional &quot;business practitioner&quot;. Business interpreters are professional &quot;business practitioners&quot; who are the second most important role besides &quot;interpreter&quot;. This is also based on the first point of the basic role of the interpreter positioning. Sometimes the two sides of communication have different professional terms for the same concept. In order to facilitate the smooth communication between the two sides, usually the interpreter needs to be familiar with the relevant terms and interpret them quickly and accurately. In other words, it requires not only a good command of a foreign language, but also a good knowledge of business.（Zhang 2014，29）<br /> <br /> =====3.2.Guide-interpreting=====<br /> In addition to the business interpreting and legal interpreting mentioned by Pǎchhacker in the classification of interpreting, guide-interpreting is also distinguished from other liaison interpreting in that it has the most prominent intercultural characteristics and the emphasis of interpretation is on the inheritance of the culture reflected in the source language. In a sense, the role of a guide-interpreter is similar to that of a diplomat, who not only needs to make tourists understand the history and culture of China, but also needs to answer their questions accurately and timely. (Jia 2017，223) As a result, guide-interpreters should pay more attention when making role positioning.(Pǎchhacker 2010,160-162)<br /> <br /> First, guide-interpreters are facilitators of communication. In the tourism-themed interpreting work, the interpreter's duty is to help tourists and tour guides communicate, which is also the embodiment of the interpreter's &quot;bridge&quot; role in the field of tourism. So in some cases, it is necessary for an interpreter to supplement the source language, such as when a Chinese tour guide introduces a mountain to English-speaking tourists and says:“大家现在看到的山远看像一条卧龙，因此取名卧龙山。”and then the interpreter can interpret this sentence as:&quot;The mountain you see now looks like a sleeping dragon from a distance, so it was named Wolong Mountain.&quot; or &quot;The mountain you see now looks like a sleeping dragon from a distance, so it was named Wolong Mountain. ‘Wolong’ means sleeping dragon.&quot;Obviously, the first interpreting product does not convey the original intention of the tour guide to the tourists. The tour guide's original intention is to let the tourists know that the name of the mountain has something to do with its appearance. However, if the name of the mountain is transliterated directly without supplementary explanation, the tourists will still not understand the connection between the name of the mountain and its shape.Second, tour interpreters are &quot;cultural brokers&quot;. Besides interpreting the words of tour guides to tourists, interpreters should also properly explain some incomprehensible cultural phenomena to tourists. For example, a tour guide introduces the Palace Museum in Beijing to foreign tourists. The Palace Museum in Beijing is a completely symmetrical building built along a central axis. The ancient Chinese, influenced by Confucianism, believed that a completely symmetrical building could foil the majesty of the emperor. If the interpreter only changes the language of the original when interpreting this sentence, it will not make the foreign tourists understand The Chinese Confucian culture correctly. Because the guide as well as Chinese tourists learn at an early age and contact with Confucianism, so the Chinese subconsciously has &quot;symmetrical architecture&quot;, &quot;Confucianism&quot; and &quot;Confucianism&quot; link up without the need for further explanation, but as an interpreter should be aware that foreign tourists are likely to have no contact with Confucianism, also don't know &quot;symmetrical architecture&quot; and &quot;Confucianism&quot;, so when the tour guide has no further explanation, the interpreter is necessary for additional instructions, play the role of a &quot;cultural agent&quot;.(Pǎchhacker 2010,161)Third, guide-interpreters are the keepers of the atmosphere. The working scenes of guide-interpreters are informal, such as scenic spots and hotels, so the intonation and wording of interpreters should be in line with the current atmosphere. If the intonation is too plain and the wording is too serious, foreign tourists will find it difficult to adapt to it, and the interpreting products of interpreters will also &quot;reject&quot; the interpreting scenes.Fourth, guide-interpreters are &quot;experts&quot; in the tourism industry. Similar to a business interpreter, a guide-interpreter requires a comprehensive and detailed knowledge of the relevant field, which is the basis for the interpreter to act as a &quot;culture broker&quot;.Fifthly, there is another special case in which a guide-interpreter may be both an interpreter and a tour guide. When the author was an undergraduate, the author acted as an interpreter for the &quot;Confucius Institute&quot; delegation of Wonkwang University in South Korea, mainly following them to various cultural tourist attractions. Since the author had been to relevant scenic spots for many times, the author acted as a dual role of &quot;interpreter&quot; and &quot;tour guide&quot; without employing professional guides.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.Legal Interpreting=====<br /> Legal interpreting refers to interpreting under legal settings, including judicial interpreting and quasi-judicial interpreting. Judicial interpreting refers to &quot;interpreting under court settings&quot;, while quasi-judicial interpreting refers to interpreting taken place outside the court and closely related to court procedure (Zhao,Dong 2020,70). In distinguishing between international and community settings, Pǎchhacker points out that court interpreting is &quot;the most obvious binding setting for community interpreting&quot;. (Pǎchhacker, 2010,177) the author takes courtroom interpreting as an example for analysis. In court interpreting, the situation of interpretation is more serious than that of other types of interpreting, because of the rigor of the law, the interpreter should also be more precise in the wording and sentence construction. The roles of court interpreters are as follows:<br /> First, an invisible interpreting machine. In most court interpreting, the restrictions imposed by the legal system on interpreters are often contrary to the standards advocated by the interpreting profession (Pǎchhacker 2010,178). In order to maintain the rigor of the law, court interpreters are required to be &quot;invisible&quot; and interpret word by word, so the nature of the law gives court interpreters a role positioning that distinguishes them from other types of interpreters -- &quot;artificial intelligence interpreting machine&quot; with high accuracy.Second, conflict mediators. This role is due to the large power gap between legal practitioners such as judges and non-legal practitioners such as defendants and plaintiffs in the courtroom. In tense court debates, interpreters often act as conflict mediators in order to keep communication going.Third, intercultural agents. In fact, it is not only guide-interpreting, there will be more or less cultural barriers in any intercultural communication, and court interpreting is no exception. There was a famous case in which a Chinese-grandmother who lived in the United States gave &quot;刮痧&quot; to her sick grandson. Her son-in-law mistakenly thought that she had abused the child, so she was brought to court. The grandmother argued in court that it was only &quot;刮痧&quot;, and the interpreter made additional explanations and said：&quot;‘刮痧’is a traditional Chinese medicine therapy&quot; in order to make the American judge understand &quot;刮痧&quot; , and the case was finally dismissed. This example well demonstrates the important role of interpreters as intercultural agents in court interpretation. (Du,Tan 2013,106-107)Fourth, legal &quot;experts&quot;. In order to ensure the accuracy of the interpreting and the accurate understanding of legal terms by the listener of the TL, interpreters usually need to master a large amount of legal knowledge and relevant vocabulary accurately, and be able to provide basic answers for the listener lacking legal knowledge when necessary.<br /> <br /> To sum up, the role of an interpreter is generally related to the above three aspects. In other words, due to the limitations of client's expectation and interpreter's own knowledge and setting, interpreters need to make &quot;adaptive selection&quot; and &quot;selective adaptation&quot; to different interpreting environments according to client's expectation and interpreter's own knowledge. The role positioning of the interpreter affects the interpreting strategies that the interpreter chooses in the actual interpreting process, so the balance between &quot;reception aesthetics&quot; and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; in different interpreting settings is of vital importance.<br /> <br /> ===IV. Interpreting Strategies in Different Interpreting Settings===<br /> ====1.The Influence and Application of Reception Aesthetics and &quot;Translator-Centered Theory&quot; on Interpreting Strategies====<br /> As mentioned in the previous section, there are two main types of interpretation customers: those who expect faithful interpreting and those who expect supplementary interpreting. When interpreters fail to communicate with clients in advance and adjust their interpreting strategies according to clients' expectations, they will often produce interpreting products deviating from clients' needs, thus leading to errors in the transmission of interpreting information and resulting in interpreting barriers. The influence of such factors can be largely eliminated by preparation before interpreting. In the pre-interpretation preparation stage, interpreters can understand the cultural background of clients in advance or directly communicate with clients to understand their needs. Only by integrating interpretation products with clients' expectations can they be regarded as successful interpreting products. However, in practical interpreting, interpreters also encounter another kind of difficulty, that is, clients have aesthetic expectations of interpreting products and expect interpreters to make detailed explanations of relevant information. We know that the aesthetic value of an interpreting product derives from the &quot;places of indeterminacy&quot; of the product. Generally speaking, it is the space to appreciate an interpreting product, similar to the &quot;blank space&quot; in a Chinese painting. A balance should be struck between the degree of supplementary explanation and the degree of artistic &quot;white space&quot; in interpreting, which is difficult to grasp precisely because the clients who often make such requests do not have an accurate definition. In order to deal with this problem, interpreters have to make perceptual judgments based on their rich practical experience. Of course, it is not feasible to develop interpreting strategies based entirely on clients' expectations. Lv Jun once put forward, &quot;Every reader has different natural talent, endowment, experience and cultivation, so the works will present different meanings to each reader... If based on such a theory, how can we draw the conclusion of ‘principle of equivalence’?&quot; This is also the paradox between reception aesthetics and Nida's ‘functional equivalence theory’&quot; (Lv 1997，51).<br /> As interpreters are participants in intercultural communication, their own factors must have a great impact on the quality of interpreting. The author believes that the problem of interpreting obstacles caused by interpreters' own factors can be solved through the &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; in &quot;Eco-translatology&quot;. The &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; requires interpreters to develop themselves, that is, interpreters should change their interpreting circumstances and improve their interpreting ability, so as to obtain freedom of choice to ensure their central position in interpreting activities. Interpreters can expand their power in interpreting activities by improving their interpreting ability and using interpreting techniques. According to Pǎchhacker, there are two ways to improve interpreting skills: personal qualities and professional skills. Personal quality includes biological individual function and psychological quality. Professional skills mainly refer to bilingual skills. First of all, how to improve personal quality and ability. Apart from the inherent intelligence factor, interpreters should actively improve their psychological quality, which is a necessary guarantee for the smooth progress of interpreting. In case of difficulties, interpreters should not be flustered, but should actively take various countermeasures to overcome or temporarily avoid the difficulties to ensure the quality of the overall interpreting products. Zhan Cheng suggested that interpreters could simplify this by seeking help from the speakers (Zhan 2010，153-154). In addition, the author believes that the predicament of interpreting can also be solved by &quot;imitation words&quot;， which is a special kind of loanwords. Take Chinese-Korean interpreting for example. In the Hunan Provincial Museum, there is a collection called &quot;纪念木牍&quot;, which is a piece of wood used for writing in ancient China to records the time of some events, a time when the interpreter didn't know its corresponding proper nouns, can according to its pronunciation rules imitate a word - &quot;기년목독&quot;. Since both countries belong to the same cultural cycle of Chinese characters , Koreans learn basic Chinese characters from an early age, so they can understand the meaning and use of the imitated words even if they are not accurate. There is also a case in French where the word science-fiction is directly interpreted into English (Jeremy Mundie 2014，80). This is very useful for solving the sudden interpreting obstacles encountered in the process of interpreting. In terms of improving professional skills, before the beginning of interpreting, interpreters should have a systematic system of interpreting notes, which should be as concise as possible to improve the efficiency of interpreting symbols, and should be used to test the practicality of symbols in practice. Interpreters should also accumulate professional knowledge and vocabulary in various fields in daily life, and be familiar with the interpreting content and background knowledge before starting an interpreting. At the end of the interpreting work, the interpreter should review the difficulties encountered in the interpreting activities and think positively about the solutions to avoid repeating the past mistakes. With the development and progress of science and technology, modern science and technology have been widely used in the field of interpreting. Using digital recording technology, the interpreters can replace the notes in the interpreting by simply using portable devices such as computers to attach the source words to the digital audio tape and then playing them through headphones (Pǎchhacker 2010，186). In addition, modern technology can also be used to build artificial intelligence corpus, which can be used to classify corpus according to different translation topics.(Pǎchhacker 2010,181-184/Luo 2019,219)<br /> <br /> ====2.Interpreting Strategies in Different Sittings====<br /> Whether it is business interpreting, guide-interpreting or legal interpreting, interpreters are faced with the choice of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;creativity&quot;. However, different types of liaison interpreting have different &quot;interpreting ecological environments&quot;. The author analyzed the interpreting strategies applicable to these three types of liaison interpreting respectively.<br /> The clients of business interpreting have unclear requirements on interpreting products, which require interpreters not only to profit for the company but also to regulate the atmosphere, while the ecological environment of business interpreting requires interpreters to be both &quot;faithful&quot; and &quot;creative&quot;. Therefore, the interpreter has to adjust the strategy according to the specific interpreting content at any time. When both sides of the communication are negotiating for benefits, the interpreter should adopt the strategy of “faithfulness” rather than “creativity”; when the two sides are chatting, the interpreter should adopt the strategy of “creativity” rather than “faithfulness”; and when the two sides enter into a deadlock, the interpreter should use the &quot;creative&quot; interpreting to ease the atmosphere.<br /> In guide-interpreting, the interpreter's role as &quot;cultural broker&quot; and &quot;atmosphere maker&quot;, clients are usually expect interpreters interpret products for their own pleasure, so in the interpreting process of the guide-interpreting, interpreters should be as creative as possible throug omission or addition, lively tone and appropriate word choice to achieve clients' expectations. At the same time, interpreters should not completely rebel against the principle of &quot;faithfulness&quot; without regard to the content of the SL.<br /> Although interpreters also play the role of intercultural agents in legal interpreting, their more important role is interpretation machine for legal provisions. The ecological environment of legal interpreting is in a highly tense and rigorous atmosphere, which requires interpreters to adapt to the rigorous atmosphere and try their best to interpret sentence by sentence.<br /> <br /> ===V. Conclusion===<br /> In this paper，we discussed how interpreters should adapt to the interpreting environment and make correct translation strategies from the perspectives of reception aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;. The first part of this paper is an introduction, which introduced the definition of liaison interpreting, the current situation of interpreting studies in translation studies and the significance and methods of this study. The second part introduced the two perspectives of this research -- reception aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;. The third part analyzed the influence of two perspectives on the role positioning of liaison interpreters and the different types of liaison interpreters. The fourth part puts forward how to adjust translation strategies and how to use translation techniques to achieve the balance between &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;creativity&quot;.<br /> <br /> We believes that in the context similar to business interpretation, contact interpreters should adjust the translation strategies of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;creativity&quot; according to the constantly changing interpretation content. In the guide-interpretation, interpreters should pay more attention to the &quot;creativity&quot; of interpretation products on the basis of &quot;faithfulness&quot;, so as to bring tourists more relaxed and pleasant experience. In legal interpretation, due to the rigor and inviolability of the law, interpreters should try their best to interpret &quot;word by word&quot;. Only in certain circumstances can they provide necessary explanations for both sides of communication by adding interpretation content. This paper also puts forward other specific strategies. Interpreters can reduce errors in interpreting by communicating with customers in the preparation stage. In the process of interpreting, the translation strategies can be flexibly adjusted by adopting various translation techniques, such as addition and omission. 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The Chinese translator Xu Chi first translated it into China, and since then ''Walden'' has been retranslated and republished for many times. In China, the version of ''Walden'' translated by Xu Chi is the most widely spread and influential one, and has been highly regarded as a classic translation. There hve been a lot of studies on ''Walden'' both at home and abroad, such as studies on the ecology of the book, studies on birth background and living conditions of the author Henry David Thoreau, and systematic studies on Chinese translation version of ''Walden'' under different theoretical frameworks. However, there are few studies on Chinese translations of ''Walden'' from stylistic perspective. This paper will focus on the lexical, syntactic and rhetorical features of Xu Chi’s translation and analyze their stylistic effects. It is hoped that this study will be of certain value to the translation studies of ''Walden'' and the literary translation criticism from the stylistic perspective.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'', Chinese Translation of ''Walden'' by Xu Chi , Stylistics<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从文体学角度看《瓦尔登湖》徐迟译本<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》是亨利·大卫·梭罗的经典文学作品，已经成为美国文学宝库中的经典之作。中国译者徐迟首先将其译入国内，此后《瓦尔登湖》多次被重译再版。在中国，徐迟翻译的《瓦尔登湖》汉译本流传最广、影响最大，而且一直被推崇为“译文经典”。对于《瓦尔登湖》的研究，在国内和国外有很多，例如对散文涉及生态的研究，对于作者亨利·戴维·梭罗出生背景和生活状况的研究，以及不同的理论框架下对于《瓦尔登湖》中文翻译版本的系统研究。但是从文体学角度研究《瓦尔登湖》中译本的不多。本文着重探讨徐迟译本在词汇、句法、修辞层面上的特征，分析其文体效果。希望本研究对《瓦尔登湖》的翻译研究及从文体学视角开展文学翻译批评具有一定的参考价值。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》、徐迟中译本、文体学<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau and ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a collection of essays written by American writer Henry David Thoreau. Henry David Thoreau was born in 1817 and died in 1862. He was a famous writer, philosopher, representative of Transcendentalism, abolitionist of slavery and naturalist in the United States. He was deeply influenced by Emerson. He advocated returning to original mind and being close to nature. Thoreau created more than 20 first-class prose collections in his whole life. His essays are concise and powerful, simple and natural, full of thought, which hava unique style in American proses in the 19th century. In 1845, he lived in seclusion by Walden lake, two miles away from Concord. He cultivated and ate by himself and experienced a simple and close to nature life. Thoreau loved, appreciated and immersed in nature. He understood the world through nature and regarded the world as a whole for people to appreciate and enjoy. He advocated simple life, so he abandoned all material enjoyment and pursued spiritual enrichment. With a keen thinking of a philosopher and rigorous spirit of science, Thoreau put himself into the embrace of nature and explored everything around him.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a record of Thoreau's life when he lived alone by Walden lake. ''Walden'' is composed of 18 essays, which record Thoreau's hands-on life by walden lake for two months from 1845 to 1847. This book advocates simple life, appeals readers to return to nature, and expresses Thoreau's love for nature. The simple way of life in the book reflects Thoreau’s view of nature.This book has certain philosophical significance as well as artistic and aesthetic value.<br /> ''Walden'' is a Transcendentalist classic and is recognized as the most popular non-fiction work in American literature. After more than 100 years of circulation, the book has become a classic in American literature. So far, it has been published in more than 150 editions and translated into more than 40 languages. <br /> Thoreau's own practice in Walden lake and his works have a consistent proposition, that is, returning to nature. In his works, he constantly pointed out that most of modern people are trapped by family, work and various material needs, thus lost their spiritual pursuit and lived a materialistic life. Thoreau persisted in the pursuit of spiritual happiness and rejected material comforts. This is why Thoreau lived a simple life by Walden lake, enjoying a life of leisure while his neighbors pursued a life of wealth and material comforts, enslaved by their own desires.<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Xu Chi and His Translation of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi=====<br /> Xu Chi is famous for his poems, essays and reportage. He was once awarded by Mao Zedong's inscription of &quot;poetry expresses ambition&quot;, and he was known as &quot;Contemporary Chinese Goethe&quot; and &quot;Father of Reportage&quot;.Another little-known identity of this famous Chinese writer is being as a translator. He not only wrote poems, essays, reportages, novels and reviews, but also translated and introduced a large number of foreign literary works, with a total of 10 million words in his life (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden''=====<br /> In 1949, Xu translated Walden into Chinese called &quot;华尔腾&quot;, which failed to elicit widespread attention because at that time, people all over China were immersedin the joy of gaining cmancipation from feudalism and imperialism, so that ''Walden'',promoting tranquility and transcendentalism, was ignored.<br /> <br /> In 1982, Xu Chi retranslated it and titled it &quot;瓦尔登湖&quot;, which was so popular that it was republished for many times since then. Xu's version of ''Walden'' chosen in this study is its second edition, published in 1982, to which Xu Chi added a preface to present information about Thoreau and comments on ''Walden''. To some extent, readers are able to have a glimpse of Xu's own emotions and thoughts in his translation of ''Walden''(Yao Junwei 2005, 145).<br /> Xu Chi usually selected and translated works that were close to his own nature and could move him, because only in this way, he could have more resonance with the writers and their works, and reproduced the style of the original author. For Xu Chi, he expressed his own feelings and thoughts through translating these writers'works to a certain extent (Yao Junwei 2005, 146).<br /> <br /> Only when his soul was in harmony with Thoreau's, did Xu Chi love this book so much and rised to translating this book. It was in the summer of 1949 that Xu Chi began to translate Thoreau's ''Walden''. Because Xu Chi was extremely fond of this book, he spent lots of efforts in translating this famous work. In the first stage of translation, he tried to understand the meaning of the original work, hoping to be able to deeply understand the original work. He confessed that it was a very profound book which is full of translation challenges. He was very busy during the day, so he sometimes couldn't read it.Because this book was too difficult to understand, it seemed that this book was suddenly not so interseting and attractive to him, and it seemed that it was of no benefit to translate it. However, he found that his mood gradually became peaceful after dusk. When he read this book at this time, he suddenly felt the book quite interesting. What he saw was the chapters that could’t be seen in the daytime. The language was amazing, the words were shining, and his heart was touched. When the ningt became quiet, the book became not so obscure. Under the recitation, he could not help but be fascinated by it (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).<br /> <br /> His most successful translation is ''Walden'', which he translated first in 1949, then again in 1982 and in 1996. The masterpiece of David Thoreau, a famous American transcendentalist writer, still shines brightly in the vast Chinese translated literature. In recent ten years, there have been more than 20 new translations of ''Walden'', but Xu Chi's translation is still regarded as the best translation and is the first choice for many presses to publish as Chinese translations of ''Walden'' in recent years. Although there are many Chinese translations of ''Walden'', most of them take Xu Chi's translation as a reference , which indicates the authority of Xu Chi's translation (Wang Zhao 2009, 147).<br /> <br /> ====Style and Styllistics====<br /> =====Style=====<br /> Originated from the Latin or Greek word &quot;stile&quot; or &quot;stilus&quot;, &quot;style&quot; originally refers to a sharp instrument made of metal or bone, used as a writing tool, and later symbolizes a way of writing. At first, it was mainly used in writing. As time goes by, its application has been broadened into areas like music, dance, painting, fashion, behavior,literature, architecture and so on. As it has been mentioned in the introduction part, the research object ''Walden'' is a piece of literary work, consequently, this thesis will mainly study literary style (Hu Zhuanglin 2015,374).<br /> Since ancient times, style has always been the object of people's study. Aristotle, Cicero, Demetrius, and Quintilian all used style as an appropriate decoration for thought. This view prevailed throughout the Renaissance, when devices of style could be classified. An essayist or orator needs to construct his or her point of view by means of exemplary sentences and prescribed kinds of &quot;figures&quot; that conform to his or her mode of discourse (Hu Zhuanglin 2015, 375).<br /> <br /> For a long time, the definition of style has remained varied, and different scholars have given different definitions of it. It is unnecessary and impractical here to list them all. Some definitions will be given below to help us understand what style is.<br /> <br /> One of the most successful attempts to define style in a comprehensive way is Leech and Short’s (1981). Although claiming that “unsuccessful attempts to attach a precise meaning” to the term “style” have often resulted in an impoverishment of the subject , they offer a list of the items forming the basis of their own concept of style, which can be summarized as follows:<br /> (a) Style is a way in which language is used; therefore it consists in choices made from the repertoire of the language; <br /> (b) A style is defined in terms of a domain of language use (e.g. what choices are made by a particular author, in a particular genre, or in a particular text);<br /> (c) Literary stylistics is typically concerned with explaining the relation between style and literary or aesthetic function;<br /> (d) Stylistic choice is limited to those aspects of linguistic choice which concern alternative ways of rendering the same subject matter.<br /> <br /> Nida Eugene (1982, 12) defines that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”So in translation of literary works, the author’s style should be represented through the translator’s style, and the translator’s style should depend on the style of the author. Many translators are good at representing different writers’styles and yet has its own unique translation style.<br /> <br /> The broad view of style includes the elements of linguistic style and non-linguistic style. Among them, the elements of language style mainly include the means of language style, such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structure and rhetorical devices, and the elements of non-language style include the author's emotion factor, the author's imagination factor and the author's intelligence factor. The narrow sense of style only involves the author's means of language style and rhetorical style (Lv Jun &amp; Hou Xiangqun 2001, 320).<br /> <br /> In conclude, translation (especially literary translation) as an across-culture process dose not only focus on the content of source text but also the style which is about how the writers write. Therefore, it is essential for a translator to know how to figure out the style of source text and reproduce it with target language.<br /> <br /> =====Styllistics=====<br /> Stylistics is a comprehensive frontier discipline that studies the characteristics, essence and laws of text forms, and is in the ascendant between linguistics, literature and art, aesthetics, psychology and other disciplines.<br /> It is difficult to determine when stylistics became a field of academic study. It can be argued, however, that it was not until the late 1950s that stylistics began to make significant and measurable progress. This is a young frontier discipline that is growing over time. Stylistics has developed into a well-targeted and technically effective interdisciplinary field of study, which is expected to provide useful insights for literary criticism and literature teaching. It has also been influencing translation criticism. Modern stylistics provides an important theoretical basis for translation studies. As far as the development of the subject of translation is concerned, stylistics has been recognized for its value and function (Hu Zhuanglin 2015, 376).<br /> <br /> Modern stylistics uses the tools of formal linguistic analysis coupled with the methods of literary criticism; its goal is to try to isolate characteristic uses and functions of language and rhetoric rather than advance normative or prescriptive rules and patterns.<br /> <br /> =====Language Style and Stylistic Features of ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a masterpiece of prose style. It is concise, eloquent and profound in thought. Just as he pursues the simplest life, his language style of ''Walden'' can be summarized as plain, natural, concise, powerful, novel and unique. ''Walden'' is also a book aimed directly at the reader. Anyone who read this book feels that they are listening to and sharing Thoreau's ideals. This book is not easy for readers to understand, especially those who read it for the first time. Because ''Walden'' are manifested in four aspects:rich vocabulary, complex syntax and various rhetorical devices (Zhang Jianguo 2005, 107).<br /> <br /> So it is helpful for the translator to understand the original text and reproduce the stylistic equivalence in the translation. Therefore, the translator should fully understand his stylistic characteristics, which is the premise of reproducing his style in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===Stylistic Features of ''Walden''===<br /> ====Lexical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Degree of Formality=====<br /> There are a lot of obsolete and old words in ''Walden''and the use of these words makes the book more flavor, solemn and elegant. However, the use of these words will also bring great trouble to the translation at the same time. It is difficult for the translators to grasp these words, so they can not use literal translation but use creative way to make readers feel what the author wants to express in this book.<br /> <br /> In ''Walden'', Thoreau uses concise words to demonstrate his own ideas, natural scenery and cultural customs of Walden Lake. Unlike official documents, regulations, or academic creations, general style of ''Walden'' suggests that Thoreau’s choice of words is less formal. This section aims to analyze the degree of formality of nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the Xu Chi’s translation. In terms of nouns, Xu Chi tends to choose words with literary charm and formal style, which are not suitable for the informal style of the original text.<br /> Example 1：<br /> …；where the washing is not put out, nor the fire, nor the mistress, and perhaps you are sometimes requested to move from off the trap—door; when the cook would descend into the cellar, and learn whether the ground is solid or hollow beneath you without stamping．(Thoreau 2012, 277—278)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：在那罩，洗瀣物不比晒在外面，炉火不熄，女主人也不会生气，也许有时要你移动一下，让厨子从地板门里走下地窖去，而你不用蹬脚就可以知道你的脚下是虚是实。 (徐迟 2009, 270)<br /> <br /> The passage describes part of Thoreau’s dream of a bigger house for more people. The original text provides a natural and causal description of the scenes and activities in Thoreau's dream house. There are five commas and a period in this 47-word sentence with employment of concrete nouns，the structure of the original is loose and casual. As can be seen from the above, &quot;washing&quot; in Xu's translation is loosely understood as “洗涤物” which means the process of eliminating unnecessary ingredients through detergent, which is formal in Chinese. Xu Chi reproduced the content of‘'the washing’’but he ignored the degree of formality in choosing word, thus falling to deliver the casualness reflected by the original text．<br /> Because ''Walden'' is full of depictions of landscape, adjectives are indispensable in Thoreau's creation of various images and pictures, as well as his insightful comments. Let us look at a example of it.<br /> Example 2：<br /> Often the poor man is not so cold and hungry as he is dirty and ragged and gross．(Thoreau 2012, 85)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：往往是那个穷人，邋遢、褴褛又粗野，但并没有途堡查选。(徐迟 2009, 83)<br /> <br /> The first adjective “poor” is used as an antecedent modifier and the other five adjectives are used as predicates. With the six adjectives being short and plain, the original text is generally of informal style. Xu transfered “cold and hungry” into a four-character noun phrase“冻馁之忧”which means “sufferings from cold and hunger.” However, this phrase is somewhat old-fashioned and is too formal to keep in line with the original style．Besides，it appears uncoordinated with three adjectives“邋遢、褴褛又粗野”being placed before the noun phrase“冻馁之忧”. So, it is not appropriate to reflect the original style.<br /> Verbs are also frequently employed in ''Walden'' to depict the fighting between animals or other activities. The degree of formality marked by verbs is the target of the study here. <br /> Example 3：<br /> I took up the chip on which the three I have particularly described were struggling, carried it into my house，and placed it under a tumbler on my window-sill，in order to see the issue．(Thoreau 2012, 262-263)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation：<br /> 我特别描写的三个战士在同一张木片上搏斗，我把这张木片拿进我的家里，放在我的窗槛上。罩在一个大杯子下面，以便考察结局。(徐迟 2009, 256)<br /> <br /> As we can see from the examples, these verbs are short and common in our everyday speech. They come mainly from Anglo-Saxon English and have informal stylistic characteristics. Therefore, the style of the original text is informal and should be preserved in Chinese translation. In this sentence, Thoreau prepared to wait and see with interest how the battle between the ants would go on after a series of arrangements. Xu Chi translated the word “see” into “考察”which sounds serious and formal, because “考察”means carefully checking certain items or situations, and is often used in formal situations, such as “考察人” or “考察情况”. So, Xu's version deviates from the original natural and informal flavor.<br /> <br /> =====Expressive Meaning=====<br /> Roman Jakobson, building on Karl Bühler (1934), coined the term expressive or emotive for one of the functions of language. He describes it as the function focused on the ADDRESSER [speaker], aims a direct expression of the speaker's attitude toward what he is speaking about (Jakobson 1960, 354) and gives interjections as the prime example of this function.<br /> <br /> It is worthy of our attention that differences between words in terms of expressive meaning are not simply equal to a matter of whether an expression of a certain attitude or evaluation is reproduced or not. The same attitude or evaluation may be expressed to widely varying degrees of forcefulness.<br /> Example 4：It is said that a flood-tide, with a westerly wind，and ice in the Neva, would sweep St. Petersburg from the face of the earth. (Thoreau 2012, 22)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：据说，涅瓦河要是涨了水，刮了西风，流来的冰块可以把圣彼得堡一下子大地的表面上冲掉的。 (徐迟 2009, 21)<br /> <br /> According to the Oxford Advanced English-Chinese Dictionary, &quot;sweeping&quot; is the act of sudden movement (of weather, fire, etc.), forcing a movement in an area or in a particular direction. In the original context, the combination of “flood tides, westerly winds, and ice” was destructive and therefore clearly detrimental to St.Petersburg. So the word &quot;sweep&quot; here reflects the speaker's negative attitude toward the possible outcome. Obviously, the word “冲掉” in Xu Chi’s translation is a neutral term and does not reflect the speaker’s attitude or feelings towards the potential disaster caused by flood tide, westerly winds and snow. Xu ignored the author’s emotional attitude, thus ignoring the influence that these forces may cause, and did not produce systematic equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====Syntactic Features of ''Walden''====<br /> Raffel (1994) points out that &quot;the syntax of prose shows the style of the author, and the reproduction of the original style is the key to prose translation which stresses not only what message says, but also how the message is said.&quot; So, the syntactic features of ''Walden'' should never be ignored.<br /> <br /> In the original text, short sentences in English have neat structure and harmonious rhythm. Xu Chi did not change the original structure in translation, but adopted literal translation. The so-called literal translation is to retain the content and language expression habits of the original text as well as the form and style of the original text under the condition that the target language allows. Since Both Chinese and English are discourse systems and they have something in common, literal translation is a good way to deal with them.<br /> Example 5:<br /> It is no dream of mine, To ornament a line; I cannot come nearer to God and Heaven, than I live to Walden even. I am its stony shore, and the breeze that passes o’er; In the hollow of my hand, are its water and its sand, and its deepest resort Lies high in my thought. (Thoreau 2012, 137) <br /> Xu Chi’s Translation:<br /> 这不是我的梦，用于装饰一行诗;我不能更接近上帝和天堂甚于我之生活在瓦尔登。我是它的圆石岸，飘拂而过的风;在我掌握的一握，是它的水，它的沙，而它的最深邃僻隐处,高高躺在我的思想中。 (Xu Chi 2012, 151)<br /> <br /> The translation of this paragraph has a neat structure, neat antithesis, and pays attention to the regularity and rhythm of the literal. The original is composed of ten verses and the translation retains the original format, which can increase the depth and appeal of the translation, thus producing artistic effect and aesthetic value.<br /> <br /> ====Rhetorical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Metaphor=====<br /> Metaphor means to &quot;shift a word from its original meaning to another word that is generally not interchangeable but similar, and to emphasize its identity, that is, the two are similar but not a simile&quot;.<br /> <br /> Example 6: <br /> Public opinion is a weak tyrant compared with our own private opinion. (Thoreau 2012， 7)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation: 和我们的自知之明相比较，公众舆论这暴戾的君主也显得微弱无力。(徐迟 2009，6）<br /> <br /> The ontology and metaphor in this sentence are &quot;public opinion&quot; and &quot;weak tyrant.&quot; There must be something similar between them. The following statement gives the reason: &quot;Compared to our own private opinions&quot;, which is quite clear. People are used to focusing on themselves in front of others, so public opinion is only slightly weak. The subtle use of metaphor shows Thoreau's wisdom and thorough understanding of human nature. Xu Chi dealt with this metaphor perfectly.<br /> <br /> =====Pun=====<br /> Puns are deliberately declared polysemous words or homonyms created with double meaning in a certain language environment, with implicit, humorous and profound effects. Newmark (2001, 217) points out that &quot;pun translation is unimportant but fascinating&quot;. <br /> <br /> The use of puns in Walden is remarkable.The basic function of pun in ''Walden'' is to express logical relations. Because puns can express two levels of meaning in a word, phrase, or sentence, they are often used as a link between the text before and after it. A key problem that haunts the reader when reading ''Walden'' is the lack of connection between the two passages. A clear logical relationship is a prerequisite for expressing other special effects, such as rhetorical and aesthetic effects. Therefore, the improper translation of puns will seriously affect logical coherence and other rhetorical devices.<br /> <br /> Example 7：<br /> If the name was not derived from that of some English locality - Saffron Walden, for instance, one might suppose that it was called originally Walled-in Pond. (Thoreau 2012, 209)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation: 如果这个湖名不是由当地一个叫萨福隆•瓦尔登的英国人的名字化出来的话，——那么，我想瓦尔登湖原来的名字可能是围而得湖。(徐迟 2009, 172)<br /> <br /> This classic example of puns has been discussed many times. Thoreau suggested that &quot;Walden&quot; might come from “Walled-in”. &quot;Walled-in Pond&quot;, as ahomophonic pun, serves as the logic link of the whole paragraph. Xu wisely translates it as “围而得”, retaining not only the similar pronunciation but also the importance of meaning. “围而得” maintains the logical relation of the whole paragraph.It is eye-catching and stimulates readers to think more about Thoreau's intentions to use this word.<br /> <br /> =====Personification=====<br /> Personification refers to &quot;the practice of representing a person, quality, or characteristic as a human being in art and literature.&quot; People subconsciously tend to reflect non-human things with their lives in order to express their feelings and thoughts. In view of the characteristics of human behavior, literary works can vividly express the feelings of the author, and make readers feel that the description of the object is more vivid and appropriate, which makes the article more vivid.<br /> <br /> Example 8：<br /> This further experience also I gained：I said to myself,1 will not plant beans and corn with so much industry another summer，but such seeds, if the seed is not lost, as sincerity, truth, simplicity, faith, innocence, and the like, and see if they will not grow in this soil，even with less toil and manurance，and sustain me, for surely it has not been exhausted for these crops. (Thoreau 2012, 186-187)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation:<br /> 我还获得了下面的更丰富的经验：我对我自己说，下一个夏天，我不要花那么大的劳力来种豆子和玉米了，我将种这样<br /> 这样一些种子像诚实、真理、纯朴、信心、天真等等，如果这些种子并没有失落，看看它们能否在这片土地上生长，能否以较少劳力和肥料；来维持我的生活，因为，地力一定还没消耗到不能种这些东西。 (徐迟 2009, 182)<br /> <br /> Thoreau here is sharing his experience in growing beans and his plans next summer with readers. As we know, words like &quot;sincerity,truth，simplicity, faith and innocence&quot; usually refer to qualities of human. But here, these words are adopted to describe the characteristics of seeds and humanize these seeds，constructing a vivid personification. Xu Chi reproduce the rhetorical feature of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The language of ''Walden'' is rich in vocabulary, complex and diverse sentence structure, the author's writing is flexible and fluent, and the use of various rhetoric makes the translation work more difficult. <br /> To sum up, Xu Chi's translation appears more formal than the original text and some words of his translation can not reflect the expressive meaning of the original one. It is found that Xu Chi tended to use words with typical features of his time which seem out of date at present. But due to the time he lived in, we believe that Xu Chi's translation satisfied the need or linguistic expectation of the target readers of his time which has its significance. We also find that sentences in Xu's translation follow the syntax of English language. Xu Chi kept the structure beauty of the original work properly, respected the original work and kept the structure orderly, directly conveying Thoreau's thoughts and feelings. And Xu Chi indeed do well in reflecting rhetorical features of the original text, which is refered by many translators later. In general, Xu Chi's translation is close to the original text in style and language characteristics and is a classic translation of ''Walden''.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Leech.G.N. &amp; M. H. Short. (1981). ''Style in Fiction：A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. <br /> <br /> Newmark P. (2001). ''A Textbook of Translation''. 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[The Time Evolution of Foreign Literary Translation Styles: Based on the Comparison of different versions of Walden]. 湖南农业大学学报（社会科学版) Journal of Hunan Agricultural University (Social Science edition) 12 83-87.<br /> <br /> Xu Chi 徐迟. (2009). 瓦尔登湖. [Walden]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. <br /> <br /> Yao Junwei 姚君伟. (2005). 徐迟与美国文学在中国的译介[Xu Chi and the Translation of American Literature in China]. 外国文学研究 [Study of Foreign Literature] 4 145-149.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jianguo 张建国. (2005). 梭罗《瓦尔登湖》的语言风格探析 [Analysis on language Style of Walden By Thoreau]. 河南商业高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Henan Commercial College] 03 106-107.<br /> <br /> ==A Comparison Beteewn the Translation Systems Proposed by Tan Zai and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people’s overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===: Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===：一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===：谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System==== <br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shy.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ====Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> The translation of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====The Similarities between the Two systems====<br /> <br /> =====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper Translatology must be established, which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====<br /> <br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> <br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====<br /> <br /> =====Different structures of translation system=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Different views on the study of translation history=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Different views on translation process=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===<br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> <br /> =====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> <br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> <br /> =====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> ===Refrences===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000. <br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005. <br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation. 王美玲 Wang Meiling==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;王美玲 Wang Meiling&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> The Renaissance is the fourth peak in the history of Western translation and a great development in the history of Western literature. During the 16th century and the period following the Renaissance in Europe, translation reached an unprecedented climax in the fields of thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion. At that time, the German translation of the Bible by the Martin Luther is the most well-known one in the whole translation circle, and its influence is unique and long-standing in Germany as well as in the whole Europe continent. Since the Reform and Opening-up, China has gradually stepped into the center of the world arena, and its literary works bearing the quintessence of Chinese culture has become a crucial bridge connecting the rest of the world with China. Despite the rise of machine translation, it can never replace the overwhelming role of human translation in the literary translation. Luther’s translation thoughts have exerted an important influence on the development of Western translation theories, so what sparks can be drawn between his translation principles and Chinese modern culture and literary works? This paper makes a brief comment on the main translation activities of renaissance, then compares the translation thoughts of Luther and Lu Xun, and applies Luther’s detailed translation principles to the actual translation practice. Finally,some thoughts are acquired.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Renaissance; Luther; literary works; translation principles; influence;<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴运动是西方翻译史的第四次高潮，也是西方文学史上的一次大发展。文艺复兴在欧洲普遍开展的16世纪以及随后一个时期，翻译活动达到了前所未有的高峰，深入思想、政治、哲学、文学宗教等各个领域。在整个翻译界，德国马丁·路德的《圣经》德译本是该时期最负盛名的译本，其影响不论是在德国乃至整个欧洲都是独一无二且源远流长的。改革开放以来，中国日益走进世界舞台中央，承载着中华文化精髓的文学作品成为了中国连接世界的重要桥梁。纵然机器翻译兴起，但绝不能替代人工翻译在文学翻译领域的绝对性地位。路德的翻译思想对西方翻译理论的发展产生了重要影响，那么其翻译思想和理论原则与中国当代文化及文学作品又能擦出什么样的火花呢？本文将通过对文艺复兴时期的主要翻译活动进行简评，再对比路德与鲁迅的翻译思想，接着将路德的翻译细则运用到实际的翻译实践中，最后得出一些思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴；路德；文学作品；翻译原则；影响；<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The Protestant Reformation Movement in Germany in the 16th century ushered in a new era of translation and dissemination of Bible. Under the protection of Protestantism, Martin Luther devoted himself to the German translation of the Bible. By the time of 1544 Luther’s death, 430 versions of his Bible translation had been published. In order to make common people more directly understand the meaning of the Bible, Martin Luther translated it in national language. He insisted on his translation thought and fought against the church power and his opponents. He made unremitting efforts in the great project of the Bible translation, which promoted the unification of German language and created a graceful literary language.His translation thoughts are still of great significance to the current translation theory and practice.&quot;First of all, from a historical point of view, translation has two main functions in promoting the birth and development of national culture and the transformation of national culture into world culture: one is to promote cultural exchange; the other is to disseminate ideas.&quot;（Tan Zaixi，2004：10）<br /> <br /> Since the beginning of reform and opening-up, China has gradually stepped onto the world arena. China persists in its cultural development geared to the needs of the world and actively promotes cultural development to the world. Literary works bear the essence of Chinese culture, whose export is an crucial way to spread Chinese culture to the world. Over the years, despite the rise of machine translation, which has a certain practical role, it can not replace the overwhelming role of manual translation in literary translation. So what significance does Luther’s translation thoughts and principles have in guiding modern translation theory and practice, especially in the field of literary translation?<br /> <br /> ===2.Brief Comments on Translation Thoughts in the Period of Renaissance===<br /> <br /> Translations must respect the original text and combine content and form, free translation and literal translation in the translation process. &quot;In the high tide of translation in 16th century France, there were two outstanding contributors, one is Amyot, the King of Translation, and the other is Dolet, the translation theorist.&quot; Amyot believed that the translator must understand the original text thoroughly, and that the translator's task was not only to restore the author's meaning, but also to imitate and reflect the author's style and mood to some extent. He also emphasized the unity of content and form, and of free translation and literal translation; in France, the important figure in translation theory is Dolet. He believed that translators should avoid word-for-word translation because it was detrimental to the conveyance of the original meaning and to the beauty of the language. As we can see, Dolet's translation ideas were quite modern and involved the basic principles and problems of translation commonly raised by later European translation theorists. Holland of England was the most outstanding English translator in the 16th century and was regarded as the &quot;Chief Translator&quot; of the Elizabethan era, and he also advocated that the style of the original text must be reflected in the translation in order to make the translation authentic and without foreign accent. Thus, it can be seen that translators from various European countries actively explored new literary fields and brought new ideas to their own countries, inspiring the national consciousness and humanistic thoughts of their own people while trying to explore classical literature.<br /> <br /> Translation must convey new ideas on the basis of respecting the original work, that is, being innovative, and seek the style of translation.In his translation of ancient Greek and Roman masterpieces, Amyot put forward the idea of &quot;trying to be comparable to the original work&quot;, and blended the language of the people with the language of scholars, forming a unique style of translation. Thus, some people commented that Amyot adopted the creative meaning; Dolet advocated that translators should not do translations word by word, but must choose the words and adjust the word order as well as use various rhetorical devices to make the style of translation consistent with that of the original text, giving readers a &quot;feeling of beauty&quot;. The English translator North, who had little knowledge of the classical language and whose translations were not translated from the original text of Greek, was able to bring the translation style into full play. The prose style used in his translation of Biography of a Celebrity was new and elegant, which has become an immortal model in the history of English translation. There was another famous English translator, Florio, whose translation of The Tempest was the first to show English readers that prose could exist as a literary genre. From this, we can see that translators not only respected the cultural works of the classical period, but also gave full play to their own initiative in the translation process and injected humanistic thoughts and spirits into their translations during the Renaissance. Liu Junping said: &quot;In the past years, translators were servants attached to God, but now they have shifted from God to the translator as the center, and their personal developments have become the goal and value of life. &quot;（liu Junping,2009:76）<br /> <br /> Translators focus on the practical spirit of translation.Emphasizing the needs of translations to serve reality, Holland compared his translations to the fruits of conquest and once asked Queen Elizabeth to protect his translations with the hope that his translations would benefit the country. &quot;The translators, with the idea of serving their country, introduced the wisdom of the ancients to their own people through their translations, providing not only serious lessons for the Queen and the statesmen, but also story plots and materials for the dramatists and readers.&quot; This word profoundly reflects the dialectical relationship among culture, politics,and economy in Marxism: a certain culture is determined by certain economy and politics, and culture，in turn，acts on politics and economy with great influence on politics and economy. The above-mentioned translation ideas indicate the practicality and practical spirit of the practice of translation culture, which originated from the specific social and cultural contexts of the time. Under the guidance of these translation ideas, the translation culture and cultural practice of translators promoted the political and economic development, and laid the ideological foundation for the political and cultural needs of Western European countries.<br /> <br /> In the practice of translation, translation of all national languages achieved parallel and independent development when Latin gradually receded into a tributary.<br /> During the Renaissance, national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and linguists recognized the unique style and expressive ability of their own languages, and began to shift the emphasis of translation from the original language to the translated language. Finally, Latin was no longer prevalent. These phenomenon were especially prominent in Germany. Under the pressure of the national language and the Reformation, the German translator Luther adopted the language of the people to translate the great work of the Bible, that is, to translate the original text into the authentic German one. Luther's German translation of the Bible not only had a profound influence on German life and religion, but also created a literary language form accepted by the German people, which played an immeasurable role in the development of the unified German language and shook the absolute and unshakable position of Latin in the European language system.<br /> <br /> ===3.Comparison Between Luther’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Thoughts===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction to Luther and Lu Xun====<br /> <br /> Lu Xun was the greatest literary scholar, thinker and revolutionary of modern China, an important participant in the New Culture Movement, who was regarded as &quot;the writer who occupied the largest territory on the cultural map of East Asia in the twentieth century&quot;. Lu Xun also had outstanding achievements in translation, and made a series of superb remarks on translation issues, which had great influence on the whole translation circle at that time and established a monument in the history of Chinese translation theory.<br /> <br /> Martin Luther was a German religious reformer and translator in the 16th century. In his translations, Luther followed the principles of being popular, clear, and acceptable to the public. His translation of the Bible is known as the &quot;first Bible of the common people”and enjoyed the highest reputation in the entire translation community. Luther was a leader in the Reformation movement in the 16th century in Europe, so his translation had a significant impact on Germany and Europe as a whole.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Different Translation Thoughts====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Lu Xun's &quot;Foreignization&quot;=====<br /> <br /> Lu Xun lived in the period of the May Fourth New Culture Movement，whose translation thoughts and activities were closely connected with his political life. In the period of transition between the old culture and the new one, literary translation was also at its climax. In this regard, Lu Xun put forward the translation concept of &quot;Foreignization&quot; , which preserved the &quot;exoticism&quot;. Moreover,he insisted that the translation should be consistent with the original text as much as possible and put fidelity in the first place and fluency in the second, and exchanged unfluent translation for fidelity. He believed that the translation method of &quot;Foreignization&quot; could introduce foreign sentences to enrich Chinese language and culture. Lu Xun said bluntly, &quot;Like carrying arms for the uprising slaves, translation is directly aimd at servicing the revolution.&quot;（Chen Fukang,2000;286）<br /> With regard to his translation concept of &quot;Foreignization&quot;, he had such remarks :<br /> <br /> “还是翻译《死灵魂》的事情。……动笔之前，就先得解决一个问题:竭力使它归化，还是尽量保存洋气昵?日本文的译者上田进君，是主张用前一法的。……所以他的疑问，有时就化一句为数句，很近于解释。我的意见却两样的。只求易懂，小如创作，或者改作，将事改为中国事，人也化为中国人。如果还是翻译，那么，首先的目的，就在博览外国的作品，小但移情，也要益智，至少是知道何地何时，有这等事，和旅行外国，是很相像的:它必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也小会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌介神离，从严辨别起来，它算小得翻译。……(Lu Xun,1935:4th Volume)<br /> <br /> From this, we can see that Lu Xun engaged in translation work with the aim to &quot;conveying feelings&quot; and &quot;improving education&quot;, and his translations could facilitate readers to experience foreign customs, history, language and culture, as well as advanced ideology. Lu Xun would enrich these at a deeper level, so as to subvert the outlook on life and values of the whole society at that time and to inspire and educate the young generation to achieve the purpose of saving the country, thus promoting the revolutionary cause.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Luther's &quot;Domesticization&quot;=====<br /> <br /> In the context of the Reformation, Martin Luther embarked on the translation of the Bible. As the leader of the German Reformation movement, he could only ensure the eventual victory of the Reformation cause by quickly establishing and growing the Protestantism . Under the pressure of the Reformation and the national language, Luther had to translate the Bible in a way that served a specific audience, not priests and pastors, but the common people. It required that Luther had to do translations in people’s language and that &quot; Translation had to adopt authentic German instead of Latinized German.&quot;<br /> In the A Short History of Translation in the West, Tan zaixi made summary about Luther's translation thoughts：(Tan Zaixi,2004:64-67)<br /> <br /> &quot;Translation must employ the vernacular language; translation must pay attention to the connection between grammar and meaning; translation must follow seven principles (translators can change the word order of the original text; one can make reasonable use of intonation auxiliaries; translators can add necessary conjunctions; translator may omit word in the original that was not equivalent word in the target language;translator may use phrase to translate a single word;translator may translate metaphorical usage into non-metaphorical usage and vice versa; translator should pay attention to variation from usage and accurate explanation of a word (Wen Jun, 2004:39);Translation must be a brainstorming exercise.&quot;<br /> <br /> Luther insisted on these principles in order to translate the Bible from the reader's point of view on the basis of a grasp of the original meaning and to achieve the greatest possible approximation to the reader's level for the purpose of &quot;naturalization. Generally speaking, Luther advocated translation based on a grasp of the meaning of the sentence. When the original meaning of a sentence could not be well expressed in words, Luther used illustrations to represent it. Luther's German translation of the Bible enabled the common people of Germany to directly quote from the Bible to defend their own class interests, which played an invaluable role in the unification and development of the German language.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Lu Xun's translation principle of &quot;Foreignization&quot;, which preserved &quot;exoticism&quot;, satisfied Chinese readers' curiosity and appreciation of foreign culture and made them experience exoticism, which, to a certain, awakened the thought of common thoughts and stimulated the patriotic consciousness and revolutionary enthusiasm of some youth groups. That was the aim and purpose of Lu Xun's translations, and was also what that volatile age longed for.<br /> <br /> Luther's “Domesticization” thought was based on his recognition that the German people began to value their own national language as a counter to the Church's forced use of Latin. Luther translated the Bible in the language of common people, so that readers who knew neither Hebrew, Greek, nor Latin and had a low level of literacy could understand the Bible in German.<br /> <br /> Translation thoughts between Luther and Lu Xun are rather different, but their translations equally made profound implications and were recognized by the two peoples of their respective countries. Moreover, their audience were both the common people, and they took into full consideration the receptiveness of their readers in the process of translation. Therefore, the dichotomy in translation is only relative, and finitude and infinitude are dialectically unified.<br /> <br /> ===4.The Application of Luther's Translation Principles and Thoughts for Modern Literary Translation Practice===<br /> <br /> Engels praised Luther:&quot;Luther not only cleared the church's Ogias, but also cleared the German language of the Ogis, created modern German prose, and wrote the words and songs of the hymns of the Marseilles with victory and confidence into the 16th century.&quot; (Tan Zaixi，2004:64）In his translation of the Bible, Luther came up with systematic translation thoughts and principles, followed the principles of being popular, clear and acceptable to the public, and created modern German prose. Thus, his translation thoughts and principles have certain significance for us to translate literary works whose language style is “grounded”.<br /> <br /> '''Example one '''<br /> <br /> “You can translate metaphor usage into non-metaphorical usage.”<br /> <br /> “The translator can change the word order of the original text”<br /> <br /> “严闭的心幕，慢慢的拉开了，涌出五年前的一个印象。” （《笑》—— 冰心）<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the original text, the translator finds that this sentence uses metaphor,because the action of &quot;拉开&quot; can only be issued by human beings, and the &quot;心幕&quot; is not a physical object which cannot be &quot;pulled open&quot;. In the process of translation, we find that the action of &quot;拉开&quot; does not have a subject, and the predicate-object pairing of &quot;拉开&quot; and &quot;心幕&quot; is unreasonable, not to mention translated into the passive voice. Therefore, it is not feasible to translate the metaphor usage. The translator chooses to omit this metaphor and the verb &quot;拉开&quot;, which is in line with Luther's sixth principle of translation. The translator finds that the emphasis of the original text is on the second half of the sentence, so we changes the order of the whole sentence and choose&quot;涌出&quot; as the predicate and translated it into the intransitive verb &quot;unveil&quot;. Naturally, the phrase &quot;五年前的一个印象&quot; becomes the subject. scene of five years ago&quot;, and the word &quot;before&quot; was used to show the relationship between “印象” and “心幕”. It is in line with language habit of English, that is, to express the main content clearly and put it in the important position as an important component. Here comes the translation &quot;A scene of five years ago slowly unveiled before my mind's eye.&quot; It is consistent with the first principle of Luther's translation. If translated according to the original word order, it would be translated to &quot;The tight mind's eye was opened slowly, and a scene of five years ago slowly unveiled.”Although its meaning is complete, the sentence structure is incoherent and the relationship between the &quot;心幕&quot; and the &quot;印象&quot; is not highlighted. As a translator, we need to read the original text carefully and then relate it to the context in order to get close to the original style and to achieve the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot;, meanwhile, we should take into account the reading feelings of the audience.<br /> <br /> '''Example Two'''<br /> <br /> “The necessary conjunctions can be added.”<br /> <br /> “作为一个中国人，经书不可不读。我年过三十才知道读书自修的重要。” （《时间即生命》—— 梁实秋）<br /> <br /> After reading the original text, we find that the original text is composed of two sentences. If we do not read it carefully, we will not grasp the key point, that is, the relationship between the two sentences: transition. The translation is“The reading of Chinese classics is a must for all chinese. But it was not until I was over 30 that I came to realize the importance of self-study.”We all know that Chinese sentences are short with more punctuation marks, and that Chinese is a formative language with few conjunctions between sentences. Therefore, when doing translation, translators should carefully search for the hidden logical relationship between sentences and fit the language habits of the readers in order to accurately convey the ideas that the author wants to convey and to arouse the emotional resonance between the author and the readers. During the Renaissance, Luther found the characteristics of the readers, German citizens, and grasped their aesthetics. Then he made certain degree of stylistic shaping with the Bible as a benchmark and focused on integrating the spirit of humanism into the translation.<br /> <br /> '''Example Three'''<br /> <br /> The translator can use a phrase to translate a single word.”<br /> <br /> “不过，花草自己会奋斗，我若置之不理，任其自生自灭，它们多数还是会死了的。” （《养花》——老舍）<br /> <br /> Translator find that the original text is inclined to be colloquial and its literal meaning is easy to understand. But for the readers, if they only saw the literal meaning, the central idea of the original text would be not well conveyed,leading to their losing interest in reading the work, then the translator was not much of doing a good translation job. In the original text, the word &quot;奋斗&quot; may be a confusing point for readers, they may wonder how flowers and plants could struggle? When it comes to &quot;奋斗&quot;, the first word that comes to the translator's mind may be &quot;struggle&quot;, &quot;fight&quot;, and &quot;strive&quot;, one of which most translators would choose if they wouldn’t look deeper into the original text and take into account the characteristics and writing style of the original text. The theme of the original text is &quot;raising flowers&quot;, which tells the story of the author and his inner feelings in the process of raising flowers. We should relate to the reality that the &quot;奋斗&quot; of flowers and plants is to resist the wind, rain and sun. Therefore, a good translator will choose to enrich the word &quot;struggle&quot; by using such phrases as &quot;weather through&quot;, &quot;carry on the struggle for existence&quot; to express the real experience of plants and flowers. It is in line with Luther's fifth principle. In translation, the translator should pay attention to the language habits of the readers, because different people of various countries will have rather different interpretations of the same literary work. Although the literal meaning of modern Chinese literature is easy to understand, the literary ideas are between the lines. If the translation does not convey the meaning of the original text properly, readers will not feel the meaning conveyed by the author. This is just as Luther took into account when he translated the Bible, he would create a literary form of language acceptable to the German citizens according to their language habits.<br /> <br /> '''Example Four'''<br /> <br /> “Translation must be a brainstorming exercise”<br /> <br /> In addition to translation principles, Luther also placed great importance on team cooperation. Luther believed that doing a translation on one's own was not enough, especially for a masterpiece like the Bible.As Luther said, &quot;One cannot go it alone in the matter of translation, for the correct and proper translation words won’t always occur to the only him.&quot;（zecher, 1993:12-13) Thus, Luther's later revisions of his New Testament, as well as his translations of the Old Testament and the Apocrypha, were done with the assistance of the Collegium biblicum, an academic translation committee.<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, the professor who teaching me the course Introduction to Translation Studies, also worked with a team in the translation of the great work, Dream of the Red Chamber. It is the first complete German translation of Dream of the Red Chamber. In 2000, Professor Wu set up a workshop consisting of 57 translators, and this team was so strong that the average annual translation volume increases considerably. According to Martina Ulrike Hasse, only 11 new works by Chinese authors were published in Germany in 2011. In recent years, thanks to the efforts of the team, the number of Chinese literature translated into German has increased to 17 per year, which has greatly contributed to the translation and dissemination of Chinese literature in the German-speaking world.<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> In conclusion, the Renaissance saw the independent and parallel development of national languages and the promotion of social changes, thanks largely to the extensive literary translation activities undertaken by key advocates, especially Martin Luther's German translation of the Bible, which ushered in a new era in the development of the German language. Luther's translation principles and thoughts were so influential due to the great success of his German translation of the Bible . When Wlliam Tyndale in England and Reina and Valera in Spain later translated the Bible into English and Spanish respectively, they both referred to and partially adopted the translation principles and thoughts proposed by Luther.<br /> After carefully reading Tan Zaixi's A Short History of Translation in the West and Chen Fukang's A History of Translation Theory In China, the author has gained a better understanding of Luther's and Lu Xun's translation thoughts and principles, and has gained two insights: first, even though their countries, political environments,translation thoughts are rather different, the nature of translation determines that there must be certain similarities in their translation thoughts; second, even though the age between Luther and the author is so long, his translation thoughts and principles still have implications for the author and other translation learners of her time.<br /> <br /> As an interdisciplinary student, the author lacked a systematic understanding of many translation thoughts and principles at the beginning of this term. After studying in this semester and reading related professional books,the author have benefited a lot and formed her own translation habits and thinking implicitly, and she hopes to improve her translation quality by practicing a lot more.<br /> <br /> ===6.References===<br /> <br /> [1]谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M].北京:商务印书馆,2004.<br /> <br /> [2]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史[M]．武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> <br /> [3]陈福康，《中国译学理论史稿》，上海:上海外语教育出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> [4]鲁迅.且介亭杂文二集.“题未定”草(二、三),《鲁迅全集》,第六卷;二心集.“硬译”与“文学的阶级性,《鲁迅全集》.第四卷.1935.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M].北京:商务印书馆,2004.<br /> <br /> [6] Eric. W.Gritsch.Luther as Bible translator [J] in Donald K. Mckim ed., The Cambridge Companion of Martin Luther (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2003),62-63.<br /> <br /> ==Study on Interpreter's Memory and Translation Memory in Interpreting 康浩宇 Kang Haoyu 202070080638==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康浩宇 Kang Haoyu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In interpreting, the translator's memory plays an important role, and the level of memory even determines the quality of interpreting and affects the interpretation results. Memory cognitive ability is one of the comprehensive qualities of interpreters. The exertion of journalists' memory ability is closely related to memory principles, types and mechanisms. With the development of science and technology, translation memory, as a new type of &quot;memory&quot;, appears in front of the public and is widely used in translation field. In the field of interpretation, some interpreters are also doing interpreting with the help of such tools. This paper aims to explore the translator's memory ability and the application of translation memory in the interpretation industry from the principle of memory.<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Memory; Translation Memory; Interpreting<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 在口译中，译者的记忆里发挥着举足轻重的作用，记忆水平的高低甚至决定了口译质量的好坏，影响口译结果。记忆认知能力是口译员的综合素质能力之一。记者记忆能力的发挥与提升和记忆原理，类型，机制等因素息息相关。 随着科学技术的发展，翻译记忆作为一种新型的“记忆”出现在大众面前并在翻译领域广泛使用。 而在口译领域，一些译员也在通过这类工具来协作口译。本文旨在从记忆的原理出发探究译者记忆能力以及翻译记忆在口译行业的运用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 记忆； 翻译记忆； 口译<br /> <br /> ===1 Introduction===<br /> <br /> '''1.1 Background'''<br /> <br /> Memory plays an important role in interpreting and it is a kind of interpreting competence. The information processing in interpreting is complicated. When the information is input, interpreter first recognize and keep the information, which will then be analyzed, encoded, stored and retrieved. And the interpreter finally decode the information into target language.Because of the fast input of information and limited time for pausing, great memory is required for interpreters. Whether a good or poor memory has a direct effect on the quality of interpreting(Wang Jianhua, 2019）. <br /> With the development of science and technology, machine translation and computer aided translation, which is also called CAT, was invented as two effective and efficient ways for translation. In CAT, there is a concept called translation memory. Different from human beings’ memory, translation memory is more likely a database. Nowadays, translation memory of CAT has been put into wide use in translation. And in recent years, translation memory has also been applied as a tool in interpreting. As the technology is not yet mature, there are still some limitation and weakness(Su Mingyang, 2007, 73).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Significance of the Study'''<br /> <br /> There are some studies on the memory of interpreters. But most of them focus on its practical aspects such as how to improve interpreters’ memory or how to make the best of memory in interpreting, instead of substantial facts. The nature of memory and mechanism of memory is also worthy to be studied, so readers can have better understanding and cognition of what is memory and how it works. Therefore, readers can better address our problems in memory of interpreting. The study will fully analyze memory from the aspect of psychology and science. And then it will study on memory of interpreting in details including systems, mechanism, coding and theories(Li Jun, 2020, 127). <br /> <br /> Translation memory is quite a novel topic as it belongs to a sort of science and technology. As the world stepped into information era, digital era and even Artificial Intelligence era, translation memory has been used more widely than ever before. It really facilitates the translators as it both saves a lot of time and greatly improved the translation efficiency. However, there are few studies on the translation memory application in interpreting field. Actually, in many situations, interpreters also uses this kind of technology to help their interpreting. They study will research on the fact of translation memory in interpreting(Li Jun, 2020, 127).<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Structure of the Study'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be developed in five chapters. <br /> Chapter 1, the introduction part, is initiated by introducing the background, research problems, and significance of the study.<br /> Chapter 2 is functioned to define and categorize the memory.<br /> Chapter 3 will present the memory mechanism and related theories in interpreting.<br /> Chapter 4 will mainly focus on the translation memory technology at present and its application in interpreting.<br /> The concluding chapter generalizes the content of the study and put forward the limitations.<br /> <br /> ===2 Study on Memory===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 The definition of the Memory'''<br /> <br /> Memory has different definitions in different fields. Generally speaking, human memory is a reflection of what the brain has experienced. From the perspective of psychology, memory is the recognition, maintenance, reappearance of experienced things by the human brain, and it is the basis of advanced psychological activities such as thinking and imagination. It is the retention and extraction of past experience by human brain. It is a psychological process in which individual experience is accumulated and preserved in the mind. All things that have been perceived can be kept in people's minds, and can be reproduced when necessary. This refers to the process in which the human brain encodes, stores and extracts meaningful information input from the outside world. From the perspective of neurology, human memory is closely related to the changes of chemical composition in hippocampus and brain. All memory that exists in the brain depends on various nerve cells of the brain, which are called neurons. According to information processing theory, memory process is the process of encoding, storing and extracting input information. Only coded information can be remembered. Coding is the process of processing and transforming the input information, and coding is the key stage of the whole memory process(Che Wenbo, 1987, 403).<br /> <br /> '''2.2. Memory Systems'''<br /> <br /> Based on the structure, memory can be categorized into three systems. There are sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. The later two systems are also often referred as STM and LTM. The three memory systems are different from each other but closely related(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1 Sensory Memory'''<br /> <br /> As the shortest memory system, sensory memory is the first channel for human brain to get the information. It has some capacity. According the research in Cognitive Psychology(Wang Su, Wang Ansheng, 1992), People’s visual sensory capacity is more than 9 chunk while their auditory sensory memory capacity has less capacity, which is about chunk. chunk here are memory units, and the size of chunk varies with people's knowledge and experience. A chunk can be a word, a number, a phrase, a sentence, a word list, etc. Sensory memory works as temporary storage for sensory information. It depends on the physical nature of external stimulus to code the information and it is the real copy and transcription of the external stimulus. Most sensory memory can stay for one to two seconds and then disappear. Only with more attention and focus can the sensory memory be processed and then become short term memory(Bao Gang, 2005). People’s visual sensory memory can just keep for less than one second while their auditory sensory memory can keep for 4 seconds. It is inevitable that information will lose with the disappearance of sensory memory(Bao Gang, 2005, 150). <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2 Short Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Short term memory is the second memory system. Short term memory is based on the neuron network in hippocampus. It keeps the information that has been selected in the hippocampus of human brain. In some cases, part of information will move from the short memory in hippocampus to long term memory in cerebral cortex. In psychology, short term memory can keep for about one minute with the capacity of about 7 chunks. That means that people can memorize seven unrelated numbers or phonemes for about one minute with their short term memory. However, the capacity of short term memory is not decided by the amount of stimulus but by the modes of chunk and coding. Chunks can effectively expand the capacity of short-term memory. When processing information, people can use the knowledge and experience stored in long-term memory to combine several single stimuli into larger information units, which can effectively expand and increase short-term memory span and improve memory efficiency. Moreover, the coding of short-term memory is mainly auditory coding, and there are also visual coding and semantic coding. Instead of chunk and information unit, people can also use retelling to transfer short term memory to long term memory. Retelling refers to the psychological operation process of repeating the materials just memorized by language to consolidate memory. In the case of retelling, the learning materials kept in short-term memory will transfer to long-term memory. The content of short-term memory can be transformed into long-term memory by retelling(Bao Gang, 2005, 150). <br /> <br /> There is a special type of short term memory, working memory. The concept working memory was first proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. It is used to describe the process of a person temporarily memorizing the fact and thoughts when addressing problems or working(Baddeley, 2006, 22). In spite of limited resources and storage time, working memory is still different from short term memory in temporary storage of information(Hitch, 2012, 266). Compared with short term memory which store information passively, the working memory process is more dynamic. Generally speaking, there are three differences. First, working memory emphasizes storing and processing information at the same time, while short-term memory only focuses on information storage. Secondly, working memory is a multi-factor system, while short-term memory is a single system. Third, working memory is more important than short-term memory for many advanced brain functions and even almost all human cognitive work(Wang Jianhua, 2019， 76). The disappear of short term memory is often due to the interruption.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3 Long Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Different from short term memory, long term memory is stored in human’s cerebral cortex where there is more room for storage. Long term memory is very important in keeping information for long time. It can keep information for more than one minute and even for a whole life. Its capacity is unlimited. All the information kept by long term memory has been selected and filtered.According to Tulving, long term memory is stored mainly as two types(Tulving, 1974). They are episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory is about one’s experience of some specific situations. Semantic memory refers to knowledge such as words, concepts, rules and other abstract things.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Memory Mechanism'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, the process of memory includes three key steps. They are memorizing, keeping and recalling. In interpreting, memorizing is related to interpreters’ listening and understanding to what the speaker says, keeping is related to the storage of original information and recalling refers to the output of interpreting(Tulving, 1972, 36).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 Memorizing'''<br /> <br /> Memorizing refers to the process of distinguishing and recognizing the characteristics of things and leaving a certain impression in the mind. Some things can be remembered after one perception, while most of the contents need to be perceived repeatedly, so that the new information can be connected with the existing knowledge structure. As the first step in the memory process, memorization has a very important influence on the memory effect. Therefore, understanding and mastering the rules of memorization will help improve memory(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997, 23).<br /> <br /> According to whether memorization has a purpose or not, memorization can be divided into unconscious memorization and conscious memorization(Ma Zhengyu, 2013, 26).<br /> Unconscious memorization refers to memorization that happens naturally without a predetermined purpose and without a certain effort of will. When they are perceived, there is no intention to memorize them, but these contents can reappear in people’s mind in the future naturally. And this is unconscious memorization. The content of unconscious memorization is an important part of experience, and it has great effect on people’s psychological activities and behaviors. Inadvertent experience can do as much help as existing experiences when people consciously face certain situations and deal with certain problems. In daily life, the environment, contact and work will influence people unconsciously in psychology and behavior. Generally speaking, there are two characteristics of unconscious memorization. First, the stimulation acts on people's sensory organs which is of great significance and attracts people's attention. For example, people will never forget new and different things; Second, it is in people's needs, interests and content so that it can produce deeper emotional experience. Unconsciousness plays a positive role in people's acquisition of knowledge and experience(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004, 173).<br /> <br /> Conscious memorization refers to memorizing with a predetermined purpose, which requires a certain amount of will and effort in the process of memorizing. The process of conscious memorization is controlled by the purpose of memorization. The purpose of memorization determines that memorizing process is an active coding process for memorizing content. This coding includes &quot;what to remember&quot; and &quot;how to remember&quot;. &quot;What to memorize&quot; determines the direction and content of memorization, and &quot;how to memorize&quot; is the method to better memorize the content. All people's knowledge and experience are acquired through conscious memorization and unconscious memorization. However, in terms of memorizing effect, conscious memorizing is better than unconscious memorizing(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004, 173).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 Keeping'''<br /> <br /> Keeping refers to the process of remaining and consolidating the memorized materials in brain. It is the process of information storage. Keeping is the middle step which is between memorizing and recalling and it is closely related the quality and effect of recalling(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).<br /> <br /> The effect of keeping is related to whether the materials to be memorized are vivid or not. When brains memorize verbal materials, if the materials are vivid, they can leave a deep impression on people, while the materials with empty contents are easy to be forgotten quickly. Many psychological experiments have also proved the important role of the &quot;image&quot; in the memory of human brain. The memory effect of image materials is generally better than that of words materials, and similarly, the effect of visual memory is generally better than that of auditory memory. This suggests that if interpreters make full use of the image carrier of the source language in interpreting memory, it is possible to improve their information storage of the source language(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).<br /> <br /> Keeping is a dynamic process during which the amount and nature of the stored information could be changed. In the aspect of amount change, the amount of stored information will decrease with time. In other words, this is forgetting. Forgetting is a very natural phenomenon that experienced by every person. Although forgetting is a complex psychological phenomenon, its occurrence and development have certain rules. Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, was the first to do this research. He used meaningless syllables as experimental materials and himself as experimental object. After memorizing the materials, he relearned them at regular intervals, and drew the forgetting curve with the time and times saved by heavy school as the index. Forgetting curve reflects the relationship between forgetting variables and time variables. This curve shows the rule of forgetting: the process of forgetting is unbalanced, and the amount of forgetting is relatively large in the initial period after memorization, and then gradually decreases. That is, the speed of forgetting is fast at first and then slow. After Ebbinghaus, many people have studied the forgetting process and confirmed that Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve is basically correct(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997, 26). <br /> <br /> Keeping is the process of consolidating what have been memorized in people's minds, and it is also the process of storing information. It is not a static and solidified process, but a process of reconstruction(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 Recalling'''<br /> <br /> The final step of memory is recalling. It is the process of retrieving the information that has been stored in people’s brain(Zhang Wei, 2011, 33). <br /> Recalling is the reappearance process of past experiences in the mind under the action of certain inducement. Memories can be divided into two categories: intentional memories and unintentional memories. Intentional recalling is the recalling of past experience under the action of intended purpose. Unintentional memories are memories that happen naturally without a predetermined purpose. Memories can be divided into direct recalling and indirect recalling according to whether there are intermediary factors involved in the recalling process. Direct recalling is the recollection of old experiences directly aroused by current things. Indirect recalling is a kind of recalling with the help of intermediary factors. In terms of difficulty, indirect recalling is more difficult than direct recalling(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 72).<br /> <br /> '''2.4 Primacy Effect and Recency effect'''<br /> <br /> Primacy effect and recency effect are two famous phenomena related to people’s memory. And both of them play a very important role in interpreting(Bao Gang, 2005, 166).<br /> <br /> '''2.4.1 Primacy Effect'''<br /> <br /> The concept “primacy effect” was first proposed by A. S. Lochins, an American psychologist. It refers to the fact that the first impression has a huge effect. Although the first impression may not always be right, but it is most vivid and solid. In primacy effect, information input plays a key role. Experimental psychology research shows that the order of external information input is important in determining the cognitive effect. The first input information plays the most important role, and the last input information also plays a great role. This feature of brain processing information is the internal cause of the primacy effect. When different information is combined, people always tend to attach importance to the former information. Even if people pay attention to the following information, they will think that the following information is non-essential and accidental. More importantly, even if the following information is inconsistent with the former information, people will succumb to the former information.<br /> <br /> '''2.4.2 Recency Effect'''<br /> <br /> Recency effect, also put forward by American psychologist Lochins, refers to the phenomenon that when people memorize a series of things, the memory effect of the last part is better than that of the middle part. The reason is that the previous information is gradually blurred in memory, while the recent information clearer in short-term memory. Recency effect is contrary to the primacy effect, and recency effect emphasizes that the last received information has the greatest effect. In people's perception, when the information obtained before and after is different, if there is irrelevant work in the middle to separate them, then the latter information plays a greater role in forming the total impression(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 81).<br /> <br /> Obviously, the primacy effect and recency effect are different, or even opposite. The primacy effect emphasizes the information received initially, while recency effect pays more attention to the information that comes into contact later. However, the primary effect and recency effect exist in our society and play their respective functions. Through a large number of experiments, it is found that the primacy effect and recency effect depend on people themselves. Generally speaking, people with relatively simple cognitive structure are prone to produce the primacy effect, while those with complex cognitive structure are prone to produce recency effect(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 82).<br /> <br /> Although the primacy effect and recency effect are different form each other, both of the effects are extremely beneficial to the memory of interpreters, and they can be used in different interpreting situations(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 82).<br /> <br /> ===3 Memory in Interpreting===<br /> <br /> In interpreting, time is very limited for interpreters to do the work and the information of original language is transient. Thus, interpreters are required ton have a good memory. The memory in interpreting is not mechanical. It refers to the processing and coding of original language, and then storage and retrieval of the coded information. The process of language understanding in translation is based on the information stored in memory such as pronunciation, grammar and speech structure(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Memory Mechanism in Interpreting'''<br /> <br /> When interpreters listen to what the speakers says, their brains are receiving stimulus. That means their brains begin to process these information. In interpreting, when the language area of the brain is stimulated, the interpreter will use the brain to process the existing related information by identifying, explaining, inferring and analyzing the pronunciation, and then stores the results in the form of internal speech, thus completing the information processing in a short time(Xu Han, 2007, 124).<br /> <br /> Only through sensory memory can people obtain external information. Therefore, in a broader sense, the initial stage of memory is sensory memory, not short-term memory. Once the recipient's cells are activated, the information is retained in the sensory storage. Attention should be paid to selecting certain information as pattern cognition, and changing it from sensory memory to short-term memory to obtain its meaning. Therefore, when interpreters listen to the content, they first store all the information in their sensory memory. Then their brain begins to identify which is the important information and pay more attention to it in order to store it in short term memory. For those unnecessary information, it will be forgotten naturally as sensory memory can just be kept for less than one second(Wang Jianhua, 2019,77).<br /> <br /> Short-term memory is the link between sensory memory and long-term memory. On the one hand, it directly accepts the information filtered by sensory memory; On the other hand, through a certain retrieval method, the relevant knowledge can be extracted from the long-term memory, and then combine the two to process and store the discourse information. Short-term memory plays a key role in connecting sensory memory and long-term memory, and functions as a central processing unit. When the information stored in sensory memory has been filtered by interpreters’ brain, then it is stored in short term memory. When interpreters start to interpret, they recall all those information that has been encoded in their short term memory and decode it into target languages. In most cases, these information become useless after the interpreting is finished, so it will soon be forgotten naturally by interpreters as short term memory also has a limitation of time. If there is some necessary and important information such as words or expression that could be useful in the future, interpreters can give it more attention and memorize it repeatedly to encode the information into long term memory(Han Xiaoming, 2004, 156).<br /> <br /> Long-term memory is like an knowledge base of experiences, and the stored information needs to be activated before it can be decoded into short-term memory to participate in the processing of new information. When the speech chain is released, the brain will quickly activate the long-term memory, extract the relevant knowledge stored before, and start the sensory memory and short-term memory to analyze and process the information , so as to fully understand the meaning carried by the speech, thus making the communication proceed effectively. Long-term memory is the basis of interpretation(Ma Yingmai, Sun Changyan, 2004, 78). In the whole process of interpretation, long-term memory has four functions. The first one is information confirmation. That is to identify information consistent with interpretation long-term memory. The second function is information understanding. If the new information to be processed is consistent with the existing old information in long-term memory, its meaning will be accepted. The third function is information anticipation. The activation of knowledge system will bring about the anticipation of future information. The last one is information expression. When the interpreters understands what the original text conveys, they must look for appropriate words or expressions in long-term memory to express their meanings in the target language(Wang Jianhua, 2019,77). Long-term memory, like a database, stores a large amount of information that can be extracted at any time. More importantly, it also has great influence on sensory memory and short-term memory. If there is no information in long-term memory, the receiver will not be able to recognize familiar stimuli, and short-term memory will not be able to encode and store information in chunks, so information will not be able to change from short-term memory to long-term memory. Therefore, long term memory plays a decisive role when interpreters store the content of original language(Bao Gang, 2005, 160).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Deverbalization Mode'''<br /> <br /> In the field of translation, as for the understanding of interpreting thinking process and interpreting memory mechanism, there are four different schools of translation theories, namely, information theory school, cognitive psychology school, neural network school and hermeneutic school. Among them, the most authoritative and influential interpretation theory is the &quot;Deverbalization Mode&quot; theory put forward by the French hermeneutics school(Liu Guiying, 2006, 117).<br /> <br /> &quot;Deverbalization Mode&quot; theory was proposed by the French hermeneutics school, which is represented by French interpreting theorist Seleskovitch. In a language, sense is the content while words and linguistic signs are the shell. In this mode, what the interpreter needs to do is “shell” the language by coding the information. That is to only keep the sense of the language in memory and remove all the other things(Seleskovitch, 1978). According to the theory, the whole process of interpreting is divided into three stages. They are listening, understanding and expressing respectively. Understanding is considered to be the most important part in the process of interpreting(Seleskovitch, Lederer 2003, 41). <br /> <br /> In interpreting, interpreters should first listen to and make clear these linguistic signs and find out the sense and content they express through analysis and understanding. Then the interpreters need to remove the “shell” of the language and forget the linguistic signs and their structure. Only the sense needs to be memorized. The final step for interpreters is to reconstruct the information of original language. They need to decode these sense with the linguistic signs of target language(Xu Ming, 2010, 6).<br /> <br /> Deverbalization is not just a coding process from original language to target language but also a dynamic process of understanding and expressing. The central idea is that the interpreters should memorize the pure sense of content instead of the language shells. And they then should process these information with the language shell of target language(Xu Han, 2007, 124).<br /> From the perspective of the theory, interpreters’ memory is not mechanical memory of isolated phonetic codes and information symbols of the source language, but the memory of the main meaning and key words of the source language information on the basis of understanding. Moreover, interpreters’ memory is not simply recalling of information stored in the brain, but a storage and extraction of input information after analyzing, screening, processing and coding. Interpreters must extract the relevant background knowledge stored in the brain by means of &quot;semantic retrieval&quot;, identify, interpret and reason the speech chain, then store the textual meaning in the form of internal speech, and complete the information restoration process in a short time(Xu Han, 2007, 124).<br /> <br /> '''3.3 Memory Strategies for Interpreters'''<br /> <br /> '''3.3.1 Logical Memory''' <br /> <br /> Logical memory means that when the interpreters receive new information, they can fully stimulate the existing schema in their mind according to the main content of the information, get rid of the limitations of the source language, better remember the newly acquired information, and truly achieve the combination of &quot;recalling&quot; and &quot;interpreting&quot;. In interpreting, interpreters use discourse knowledge to logically sort out the internal relations of the source language content and list the framework. In this process, the interpreters’ notes should mainly include the logical relationship between key words and information, and what the interpreters memorize in his brain is the main meaning and connection of the source material, rather than isolated phrases and sentences. In the interpreting stage, the interpreter uses the newly acquired information to activate the related schema in the brain to summarize and edit, so that the known information can reduce the memory burden. This memory method is suitable for interpreting materials with organized contents and clear priorities(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).<br /> <br /> '''3.3.2 Visual Memory'''<br /> <br /> Visual memory refers to a method in which an interpreter can quickly visualize the source language content in his mind, combine the existing background knowledge schema, and use the imagery thinking established in his brain to remember when he or she hears the interpretation content. Visual information storage tends to be more complete, and its retention time is relatively long. If images can be formed in the brain, it will definitely reduce the memory burden and produce better translations. Using visual memory of information in descriptive or introductory interpreting materials will produce very good results(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).<br /> <br /> For examples, the following is part of President Xi’s, state leader of People’s Republic of China, speech at the 12th BRICS Summit.<br /> <br /> “同时，我们坚信，和平与发展的时代主题没有改变，世界多极化和经济全球化的时代潮流也不可能逆转。我们要为人民福祉着想，秉持人类命运共同体理念，用实际行动为建设美好世界作出应有贡献。”(Xi jinPing, 2020)<br /> <br /> The official translation is given as fallowed from XinHua News Agency.<br /> <br /> “Despite all this, we remain convinced that the theme of our times, peace and development, has not changed, and that the trend toward multi-polarity and economic globalization cannot be turned around. We must keep people’ s welfare close to heart and pursue the vision of a community with a shared future for mankind. Through concrete actions, we will contribute our share to making the world a better place for everyone.”<br /> <br /> From president Xi’s speech, he mentioned the theme of times, world and peace, multi-polarity and economic globalization, people’s well being. Thus interpreters can use visual memory here to imagine peace as a peace bird, globalization as a the picture of earth and people’s well being as a picture of a happy family(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).<br /> <br /> '''3.3.3 Chunk Memory'''<br /> <br /> In the process of memory, individual information is often grouped into larger units, that is, recombined or recoded, which is called chunks. Although people's short-term memory capacity is only about 7 chunks, the information storage capacity of each chunk can be extended to a certain extent. People can reorganize the information of short-term memory by using the related schema in their minds, and form familiar larger meaning units. Therefore, in interpreting memory training, the translator should actively use the schema in his mind to make information memorized in chunks efficiently. Interpreters should reconstruct the information they hear, get rid of the language form of the original text, and transform it into meaningful information chunks. With the help of schema theory and interpretive theory, several single sentences can be condensed into several meaningful information chunks, thus reducing the memory pressure in interpretation and greatly improving the interpretation effect. Materials with poor logic and consistency are more suitable for this memory method(Miller, 1956, 63).<br /> <br /> There is also a part from President Xi’s speech at the 12th BRICS Summit as followed.<br /> <br /> “环顾全球，疫情使各国人民生命安全和身体健康遭受巨大威胁，全球公共卫生体系面临严峻考验，人类社会正在经历百年来最严重的传染病大流行。国际贸易和投资急剧萎缩，人员、货物流动严重受阻，不稳定不确定因素层出不穷，世界经济正在经历上世纪30年代大萧条以来最严重的衰退。单边主义、保护主义、霸凌行径愈演愈烈，治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字有增无减。”(Xi jinPing, 2020)<br /> <br /> And the official translation is given as followed. <br /> <br /> “Around the world, COVID-19 is posing a grave threat to people’s life and well-being. The global public health system is facing a severe test. Human society is going through the most serious pandemic in the past century. International trade and investment have shrunk considerably. The flow of goods and personnel has been impeded. Factors for uncertainty and instability are numerous. The world economy is witnessing the worst recession since the Great Depression in the 1930s. Unilateralism, protectionism and acts of bullying are becoming rampant, and the deficit in governance, trust, development and peace is widening instead of narrowing.”<br /> <br /> In this part, president Xi mentioned many aspects. They are current situation, public heath, people’s health, economy and politics. Each aspect can function as a chunk. When interpreters hear these information, they can memorize these information in these chunks(Chen Weihong, 2014, 87).<br /> <br /> ===4 Translation Memory in Interpreting===<br /> <br /> '''4.1 Translation Memory'''<br /> <br /> With development of science and technology, translation technology become widely use in translation field such as computer aided translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translators. And translation memory is a tool used in computer aided translation(Shi Yuntao, 2000, 36).<br /> <br /> '''4.1.1 Definition'''<br /> <br /> Translation memory is also called TM. It is different from the psychological memory that has been well elaborated. It is a kind of database to aid the translation. The principle of Translation Memory (TM) technology is that users build one or more translation memories by using existing original texts and translations. In the process of translation, the system will automatically search the same or similar translation resources such as sentences and paragraphs in the translation memories, and give reference translations, so that users can avoid unnecessary repetitive work and only focus on the translation of new content. At the same time, the translation memory keeps learning and automatically storing new translations in the background, which becomes more and more &quot;smart&quot; and more efficient(Lv Lisong, Mu Lei, 2007,36).<br /> <br /> '''4.1.2 Mechanism'''<br /> <br /> The translator first provides a source text to the translation memory, and the program will analyze this text first, and try to find out whether the existing translation section is consistent with the translated text in the past in the database. If matching translation pairs are found, they will be presented to the translator for reference. Translators can choose to accept the old translation, reject it or modify it. If it is modified, the modified version will also be recorded and stored in the database(Wang Jinquan, 2004, 14).<br /> <br /> Some translation memory systems only search for 100% matching words, which means that only the new source that is accurately compared with the database and completely matching data will be presented. There are also other systems that use the fuzzy comparison principle to find similar segments, and present them to translators with special marks to make them easy to recognize. It is very important that the general translation memory system only searches the source language from its database. Text segments that have no match at all will have to be translated manually by the translator. These newly translated text segments will be stored in the database, and future translations may be adopted immediately because the source text appears repeatedly. Translation memory will work well when the repetition of articles is quite high, such as some technical documents or manuals. Translation memory is also very helpful for translating a situation where existing documents are gradually added and revised from the past. Generally speaking, translation memory will not be considered in literature or creative documents, mainly because these types of articles have low repeatability. However, some people think that these words with extremely low repeatability are still worth collecting, for example, they can be used in the search of concordance. Other help collected from translation memory can also be helpful in quality verification and proofreading. When the translation memory is continuously used on appropriate words for a period of time, it will save a lot of workload for translators.(Wang Jinquan, 2004, 14)<br /> <br /> '''4.2 Application of Translation Memory in Interpreting'''<br /> <br /> '''4.2.1 Current Situation '''<br /> <br /> Although most translation memory is used in the work of translation, it is also used in interpreting widely in recent years. Translation memory is also used in three stages of a interpreting(Li Jun, 2020, 127). <br /> <br /> The first stage is pre-interpreting period when interpreters make preparation for the interpreting. If there is script or some new terms and expressions, interpreters can first resort to machine translation to learn how to translate these content and then store these results in translation memory for future use(Li Jun, 2020, 128).<br /> <br /> The second stage is when the interpreters are doing the interpreting. There is a very important technology called voice recognition. The technology can recognize what the speakers said and transcribe it into words. One the one hand, these words can show as subtitles on the screen. Listeners can choose to watch the subtitles or listen to interpreters by themselves. Ont the other hand, these recognized words can also show to interpreters for them to refer to. Thus, it can reduce their stress and burden to some extend. And if the speakers said the terms or words that have been stored in translation memory, they can soon be translated into target languages. The voice recognition technology can transfer speech into words. And then translation plays its role to help interpreters do their interpreting as it saves interpreters a lot of time to remember these words(Li Jun, 2020, 128).<br /> <br /> The third stage is after the interpreting. Interpreters can have a review on their on interpreting by voice recognizing their record. If there is any new words that could appear again in the future, interpreters can store them in their own translation memory. If there are words that have benn stored in translation memory but needs modifying, interpreters can also upgrade them(Li Jun, 2020, 128).<br /> <br /> '''4.2.2 Limitations'''<br /> <br /> Although translation memory has been adapted in interpreting, its has still some limitations. There are mainly two aspects of limitation. They are translation memory and voice recognition.<br /> <br /> As for translation memory, the limitation is that what stored in translation memory are words and phrases. In most cases, people needs to translate a whole paragraph or text, so the cohesion is very important. Common translation memory uses a sentence as a Translation Unit or a Translation Segment, which makes it easy to translate multiple sentences separately and then combine them. And this makes the translation not as coherent as it’s required. Besides, translation memory is not compatible to all file formats such as words, the one most frequently used(Su Mingyang, 2007, 73).<br /> <br /> As for voice recognition, when there are more than one language in the speech, the effectiveness of the technology could be affected. Besides, it sometimes fails to recognize conditional adverbials and adverbial clause induced by words such as If, every and although is not good. The reason is that the clauses caused by these words can be placed before or after the main sentence, which makes it difficult to recognize and automatically add punctuation marks. Moreover, the results of recognition is greatly affected by the pronunciation and intonation of the speaker and the environment(Li Jun, 2020, 129).<br /> <br /> ===5 Conclusion===<br /> <br /> A good interpreter is required to have a good memory. It doesn’t only mean the ability to memorize many things but also knowing how to use different memory systems and modes of coding to optimize their memory. Moreover, with the development of technology, interpreters should also learn how to use these technology such as translation memory to help them do the interpreting. However, although translation memory is used in interpreting now, it is still not mature and needs to be improved. Interpreters can use these technology but not rely on it. They must rely on their own memory.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Baddeley, A. D. Working Memory : an Overview[A]. 2006.<br /> <br /> [2]Hitch, G.J. Working Memory[A]. 2012.<br /> <br /> [3]Miller, A. George. The Magic Number Seven Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information[J]. 1956. The Psychological Review, 63(2).<br /> <br /> [4]Seleskovitch, D. &amp; Lederer, M. Pédagogie Raisonnée de l , Interprétation (3 e édition) [M]. Paris: Didier Erudition, 2003.<br /> <br /> [5]Tulving, Organism of Memory[C], New York: Academic Press, 1972.<br /> <br /> [6]鲍刚, 翻译理论概述[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,2005.<br /> <br /> [7]车文博, 心理学原理[M]. 黑龙江：黑龙江人民出版社, 1986.<br /> <br /> [8]陈卫红. 论心理认知和口译记忆[J]. 外语教学理论与实践, 2014: 85-95.<br /> <br /> [9]韩小明. 从记忆机制看口译教学中记忆能力的培养[J]. 重庆工学院学报, 2004: 156-15.<br /> <br /> [10]李俊. 计算机翻译辅助技术在同传中的应用及对同传生态系统的影响[J]. 中国翻译, 2020(4): 127-132.<br /> <br /> [11]刘桂英. 口译的记忆心理学基础[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2006: 116-118.<br /> <br /> [12]刘颖, 苏巧玲. 医学心理学[M]. 北京：中国华侨出版社, 1997.<br /> <br /> [13]吕立松, 穆雷. 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[J]. 外语世界, 2007: 35-43.<br /> <br /> [14]马英迈, 孙长彦, 口译中的记忆与理解[J]. 宁夏大学学报, 2004: 78-79.<br /> <br /> [15]施韵涛. 全新翻译解决方案 ——翻译记忆[J]. 中国科技翻译, 2000.<br /> <br /> [16]苏明阳. 翻译记忆系统的现状及其启示[J]. 外语研究, 2007: 70-74.<br /> <br /> [17]王建华. 口译过程认知研究[M]. 北京：中国人民大学出版社, 2019.<br /> <br /> [18]王金铨. 翻译记忆 ( TM)—— 计算机翻译技术的新发展[J]. 现代图书情报技术, 2004: 13-16.<br /> <br /> [19]徐翰. 口译记忆认知与记忆策略探索[J]. 南昌大学学报(人文社会科学版), 2007: 124-126.<br /> <br /> [20]许明. 口译认知过程中“deverbalization”的认知诠释[J]. 译论研究, 2010: 5-11<br /> <br /> [21]张威. 口译认知研究：同声传译和工作记忆的关系[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 2011.<br /> <br /> == The Subtile Translation of Movie from the Perspective of Multimodal Discourse Analysis 王轩 Wang Xuan==<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> Mankind has entered the era of multimedia, so the language as a mono-modal form has been unable to fully express the meaning of communication. Thus we need some other modals to enhance, in order to fully express the meaning and reach the aim of communication, such as sound, visual image, color and so on. Thus the term Multimodality aroused linguist’s interest and attention. <br /> <br /> The thesis is based on the Multimodal Discourse Analysis theory as the foundation, aims to analyze the following three areas under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis: 1. The embodiment of Multimodality in the film “Benjamin Button”, then aims to analyze how does the subtitle and Multimodality combining to constructed the whole meaning under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis.2. The second goal is to discuss the relationship between the movie’s subtitles and other modals, and the relationship between different modals. 3. By discussing the analysis of the movie subtitle expression function in the process of overall significance, this thesis attempts to put forward some suggestions on the movie subtitle translation. <br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Multimodal Discourse Analysis；Audio-visual Product；Subtitle Translation<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 人类已经进入多媒体时代，语言作为一种单一的模态形式已经无法充分表达交际的意义。因此，我们还需要一些其他的情态手段加以加强，以充分表达意义，达到交际的目的，如声音、视觉形象、色彩等。因此，多模态一词引起了语言学家的兴趣和关注。<br /> 本文以多模态话语分析理论为基础，旨在在多模态话语分析理论框架下分析以下三个方面：1。多模态在电影《本杰明·巴顿》中的体现，则旨在分析在多模态话语分析的理论框架下，字幕和多模态如何结合起来构建整体意义。第二个目标是讨论电影字幕与其他情态动词的关系，以及不同情态动词之间的关系。三。通过对电影字幕在翻译过程中的整体意义的分析，本文试图对电影字幕翻译提出一些建议。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 多模态语篇分析；视听产品；字幕翻译<br /> <br /> === Chapter One Multimodal Discourse Analysis Theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 1.1 The Emergence And Development Of Multimodality '''<br /> <br /> At present, experts and scholars have entered the stage of multimodal discourse analysis. This is not an accidental phenomenon, but inevitable, because they think that discourse or discourse is a unit of meaning, but the expression of meaning is not only through a single language, on the contrary, it can be constructed by many other symbol systems besides language. <br /> <br /> Therefore, it is not comprehensive and specific to analyze discourse or discourse from the linguistic level, so multimodal discourse analysis comes into being. Multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in foreign countries, and has been widely studied and explored. However, it is still in its infancy in China, and has attracted much attention in recent years. <br /> <br /> In the early 1950s, American linguist Harris put forward the theory of discourse analysis for the first time. Since then, discourse analysts all over the world have been working hard to analyze and study, and have put forward many theories and methods of discourse analysis, and analyzed them through a large number of examples. <br /> <br /> However, almost all the theories and methods of discourse analysis focus on language and ignore other forms of meaning expression, such as image, music, color and so on. Therefore, the research on discourse analysis at that time was not comprehensive and had great limitations. In the 1990s, multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in western countries, which overcomes the limitations of discourse analysis to a certain extent. Therefore, once multimodal discourse analysis was proposed, it immediately attracted the attention of linguists and once became a hot topic. Especially in recent years, linguists at home and abroad have carried out extensive research and Exploration on multimodal discourse analysis. <br /> <br /> In foreign countries, R. Barthes is the first French scholar to systematically analyze multimodality. As a famous semiotician, R. Barthes adopts the semiotic perspective to study multimodality. Therefore, multimodal discourse has been analyzed with semiotics from the very beginning. Multimodal discourse analysis breaks through the shackles of traditional single language information, and integrates more research in other fields, such as psychology, cognitive science and sociology. R. Barthes discussed the interaction and relationship between image and language in the expression of meaning. Based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed a relatively perfect grammatical framework for the analysis of visual images, thus providing theoretical basis and analytical methods for multimodal discourse analysis. They believe that multimodality is a major feature of various discourses in modern society. In the digital age, these different modes play the same role in meaning reproduction. In addition, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed an image analysis framework based on three pure functions in image reading, namely reproduction, interaction and composition.. In a word, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen's multimodal communication theory mainly focuses on the symbolic resources and their use. <br /> <br /> In China, there are also in-depth and extensive research on multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Li Zhanzi analyzes multimodal discourse from the perspective of social semiotics, while Hu Zhuanglin, a professor of Peking University, studies multimodal semiotics in theory and practice, and proposes multimodal language teaching and research in social semiotics. Zhu Yongsheng has made an in-depth study on multimodality and summarized the theoretical basis and research methods of multimodal discourse analysis. Zhang Delu made a preliminary exploration on the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Zhang Delu pointed out that multimodal discourse refers to the use of hearing, vision, touch and other senses, through language, images, sounds, movements and other means and symbol resources for communication. This phenomenon is very common, which is mainly reflected in the following aspects. For example, in order to better understand poetry, people find that it can be attached with pictures, that is, it is attractive People's interest has reached the purpose of helping people understand. In addition, people can often add some auxiliary gestures or actions, and use different tone and tone when speaking, which is also a form of multimodality. However, multimodal discourse analysis has not been paid enough attention. Only in the study of modern linguistics, some linguists have paid attention to multimodality and started to study it from the perspective of non-verbal features and linguistic features. However, it is only studied as an auxiliary expression system of language, but not as a mode of meaning expression. Although multimedia discourse analysis came into being, it was not until recent years that scholars gradually realized the importance of multimedia discourse analysis. It can be seen that multimodality has attracted a large number of linguists in China and achieved fruitful results.<br /> <br /> ''' 1.2 The Theoretical Framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis '''<br /> <br /> Linguists have found that systemic functional linguistics can be used as the basic theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. The five levels are: (1) cultural level, including ideology as the main form of culture and genre as the potential choice of discourse mode. (2) The context level includes the context configuration composed of discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. (3) The meaning level includes discourse meaning and conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning. (4) At the formal level, there are different formal systems to realize meaning, including lexical grammar system of language, visual ideographic form and visual grammar system, auditory ideographic form and auditory grammar system, tactile ideographic form and tactile grammar system, etc., as well as the relationship between the grammar of various modes. (5) Media level is the material form of discourse in the material world, including linguistic and non-verbal. Systemic functional linguistics provides a relatively ready-made theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis. On this basis, Professor Zhang Delu proposed a comprehensive theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis: (1) cultural level, (2) context level, (3) content level, (4) expression level<br /> <br /> ''' 1.3 The Forms and Relations of Multimodal Discourse '''<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse forms include: language, picture sense, sound sense and feeling. The typical multimodal discourse mode is a kind of modal discourse, which can not fully express its meaning, or can not express its full meaning. It needs to be supplemented by another one. The relationship between these modes is called &quot;complementary relationship&quot;, while the other is called non complementary relationship. <br /> <br /> Complementary relationship can be divided into strengthening relationship and non strengthening relationship. Reinforcement relationship means that one mode is the main form of communication, while another or more forms strengthen it. For example, when expressing meaning, if language is the main form of communication, then other body movements such as gestures will strengthen the language. On the contrary, language may also be a reinforcement to other ways of communication. Strengthening relationship includes three kinds of relations: prominent, primary and secondary, and expanding. Non reinforcement refers to the relationship between two modes which are indispensable and complementary to each other. For example, in the process of watching a movie, the visual and auditory modes are combined with each other. There are also three forms of non strengthening relations: coordination, union and intersection. In the coordination relationship, different modes construct the whole meaning together, and the lack of any mode will be incomplete. Play the video at the same time, for example. The two modes of image and sound are both necessary and difficult to understand without one communication. In this case, the relationship between image and sound is harmonious. The joint relationship refers to the combination of different types of media in the same mode to express the meaning. For example, in the typical multimodal discourse form of film, the sound matched with the scene animation and the voice of interpretation are combined to reflect the meaning of auditory construction. The last one is the phenomenon of cross embodiment of meaning. For example, teachers do experiments while they are in the experimental class. At this time, the text is still unimodal. However, if you are talking with your friends about whether the weather is snowing, the size and shape of snow, and so on, the scene of snow, including the process and mode of snow, will directly participate in the overall meaning you want to express. At this time, your discourse has a strong situational dependence. A large part of the meaning of your speech is reflected by the situation, although the scene does not actively participate in it In your verbal communication. Therefore, context dependent discourse communication is multimodal.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Two Film subtitle translation theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 2.1 Film Works and Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> With the advent of the multimedia digital era, foreign film and television works continue to flow into China, so subtitle translation is becoming more and more important. More and more people use subtitles to obtain foreign related information, understand foreign cultures and even learn foreign languages. Subtitling affects people's cognition of things, and subtitle translation has become a professional auxiliary form to facilitate the audience to understand multimedia works. Gottlieb defines subtitle translation as &quot;a kind of written, additional and synchronous translation type for instantaneous and multi symbolic texts&quot;. (Gottlieb, 1997:309) in China, film and television translation started relatively late, and large-scale film and television translation began after the 1980s. <br /> <br /> Although the number of mass media translation has greatly increased, subtitle translation has not attracted enough attention of the academic community, and the research results on subtitle translation are few. In recent years, subtitle translation, as a field of translation, has attracted more and more attention from experts and scholars all over the world. Subtitles have two major functions: first, to deepen the audience's impression of some film content; second, to assist the lack of listening. There are two kinds of subtitles: the first is intralingual subtitle, the second is interlingual subtitle. Intralingual subtitle translation does not need to translate one language into another, but only converts the discourse into text. &quot;Interlingual subtitle refers to the translation of the source language into the target language and superimposed on the bottom of the screen while retaining the original sound of the film and television, which is commonly referred to as subtitle translation.&quot; (Li Yunxing, 2001:38)<br /> <br /> ''' 2.2 The Characteristics Of Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> Film subtitles are an important part of the film, and together with the visual image to construct the meaning, film subtitles can help the audience to understand the characteristics of the characters in the film, to master the character's character and to be familiar with the plot of the film. Film subtitle translation has the following characteristics: <br /> <br /> Firstly, colloquialism. Subtitle translation in movies is mainly the translation of dialogues between the characters in the film. Therefore, subtitle translation should be as colloquial as possible and conform to the expression characteristics of the characters. On the premise of ensuring the coherence and smoothness of the context, the subtitle translation should be as close to life as possible so as to achieve natural and realistic effect. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the characters in the film have their own unique personalities, which are often reflected by different language styles. Therefore, the second feature of film subtitle translation is to conform to the characters' personalities. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, emotional, emotional help the audience better understand the plot, so the film subtitle translation should reflect the true feelings, the translation should be able to put oneself in the position and into the role, to achieve the artistic effect of sincere.<br /> <br /> Fourthly, oral form is a typical feature of film subtitle translation, which is also the most obvious difference between film subtitle translation and literature translation. The basic task of translation is to provide a blueprint for dubbing. Therefore, the translation of subtitles should be consistent with the mouth shape of the characters as much as possible, and the accuracy and vividness of the translation should be guaranteed. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, popularization means popularization. Popularization means that the translation can be understood by the audience on the premise of smoothness, so as to achieve the purpose of clear understanding and appreciation of both refined and popular tastes. The ultimate goal of popularization is to serve the audience and make the translation a bridge for effective communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3 Strategies Of Film Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.1 Pay Attention To The Artistry Of Language '''<br /> <br /> It is said that film is the seventh art after literature, music, dance, drama, painting and sculpture. As a young art, the only one who knows his birthday, film appeared as a popular art from the very beginning. Film is an art form with unique means of expression, and the artistry of its language is the basic element of film. Although Goethe once said: art should never be the same as reality, and it is impossible to embody art. But it turns out that film is not only a popular art, and it is the most popular art, which is called a kind of popular culture. From the point of view of the film itself, most of the films are for people to watch, and the audience of the film comes from different social strata, so their education level is also different. Therefore, the language in the subtitle of film translation must be in line with the audience's acceptance ability and actual level, so as to make the translation understood by the audience, more clearly, and achieve both refined and popular tastes. However, the vulgarization and popularization of the target language does not mean the vulgarization and generalization of the language. The language of film is rich in expressive force, and the language of subtitle translation must be accurate, natural and vivid. Therefore, in the film subtitle translation, we should not only retain the language characteristics of the source language and absorb the characteristics of foreign language expression, but also abide by the language tradition of our own culture, and use words with cultural color of the target language to translate the original text, so as to truly achieve the purpose of translation.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.2 Literal Translation And Free Translation Should Be Audience-Centered '''<br /> <br /> The characteristics of film subtitle translation, i.e. instantaneity and popularity, determine its translation strategies. Subtitle translation must refer to the picture and sound of the film and television. Usually, the subtitle appears in front of the audience together with the original picture, so that the audience can not only enjoy the picture, but also have time to read the subtitle. This is the duality of subtitle translation. When the audience accepts the sound, picture and subtitle information of the original text, they are integrated, complementary and contradictory. Therefore, subtitle translation must consider that subtitle is not an independent mode, it includes the creation process and the reception process. In a word, both literal translation and free translation should focus on the audience. Literal translation can absorb new foreign factors and information, and can reflect foreign culture and sentiment. Free translation is easier to be accepted by the target language audience. Film subtitle translation must take into account the audience's language level and education, and take the audience of the target language as the center and adopt correct translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.3 Processing Of Cultural Information '''<br /> <br /> As an intermediary of cultural exchange, the translator's main purpose is to promote the exchange of different cultures and reduce the cultural gap. Because the film subtitle in the process of translation is subject to many restrictions, for example, there are a large number of words with strong cultural color and some special language forms, and there are many gaps in the culture of different languages and nations and can not be replaced, so it increases the difficulty of film translation. For example, when translating puns, word games and proverbs, translators usually have to give up, which is actually a treason to the original film. <br /> <br /> There are three strategies to deal with cultural information in Subtitle Translation: first, the principle of cultural compensation. The principle of cultural compensation aims to preserve and introduce the cultural characteristics of foreign countries, so that the audience can understand the films of different languages and cultures. Second, adopt the principle of cultural transplantation. This principle can make subtitles more vivid, authentic and vivid. Translators need to discard the cultural characteristics of the source language and abide by the native language, so that subtitles can be easily understood and accepted by the target language audience. When neither of the two strategies is desirable, we can only use the third strategy, namely the principle of cultural coordination, which inevitably leads to the loss of cultural information in the source language and the target language. When dealing with the cultural information in subtitle translation, translators should pay attention to the combination of these three strategies with the film picture, and give full play to the illustrative and explanatory nature of the pictures, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Three Subtitle Translation Of &quot;Benjamin Button&quot; From The Perspective Of Multimodal Discourse Analysis ===<br /> <br /> ''' 3.1 A Brief Introduction of 'Benjamin Button' '''<br /> <br /> 'Benjamin Button', directed by the famous director David Finch is adapted from Fitzgerald's novel of the same name; the film tells the story of a strange Benjamin Barton who violates the laws of nature and is born in the image of an ancient and rare old man. As time goes by, he even lives more and more young. It is a story about the reversal of life.<br /> <br /> The following part will analyze the characteristics of subtitles and the translation strategies that should be adopted in the expression of the film from the cultural level, context level, content level and expression level of the multimodal theoretical framework.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2 Multimodal Translation in Movie Subtiles '''<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.1 On Cultural Level '''<br /> <br /> Under the influence of thinking patterns and habits, people have gradually formed a specific form of expression in which language can understand each other in communication. Therefore, it is particularly important whether the cultural factors in films are properly translated. Zhang Delu believes that &quot;the cultural level is the key level to make communication possible&quot;. In some cases, the source language and the target language can not be translated literally. Therefore, in the process of translating movie subtitles, we should not only keep the original features, that is, faithfulness, but also take into account the habitual language awareness of the target audience, that is, free translation strategies should be adopted to make the translation smooth and consistent Cultural characteristics of the target language.<br /> <br /> The English title of the film is ‘The Curious Case of Benjamin Button’, and a version is ‘本杰明·巴顿奇事’, but the translation of ‘返老还童’ has a larger audience. First of all, there is an English name in the title of Benjamin Button, which makes people feel the obscurity of the literal translation of foreign words. In Chinese, four character idioms or five or seven character quatrains or metrical poems are more catchy and easy to be accepted; Secondly, the title of &quot;rejuvenate&quot; is very suitable for the protagonist's inverted and retrograde life trajectory. In a word, it is very brilliant; Finally, the idiom ‘返老还童’ comes from ancient legends, which expresses people's desire for immortality and rejuvenation. Although it is a legend, modern people also want to be young and energetic, so the title of ‘返老还童’ can attract more audiences.<br /> In this film, there are many translation notes added to the translation, which will explain the cross-cultural ambiguity clearly. Although there are many translations, it is the best way to make the audience accept accurate information.<br /> <br /> When Daisy, the heroine, is old, she lies on the hospital bed and introduces the name of the Watchmaker: “they had the best clock maker in all of the south to build that glorious clock. His name was Mr. gateau Mr. Cake.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “还请来整个南方最好的钟表匠建了那座雄伟的大钟。那人叫盖图先生……蛋糕先生” (盖图/Gateau 在法语中是蛋糕之意)<br /> <br /> There is such a narration at the foundation laying ceremony of clocks and clocks: “Papa said there were people everywhere. Even Teddy · Roosevelt came.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “爸爸说，那天人山人海。连泰迪·罗斯福也来了( 西奥多·罗斯福，昵称泰迪美国第26 任总统)”<br /> <br /> In the above two examples, the comments added to the translation itself are in brackets. In the former example, &quot;Mr. cake&quot; suddenly appears. In the latter example, how President Roosevelt called &quot;Teddy Roosevelt&quot; will make the target language audience very puzzled. Although the use of annotations makes translation numerous, it is the best way for the audience to quickly obtain accurate information. The audience knows that gateau means &quot;cake&quot; in French, and Roosevelt has a nickname of &quot;Teddy&quot;.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.2 On Context Level '''<br /> <br /> In a specific context, communication is constrained by contextual factors (Zhang Delu, 2009). The context level elaborated by Zhang Delu includes discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. In order to express meaning or transmit information, subtitle and context jointly promote the development of film plot. Subtitle translation should be subject to context. In order to make subtitle translation not appear fault phenomenon, the film plot will advance naturally, and subtitle translation should also play a role of connecting the preceding and the following. In this way, in the process of translation, the translator should consider the contextual factors and pay attention to the smoothness and coherence of the translation within the sentence itself and between the sentences in the text.<br /> <br /> When describing Queenie's fertility problem, Queenie sees Benjamin's heart full of love. Her husband, Mr. Weathers, said: I know you ain't got all the parts it takes to make one of your own, but this ain't your to keep. At first it was certainly hard to understand the meaning of this sentence, but as the plot developed, Queenie prayed to the pastor for a son. After her pregnancy, she announced happily: “I had a miracle happen. The Lord saw fit to answer my prayer.” <br /> <br /> Little Daisy explained here: “ ‘I had a miracle happen’ means pregnancy.” （她有孩子了） In this way, the words said by Mr. Weathers was interpreted as: “我知道你没法有自己的孩子，可你也不能抚养这个。” Using free translation strategy, it is clear and faithful to the meaning of the source language, which makes the target language audience quickly know that Queenie likes children's characteristics and cares for Benjamin, an ugly ‘monster’.<br /> <br /> When Benjamin and Daisy are reunited in New York, Benjamin said: “I thought I'd come here and sweet you off your feet or something.” The phrase &quot;sweep you off your feet&quot; means &quot;to make you fall suddenly and deeply in love with you&quot;（让你倾倒）. Benjamin and Daisy were separated from each other for many years at that time. Daisy, who was living in the dance circle, was popular and desirable there. Benjamin went to New York to find daisy after burying his father. He was in a mixed mood. In fact, he wanted to find a friend to express his melancholy. Therefore, Benjamin did not go to find Daisy to &quot;fall in love&quot; with her but &quot;I thought I'd give you a big surprise when I came suddenly&quot;(我本以为我突然过来找你会给你一个大惊喜), which is very brilliant. This sentence is more suitable for the protagonist's situation by using free translation strategy.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.3 On Content Level '''<br /> <br /> The content level of Zhang Delu's expression includes discourse meaning level and form level. Discourse meaning is the conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning conveyed in language expression. In the film, subtitle is the narrator's narration and dialogue content. Film discourse requires the translator to accurately express the subtitle meaning to the audience. In the process of subtitle translation, some gas words, names and address terms can be omitted, which still does not affect the expression of discourse meaning.<br /> <br /> “Well, I know I don't have much to show for myself.”（我知道自己没有什么才能。） The omission of &quot;well&quot; does not affect the translation, but is more concise and can be understood more quickly.<br /> <br /> “You know, you may've got a few more years out of it, but you choose to do something so special and unique that there were only a short window of time you could do it.” Daisy was in the dance business, but she had an accident later. Some expressions here such as “a few more years out of it” ( 跳几年舞), “something so special and unique”( 事业太与众不同), “a short window of time” （几年黄金时间) have been dealt more concrete, so the whole sentence is translated as: “也许，你能多跳几年舞，可你的事业太与众不同了，只有几年的黄金时间可以发展。” <br /> <br /> As for its form, the formal features of different modes are interrelated and reflect the discourse meaning together (Zhang Fulu, 2009). The film system includes animation, pictures, music, language and other auditory and visual modes. Therefore, subtitles, together with listening and visual modes, work together to promote the expression of film meaning.<br /> <br /> For example, Benjamin and Daisy finally met and got together. They whispered in the yellow-glowed room:<br /> Daisy: “Will you still love me when my skin grows old and saggy?” ( 我要是成了黄脸婆你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> Benjamin: “Will you still love me when I have acne? When I wet the bed? When I'm afraid of what's under the stairs?” ( 等我老到脸上长满青春痘，老到尿床，老到连楼梯下有什么都怕，你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> The pictures, music and language all revealed the happy and loving life of the two people. In general, the film is based on the narration of a diary. In the film, the dialogue between the present and the narration in the diary is carried out alternately. In addition, the old pictures, the statement of time and the voice change of the narrator are used to make the past and the present change clearly and naturally, and they are applied in the formal level.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.4 On Expression Level '''<br /> <br /> Zhang Fulu believes that the expression level can be divided into language media and non-verbal media. In the language media level, he thinks that the main forms of meaning communication are sound symbols and writing symbols. For films, subtitles and subtitle translation belong to writing symbols. In the process of translating subtitles, translators should fully consider the media characteristics such as voice size, intonation strength, tone, font size and layout, which play a very important role in the expression of films. The subtitles of the film are at the bottom of the screen. Except for the notes, the translation takes up a little bit more space, and most of the subtitles in the source language and the target language occupy one line, which ensures that the audience has enough time to read the information. Non verbal media include communicators' body and nonverbal means (mainly tools and environment). Nowadays, with the progress of science and technology, movies can be played in cinemas, networks and various electronic media, and the media for appreciation is rich.<br /> <br /> Throughout the film, the dying old Daisy's tone is slow and strenuous on the bed. With the development of the story, light or heavy, a TV beside the bed broadcast the change of Hurricane weather activity, and the weather change also reflects Daisy's condition at that time.<br /> Finally, Daisy hugged Benjamin, a baby in her arms, and watched him invert the end of her life. The dying Daisy dictated in a low voice and intermittent tone: &quot;he looked at me and Iknow that he knew who I was.&quot;. (他看着我，那一刻，我知道他认出来了) The sound of the hurricane alarm suddenly sounded, sharp and obvious, and the picture of the staff of the hospital of traditional Chinese medicine was flustered, symbolizing that Benjamin's reversal clock was also washed away, and Daisy finally passed away. The sound, picture and words of the whole film are closely linked. It tells the story of eternal love, though limited in time, which is extremely shocking and thought-provoking.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Four Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> The translator of the film tries his best to translate various modes such as discourse, picture, sound and music. The translation strategy is mainly free translation, and the subtitle processing is simple and appropriate, so that the audience can have a good understanding of the limited time in the film, only the eternal knowledge of love. Taking the film subtitle of &quot;rejuvenation&quot; as an example, this paper analyzes the characteristics of subtitle translation from the aspects of culture, context, content and expression, hoping to better understand multimodal discourse analysis and free translation strategies in film subtitle translation.<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> [1] Barthes, R. Image-Music-Text [M]. London: Fontana, 1977. <br /> <br /> [2] Baldry, A. &amp; P. J. Thibault. Multimodal Transcription and Text Analysis[M]. London: Equinox Publishing, 2006. <br /> <br /> [3] Forceville. Multimodal Transcription and Text Analysis: A Multimedia Toolkit and Coursebook [J]. Journal of Pragmatics, 2007, 1235-1238. <br /> <br /> [4] Edgar Bernad-Mechó. Multimodal Discourse Analysis of Link⁃ ing Metadiscursive Elements in Two Opencourseware Lectures (MOOCs)[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences.2015, 61-66. <br /> <br /> [5] Aylanda Dwi Nugroho. The Generic Structure of Print Adver⁃ tisement of Elizabeth Arden’s INTERVENE: A Multimodal Discourse Analysis [J]. DOAJ.2009, 70-85.<br /> <br /> [6] 封霞.文化翻译视角下的电影字幕翻译——以《哈利·波特》 系列电影为例[J]. 才智.2016. [7] 刘金菁. 多模态话语分析对高中英语词汇教学的启示[J]. 教 育教学论坛.2014. <br /> <br /> [8] 刘秀丽; 张德禄; 张宜波.外语教师多模态话语与学生学习 积极性的关系研究[J]. 外语电化教学.2013. <br /> <br /> [9] 阚凤.模态话语分析视角下的电影字幕翻译——以电影《哈 利·波特与混血王子》为例[J].理论观察,2014.<br /> <br /> [10] 沈国荣.论《哈利·波特》电影字幕翻译[J].电影文学,2013.<br /> <br /> [11] 孙毅.多模态话语意义建构——以2011西安世界园艺博览 会会徽为基点[J]. 外语与外语教学.2012.<br /> <br /> [12] 徐协.中国元素广告的多模态话语分析[J]. 当代传播.2013. <br /> <br /> [13] 姚群. 基于态度系统的《哈利·波特》字幕与配音翻译研究 [A]. 北京交通大学.2017.<br /> <br /> [14] 张德禄.多模态话语分析综合理论框架探索[J].中国外语, 2009. <br /> <br /> [15] 周姗.多模态视角下的俄语公益广告话语分析[A]. 北京外 国语大学.2014.<br /> <br /> =Machine Translation=<br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory - A Case Study of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company Chen Yongxiang 陈永相 英语笔译 202070080582==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;Chen Yongxiang 陈永相 英语笔译 202070080582&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine (hereinafter referred to as TCM), the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, boasts the favorable curative effect and a good reputation across the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative” and national economy, TCM has been playing an increasingly significant role in international trade, attracting more attention of foreign medical experts and consumers. As the essential attachment of a medicine, medicine instructions belong to the genre of practical writing, characterized by the unique language structure and stylistic features, guiding doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicines, such as usage and dosage, actions and indications, contraindication, etc. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. Due to the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, however, plenty of problems appear on the C-E translation of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> According to Adaptation Theory proposed by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. Translation is a cross-cultural communication activity, which involves language usage and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so on between source language and target language, and to adapt with different contexts, mentalities, cultures, etc. so as to achieve the ideal goal, from which the Adaptation Theory can be applied exactly into the study of translation. This paper will apply Adaptation Theory, therefore, as the theoretical framework, to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. Employing the core concepts and investigating aspects of Adaptation Theory, the author tries to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine instruction translation, Adaptation Theory, Yulin Pharmaceutical Company <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 中药是我国医药文化的瑰宝，有着良好的疗效和口碑。随着“一带一路倡议”的稳步推进和中国经济的平稳发展，中药药品在国际贸易中所占比重日益增加，得到了国外许多医疗专家和消费者的关注。药品说明书作为药品的重要附件，是一种实用文体，有其自身的语言结构和文体特点，能够指导医生与患者了解和熟悉药品作用、用法用量、适应症和禁忌等。而中医药品说明书英译作为中医英译的一个重要组成部分，其英译质量决定了药品能否被医生和患者正确理解和使用，以及中医药产品的国际贸易繁荣。然而，由于英语和汉语之间存在着不可避免的语言和文化差异，中医药品说明书英译依然存在着较大问题。<br /> <br /> 比利时语用学家维索尔伦提出的语言顺应论认为，语言的使用是一个不断作出选择和顺应的动态过程。翻译作为一项跨文化交际活动，需要在源语与目的语之间，就用词、翻译策略等方面进行选择，对不同语境、心理、文化等层面作出顺应。可见顺应论适用于翻译研究。因此本文以顺应论作为理论依据，通过对广西玉林制药公司中医药品说明书英译进行分析研究，运用顺应论的核心概念和研究视角，进一步探讨如何更好地翻译中医药品说明书。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 中医药品说明书翻译，顺应论，玉林制药公司<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Research Background of the Study====<br /> <br /> As the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, TCM has been through a profound history in China. Since “The Belt and Road Initiative” proposed for the first time, as an indispensable part in medical industry, TCM has tapped the potential of development opportunity to boost its reform so as to better make inroads into the international market. Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a renowned TCM pharmacy enterprise mainly engaged in R&amp;D, production and sales of Chinese medicines, one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties. In 2015, Consun Pharmaceutical Group Lt. has successfully brought partial share of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, which, in return, brought opportunities for the IPO and industrialization of the company. As the essential attachment of TCM medicine, the instructions guide doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicine correctly, which closely relates to consumer safety and are of great significance. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. The high quality translation versions of TCM instructions will accelerate TCM to enter into the international market, to occupy more competitive market share, and to better popularize the excellent TCM culture. <br /> <br /> As the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, TCM has gone through a profound history in China. Since “The Belt and Road Initiative” proposed for the first time, as an indispensable part in medical industry, TCM has tapped the potential of developmental opportunity to boost its reform so as to better make inroads into the international market. Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a renowned TCM pharmacy enterprise mainly engaged in R&amp;D, production and sales of Chinese medicines, one of the China's Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties. In 2015, Consun Pharmaceutical Group Lt. has successfully brought partial share of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, which, in return, brought opportunities for the IPO and industrialization of the company. As the essential attachment of TCM medicine, the instructions guide doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicine correctly, which closely relates to consumer safety and are of great significance. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. The high quality translation versions of TCM instructions will accelerate TCM to enter into the international market, to occupy more competitive market share, and to better popularize the excellent TCM culture. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Significance and Purpose of the Study==== <br /> <br /> It is noticed that studies and researches on TCM at home and abroad have boomed since the ancient Silk Road period. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from experts. Because of the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, a lot of problems appear on the translation of TCM instructions. And against such a backdrop, there are still no settled rules or translation standards to be applied and favored in the translation of TCM instructions, hence it’s quite essential to touch upon the area of C-E translation of TCM instructions in a more comprehensive and systematic way so as to find out more effective methods and strategies for the instruction translation. Adaptation Theory is proposed by Jef Verschueren, he thinks that language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation is a type of language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so forth between source language and target language. A good translation version of TCM instructions can appropriately guide both doctors and patients to understand the pharmacological functions, usage and dosage, actions and indications and contraindications of medicines. Therefore, the quality of instruction translation has a direct impact on whether TCM can be favored and obtained a good reputation among overseas medical industry and consumers. This paper studies the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, trying to take the Company as a case study to further discuss how to translate TCM instructions in a better way. <br /> <br /> It is noticed that studies and researches on TCM at home and abroad have boomed since the ancient Silk Road period. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from experts. Because of the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, a lot of problems appear on the translation of TCM instructions. And against such a backdrop, there are still no settled rules or translation standards to be applied and favored in the translation of TCM instructions, hence it’s quite essential to touch upon the area of C-E translation of TCM instructions in a more comprehensive and systematic way so as to find out more effective methods and strategies for the instruction translation. Adaptation Theory is proposed by Jef Verschueren, he thinks that language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation is a type of language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so forth between source language and target language. A good translation version of TCM instructions can appropriately guide both doctors and patients to understand the pharmacological functions, usage and dosage, actions and indications and contraindications of medicines. Therefore, the quality of instruction translation has a direct impact on whether TCM can be favored and obtained a good reputation among overseas medical industry and consumers. This paper studies the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, trying to take the company as a case study to further discuss how to translate TCM instructions in a better way. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Features of TCM Instructions====<br /> <br /> Being the essential attachment of a medicine, the instruction contains important information that explains what the medicine is, how to take it and the effects after taking it, guiding doctors and patients to understand and use medicines properly. It closely relates to consumers’ safety. Thus, TCM instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. However, the information covered in most TCM instructions is drug name, ingredients, actions and indications, usage and dosage, while adverse effects, precautions, pharmacological effects, drug interaction, contraindications etc. are quite simple, even without any description of these items, failing to meet the requirement of international standards. <br /> <br /> Being the essential attachment of a medicine, the instruction contains important information that explains what the medicine is, how to take it and the effects after taking it, guiding doctors and patients to understand and use medicines properly. It closely relates to consumers’ safety. Thus, TCM instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. However, the information covered in most TCM instructions is names of medicine, ingredients, actions and indications, usage and dosage, while adverse effects, precautions, pharmacological effects, drug interaction, contraindications etc. are quite simple, even without any description of these items, failing to meet the requirement of international standards. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Besides, due to the profound history of TCM developed in China, most of the unique TCM languages derived from the abstract philosophical concepts of ancient times remain being used until now, say, classical style and semi-classical style, which are accepted and favored by the TCM community, causing difficulties in translating them into English. And hence four-character structure, vagueness and ambiguity of the language, and no equivalence between Chinese and English are the main features of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> Besides, due to the profound history of TCM developing in China, most of the unique TCM languages derived from the abstract philosophical concepts of ancient times remain being used until now, say, classical style and semi-classical style, which are accepted and favored by the TCM community, causing difficulties in translating them into English. And hence four-character structure, vagueness and ambiguity of the language, and no equivalence between Chinese and English are the main features of TCM instructions.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The four-character structure is concise but comprehensive in meaning, implying the extensive and abstract medical concepts of TCM. The tradition of using it to describe the symptoms and ways of treatment in TCM hasn’t been changed over time but continued to be applied and advocated in modern society. The TCM instructions are difficult to understand and translate, for the peculiar traits of TCM language, as well as the technical terms coming, directly or indirectly, from the abstract medical concepts of TCM, characterized by the unique treatment method as a whole in human body, and seeking to find answers and balance principles in nature to explain the causes and treatments of diseases, which is usually not the literal one but beyond cognition. In addition, there are gaps and non-equivalence between TCM and Western Medicine. Most TCM instruction translations apply technical terms from Latin in terms of ingredients, but adopt simple words and phrases for describing actions and indications, since the TCM language with Chinese characteristics finds no match in English. Ordinary people, as well as translators, who do not have the professional knowledge may have great difficulty in understanding and translating them. <br /> <br /> The four-character structure is concise but comprehensive in meaning, implying the extensive and abstract medical concepts of TCM. The tradition of using it to describe the symptoms and ways of treatment in TCM hasn’t been changed over time but continued to be applied and advocated in modern society. The TCM instructions are difficult to be understood and translated, for the peculiar traits of TCM language, as well as the technical terms coming, directly or indirectly, from the abstract medical concepts of TCM, characterized by the unique treatment method as a whole in human body, and seeking to find answers and balance principles in nature to explain the causes and treatments of diseases, which is usually not the literal one but beyond cognition. In addition, there are gaps and non-equivalence between TCM and Western Medicine. Most translations of TCM instruction apply technical terms from Latin in terms of ingredients, but adopt simple words and phrases for describing actions and indications, since the TCM language with Chinese characteristics finds no match in English. Ordinary people, as well as translators, who do not have the professional knowledge may have great difficulty in understanding and translating them. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies of TCM Instruction Translation====<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine wasn’t legal once in the United States until 1975, as many scholars and experts were skeptical about its medical theory and way of treatment. Since the establishment of China, the government has been devoting great efforts to the recognition and popularization of TCM across the world. And from then on, a lot of studies and researches based on the translation of TCM have been published at home and abroad. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from the experts. In view of the special wording and the abstract theory of TCM, the translation of TCM instructions is of great difficulty and complexity. <br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine wasn’t legal once in the United States until 1975, as many scholars and experts were skeptical about its medical theory and way of treatment. Since the establishment of China, the government has been devoting great efforts to the recognition and popularization of TCM across the world. From then on, a lot of studies and researches based on the translation of TCM have been published at home and abroad. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from the experts. In view of the special wording and the abstract theory of TCM, the translation of TCM instructions is of great difficulty and complexity. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Currently, the translation of TCM instructions on the market, to a large extent, lacks readability and translation standards. Against such a backdrop, some scholars have striven to make some breakthroughs yet. Nigel Wiseman (2000) systematically elaborates the concept of “oriented by the source” in his dissertation, Translation of Chinese Medicine Terms: A Source Oriented Approach, in terms of the translation of TCM language, believing that the translation of TCM, as well as the instructions, should respect the original style and keep it in the target text as much as possible. In 2002, Translation of TCM Directions (《中医药说明书的英译》) written by Ouyang Lifeng (2002) put forward some practical methods for the translation of TCM instructions. He advocates “naturalization” and “readjustment”, namely, adaptation strategy, should be applied in translation, and if necessary, some additions and deletions are acceptable on the basis of faithfulness to the original text. Guided by Professor Ouyang, his student, Xiaoqiong, applies Peter Newmark’s Communicative Approach in her master’s thesis, On the Translation of TCM Booklets of Direction-The Communicative Approach (2008) to study the features of TCM instructions, suggesting that different approaches should be adopted regarding to different parts of the instructions. On translation Strategies of Chinese Medicine Instruction from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches written by Luo Haiyan (2009) conducts a relatively profound research under the guidance of Functionalist Approach in terms of each part of TCM instructions. She finds out the translation of TCM instructions is not very identical and comprehensible. Cao Qing’s thesis, A Study on Translation of Chinese Pharmaceutical Instruction (2011) states the common problems of translation instructions and advises three translation methods, namely literal translation, conversion and free translation under the Skopos Theory. There are still other scholars aiming at one aspect or another to further study the translation of TCM instructions, all of which exert a significant impact for references in translating TCM instructions. From the perspectives of Zhang Mengjing (1995), Ning Zhishou and Liu Cuiwei (1997), and Fu Wei (2006), the current TCM instruction translation lacks faithfulness, readability and incompatibility with conventional norms, suggesting that more attention should be paid in this field. <br /> <br /> Currently, the translation of TCM instructions on the market, to a large extent, lacks readability and translation standards. Against such a backdrop, some scholars have striven to make some breakthroughs. Nigel Wiseman (2000) systematically elaborates the concept of “oriented by the source” in his dissertation, Translation of Chinese Medicine Terms: A Source Oriented Approach, in terms of the translation of TCM language, believing that the translation of TCM, as well as the instructions, should respect the original style and keep it in the target text as much as possible. In 2002, ''Translation of TCM Directions'' (《中医药说明书的英译》) written by Ouyang Lifeng (2002) put forward some practical methods for the translation of TCM instructions. He advocates “naturalization” and “readjustment”, namely, adaptation strategy, should be applied in translation, and if necessary, some additions and deletions are acceptable on the basis of faithfulness to the original text. Guided by Professor Ouyang, his student, Xiaoqiong, applies Peter Newmark’s Communicative Approach in her master’s thesis, ''On the Translation of TCM Booklets of Direction-The Communicative Approach'' (2008) to study the features of TCM instructions, suggesting that different approaches should be adopted regarding to different parts of the instructions. ''On translation Strategies of Chinese Medicine Instruction from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches'' written by Luo Haiyan (2009) conducts a relatively profound research under the guidance of Functionalist Approach in terms of each part of TCM instructions. She finds out the translation of TCM instructions is not very identical and comprehensible. Cao Qing’s thesis, A Study on Translation of Chinese Pharmaceutical Instruction (2011) states the common problems of translation instructions and advises three translation methods, namely literal translation, conversion and free translation under the Skopos Theory. There are still other scholars aiming at one aspect or another to further study the translation of TCM instructions, all of which exert a significant impact for references in translating TCM instructions. From the perspectives of Zhang Mengjing (1995), Ning Zhishou and Liu Cuiwei (1997), and Fu Wei (2006), the current TCM instruction translation lacks faithfulness, readability and incompatibility with conventional norms, suggesting that more attention should be paid in this field. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn from the above literature that studies on TCM instruction translation can be conducted from a wide scope. For the great distinction between western and Chinese culture, and the abstract medical principles of TCM, much has to be done to make the translation of TCM instructions more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn from the above literature that studies on translations of TCM instruction can be conducted from a wide scope. For the great distinctions between western and Chinese culture, and the abstract medical principles of TCM, much has to be done to make the translation of TCM instructions more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===3.Adaptation Theory Applied in Traditional Chinese Medicine Instruction Translation of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company===<br /> <br /> From what has been mentioned above, as the important attachment of TCM, the instructions provide the correct and detailed medical information to doctors and consumers, guiding them to take medicine scientifically and properly, and hence the medicine instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. As one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a famous brand in the whole country, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties, and the buyout also boosts the process of IPO and reform. Through observation of the C-E translation instructions of TCM for foreigners and export, hence there are some certain instructive significance for the translation of TCM instructions. Because of the special characteristics of TCM instructions and the limited information included in the instructions of the company, this part tries to analyze the C-E translation instructions from the perspective of Adaptation Theory, mainly employing the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> From what has been mentioned above, as the important attachment of TCM, the instructions provide the correct and detailed medical information to doctors and consumers, guiding them to take medicine scientifically and properly, and hence the medicine instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. As one of the China's Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a famous brand in the whole country, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties, and the buyout also boosts the process of IPO and reform. Through observation of the C-E translation instructions of TCM for foreigners and export, there are some certain instructive significance for the translation of TCM instructions. Because of the special characteristics of TCM instructions and the limited information included in the instructions of the company, this part tries to analyze the C-E translation instructions from the perspective of Adaptation Theory, mainly employing the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Contextual Correlates of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation====<br /> <br /> As introduced earlier, according to Verschueren, the ingredients of contextual correlates of adaptability largely include the physical world, social world, and mental world. However, the author will mainly concentrates on the adaptation to the mental world and social world due to the limited materials collected. <br /> <br /> As introduction earlier, according to Verschueren, the ingredients of contextual correlates of adaptability largely include the physical world, social world, and mental world. However, the author will mainly concentrates on the adaptation to the mental world and social world due to the limited materials collected. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Adaptation to the Mental World=====<br /> <br /> Regarding the mental world, it involves the personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations, intentions and so on of both sides of language users. In the translation process, translators should take target readers’ mind into account, not just concentrating on personal mental world or literally translating the original text from one language to another language without any adaptation. <br /> <br /> Regarding the mental world, it involves the personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations, intentions and so on of both sides of language users. In the process of translating, translators should take target readers’ mind into account, not just concentrating on personal mental world or literally translating the original text from one language to another language without any adaptation. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Basically, consumers of drugs tend to rely on more renowned brands when facing a bunch of medicines displayed on the shelves. The key to attract their attention not only counts on the high quality of TCM, but also on the instructions with rigorous standards, concise specification and overall comprehensibility, delivering a sense of authority and credibility. <br /> <br /> Basically, consumers of drugs tend to rely on more renowned brands when facing a bunch of medicines displayed on the shelves. The key to attracting their attention not only counts on the high quality of TCM, but also on the instructions with rigorous standards, concise specification and overall comprehensibility, delivering a sense of authority and credibility. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To begin with, the name of drugs is the most direct information delivered to the consumers. Thus, a good name of the TCM can catch the eyes of buyers in the very beginning. “正骨水” is the most famous and important product of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, however, the translation of its name in the instruction simply applies transliteration and Chinese Pinyin, namely, “Zheng Gu Shui” , which fails to adapt with the mental world of target readers. Apparently, Pinyin isn’t the way of expression that they are familiar with. Translators should consider their mental expectation and make adaptation with their familiar ways of expression. In that point, “Bone-setting Liquor” would be a better name for the medicine. “Bone-setting” means the medicine is effective for the symptoms of bone problems, and “liquor” implies the ingredients involved alcohol and other irritating ingredients so that consumers can be aware of the precautions and avoid using it on fragile mucous membranes and anabrotic wounds. Also, the same type of medicine can apply the same way of translation, such as, “金装正骨水” can be translated to “Golden Bone-setting Liquor”, and “极品正骨水” is rendered as “Superb Bone-setting Liquor”. Such a name conveys the correct medical information to consumers and better adapt to their thinking patterns. <br /> <br /> To begin with, the name of drugs is the most direct information delivered to the consumers. Thus, a good name of the TCM can catch the eyes of buyers in the very beginning. “正骨水” is the most famous and important product of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, however, the translation of its name in the instruction simply applies transliteration and Chinese Pinyin, namely, “Zheng Gu Shui” , which fails to adapt with the mental world of target readers. Apparently, Pinyin isn’t the way of expression that they are familiar with. Translators should consider their mental expectation and make adaptation with their familiar ways of expression. At that point, “Bone-setting Liquor” would be a better name for the medicine. “Bone-setting” means the medicine is effective for the symptoms of bone problems, and “liquor” implies the ingredients involved alcohol and other irritating ingredients so that consumers can be aware of the precautions and avoid using it on fragile mucous membranes and anabrotic wounds. Also, the same type of medicine can apply the same way of translation, such as, “金装正骨水” can be translated to “Golden Bone-setting Liquor”, and “极品正骨水” is rendered as “Superb Bone-setting Liquor”. Such a name conveys the correct medical information to consumers and better adapt to their thinking patterns.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> <br /> Another example is “睡安胶囊”, the translation version is “Shui’an Jiaonang” . Obviously, it will confuse foreigners since they don’t recognize Chinese Pinyin in their cognitive levels. Translators should at least use “capsule” to indicate the medicine is some type of capsules effective for the sleeping problems. A well-recognized name will arouse attention and interest among consumers, attracting them to purchase the medicine. In order to adapt with their mental expectation and intention, as Ouyang (2002) advocates, naturalization or domesticating translation can be applied in translation. “Sleep Mate” or “Insomnia Killer” can better attract their attention and adapt with their beliefs and cognitive levels. In English, “mate” is a common word, which will be more acceptable and natural in such combination, and “killer” combined with “insomnia” implies the meaning of solving the insomnia problems, which is also more suitable and adaptable with their emotions and motivations. <br /> <br /> Another example is “睡安胶囊”,and the translation version is “Shui’an Jiaonang” . Obviously, it will confuse foreigners since they don’t recognize Chinese Pinyin in their cognitive levels. Translators should at least use “capsule” to indicate that the medicine is some type of capsules effective for the sleeping problems. A well-recognized name will arouse attention and interest among consumers, attracting them to purchase the medicine. In order to adapt with their mental expectation and intention, as Ouyang (2002) advocates, naturalization or domesticating translation can be applied in translation. “Sleep Mate” or “Insomnia Killer” can better attract their attention and adapt with their beliefs and cognitive levels. In English, “mate” is a common word, which will be more acceptable and natural in such combination, and “killer” combined with “insomnia” implies the meaning of solving the insomnia problems, which is also more suitable and adaptable with their emotions and motivations. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A good name of the medicine can not only imply the function of the medicine, conveying the essential information to customers, but also can draw their attention and arouse their desires to purchase the medicine. Meeting the demand and preference with the mental world of target people is also one of the requirements of medicine instructions. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, if transliteration or simply adopting Chinese Pinyin to translate the names of medicines will confuse customers and cause misunderstanding, adaptation is required, and not just words, but also translation strategies should be taken consideration when making adaptation. <br /> <br /> A good name of the medicine can not only imply the function of the medicine, conveying the essential information to customers, but also can draw their attention and arouse their desires to purchase the medicine. Meeting the demand and preference with the mental world of target people is also one of the requirements of medicine instructions. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, if transliteration or simple adoption of Chinese Pinyin to translate the names of medicines will confuse customers and cause misunderstanding, adaptation is required, and not just words, but also translation strategies should be taken into consideration when making adaptation. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Adaptation to the Social World=====<br /> <br /> Verschueren (2000:91) states that there is no principled limit to the range of social factors that linguistic choices are inter-adaptable with. Basically, social settings and culture play a significant role in the process of translation. What distinguishes TCM from Western Medicine mainly lies on the cultural differences. Language is the carrier of culture, and the cultural differences can be embodied in different languages, and then shown and reflected in society. Instruction translation, as the cross-cultural communication activity, is influenced largely by cultural differences in different social worlds. Followings are the very typical translation examples to illustrate the point:<br /> <br /> Verschueren (2000:91) states that there is no principled limit to the range of social factors that linguistic choices are inter-adaptable with. Basically, social settings and culture play a significant role in the process of translation. What distinguishes TCM from Western Medicine mainly lies on the cultural differences. Language is the carrier of culture, and the cultural differences can be embodied in different languages, and then shown and reflected in society. Instruction translation, as the cross-cultural communication activity, is influenced largely by cultural differences in different social worlds. The following are the very typical translation examples to illustrate the point:--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Example 1(感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> Source Text (ST): 用于感冒或流感发热，头痛鼻塞, 伤风咳嗽，咽痛，肢痛<br /> <br /> Target Text (TT): Used for the treatment of cold, flu and fever, headache and nasal congestion, wind damage cough, angina and melalgia<br /> <br /> Revised Text (RT): Used for cold, flu, fever, headache, snuffle, cough, sore throat and pain in muscles<br /> <br /> Traditionally, “伤风” in Chinese means getting cold because of the invasion of “风” into the human body. “风” is actually one of the six exogenous pathogenic factors according to the medical theory of TCM, which cannot be explained from the perspective of Western Medicine. In western society, people have no concept that the natural phenomenon, say, “风” or “火”, will cause diseases in the human body. So the revised text deletes this term with TCM characteristics to avoid ambiguity and makes it more natural and understandable in English. In addition, most common patients who seek to buy medicines in pharmacies might not have the specific knowledge of medical field due to different social settings and backgrounds, thus, “angina” and “melalgia” might be beyond recognition and acceptance. Western world highlights the importance of brevity and conciseness in their society, and they place emphasis on simplification and efficiency, seldom using the very technical terms in their lives. Such social settings and cultural differences must be considered so as to make adaptation when translating. Besides, “nasal congestion” is the word-for-word translation and may cause misunderstanding among foreigners. So the revised text adopts “snuffle” and “sore throat” to indicate the meaning of “鼻塞” and “咽痛”, applying these simple words to make adaptation with cultural differences in different social worlds, and renders “melalgia” into “pain in muscles” to better deliver the meaning of “肢痛”. <br /> <br /> Traditionally, “伤风” in Chinese means getting cold because of the invasion of “风” into the human body. “风” is actually one of the six exogenous pathogenic factors according to the medical theory of TCM, which cannot be explained from the perspective of Western Medicine. In western society, people have no concept that the natural phenomenon, say, “风” or “火”, will cause diseases in the human body. So the revised text deletes this term with TCM characteristics to avoid ambiguity and makes it more natural and understandable in English. In addition, most common patients who seek to buy medicines in pharmacies might not have the specific knowledge of medical field due to different social settings and backgrounds, thus, “angina” and “melalgia” might be beyond recognition and acceptance. Western world highlights the importance of brevity and conciseness in their society, and they place emphasis on simplification and efficiency, seldom using the very technical terms in their lives. Such social settings and cultural differences must be considered so as to make adaptation when translating. Besides, “nasal congestion” is the word-for-word translation and may cause misunderstanding among foreigners. So the revised text adopts “snuffle” and “sore throat” to indicate the meaning of “鼻塞” and “咽痛”, applying these simple words to make adaptation with cultural differences in different social worlds, and renders “melalgia” into “pain in muscles” to better deliver the meaning of “肢痛”. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Example 2 (治咳枇杷露)<br /> <br /> ST: 治疗儿童伤风呃逆，咳嗽痰盛<br /> <br /> TT: Used for children’s wind-damage hiccup, cough and exuberant phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Used for cold, hiccup, cough and sputum in children<br /> <br /> Similarly, example 2 also translates “ 伤风” into “ wind damage”, which is not appropriate in such description. As mentioned above, additions and deletions, if necessary, can be applied to make adaptation in translation. So the revised text deletes “wind damage” and “exuberant phlegm”, adopting noun coordination and making it more readable and adaptable to the social world of target readers. <br /> <br /> Similarly, example 2 also translates “ 伤风” into “ wind damage”, which is inappropriate in such description. As mentioned above, additions and deletions, if necessary, can be applied to make adaptation in translation. So the revised text deletes “wind damage” and “exuberant phlegm”, adopting noun coordination and making it more readable and adaptable to the social world of target readers.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> <br /> Literal translation of instructions is not always the first option in the C-E translation of instructions. For translators, the first thing they should consider is to be faithful to the original meaning of the text, not the text itself. They need to make adaptation to the target readers’ social world, for instance, social status, social settings, social background, cultural differences, etc., striving to make the translation concise and easy to understand in their society. Amid such different social worlds, translators must bear in mind to render localization of different cultures to make adaptation without causing ambiguity and misunderstanding while successfully keeping and delivering the implied meanings as much as possible.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:26, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation of instructions is not always the first option in the C-E translation of instructions. For translators, the first thing they should consider is to be faithful to the original meaning of the text, not the text itself. They need to make adaptation to the target readers’ social world, for instance, social status, social settings, social background, cultural differences, etc., striving to make the translation concise and easy to be understood in their society. Amid such different social worlds, translators must bear in mind to render localization of different cultures to make adaptation without causing ambiguity and misunderstanding while successfully keeping and delivering the implied meanings as much as possible.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Structural Objects of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translationn====<br /> <br /> According to Verschueren, linguistic choice-making takes place at all levels of structure that shows variability of any kind (2000:15). As indicated in Part two, for the reason of limited information covered in the TCM instructions, the materials collected from the company would be more meaningful if concentrating on the lexical level of the actions and indications of the instructions, which exactly features the typical four-character structure and language traits of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> According to Verschueren, linguistic choice-making takes place at all levels of structure that shows variability of any kind (2000:15). As indicated in Part two, for the reason of limited information covered in the TCM instructions, the materials collected from the company would be more meaningful if concentrating on the lexical level of the actions and indications of the instructions, which exactly features the typical four-character structure and language traits of TCM instructions. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Adaptation to the Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> Differences in lexical level between TCM and Western Medicine largely reflect on terminologies and descriptions of diseases. The four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning. Currently, most translation versions of instructions are literally word-for-word translation and transliteration, failing to deliver the correct meanings implied in those TCM terminologies and words and lacking readability and authenticity. Here are some typical translation examples of the actions and indications of the medicines in Yulin Pharmaceutical Company:<br /> <br /> Differences in lexical level between TCM and Western Medicine largely reflect on terminologies and descriptions of diseases. The four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning. Currently, most translation versions of instructions are literally word-for-word translation and transliteration, failing to deliver the correct meanings implied in those TCM terminologies and words and lacking readability and authenticity. Here are some typical translation examples of the actions and indications of the medicines in Yulin Pharmaceutical Company:--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Example 3(蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 小便频数<br /> <br /> TT: Frequent urination<br /> <br /> Example 4 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 祛风除湿 <br /> <br /> TT: Dispel wind and eliminated dampness<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve rheumatic pain<br /> <br /> Example 5 (珍黄丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 消肿止痛<br /> <br /> TT: Ease a swelling and relieve pain<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve swelling pain<br /> <br /> Chinese four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning, and most of them are the causal relationship. &quot;祛风除湿&quot; is a typical example. “风湿” is a disease caused by the invasion of “风” into the human body, if &quot;风邪&quot; cannot be removed from the body soon, &quot;湿&quot; will appear and gather together near the joints, causing diseases and pains in joints according to the medical theory of TCM. So, &quot;祛风&quot; is actually the result of &quot;除湿&quot;, and vice versa. And the example of “消肿止痛”, it is usually can be explained that pain is caused by swelling as the result of illness or injury. Once the swelling disappears, so does the pain. According to the example 3, &quot;小便频数&quot; is translated into “Frequent urination”, using the structure of &quot;adjective+noun&quot; in English, which is concise in form and easy to understand. So the revised text of example 4 and 5 can also adopt such structure and translate into &quot;Relieve rheumatic pain&quot; and &quot;Relieve swelling pain&quot;, not only implying the causal relationship between the lines, concise and simple, but also avoiding translating repetitive meaning. <br /> <br /> Chinese four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning, and most of them are the causal relationship. &quot;祛风除湿&quot; is a typical example. “风湿” is a disease caused by the invasion of “风” into the human body, if &quot;风邪&quot; cannot be removed from the body soon, &quot;湿&quot; will appear and gather together near the joints, causing diseases and pains in joints according to the medical theory of TCM. So, &quot;祛风&quot; is actually the result of &quot;除湿&quot;, and vice versa. And the example of “消肿止痛”, it is usually can be explained that pain is caused by swelling as the result of illness or injury. Once the swelling disappears, so does the pain. According to the example 3, &quot;小便频数&quot; is translated into “Frequent urination”, using the structure of &quot;adjective+noun&quot; in English, which is concise in form and easy to understand. So the revised text of example 4 and 5 can also adopt such structure and translate them into &quot;Relieve rheumatic pain&quot; and &quot;Relieve swelling pain&quot;, not only implying the causal relationship between the lines, concise and simple, but also avoiding translating repetitive meaning. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Example 6 (感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> ST: 止咳化痰<br /> <br /> TT: Suppress cough and transform phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve cough and sputum<br /> <br /> Example 7 (乌军治胆片)<br /> <br /> ST: 疏肝解郁 <br /> <br /> TT: To course the liver and resolve depression<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve Qi stagnation in liver<br /> <br /> From the above two examples, &quot;止咳化痰&quot; is translated into &quot;Suppress cough and transform phlegm&quot;, and &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is “To course the liver and resolve depression”. It is noticed that simply employing the literal meaning of words to translate TCM instructions doesn’t work, especially in such medical context. Translators cannot ignore the relationship between the words and the context then make translation of words in isolation. &quot;化痰' means the symptom of sputum would be relieved and cured soon after taking the medicine, and hence here, the key words are &quot;咳&quot; and &quot;痰&quot;, not the verbs. So the translation of &quot;Relieve cough and sputum&quot; would be more comprehensible and readable. And the example of &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is actually another one that can be evidenced the casual relationship in TCM language. &quot;疏&quot; and &quot;解&quot; deliver the same meaning in such context, and &quot;肝郁&quot; is not the meaning of &quot;depression of liver&quot; but the irregular circulation and stagnation of the abstract &quot;Qi&quot; in liver from the perspective of TCM. So translating into &quot;Relieve Qi stagnation in liver&quot; retains the original meaning of Chinese and makes it more acceptable. <br /> <br /> From the above two examples, &quot;止咳化痰&quot; is translated into &quot;Suppress cough and transform phlegm&quot;, and &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is “To course the liver and resolve depression”. It is noticed that simply employing the literal meaning of words to translate TCM instructions doesn’t work, especially in such medical context. Translators cannot ignore the relationship between the words and the context and then make translation of words in isolation. &quot;化痰' means the symptom of sputum would be relieved and cured soon after taking the medicine, and hence here, the key words are &quot;咳&quot; and &quot;痰&quot;, not the verbs. So the translation of &quot;Relieve cough and sputum&quot; would be more comprehensible and readable. And the example of &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is actually another one that can be evidenced the casual relationship in TCM language. &quot;疏&quot; and &quot;解&quot; deliver the same meaning in such context, and &quot;肝郁&quot; is not the meaning of &quot;depression of liver&quot; but the irregular circulation and stagnation of the abstract &quot;Qi&quot; in liver from the perspective of TCM. So translating it into &quot;Relieve Qi stagnation in liver&quot; retains the original meaning of Chinese and makes it more acceptable. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Summary=====<br /> <br /> Despite of the characteristics of four-character structure in TCM language, the phenomenon of repetitive meaning implied between the lines is quite common. For translators, they should fully understand what meanings indicated between those words and phrases prior to translating them into another language. According to Adaptation Theory, language has the properties of variability, negotiability and adaptability. Facing abundant choices of words in English, translators should choose the most appropriate words and expressions after negotiation to make adaptation to the lexical level, the structure, the context, etc. preferred in English.<br /> <br /> Despite of the characteristics of four-character structure in TCM language, the phenomenon of repetitive meaning implied between the lines is quite common. For translators, they should fully understand what meanings indicated between those words and phrases prior to translating them into another language. According to Adaptation Theory, language has the properties of variability, negotiability and adaptability. Facing abundant choices of words in English, translators should choose the most appropriate words and expressions after negotiation to make adaptation to the lexical level, the structure, the context, etc. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:55, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, translators should make linguistic choices not just at the lexical level, but also the syntactic level, textual level, rhetorical level etc. literally all levels of linguistic structures. Due to the limited information contained in TCM instructions of the company, this part mainly develops from the adaptation of lexical level, finding out that most translations apply literal translation with abusive usage of words, failing to deliver the correct meaning implied in TCM language and lacking readability and authenticity.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, translators should make linguistic choices not just at the lexical level, but also the syntactic level, textual level, rhetorical level, etc. literally all levels of linguistic structures. Due to the limited information contained in TCM instructions of the company, this part mainly develops from the adaptation of lexical level, finding out that most translations apply literal translation with abusive usage of words, failing to deliver the correct meaning implied in TCM language and lacking readability and authenticity.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> With the great progresses of TCM over years, Yin(阴) and Yang(阳), Wuxing(五行) and Qi(气), these basic concepts in TCM have been accepted and recognized among foreigners. It can be adopted directly when translating the TCM instructions. With regard to the verbs in TCM language, literal translation sometimes might arouse skepticism and confusion of target readers and fail to deliver the correct meaning and the effectiveness of medicines. Translators should adapt the wording preference in target language and try to naturalize the translation but avoid abusive usage of words. Thus translators in this field should be equipped with excellent bilingual ability, sufficient background knowledge of TCM and Western Medicine, and the understanding of linguistics.<br /> <br /> With the great progresses of TCM over years, Yin(阴) and Yang(阳), Wuxing(五行) and Qi(气), these basic concepts in TCM have been accepted and recognized among foreigners. It can be adopted directly when translating the TCM instructions. With regard to the verbs in TCM language, literal translation sometimes might arise skepticism and confusion of target readers and fail to deliver the correct meaning and the effectiveness of medicines. Translators should adapt the wording preference in target language and try to naturalize the translation but avoid abusive usage of words. Thus translators in this field should be equipped with excellent bilingual ability, sufficient background knowledge of TCM and Western Medicine, and the understanding of linguistics.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Dynamics of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation====<br /> <br /> As stated above, translation is a process of dynamic adaptation and involves the process of structural reconstruction and meaning regeneration. According to Verschueren (2000:157) “...strategies are always involved in any type of communication.” It means not just linguistic choices, but also translation strategies are dynamic because of different time, context and structure of both sides of language usage and each of them varies in line with relative factors when language users make choices. <br /> <br /> As stated above, translation is a process of dynamic adaptation and involves the process of structural reconstruction and meaning regeneration. According to Verschueren (2000:157) “...strategies are always involved in any type of communication.” It means not just linguistic choices, but also translation strategies are dynamic because of different time, context and structures of both sides of language usage and each of them varies in line with relative factors when language users make choices. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> The dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation can be embodied from different words, phrases and translation strategies, even different languages applied in the medicine instructions. As for the part of ingredients, the instructions of the company employ Latin to indicate each TCM, for instance: Radix Notoginseng (三七), Herba Artemisiae Scopariae (茵陈), Fructus Lycii (枸杞), Poria (茯苓), Radix Codonopsis (党参), Rhizoma Dioscoreae (山药). It is usually the part where doctors and experts who have the specific knowledge of this field would be interested in, and using Latin to translate the TCM is the international standard of naming medicines, hence it is a way of adaptation. While next to the part of actions and indications, it resorts to different words and phrases in English to describe the indications of each medicine. English is apparently a better option for its universality and compatibility that common people can easily understand what the medicine is, and how to take it. Such adaptation to each part of the instruction in language shows the dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation. Following are some examples to show the dynamics of adaptability in translation: <br /> <br /> The dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation can be embodied from different words, phrases and translation strategies, even different languages applied in the medicine instructions. As for the part of ingredients, the instructions of the company employ Latin to indicate each TCM, for instance: Radix Notoginseng (三七), Herba Artemisiae Scopariae (茵陈), Fructus Lycii (枸杞), Poria (茯苓), Radix Codonopsis (党参), Rhizoma Dioscoreae (山药). It is usually the part where doctors and experts who have the specific knowledge of this field would be interested in, and using Latin to translate the TCM is the international standard of naming medicines, hence it is a way of adaptation. While next to the part of actions and indications, it resorts to different words and phrases in English to describe the indications of each medicine. English is apparently a better option for its universality and compatibility that common people can easily understand what the medicine is, and how to take it. Such adaptation to each part of the instruction in language shows the dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation. The Following are some examples to show the dynamics of adaptability in translation:--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 8 (正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To remove obstruction from collateralls and channels and relieve muscular contracture<br /> <br /> Example 9 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To relax and activate tendons<br /> <br /> As for the translation of “舒筋活络”, example 8 and example 9 employ different words to deliver the meaning. The former is detailed and elaborated, delivering the original meaning implied in the lines while the latter is relatively simple, only using “tendons” to express the meaning of “筋络”. Besides the different specifications of “正骨水” and “金装正骨水”, the ingredients of these two medicines also show a wide difference, contributing to the different words and methods adopted in the same description of indications. From the above examples, it can be noticed, to some extent, that translators go through negotiation and then make dynamic adaptation with regard to different medicines. <br /> <br /> As for the translation of “舒筋活络”, example 8 and example 9 employ different words to deliver the meaning. The former is detailed and elaborated, delivering the original meaning implied in the lines while the latter is relatively simple, only using “tendons” to express the meaning of “筋络”. Besides the different specifications of “正骨水” and “金装正骨水”, the ingredients of these two medicines also show a wide difference, contributing to the different words and methods adopted in the same description of indications. From the above examples, it can be noticed, to some extent, that translators go through negotiation and then make dynamic adaptation with regard to different medicines. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Example 10 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 旺盛局部血液循环, 增强细胞活力<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen partial blood circulation and improve vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 11 (筋骨王)<br /> <br /> ST: 改善局部血液循环，增强细胞活力。<br /> <br /> TT: To accelerate local blood circulation, increase vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 10 and example 11 are actually delivering the same meaning, but they change the words and phrases to adapt with two different medicines. With the variability and adaptability of language, the meaning of “增强” can be expressed by “improve” and “increase”, and translators employs “partial” and “local” to express the meaning of “局部”. As for the similar actions and indications, the translations of which vary in different medicines, demonstrating that translation is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. <br /> <br /> Example 10 and example 11 are actually delivering the same meaning, but they change the words and phrases to adapt with two different medicines. With the variability and adaptability of language, the meaning of “增强” can be expressed by “improve” and “increase”, and translators employ “partial” and “local” to express the meaning of “局部”. As for the similar actions and indications, the translations of which vary in different medicines, demonstrating that translation is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Example 12 (睡安胶囊)<br /> <br /> ST: 清心除烦<br /> <br /> TT: To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation<br /> <br /> Example 13 (蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 壮阳益肾<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney<br /> <br /> Example 12 and example 13 apply free translation to deliver the meaning of actions and indications of these two medicines. “清心除烦” is rendered into “To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation”, and “To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney” is more like the paraphrase of “壮阳益肾”. Both the translations are much easier to understand and adapt to consumers’ mind in a better way. Unlike the others, the above translations avoid literal translation, which will be too demanding and abstract for both sides of translators and target people, and they resort to free translation to convey the correct pharmacological actions, simplifying the instructions and making adaptation with the translation strategies to better resolve the cultural differences. <br /> <br /> Example 12 and example 13 apply free translation to deliver the meaning of actions and indications of these two medicines. “清心除烦” is rendered into “To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation”, and “To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney” is more like the paraphrase of “壮阳益肾”. Both the translations are much easier to be understood and adapt to consumers’ mind in a better way. Unlike the others, the above translations avoid literal translation, which will be too demanding and abstract for both sides of translators and target people, and they resort to free translation to convey the correct pharmacological actions, simplifying the instructions and making adaptation with the translation strategies to better resolve the cultural differences. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Translating a TCM instruction can never be a mechanical activity of making translation from one language to another; rather, it entails dynamic adaptation to the differences between source language and target language. According to the Adaptation Theory, language use is a dynamic process of linguistic choice-making, which should adapt to contextual correlates and structural objects of language. As a type of more complex language use related to different languages, C-E translation of TCM instructions is a dynamic process of adaptation to different contexts and linguistic structures. However, the dynamic linguistic choices require language users to go through negotiation with themselves when facing abundant choices to eventually choose the most appropriate forms and strategies in accordance with different contexts and linguistic structures so as to fulfill the communicative intention. In other words, translators should avoid abusive usage of variability and adaptability of language, being faithful to the original meaning of texts to meet the standard of translation as much as possible.<br /> <br /> Translating a TCM instruction can never be a mechanical activity of making translation from one language to another; rather, it entails dynamic adaptation to the differences between source language and target language. According to the Adaptation Theory, language use is a dynamic process of linguistic choice-making, which should adapt to contextual correlates and structural objects of language. As a type of more complex language use related to different languages, C-E translation of TCM instructions is a dynamic process of adaptation to different contexts and linguistic structures. However, the dynamic linguistic choices require language users to go through negotiation with themselves when facing abundant choices to eventually choose the most appropriate forms and strategies in accordance with different contexts and linguistic structures so as to fulfill the communicative intention. In other words, translators should avoid abusive usage of variability and adaptability of language, and be faithful to the original meaning of texts to meet the standard of translation as much as possible.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Being a significant carrier of TCM information, the instruction is a bridge that links the excellent TCM theories and effectiveness to the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative”, TCM will be learned and used across the world at a much larger scale. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, this paper employs the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, mainly concentrating on the adaptation to the mental world, social world, and the adaptation to the lexical level to study the C-E translation of the TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. <br /> <br /> Being a significant carrier of TCM information, the instruction is a bridge that links the excellent TCM theories and effectiveness to the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative”, TCM will be learned and used across the world at a much larger scale. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, this paper employs the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, mainly concentrating on the adaptation to the mental world, social world, and the adaptation to the lexical level to study the C-E translation of the TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn that the C-E translation of TCM instructions of the Company is not that satisfactory after research. It doesn’t deal with the cultural differences between TCM and Western Medicine properly. Literal translation and abusive usage of words frequently appear in the C-E translation of instructions, failing to deliver the correct meaning and lacking readability and credibility, having a bad impact on the brand image. While at same time, there are some places worthy to be praised from the perspective of Adaptation Theory. It shows the dynamics of adaptability in the C-E translation of TCM instructions, which can be demonstrated through the various words, phrases, strategies applied in the process of translation. Still, much work has to be done to improve the quality of translation and make it more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn that the C-E translation of TCM instructions of the Company is not so satisfactory after research. It doesn’t deal with the cultural differences between TCM and Western Medicine properly. Literal translation and abusive usage of words frequently appear in the C-E translation of instructions, failing to deliver the correct meaning and lacking readability and credibility, having a bad impact on the brand image. While at same time, there are some places worthy to be praised from the perspective of Adaptation Theory. It shows the dynamics of adaptability in the C-E translation of TCM instructions, which can be demonstrated through various words, phrases, strategies applied in the process of translation. Still, much work has to be done to improve the quality of translation and make it more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, as a way of language use, translation involves the continuous making of linguistic choices. Not only words, language forms and structures, but also strategies should be taken into consideration when translating. Translators should adapt with the differences between English and Chinese, and meanwhile, pay attention to the features of TCM instructions, avoiding some obvious mistakes to achieve the ultimate goal of keeping the original meaning of TCM while delivering the accurate and rigorous medical information to foreigners. So the author advocates that adaptation is required during the process of translation, combined with transliteration and literal translation for some simple and basic concepts in TCM that have been well-recognized by foreigners, free translation and domesticating translation should be adopted with regard to the cultural differences in translation, if necessary, additions and deletions are also appreciated on the basis of being faithful to the original meaning of texts. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, as a way of language use, translation involves the continuous making of linguistic choices. Not only words, language forms and structures, but also strategies should be taken into consideration when translating. Translators should adapt with the differences between English and Chinese, and meanwhile, pay attention to the features of TCM instructions, avoiding some obvious mistakes to achieve the ultimate goal of keeping the original meaning of TCM while delivering the accurate and rigorous medical information to foreigners. So the author advocates that adaptation is required during the process of translation, combined with transliteration and literal translation for some simple and basic concepts in TCM that have been well-recognized by foreigners, free translation and domesticating translation should be adopted with regard to the cultural differences in translation, and if necessary, additions and deletions are also appreciated on the basis of being faithful to the original meaning of texts. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Unfortunately, due to the limited materials collected and the incompetence of the author, the analysis of this paper only applies the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability of Adaptation Theory, failing to study in a more comprehensive way. In addition, this paper only conducts the research in studying the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, failing to reach at a larger scale. Last but not least, there are still some drawbacks and imperfections in Adaptation Theory, which the author fails to touch upon for lacking of knowledge and experience. Still, the author is willing to take all comment and advice.<br /> <br /> Unfortunately, due to the limited materials collected and the incompetence of the author, this paper only applies the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability of Adaptation Theory, failing to study in a more comprehensive way. In addition, this paper only conducts the research in studying the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, failing to reach at a larger scale. Last but not least, there are still some drawbacks and imperfections in Adaptation Theory, which the author fails to touch upon for lacking of knowledge and experience. Still, the author is willing to take all comment and advice.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> As Homby. (2014). ''Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary''. ''The Commercial Press, Oxford University, extended eighth edition''. <br /> <br /> Bhatia, V. K. (1993). Analyzing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings. ''Longman''. <br /> <br /> Carl James. (2003). Error in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> Fischbach, Henry. (1998). Translation and Medicine. American Translators Association Scholarly ''Monograph Series''. <br /> <br /> Nigel Wiseman. (2000). Translation of Chinese medicine terms: A source oriented approach. University of Exeter. <br /> <br /> Verschueren J. (1987). Pragmatic as a Theory of Linguistic Adaptation. ''International Pragmatic Association''. <br /> <br /> Verschueren J. (2000). ''Understanding Pragmatics''. ''Edward Arnold Ltd.'', Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. <br /> <br /> Cao Qing 曹情. (2011). 中文药品说明书的翻译[Translation of Chinese Drug Instructions]. 南华大学. <br /> <br /> Fu Wei 傅微. (2006). 语篇视点理论在中药说明书翻译中的运用[Application of Discourse Perspective Theory in Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions]. 广西大学外国语学院. <br /> <br /> Luo Haiyan 罗海燕. (2009). 功能主义翻译理论关照下的中药说明书的翻译[Translation of Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Functionalist Translation Theory]. 南京中医药大学. <br /> <br /> Li Zhaoguo 李照国. ( 2008). 中医基本名词术语英译国际标准化研究[Research on International Standardization of English Translation of Basic Terminology of Traditional Chinese Medicine]. 上海科学技术出版社. <br /> <br /> Ma Bangxin 马邦新. (1998). 英文药品说明书的翻译[Translation of English Medicine Instructions]. ''中国科技翻译'' (1998), (3)16-18. <br /> <br /> Ni Zhishou, Liu Cuiwei 宁之寿, 刘翠微. (1997). 也谈药品说明书的翻译[On the Translation of Medicine Instructions]. ''上海科技翻译'' (1997), (2)31-33. <br /> <br /> Ouyang Lifeng 欧阳利锋. (2002). 中医药说明书的英译[English Translation of TCM instructions]. ''中国科技翻译'' (2002), 15(2)17-20. <br /> <br /> Xiao Qiong 肖琼. (2008). 中医药说明书的翻译[Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions]. 广东外语外贸大学.<br /> <br /> Yuan Binye 袁斌业. (2009). 语言顺应论对翻译的启示[Enlightenment of Linguistic Adaptation Theory on Translation]. ''四川外国语学院院报'' (2009), (9)111-113. <br /> <br /> Zhang Mengjing 张梦井. (1995). 药品说明书的英译问题[Problems of English Translation on Medicine Instructions]. ''中国科技翻译'' (1995), (2)6-9. <br /> <br /> Zhou Shumei 周书梅. (2013). 顺应论视角下的翻译研究[Translation Studies from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory]. ''山东省农业管理干部学院学报'' (2013), 30(5)138-140. <br /> <br /> --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;莫玲 Mo Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Science and technology constitutes a primary productive force. In the contemporary era, with the continuous development of science and technology, artificial intelligence has shown more and more mighty strength, and machine translation has also been derived in the field of translation. In this regard, many people are beginning to worry that machine translation will one day replace human translation. When it comes to me, science and technology is people-oriented, and the continuous development of it aims at servimg mankind in a better standard. Therefore, it is not realistic to separate science and technology from humanities. The appropriate way to solve this dilemma is to integrate the two to achieve the perfectly qualitative change of &quot;1 + 1 &gt; 2&quot;. This paper will first analyze the cons and pros of human translation and machine translation, and then explore the development of computer-aided translation based on the combination of the two types above and the progress should be made in different sectors among our society.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Human Translation, Machine Translation, CAT, Compatibility<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 机器翻译会取代人工翻译吗？<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 科技是第一生产力。在当代，随着科学技术的不断发展，人工智能展现出越来越强大的实力，在翻译领域也相应地衍生出了机器翻译。对此许多人都开始担心机器翻译终有一天会取代人工翻译。在笔者看来，科技以人为本，科学技术的不断发展是为了更好的为人类服务。因而将科技与人文割裂开来的观点是并不现实的，最好的解决办法应是将二者结合起来，实现1+1＞2的完美质变。本文将分析人工翻译与机器翻译各自的优势和劣势，进而探讨二者相结合的后的计算机辅助翻译的发展和社会各个层面应该做出的改进。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 人工翻译，机器翻译，计算机辅助翻译，融合<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> In these years, artificial intelligence has experienced a skipping development and more and more advanced technologies have been applied in our daily life. For example, many factories have introduced some robots to replace the repetitive works done by ordinary workers before. In addition, some restaurants have adopted robots to send the dishes to guests, etc. More and more cases in our life demonstrate the gigantic strength of science and technology.(He Liutao 2018,17)<br /> <br /> Panicked by this reality, a constantly growing number of people are worrying that they will lose their job one day when the artificial intelligence are more practical than them. This anxiety is also quite common in translation industry. In this field , human translation and machine translation are the two main kinds of translation methods. The former merely relies on the single person to do tranlation, while the latter is based on the vast corpus and developed technique.(Liang Jie 2020,18)<br /> <br /> Since this enormous contrast, some people put forward a question that “Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation?” The answer is absolutely “no”. Actually, these two approaches are not incompatible. Instead, they both have their own advantages and disadvantages and through analysis,we can find that they can remedy their shortbacks by learning the valuable aspects from the other so as to form a “perfect pitch”. In other words,they are complementary to each other.(Pang yingyu 2019,164)<br /> <br /> Based on these viewpoints, first of all , the pros and cons of human translation and machine translation will be displayed one by one and then the new type of translation---computer-aided translation will be analyzed in detail. At last,confronted with the constantly changing world there are somes personal suggestions for those who work in the translation industry or those who are preparing to march into this field as well as government, colleges and universities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Pros and Cons of Human Translation and Machine Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Human Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 The Advantages =====<br /> <br /> As the traditional main force of translation, mankind own some irreplaceable edges.Firstly, they master a sordid foundation about the translation work, including extensive vocabularies, complex grammars, the construction of sentences and so on and so forth. Therefore, it’s hardly for them to make such mistakes.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)<br /> <br /> Secondly, due to the advanced education they have received, a great number of them has an encyclopedic knowledge about many fields. Furthmore, during the years of learning foreign languages, they have acquired not only the language knowledge but also the histories and cultures of these countries so that they are able to handle with the problems of cultural differences in translation very well.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, people have an capacity of rich emotion and thoughtful mind. When facing with some obscure translation materials, at the beginning they will make a transformation about it and then translate it with their understanding yet maintaining the main idea of the original texts.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Disadvantages=====<br /> <br /> However, the volume of brain is limited and it is impossible for mankind to memorize all the things in the world. Sometimes, they may forget what they have translated and in result cause a repetition of the same work they have done before.It is showed from some data that the output of human translation is 2000 words per person in eight hours. Actually that speed is a little bit slow especially when there are strenuous tasks waiting for them. Besides, editors have to check and revise their translations which is quite time-wasting.(Chen Yi 2018,30)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most translators work for governments, institutions, companies or some rich indivuduals. And right now in the translation market ,the standard price are several hundred Yuan per thousand characters. And the wage of intepreting is even more expensive. As a result, ordinary people won’t bother to hire a private translator. Under some circumstances, human translation can’t give a hand to the needed immediately. For instance, when Chinese people are travelling in the foreign countries, they can’t understand the words of those foreigners. At that time, an opportune and cheap translation tool is more desirable.(Pang yingyu 2019,164)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Machine Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Superiorities=====<br /> <br /> In the condition mentioned above, machine translation can meet tourists' needs perfectly. There are many translation applications in the app store, just like Baidu Translation, Google Translation, Youdao Translation, Hujiang Translation and so on. All of them are free for using and able to translate the language you input in just 1 second. And these applications have covered dozens of foreign languages so as to be the optimizing choice for many people.（Zhu Chaowei 2018,102）<br /> <br /> Besides the adoptation in daily life, machine translation has also been utilized in some important conferences. &quot;Translation headset&quot; is one of the most popular translation tools. It is usually combined with a smartphone application to translate the foreign language it heard to users. &quot;After decades of research, we have created an algorithmic framework to recognize language patterns in the same way as the human brain (neural network),&quot; said Andrew Ochoa, CEO of Waverly labs. By combining it with speech recognition technology, we have greatly improved the accuracy of translation. &quot; Therefore, Wearable translation machines made by companies like Waverly labs are really popular at conferences(Global Collections 2020,17).<br /> <br /> With the development of science and technology as well as the artificial intelligence, the system of machine translation has been polished step by step. Nowadays, it has built a huge corpus which contains tens of millions of storations, and translation with high accuracy can be available in some non-literary texts.(Luo Huazhen,Fan Zhengqin,Yi Yongzhong 2017,21)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 The Inferiorities=====<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, a lot of noticeable defects still remain in machine translation. When it comes to the literary genres just like proses, poems and ancient essays, machine translation is not familiar with the language habits of these genres so as to incline to a failure in comprehending the latent meaning of the words thus nor it can work out an outstanding translation.(Liang Jie 2020,17)In most cases it will adopt the method of literal translation, which is a confusing version, which can not express the idea of source language and the images in it can be missed. Take the following poem for example:<br /> <br /> 江雪<br /> <br /> 唐 柳宗元<br /> <br /> 千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br /> <br /> 孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。<br /> <br /> '''Version of Baidu Translation'''<br /> <br /> River Snow<br /> <br /> Birds flying away,<br /> <br /> The trail of thousands of people;<br /> <br /> A lone boat with a straw hat,<br /> <br /> Fishing alone in cold river snow.<br /> <br /> '''Version of Xu Yuanchong'''<br /> <br /> Fishing in snow(Xu Yuanchong,2000)<br /> <br /> From hill to hill no bird in flight,<br /> <br /> From path to path no man in sight;<br /> <br /> A lonely fisherman afloat<br /> <br /> Is fishing snow in lonely boat.<br /> <br /> Between these two versions, we can easily identify which one is better. In Xu’s translation, he translates “鸟飞绝” &amp;“人踪灭”into “no bird in flight” and “no man in sight”, which get rid of the form of the original text, not only expressing the deep meaning, but also conforming to the English expression habit. In addition, due to the repetition of two sentences in the same pattern, readers can feel a strong sense of monotony. And The most splendid point is the rhyme of first two sentences and last two sentences, which makes the whole poem cathy and add the musical beauty of the translation. On the contrast, the first version by machine is inferior in that it fails to express the artistic conception of the poem. People can’t feel the beauty descriped in the poem. What’s worse, some readers may puzzle about its imcomplete images and incoherent sentences!(Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao 1996, 56)<br /> <br /> Nor is this all, machines can’t grasp the rich emotions of mankind. Thus they incline to misundersand of tone and deep meaning of the words(Liang Jie 2020,18). Nay, China has a broad and profound civilization and there are numerous of polysemous words in Chinese.Just like “意思”and “方便”.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> <br /> When Zhang San send money to his leader, an interesting dialogue occurs between them. Please explain the different meanings of “意思”in the following sentences.(Luo Huazhen,Fan Zhengqin,Yi Yongzhong 2017,22)<br /> <br /> 领导(leader)：“你这是什么意思？”(Why do you send me money?)<br /> <br /> 张三(Zhang San)：“没什么意思，意思意思。”(No special purpose, just a small gift.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这就不够意思了。” (Why don’t you tell me your true purpose?)<br /> <br /> 张三：“小意思，小意思。”(Not a big deal.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这人真有意思。” (It’s so interesting of you.)<br /> <br /> 张三：“其实也没有别的意思。”(I don’t have other special intentions on you.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“那我就不好意思了。”(Well, since that, I will accept your money.)<br /> <br /> Apparently, it may even be difficult for some people to get the deep meaning behind this dialogue let alone the senseless machine. Machine translation derived from science and technology are always under the control of human beings, they are always working under the manipulation of humanbeings. Mankind possess an intelligible brain and they can cteate new things according to their needs and imaginations. While machine can not achieve the rich creativity as human brain.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)<br /> <br /> From all the analysis above, it can be easily seen that human translation and machine translation are strongly complementary. Thus, the best way is to combine them together to learn from the other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)<br /> <br /> ====3. Computer-Aided Translation====<br /> <br /> To meet the constantly-increasing demand of the market, a new type of translation method named Computer-aided translation (CAT) emerges at the right moment. It is the combination of the two translation methods mentioned above and can help translators complete the translation work with high quality, efficiency and ease. Different from the previous machine translation software, it does not rely on the automatic translation of the computer, but accomplishes the whole translation process with the participation of human beings. Besides, its translation speed can be twice of the human translation, with the quality being the same standard or better. CAT makes a change from the arduous human translation to an automatic process, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of translation.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Preponderance of This Method====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Translation Memory=====<br /> <br /> Translation memory system, the main tool of computer-aided translation, is a &quot;language database storing the original text and its translation&quot;. During the time when people are working out a translation, CAT are also constructing a translation memory corpus in the backstage. The corpus can automatically store all the translated content. What contributes to our great convenience is that the translation memory system will automatically search the contents in the translation memory database in the later translation.(Chen Yi 2018,31)<br /> <br /> The system will automatically output the translation results if the contents are the same as the sentences and language fragments in the memory corpus; and if the structures or vocabularies of the materials are similar to the sentences in the translation memory database, it will also show corresponding translation references and suggestions. In a word, translation memory system can benifit translators to utilize the contents of previous translation effectively and avoid repeated work, thus greatly improving the speed and quality of translation and saving translation time. According to the statistics, the application of translation memory system can increase the average productivity by 30%, and reduce the translation cost by 15-30%(Chen Yi 2018,31).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Terminology Database=====<br /> <br /> When stepping into the translation industry and becoming a professional translator. It is inevitable that people will be confronted with materials from various fields, just like iatrology, law and science. All of these industries have a great number of terminologies. While human’s brain are limited that they can’t remember all the terms. Under this condition, a ready-made terminology database can be extremely helpful.(Chen Yi 2018,31)<br /> <br /> Terminology management system provides a shortcut for translators to automatically search for terms appearing in the translation materials by displaying terms in the interface window of translation memory database or using hotkeys to search the entries in terminology database. Some programs have other hotkey combinations that enable translators to add new terms to the terminology database at the same time during translation.(Global Encyclopedia) <br /> <br /> Some more advanced systems allow translators to check interactively or in batch if the correct source / target word combination is used within and between translation memory fragments of a given project. There is also an independent term management system, which can provide workflow functions, visual taxonomy, and be used as a term Checker (similar to a spelling checker to mark terms that are not used correctly), and can also support other types of multilingual term categories, such as pictures, videos or sounds(Global Encyclopedia).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Revise and Automatic Alignment=====<br /> <br /> After translators finish their task on CAT system, it will scan the translation and figure out the numbers of mistakes including spelling, punctuation and so on. This proofeading can make one’s translation more accurate. In addition, the aligner can divide the source text and the target text into multiple fragments and make sure the right match of them so as to build a translation memory database or other reference resources. Many aligners also enable translators to manually realign mismatched fragments (Global Encyclopedia).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Current Situation====<br /> <br /> Right now, due to the tremendous market demand, CAT steps into the golden era of development. There are several popular CAT softwares such as Trados、Déjà V、TransStar、IBM Translation Manager、WordFisher、Wordfast，OmegaT, among which the most famous is the first one. Theses softwares have experienced a long period of development and are relatively mature. They make the translation progress much more convenient than before.(Hua Fuwei 2015.8.5,Douban)<br /> <br /> However, CAT is not yet a consummate system right now. It has a few drawbacks to be solved. To begin with, CAT is insufficient in the construction of the corpus. Right now, most domestic CAT softwares only restore hundreds of thousands of entries in the database, which is far from enough to meet the needs of translators. In a result, many people gradually emerge the idea that CAT is not workable. People still have to rely on themselves to search the complicated documents and their work are not able to decrease as they want.(He Liutao 2018,18)<br /> <br /> Nor is this all, sometimes it can be hard for people to extract the terms they need becauese of the failure of identification and although some easy mistakes can be found out, it may be difficult for the system to check out the sophisticated errors, thus people have to spend more time to tackle with the problems in person.(Yao Li 2020,202) <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Prospect====<br /> <br /> Despite of the insufficiency of CAT right now, the defects can’t obscure the virtues. CAT has greatly emancipated the productivity of translation industry. Not only that, it has played an important role in reducing translation time, cutting down labor costs, standardizing translation documents, maintaining terminology consistency and ensuring translation quality, etc. In the near future, it is bound to become the main trend of translation development with its wide application all over the world and the functional improvement of various translation software. And the problems mentioned above can be effectively polished with the advancement of science and technology.(Chen Yi 2018,32)<br /> <br /> ===4. Suggestions===<br /> <br /> Facing with the unstoppable trend of artificial intelligence and CAT, should mankind repulse it or accept it? Apparently, the second attitude is more reasonable. For one thing, we can’t hinder the inexorable trend. For another thing, this is a good opportunity for people to utilize the tool to improve themselves.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)<br /> <br /> So, first and foremost, people should set up an open attitude, accepting CAT with an embracing mentality. It is no need to be afraid that machine will surpass human. Instead mankind is always the master of science and technology. Putting oneself on a pedestal is not a good way to make progress. And holding fast to one’s established ideas will eventually be sifted out by the era.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,108)<br /> <br /> In Qing Dynasty(1636-1912), the emperor and even the whole country praised the nation as the great kingdom. Since ancient time, China was abundant in natural resources and they were self-sufficient and self-contained. Thus the government constantly puesued a policy of “cutting off the country from the outside world”.(Qiu Cui, Chen Xue 2012,8) <br /> <br /> At that time, the Western countries were going on an unprececedentedly industrial revolution. Through the renovation, the westerners immensely improved their productive forces and their countries got a rapid development. When the trend were heard by the Chinese emperor, they disdained to learn from the technology and regarded it as a diabolic trick.(Qiu Cui &amp; Chen Xue 2012,8) <br /> <br /> In this way, the gap between the East and the West was larger and larger. It was not until the breaking of the Opium War that Chinese people realized they have lagged behind a lot. Once a country was backward, it would be insulted by anyone else. After that, the Qing government was constantly forced to sign treaties of humiliating the country and forfeiting its sovereignty. The citizens were plunged into dire suffering. Under this circumstance, social conflicts intensified. Finally, the revolution of 1911 broke out and overthrew the Qing Dynasty. A feudal dynasty of more than 200 years fell down.(Qiu Cui,Chen Xue 2012,8-9) <br /> <br /> Since the principle that lagging behind leaves one vulnerable to attacks is even applicable to a country, let alone the ordinary people. There is an old saying that “He who goes with the tide prospers, and he who goes against it dies”. The power of science and technology should never be looked down upon. The original purpose of this is to benifit the mankind rather than overthrow us. It is a powerful tool to help us scale new heights. If tranlators refuse to acquire the new skill, they will one day be weeded out by the industry.(Liang Jie 2020,18）<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of market, the quality of translation talents should be improved accordingly. The span for talent training of translation majors in China is relatively short that it has only been 10 years since the establishment of Bachelor of Translation and Interpreting(BTI) and Master of Translation and Interpreting(MTI) in Colleges and universities across the country. The current situation of translation technology education in the cultivation of translation professionals is not optimistic either.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106) <br /> <br /> First of all, compared with foreign universities and domestic universities in Hongkong, Macao and Taiwan, there is still a long way to open translation technology courses in domestic universities. According to the research by Lv Lisong and Mu Lei(2007,37), universities in Hong Kong and Taiwan of China work closely with translation companies to provide translation technology teaching for students. However, Manchester, London University, Ottawa University of Canada and other foreign universities have established a developed system in terms of machine translation, terminology management, translation technology training curriculum, personnel training mode and translation testing, and formed an effective model.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106)<br /> <br /> On the contrary, many domestic colleges and universities still do not pay enough attention to translation technology education, which leads to the failure of translation technology education courses in some colleges and universities. A survey of 12 universities in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Chongqing, Liaoning, Jilin, Henan, Hebei, Hubei, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Sichuan and other provinces and universities found that 11 of the 43 universities (a large part of which are &quot;985&quot; universities and &quot;211&quot; universities) with MTI have not yet opened translation technology courses, accounting for 25%. If the scope of the survey is extended to the secondary and tertiary institutions, the situation may be even worse.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106)<br /> <br /> In this regard, the education of Chinese mainland is a little bit backward. There are several reasons for this phenomenon. To begin with, the perception of the educators and education system are rather outdated. The existing education system pay much attention to the translation and interpreting ability of students. This is a common pattern in many middle schools, high schools and even colleges and universities.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15) <br /> <br /> As an English major student, the writer has the personal experience. During the university period. The most courses still focus on the cultivation of the basic skills of students. Although there are translation and interpreting classes every week, the normal model is that at first teachers will teach some translation theories or techniques, and then there will be some exercises for students to practice. Students are almost inaccessible to computing courses.(Lv Lisong &amp; Mu Lei 2007,37) <br /> <br /> This may resulted from the short of appropriate funds for education. China is a nation with a great number of population, and its population growth rate is also fast. As a result, the pressure on education has been relatively high. The commonly used index to measure whether a country's financial education funds are sufficient or not is the proportion of financial education funds in Gross Domestic Product(GDP). In China, this proportion has been at a low level for a long time. Although the education funds have been increasing with the continuous development of China's economy after the Reform and Opening up, yet the fact is that “There are too many monks and too little gruel.”---the funds allocated to each school are still far from enough.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15) <br /> <br /> Take Hunan province as an example. In the year of 2000, China's financial education funds accounted for 2.87% of GDP, which failed to reach the target of 4% of GDP in 2000 as proposed in the outline of China's education reform and development. In 2003, the GDP of Hunan Province was 463.4 billion yuan, and the national financial expenditure on education was 11.179 billion yuan, accounting for 2.44% of GDP, an increase of 0.01 percentage points over the previous year. However, in 2004, the proportion of national financial education expenditure in GDP decreased to 2.34%, which is still far from the target of 4%.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15)<br /> <br /> In response to this problem, the writer deems that government and universities should both make some changes. As for government, they should carry out a policy that encourage the cultivation of computer skills; when it comes to the colleges and universities, they are supposed to enlarge the investment in the multimedia intelligent classrooms, and more techers who are sufficient in the operation of CAT should be enrolled. So far, Peking University has open a major named CAT, which is aimed to cultivate the professional talents to meet the needs of market.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106-108)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Will machine translation replace human translation or not? Toward this question, the answer is an absolute “No”. As far as I am concerned, both the human tranlation and machine translation have their pros and cons.(Pang yingyu 2019,165) <br /> <br /> Human are able to comprehend the complex emotions in the texts and handle it with flexible expressions. In this aspect, machine can’t reach the human standard just like examples of “《江雪》”and “意思”mentioned above. Besides, mankind are familiar with the differences between various of countries so as to minimize the rate of committing a blunder.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)<br /> <br /> While the machine doesn’t have a brain like human’s. Their work is to translate the materials according to the superficial meanings. However, machine owns a huge volume (much more larger than human brain)which can store numerous materials and its working speed is hundreds of times of human’s(Pang Yingyu 2019,165). <br /> <br /> In the contemporary era, translators should first of all polish their translation skills and improve their ability to flexibly use various translation strategies and skills(Yao Li 2020,201-202). The old saying goes that “It takes a good blacksmith to make steel.” By the time, people are still the main force in the translation industry and machine translation stays in an auxiliary position. Human should not rely on machine to do all the works. The translators should improve their competitiveness through sordid multi-lingual knowledge, translation practice as well as stronger learning capacity and so on and so forth. <br /> <br /> At the same time, translators are also supposed to adopt an embracing attitude to acquire the comouter-aided translation skills. After all, with the further advancement of science and technology, the trend is inevitable. Actually, human translation and machine translation are highly compatible, which can greatly improve the translation efficiency and reduce people’s workload. Thus, the combination of the two methods is highly appreciated and the new type of CAT is bound to become the tide of the future.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Yi,Fan Jiaolian. 陈谊,范姣莲.(2018). 计算机辅助翻译——新世纪翻译的趋势[Computer-Aided Translation-the Trend of Translation in the New Era] 中国现代教育装备[China mordern educational equipment] 30-32.<br /> <br /> Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao. 董务刚,薛家宝.(1996). 评许渊冲诗《江雪》[Appreciation of Xu Yuanchong's Translation &quot;Fishing in Snow&quot;] 盐城师专学报[Journal of Yancheng Normal School] 56.<br /> <br /> He Liutao. 何刘涛.(2018) 人工智能背景下计算机辅助翻译在中国发展的思考[On the Development of Computer-aided Translation in China Under the Background of Artificial Intelligence] 英语广场[English Square], 17.<br /> <br /> 计算机翻译会取代人工翻译吗？[Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not?] (2020) 环球采风[Globe Collections] 17.<br /> <br /> Liang Jie. 梁洁.(2020). 人工智能对翻译行业的影响[The Influence of Artificial Intelligence on Translation Industry] 家庭科技[Family Science and Technology] 17-18.<br /> <br /> Luo Huazhen,Fan Zhengqin,Yi Yongzhong. 罗华珍,潘正芹,易永忠. (2017) 人工智能翻译的发展现状与前景分析[Analysis of the Development and Prospect of Artificial Intelligence Translation] 电子世界[Electronics World], 21.<br /> <br /> Lv Lisong,Mu Lei. 吕立松,穆雷.(2007) 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[Technique of Translation-Aided Translation and Translation Education] 外语界[The Field of Foreign Language] 37.<br /> <br /> Pang Yingyu. 庞盈羽. (2019) 谈机器翻译与人工翻译的关系—从机器翻译与计算机辅助翻译的发展角度[Analysis of the Relationship Between Machine Translation and Human Translation--From the Perspective of the Development of Machine Translation and Computer-Aided Translation]. 科学大众·科学教育[Scientific Masses·Scientific Education] 164-165.<br /> <br /> 计算机辅助翻译[Computer-aided translation].(2020). 全球百科[Global Encyclopedia] https://vibaike.com/.<br /> <br /> Qiu Cui,Chen Xue. 仇萃, 陈雪. (2012) 浅析中国的闭关锁国政策[On China's closed door policy] 现代物业[Modern property Management],8.<br /> <br /> Wu Sheng. 吴晟.(2016) 湖南省省属普通高校财政拨款体制研究[Research on the Financial Allocation System of Provincial Colleges and Universities in Hunan Province] 湖南师范大学[Hunnu Normal University] 14-16.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong. 许渊冲. (2000) 唐诗三百首[Translation of Three Hundred Tang Poems].<br /> <br /> Yaoli. 姚莉.(2020) 机器翻译时代,译者应该坚持技能与技术的融合[Translators Should Keep the Compatibility Between Skills and Technique in the Era of Machine Translation]. 科技经济导刊[Technology and Economic Guide] 201-202.<br /> <br /> Zhu Chaowei. 祝朝伟.（2018）机器翻译要取代作为人的译者了吗？—兼谈翻译人才培养中科技与人文的关系[Is Machine Translation Going to Replace Human Translators? -On the relationship between science and technology and Humanities in the cultivation of translation talents]. 外国语文[Foreign Literature] 102-108.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation 袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi==<br /> <br /> '''浅析汉语公示语的英译'''<br /> <br /> 英语笔译 袁天翼<br /> <br /> 摘 要：在这个经济全球化、政治多极化、文化全球化、科技现代化、信息共享化的时代，全球经济纵深发展，人类命运共同体日趋形成，人与人、国家与国家间的联系日益密切，这时，汉语公示语的英译问题便被提上了议程。尽管中国汉语公示语的英译翻译员越来越多，但是汉语公示语的英译问题层出不穷。本文简析了汉语公示语定义，例举了生活中常见的一些汉语公示语的英译典型问题，并针对此给出了一些翻译方法与策略，并进行了未来展望。<br /> <br /> 关键词：汉英翻译；公示语；翻译策略<br /> <br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': In this economic globalization, political polarization, cultural globalization, technological modernization and informative sharing age, the global economy is deeply developing, and the human community with a shared future is coming into shape day by day. The relations among people and among countries are increasing day by day. At this time, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation become the topic of us. Though the number of Chinese-English public sign translators in China grows daily, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation emerge endlessly. This passage offers a brief analysis of the definition of Chinese-English public sign, points out some typical problems in Chinese-English public sign translation we see in daily life, analyzes some methods and strategies of Chinese-English public sign translation, and gives some outlooks on the future of Chinese-English public sign translation. <br /> <br /> '''Key Words''': Chinese-English translation; public sign; translation strategies<br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> '''I. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> &quot;The public sign is a specially applied literary form that was formed in modern times, which has a long history. It is used in public places and seen by the masses thus realizing unique communicative purposes. The public sign has become a crucial link in the communication between China and other countries in the international community. In the meantime, there are increasingly more experts and scholars paying attention to the translation of Chinese public signs into English.&quot; (Reiss 2004,12). <br /> <br /> &quot;As an important tool for international communication, Chinese-English public sign translation plays an extremely important role in foreign friends’ understanding of Chinese culture&quot;.（Wang Huili 2019,31） Its applied range is so wide that nearly covers every aspect of our daily life, including: Introductions of tourism trips, propaganda languages, warning languages, road signs, shop signs and advertising boards. It is mostly used on public infrastructure: Subway, airport, taxi, pier, tourist spot, park, street, community, shop, supermarket, restaurant, bank, hotel, cinema, hospital and etc. It uses simple words or sentences, or pictures only, or combines words and pictures to pass useful information to the masses, which not only serves Chinese people, but also is shown to the foreigners, which can help foreigners in China study, work and live. <br /> <br /> '''II. The Current Situation of Chinese-English Public Sign'''<br /> <br /> Public signs are an art of convincing others through effective verbal means, which are also components of language activities. They, in essence, belong to a special kind of communication. The object is for all the people with social behaviors in the place, regardless of gender, age, class or education level. Public signs belong to “one-way communication”, and its binding force or influence will not be as big as direct communication, but it is also used to act with words and deeds, and affects the behavior of the audience with a clear purpose. &quot;Public signs have become a natural window for Chinese and other languages in various economic, trade and cultural activities.&quot;（Yang Yang 2020, 34）<br /> <br /> Public signs are everywhere, so what are their functions? &quot;Their functions can be divided into showing, warning, profiting, encouraging and eulogizing such five functions. (Zhou Shuxia 2017,239)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the public sign that has showing function offers all-round information about service, order, or informing service. Such as “Car Rental” and “Children and Senior Citizens Free”.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the public sign that has warning function comes up with restrictive or obligatory demands to typical people, which is often used through order, ban, information or persuasion tones. Such as: “Stand in Line” , and “Thieves Beware”. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the public sign that has profiting function promotes consumption, thus realizing enterprises’ economic profits. Such as: “Daily Special”, “Daily Service”. <br /> <br /> Fourthly, the public sign that has encouraging function calls for or encourages people to take actions for certain goals or tasks. Such as: “One Family, One Child”, and “Working together, we can make a world of difference”. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, the public sign that has eulogizing function gives wishes and chants to certain events or people to reach the goals of propaganda or education. Such as: “One World, One Dream”. &quot;<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (Eugene Nida 2004, 15) said, &quot;Chinese-English translation of public signs embraces the conversion of two different languages and two different cultures, which is not only to achieve the language equivalence, cultural equivalence, but also to enhance the possibility of understanding and the reading of Chinese-English translation of public signs.&quot;<br /> <br /> However, there are many problems in Chinese-English public sign translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In 2003, Clive W. J. Granger, a Nobel Economics Prize Winner talked of the settings and problems of public signs in Beijing when he was interviewed by a program of Beijing TV Station. He said: “Foreigners will feel a little bit nervous when they come to China, because they can not understand public signs in China. ” Clive’s comment extremely shows current problems in Chinese-English public sign translation .&quot;(Lv Hefa 2005,38)<br /> <br /> “The language and character industry of China is expanding from ‘striving to promote and normally use the national common language, scientifically protecting every nation’s language and character’ to ‘managing social foreign language use and improving foreign language service quality’. ” The national standard of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service is the standard of English translation and writing quality in public service fields, which stipulates the English translation principles, methods and requirements in thirteen service fields. &quot;Nowadays, public signs are often bilingual to meet the needs of international communication.&quot;(Wang Xunian 2020,69)<br /> <br /> To sum up, there are still many major problems in China’s public sign translation, common and ubiquitous, which make foreign experts comment like that and the government use national force to normalize translation standards. &quot;Whether the translation of public signs in scenic spots into English is harmonious and unified has a great influence on cross-cultural communication &quot;.(Pinkham John 2000, 156)<br /> <br /> '''III. The Causes of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> '''3. 1 The Basic Linguistic Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> To be a proficient Chinese-English public sign translator, one must, fundamentally, grasp basic linguistic rules of English and Chinese, otherwise he or she must make stupid mistakes, and some even primary learners will not make. &quot;There are many problems in the translation of public signs from English to Chinese, which should not be limited to the translation of the original text, but should pay attention to the context of public signs.&quot;(Chen Daobin 2020, 9)<br /> <br /> [[File:No.1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.1<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3684466622,1422277554&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.1 is a public sign put on a glass wall in a mall, the Chinese reads“全年无休(QUAN NIAN WU XIU)”, and it tries to use English to express that “This business runs the whole year”, so the precise translation should be “NO REST DAY ALL YEAR”. But there, we can see it was translated as“365DAY SA TEAR”, which does not belong to the grammatical law of English. So this is a big mistake.<br /> <br /> Only one who understands Chinese can understand. But for ordinary foreigners, they can not. So, when translating Chinese-English public sign, the translator must be clear about the target language, and know the basic grammatical venation, then begin to translate, instead of randomly putting some letters together and finishing. Otherwise, the translator will make a big mistake like this picture.<br /> <br /> A public sign in Haichang Ocean Park of Chengdu City, Sichuan Province reads &quot;Jellyfish Museum, the 2th floor&quot;. More specifically, it is a floor direction sign. Here, the correct English for the second floor should be “2nd”, not “2th”. Apparently that the translator has poor knowledge of English vocabulary, which led he or she to make such a ridiculous mistake. <br /> <br /> Actually, in English language, if there is a number contains “11”, “12”or “13”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “11th”, “12th” or “13th” respectively; And if there is a number contains“1”, “2”or “3”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “1st”, “2nd” or “3rd” respectively. For example, “101st”, “111th”, “201st”, “211th” and etc. <br /> <br /> No.3 is a warning sign of a tourist spot, reads &quot;The rockery danger, pleases no climb&quot;, whose Chinese meaning is “There stands a rockery, it is dangerous to climb, every one is forbidden from climbing it. ” The Chinese meaning is alright. But, when it was translated into English, a big mistake occurred: “The rockery danger Pleases no climb.”<br /> <br /> First, there should be “climbing” after “no”, not “climb”, this is just English grammar knowledge that can be learned in primary school; And the “Please” is followed by a “s”, why does the translator use third person singular at the top of a imperative sentence? Second, if the translator wants to tell the tourists that the rockery is dangerous and mustn’t be climbed, he or she should write: “The rockery is dangerous. Please don’t climb” or “Dangerous rockery. No climbing” or just “No climbing”. Unless the foreigners who see this sign have supreme understanding ability, they will not easily make sense of it. <br /> <br /> 3. 2 The Tendency Towards Chinglish and Mechanical Translation<br /> <br /> Knowing a little about English, then begin to translate public sign. This is ridiculous, which is definitely going to cause obvious mistakes. Especially when translating, there is a high probability that the translator will make Chinglish errors, or tend to seek for mechanical translation, which are the most common public sign translation problems in mainland China. With regard to the tendency towards Chinglish, it only proves that the translator’s basic skills of English are not so proficient, and he or she does not fit for translation work. For the tendency towards mechanical translation, on the one hand, it demonstrates that the translator is lazy, who is not willing to think about how to translate.&quot;Some common mistakes in public signs translation in daily life have brought a very bad impact on the image of the city; What's more, it will affect China's international image.&quot;(Zheng Yuguo 2020,138)<br /> <br /> On the other hand, it reveals his or her lack of basic English language knowledge. In fact, these two both can be easily avoided, only if the translator pays a little more attention to it or is earnest and dedicated to their work. All those mistakes should not have been made. &quot;To understand the language style of Public signs in English, it is imperative to carry out idiomatic and standardized translation of public signs in Chinese.&quot;(Pang Yan 2020, 34)<br /> <br /> No.4, this is a sign that is hung in an Internet celebrity milk tea shop: Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province. It reads &quot;out of the cup area&quot;. It originally means that the customers should queue here to get their milk tea after finishing paying. The translator should have easily translated “出杯区（CHU BEI QU）”into “FETCH AREA”, but it was translated as “OUT OF THE CUP AREA”, what a joke! Purely it was translated word-for-word. The translator did not understand its true meaning. Probably it was translated by a machine.<br /> <br /> As an Internet celebrity milk tea shop runner, when dealing with such kind of cultural issues, he or she should be extremely careful, earnest and cautious, instead of casually simply copying the contents given by a machine or hiring a third-rate translator and asking him or her to randomly translate.<br /> <br /> Large scale milk tea shops must shoulder their required obligations, and undertake necessary responsibilities and duties on public sign translation. Imagine that a foreigner, who can not understand it, stand there and think: What? Standing here is standing outside the cup? Maybe something interesting would happen. Let me try!All those will bring big and standing jokes. <br /> <br /> No.5 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province. It reads&quot; tourists get off area&quot;. Its Chinese meaning is: This is the place that tourists get off from a bus. But, it was translated as “Tourists get off area”, which fully shows the ignorance and lack of English language knowledge of the translators. People may can not help doubting whether it is copied from the translation given by a machine. Famous tourist spots like this, especially this kind of 5A tourist spot, can not even shoulder the cultural obligations, let alone developing in the long run. <br /> <br /> Similarly, No.6 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province, and it reads &quot;up the mountain&quot;. The Chinese meaning is “This is the passage that leads tourists to climb the mountain”. The translation should have been a very easy and fun job, but when the sign is showed to tourists, a big big joke was born: “Up the mountain”. We can say “uphill way” or “uphill passage”, but, the translator obviously did not realize it. What’s more, when “up” is used as a verb, it is completely another meaning. It is also the symbol of such irresponsible spot management. <br /> <br /> No.7, it is a napkin given by an Internet celebrity milk tea shop (Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province ) for free after buying its milk tea. It reads &quot;more China, more fashion&quot;. At first glance, everything seems okay. But more carefully, we can find the mistake. The Chinese meaning is “If there are more elements with Chinese characteristics, it will be more fashionable.” But when translating, maybe with the aid of machine, or lack of a solid English knowledge foundation, it becomes “More China, more fashion”. <br /> <br /> If foreigners see, they will be pretty shocked by the sight: What the hell is this? They will think that this shop lacks money to hire a good translator, and the managers are stupid. Furthermore, the Chinese national image will be badly affected. In fact, this sentence can be translated as “The more sinicization there is, the more fashion there will be” or “With greater Chinese characteristics come more fashion”. Easier? It can be “More sinicization breeds more fashion”. Translated like these, won’t it be much more correct and intelligible?<br /> <br /> '''3. 3 The Misunderstanding of the Public Sign Translators'''<br /> <br /> It is the little knowledge of English of the translators that makes them can not even spell a basic word correctly; Or due to carelessness, they make mistakes on public sign translation, thus causing mistakes on the meaning of the sign. All these are significant reasons why there are so many mistakes in Chinese-English public signs. &quot;Errors and ambiguities in public signs are not allowed, as they can lead to disorientation, confusion, and lessening of the force of the warning.&quot;(Pan Xutong 2020, 251)<br /> <br /> [[File:No.8.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.8<br /> [https://www.sinaimg.cn/edu/cr/2015/0316/3124267229.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.8. The Chinese meaning of it is “The door or passage that leads you to the outside”, in short, “EXIT”. But the public sign was translated as“EXPORT”, so, what is “EXPORT”? In a word, it means trade among different countries. The commercial goods pass through the customs, being transported from one country to another country. Distinctly, the maker was careless, who has mixed the meaning of “出口（Chu Kou）”in Chinese, thus resulting in an obvious translation error. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.9.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.9<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4069547043,45136776&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.9 is from a hospital department. Its Chinese meaning is: Here is neurology emergency department. It uses a special logogram in Chinese. But, the maker was misled, so, he or she translated it as “God Medical”. If a person has a little common sense, he or she will be made to laugh wildly. It is completely the “Understanding of a sentence simply by a word”! That should be translated as “ Department of Emergency Neurology”.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.10.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.10<br /> [https://ss0.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4055489075,1169617432&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.10 is photographed in a company building. Here, the Chinese means: this is the place where you can get boiled water. However, the translator of this public <br /> sign made a huge mistake, because he or she disintegrated the three Chinese words one by one, and thus translating them one by one, which can not be understood as a whole, let alone enable foreigners to understand the meaning of this public sign, and as a result, foreigners may not receive the service that they deserve.<br /> <br /> As a matter of fact, this public sign can be translated as “Boiled Water Room”. “开水”means “boiled water” in English. Certainly, the translator treated the “开”as a verb “open”, which is absolutely wrong. <br /> <br /> Further, this is a single room, not two or more, so we must use “room”, which is the plural form, instead of the singular form “rooms”. <br /> <br /> 3. 4 The Falsification and Loss of Information<br /> <br /> Originally, the managers want to use signs to warn people, but due to mistranslation, the information is tampered and missed, resulting in an opposite consequence, and producing big jokes.&quot;Standardized translation of public signs can improve the international language environment of cities, on the other hand, it is responsible for improving the level of urban opening to the outside world.&quot;(Liu Peiyu 2020, 67)<br /> <br /> No.11 is a public warning sign in Liuxiang Barbecue Restaurant. It reads &quot; carefully hot&quot;. Is it a true warning? In the foreigners’ opinion, it is not. People who speak Chinese can realize that this sign was designed to warn customers not to be burned by the hot oven. However, the English translation is far from what it originally means. The correct translation can be “Careful! Hot!” or “Be Careful of the Hot Oven!” But according to the translation on the sign, it means “Carefully burn yourself”. Luckily, this is a small scale restaurant, if it were a large one, its reputation would be badly affected. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.12.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.12<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3765137851,1011242048&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.12 is a public sign in a large shopping center. As we all know, modern shopping centers now always use smooth and shiny tile floor as the ground, which makes the shopping centers look beautiful and attractive. However, smooth though it is, one big safety problem then comes into shape: The ground is too smooth to make shoppers slide and fall. Later, the managers made public signs like No.12 to warn people not to fall. The Chinese warning is okay, Chinese shoppers can understand, but when foreigners see this, he or she will burst out laughing: What? You order me to slide on the floor with care? What on earth do you mean? <br /> <br /> I have even seen an Internet celebrity girl posting an video clip that tells us a story that satirizes this mistranslation: The girl and her father slide joyfully on the ground in a shopping center while murmuring “Carefully slide! Carefully slide!” As a matter of fact, The correct Chinese-English translation should be “Caution! Slippery!” or “Beware of Wet Floor” or “Caution! Wet Floor”. Each one of the three is okay. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.13.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.13<br /> [https://ss2.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=461657809,3986868053&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.13 is a public sign that is put on the ceiling of a restaurant’s stair. Here, the translator wanted to pass such information by Chinese and English: Watch <br /> your head, do not hit the low ceiling of the stair. Be careful. Though the Chinese information is okay, the English, however, can not by understood by others, especially foreigners. <br /> <br /> Here, the makers wanted to warn the danger of the low ceiling, not to ask people to purposely hit the ceiling. So we can correct it as: “Watch Your Head”, or “Be Careful”. Both are okay. <br /> <br /> Here, the translator made a mistranslation, which reversed the original meaning when translating, thus producing a huge laughingstock. First, “碰”is not “meet”, but “hit”, according to this specific environment. It does not mean “meet someone”. Second, “小心碰头” means not to hit the ceiling, not to “meet carefully”. <br /> <br /> Throughout so many examples, every one can see that the mistakes of public sign translation are ubiquitous and common in daily life, which you can even randomly pick up one from any store you meet. Pervasive errors like these in public signs will negatively affect China’s reform and opening-up and the integration into international community, which will not only make foreigners misunderstand the meaning, but also seriously damage China’s national image. Therefore, the study of the public sign translation is extremely urgent and imperative. &quot;As an important part of the translation industry, the translation of public signs has high academic value and research value.&quot;(Qian Zheng 2020, 191)<br /> <br /> At present, translators must start from basic demand of Chinese-English public sign translation, endeavor to learn English well, cultivate a good sense of utilizing English and a great mindset of English utilization, proactively take part in English translation practice, and be highly alert and form a sense of “Using English language in a proper, correct, suitable and decent way”. Only then will the situation of Chinese-English public sign translation turn better. &quot;Due to the specific role of public signs, their translation is different from literary translation and has powerful functional characteristics.&quot;(Liu Hui 2020, 43)<br /> <br /> IV. Public Sign Translation Methods<br /> <br /> There is a saying goes: “Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards. ” So is the Chinese-English public sign translation. Zhang Yan (Zhang Yan 2015,44) maintains in her paper that, &quot;the public sign translation methods can be summarized as four kinds. <br /> <br /> '''4. 1 Amplification'''<br /> <br /> Many new words that are with Chinese characteristics, especially combined with numbers, need using amplification to introduce to foreign readers. &quot;Public signs, as an important window for the external publicity of the city image, are increasingly valued in their English translation status&quot;(Fu Li 2020, 123)<br /> <br /> For example, in the past, “五讲四美三热爱(Wu Jiang Si Mei San Re Ai）”was translated as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves”. Many foreigners said that they could not understand it. Later, it was revised as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves” with the notation “ stress on decorum, manners, hygiene, discipline and morals; beauty of the mind, language, behavior and the environment; love of the motherland, socialism and the Communist Party”. &quot;Public signs are information-type and calling-type texts, which should focus on the information transmission of the original text in translation. Therefore, communicative translation can be regarded as a good theoretical basis.&quot;(Shen Jianwen 2020, 69)<br /> <br /> '''4. 2 Ellipsis'''<br /> <br /> To make sure that the translation is concise and intelligible, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators must properly delete unnecessary words according to English expressing habits to achieve overall generalization. Such as: “Food Paradise”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 3 Re-translation'''<br /> <br /> Due to cultural differences, many folk adages with Chinese characteristics will not be understood by readers once simply read literally. So translators can moderately reorganize those sentences that can not be translated or understood. Such as: “Drinking and Driving Costs Your Life”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 4 Backward Translation'''<br /> <br /> There are two cases: Translating the cultural expressions that are borrowed from translation back into their original forms in the target language; Translating the expressions with obvious cultural characteristics into the idiomatic expressions in the target language. Such as: “Venus Florist”. <br /> The English public sign has its own cultural and pragmatic meanings. When doing the Chinese-English public sign translation, translators should consider about the cultural differences and avoid any form of ambiguity, misunderstanding or mistranslation, and offer high quality information service, thus making public sign translation advance with the times. &quot;<br /> <br /> '''V. Public Sign Translation Strategies'''<br /> <br /> &quot;Theoretically, semantic translation and communicative translation differ much. Semantic translation strives to keep the language specialty and unique express method of the original work, in order to express the original work’s thinking process; However, communicative translation’s key point lies in spreading information and enabling people to think, feel and act, giving play to the function of information that language conveys and the consequences it causes. &quot;(He Xueyun 2006,57) <br /> <br /> When doing Chinese-English public sign translation, we also need guiding ideology to direct us. Here, I will show you four Chinese-English public sign translation strategies, which act as guiding ideology, which are definitely going to be a powerful weapon for you. Just remember them and practice them, you will gain a lot. &quot;To strengthen the research on the Translation of public signs into English, improve the translation quality of bilingual public signs and improve the translation of bilingual public signs are the urgent tasks to promote the cross-cultural communication of city image.&quot;(Niu Haihua 2020, 118)<br /> <br /> '''5.1 No Grammatical, Semantic and Logical Error'''<br /> <br /> The most basic prerequisite of public sign translation is that there is no language error: No grammatical error, no vocabulary spelling error, no language context error, no Chinglish or machine-aided translation error. <br /> <br /> “This is office area, tourists mustn’t enter” can be translated as “Staff Only”, not “OFFICE AREA PLEASE DON’T COMING”, or you will make a grammatical and redundant error. “Be careful, don’t slip into water” can be translated as “Caution! Deep Water!” instead of “TAKE CARE! FALL INTO WATER CAREFULLY!” Otherwise, people will can not help laughing. <br /> <br /> One translator was not able to translate “The grass is so beautiful, are you sure you wan to walk on it?” into English public sign, so here comes <br /> “Fangcaoqiqi riding the Heren”. What a laughingstock! This is a combination between Chinese and English, without any grammar structure. Not to translate it will be a much better choice. We can concisely translate it as “Don’t Walk on the Beautiful Grass!”<br /> <br /> '''5. 2 Concise and Intelligible Translation'''<br /> <br /> One prominent character of public sign is conciseness. It asks people to ensure the translation is crystal clear and precise, without any compound or obscure sentence. Only by achieving this can the signs become popularized, instead of making people think over and over and over again to discover their cryptic meaning. <br /> <br /> The public sign translation must be concise and intelligible, which means that you not only need to precisely convey what the maker means to people, but also must be concise. People can understand it immediately without comprehension deviation or ambiguity. <br /> <br /> '''5. 3 Understanding of Cultural Background Differences'''<br /> <br /> When translating, every translator must thoroughly understand the culture of the targeted language. Translators must comprehensively understand each specific use of the targeted language under different cultural backgrounds. If not doing so, it may cause severe disputes, and even cause irresistible outcomes. Here are several examples. <br /> <br /> “Dragon” is a legendary animal in traditional Chinese culture. Chinese people often view themselves as “dragon”, and even say that they are “Descendants of the Dragon”. Thus, “Dragon” means holy and sacred thing in Chinese culture. But in English speaking countries, the meaning of “dragon” is not so. In these countries, “dragon” means something evil like Satan, sometimes it is even used to describe thugs, scoundrels or other bad behaviorists. Therefore, invariably coping the icon of “dragon” and using it in other cultures is a definite mistake. <br /> <br /> '''5. 4 Obedience to Certain Norms and Standards'''<br /> <br /> As long as someone is translating, he or she must obey certain rules, norms and standards. He mustn’t translate according to his will. This is a truth. <br /> For example, according to China’s first set of standards on how to regulate the use of foreign languages in China, which was jointly issued by the State Standards Commission and the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine on November 20, 2017 and officially implemented on December 1, 2017, some of the standards have been specified in detail. <br /> <br /> Names of tourist spots: Names of mountains, rivers and lakes should be written in Chinese pinyin. Translations of names of temples should vary according to different situations, so are the towers’ names. In line with external service needs, English explanations can be added. <br /> <br /> '''VI. The Future of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> China is a major powerful country, and is the country with the second highest Gross Domestic Product in the world, which is why China should keep close economic and cultural relationships with other countries. &quot;In order to integrate China with international community in a better way, there must be high quality public sign translation. To optimize the translation quality of public signs, the most important way is to realize the standardization of the translation of public signs.&quot;(Ding Ying 2020,78)<br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation must improve the China’s influence power in international community. High quality public sign translation represents that China is rich in translators and intellects, and shows that China can fulfill obligations and shoulder responsibilities as a major country. Achieving this means China not only takes responsibilities for Chinese people, but also for all human beings. Good quality public sign translation is definitely going to significantly synergize the course of reform and opening-up. &quot;Public signs are the most common practical language in people's lives.&quot;(Gu Zhe 2020, 102)<br /> <br /> At present, the economy of China has been changing from developing at a high speed to develop at high quality, and is at the stage of changing economic development mode, transforming driving forces of economic development and optimizing the economic structure, so high quality public sign translation is badly needed. &quot;Public signs have a strong linguistic function and social value. Pragmatic or social pragmatic failures caused by cultural differences often occur in the translation of public signs. Therefore, it is necessary to fully understand the cultural connotation of the original text in translation.&quot;(Li Jing 2020, 229)<br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation has the duty to embody a city’s humanism spirit, cultural speciality and charm, which is the inevitable requirement of core socialist values and system. It also promotes the spreading of Chinese culture, and improves the influence power of Chinese culture. High quality public sign translation also levels up Chinese people and overseas Chinese’s sense of identity and belonging. What’s more, it can narrow the gap between Chinese and foreigners, and acquire more recognition from them towards China.&quot;The translation error of public signs is mainly due to the translator's lack of adequate understanding of the linguistic and cultural framework of English.&quot;(Guan Chen 2020, 79)<br /> <br /> Domestically, high quality public sign translation can strengthen national cohesion; Externally, it will strengthen China’s soft power, and increase China’s international speaking right while creating national radiation power. &quot;It is an important measure to improve China’s public service and governance capability by establishing an evaluation mechanism and promoting the standardization of English translation. It is of great benefit to further improve China’s service level of opening to the outside world, demonstrate its cultural soft power and enhance its international image&quot; .(Guo Jinghong 2019, 154)<br /> <br /> In short, looking forward to the future of Chinese-English public sign translation from a strategic perspective, translators must remain true to their original aspiration and keep their mission firmly in mind, which is: To be devoted to the future of socialism with Chinese characteristics, to be dedicated to the landscape of translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and to be committed to the sustainable development of Chinese-English public sign translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics. &quot;The translation of public signs from Chinese to English needs to consider the actual situation of English speakers and abide by international uniform rules, so that foreign friends can directly understand the contents of public signs.&quot;(Song Yanbei 2020,64)<br /> <br /> &quot;The English translation of public signs of tourist attractions belongs to the category of cross-cultural communication, and the translator should have certain cross-cultural knowledge and awareness, so that the English translation can be more understood and accepted by the audience and truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication&quot;. (Yang Hongyu, 2019) Since reform and opening-up, China has been integrating into the international community day by day. To fully achieve this, as regards of Chinese-English public sign translation, we still have a long way to go. <br /> <br /> There is no time for us to delay the work of strengthening, proceeding, and improving public sign translation. The rising level of quality of Chinese-English public sign translation will improve both city image and urbanization level. He Xueyun contends in her article that, many people take it for granted that if one knows a foreign language, he then can translate. As a matter of fact, basic skills of public sign translation not only includes foreign language level, but also the knowledge of foreign cultures. &quot;Only when the relevant departments attach great importance to public signs and the people cooperate closely, the translation of public signs can be solved and improved.&quot;(Li Huiwen 2020, 23)<br /> <br /> '''VII. Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> So, how to facilitate the overall development of Chinese-English public sign translation？Firstly, we need to keep pace with the times. Language is constantly changing, so are many words and idioms, and so are public signs. In order to accurately convey information to the audience, it is essential to integrate the latest, most reliable and most accepted language into public signs. Secondly, it is necessary to fully understand the idiomatic usage of public signs, because public signs are mainly aimed at English speakers, so it is necessary to strengthen the accumulation of words, phrases and idioms, which is also the basis of translation. Thirdly, the translators of Chinese-English public signs should use accurate words and phrases in combination with specific environment and objects, and should not fail to convey the meaning or deviate from the original meaning, which otherwise will result in misunderstanding. &quot;Whether there are standards and norms for translating public signs into English in public places has a direct impact on foreign friends' impression of a city, which directly reflects the degree of internationalization of the city.&quot;(Song Yanbei 2020 ,61)<br /> <br /> Of course, only achieving the above is not enough. In order to do a good job in the translation of Chinese-English public signs, we need to keep improving our translation attitude and spirit of study, and constantly improve and summarize and innovate on the basis of the original, so as to make the translation of Chinese-English public signs more perfect and recognized by the international audience. &quot;It is very important for the academic community and people from all walks of life to analyze the problems in the application of public signs and put forward corresponding improvement countermeasures&quot;. (Liu Xiaoping, 2019) <br /> <br /> A Chinese-English public sign translator must fully realize and shoulder the responsibilities that translators must carry, form a sense of community of a shared future, fully acknowledge the current situation of Chinese-English public sign translation, completely learn lessons from the predecessors who have made mistakes in Chinese-English public sign translation, totally implement the four public sign translation strategies I mentioned before, to make Chinese-English public sign translation serve the construction of a moderately prosperous society in all respect, the construction of modern powerful socialist country, the construction of building China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and the realization of the great Chinese dream.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> [1]Eugene Nida &amp; Charles Taber.（2004） [The Theory and Practice of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [2]Gutt &amp; Ernst, Agust. （1991）[Translation and Relevance: Cognition and Context] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> [3]Newmark, Peter. （2001）[Textbook of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [4]Pinkham, John.（2000） [The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br /> <br /> [5]Reiss. （2004）[Translation Criticism: the Potentials and Limitations] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [6]陈道彬.（2020） 规范公示语双语标识 营造高品质横琴国际休闲旅游岛环境 珠海特区报,2020-11-09(009).<br /> <br /> [7]傅莉.(2020)柯桥旅游景点公示语英译问题及对策 文学教育(上)(10):123-125.<br /> <br /> [8]顾哲.(2020)河南自贸区双语公示语翻译研究 黄河水利职业技术学院学报32(04):102-104<br /> <br /> [9]国家标准委.（2017） 公共服务领域英文译写规范<br /> <br /> [10]郭京红.（2019）公示语英译中的错误观点与评价方式 海外英语(23)154-155. <br /> <br /> [11]贺学耘. （2006）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略外语与外语教学,(03)57-59. <br /> <br /> [12]李慧文.(2020)神农山风景区公示语英译问题分析 作家天地(15):23-24.<br /> <br /> [13]刘小平. （2019）公示语翻译中存在的问题及对策. 凯里学院学报, (04)72-74.<br /> <br /> [14]刘慧.（2020）公示语的汉译英翻译研究 海外英语,(16):43-44.<br /> <br /> [15]刘培钰,殷嘉媛,翟晓琳,张美琪,谢慧英.（2020）公示语英文译写与城市国际形象构建 百科知识 (27):26-27.<br /> <br /> [16]吕和发. （2005）公示语汉英翻译研究——以2012年奥运会主办城市伦敦为例 北京:中国翻译,(06)38. <br /> <br /> [17]牛海花.（2020）公示语翻译质量的提高对促进齐齐哈尔市旅游城市形象的跨文化传播的意义 理论观察 (07):118-120.<br /> <br /> [18]潘栩童,郭亚卿.（2020）交通公示语英译现状分析及策略研究 农家参谋,(21):251-252+262<br /> <br /> [19]庞燕.（2020）从语言风格谈公示语规范化翻译 海外英语,(20):34-35+41.<br /> <br /> [20]钱琤,李田新.(2020)文化产业及标识语外文翻译现状研究 科教文汇(中旬刊)(11):191-192.<br /> <br /> [21]宋彦杯.(2020)公示语英译原则及实例解析 河南农业(15):61+64.<br /> <br /> [22]田国民. （2019）谈汉语公示语的英译英语教师(22)110-113. <br /> <br /> [23]王回力. （2019）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略 延边教育学院学报(05)31-33. <br /> <br /> [24]王旭年.（2020）社会符号学翻译法视域下西安高校公示语英译研究 渭南师范学院学报35(11):69-76.<br /> <br /> [25]杨洪玉.（2019） 旅游景点公共标识语的英文翻译 北京工业职业技术学院学报(04)122-126. <br /> <br /> [26]杨阳.（2020）“一带一路”战略视域下公示语翻译现状及策略研究 公关世界(22):34-35.<br /> <br /> [27]张焱. （2015）汉英翻译过程中的难译现象处理 北京:中国社会科学出版社(16)44-46<br /> <br /> [28]郑余果,董春枝.(2020)示意功能角度下公示语翻译的错误分析.文学教育(上)(12):138-139.<br /> <br /> [29]周树霞. （2017）浅析公示语的汉英翻译 校园英语(42)239-239.<br /> <br /> == A Study of Translation of Movie Titles in the Light of Venuti's Theory 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan==</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5&diff=113133 2020-12-16T13:23:30Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602 专业 is Missing */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第五部分(Part 5)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Thoughts'''=<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Creative Treason of Literature Translation - 李玉 Li Yu==<br /> <br /> ==On the Analysis of Three Kinds of Beauty in ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence-林敏 Lin Min 202020080616==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;林敏 Lin Min &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation, aiming to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language in a translation. Xu Yuanchong introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties” principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book, he said that the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem. This thesis is going to use such two theories to compare and analyze the two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond in our nation --Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version with some typical and representative examples, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.This thesis is divided into five parts: the first part roughly describes the purpose, method and significant of the study; the second part introduces the general idea and two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond; The third part introduces two translation theories functional equivalence and three beauty principle; the fourth part, some typical examples are selected and two theories are used to compare study the two versions. The fifth part summarizes the whole thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Functional Equivalence, Three Kinds of Beauty<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 功能对等理论指导下《荷塘月色》英译本“三美”的传达<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 功能对等论是翻译理论中最重要的理论之一。功能对等论的目的是实现源语和目标语之间的功能对等。许渊冲在《毛泽东诗词四十二首》序言中提出的译诗的“三美”原则，即音美，意美和形美。本篇文章将利用这两个基本原则，通过一些有代表性的例子对译本进行比较学习，学习研究两篇文章是否符合功能对等。本篇论文共分为五部分，第一部分介绍了本研究的目的、意义和方法；第二部分介绍了《荷塘月色》的大意和两个英译本；第三部分对两个翻译原则：功能对等论和“三美”原则做了简要地介绍；第四部分选取了有代表性的例子，运用了两个理论对两译本进行了对比学习；第五部分对全文进行了总结。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 功能对等论，三美原则<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> With the advent of globalization as well as the development of Chinese economy, more and more Chinese literary works have been introduced abroad. Prose is one of the important part of China’s literature.However there is still not enough attention to the introduction of Chinese prose, especially Chinese modern prose. <br /> <br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''，the well-known lyric prose, written by the famous author Zhu Ziqing, has made a huge influence on the development of Chinese prose. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer's depressing mood. For this prose is a typical example of Chinese modern prose, many translators have given their translations of it, such as Zhu Chunshen, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang, Li Ming and Wang Jiaosheng. A large number of scholars have analyzed its different versions making great contribution to the prose translating. <br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation. Functional equivalence theory introduced by Nida, refers to the fact that the translation does not take rigid correspondence between words and structures as the standard, but aims to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language. The theory emphasizes that“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。<br /> <br /> Here, this paper selects This thesis selects two of the most famous English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen's version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, to compare and study, based on Xu Yuanchong's “Three Beauty” principle under the guidance of functional equivalence. This thesis will compare and analyze the two English versions, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> === 2. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' and Its English Versions ===<br /> Before comparing and analyzing the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' , we need learn some necessary information about the author who wrote it and the relatively background. At present, the two famous English versions are Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version .<br /> <br /> ====2.1 ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is the classical of lyric prose written by Zhu Ziqing in Tsinghua University, Beijing on July 1927，which depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer’s depressing mood. It was published in the Novel Monthly, one of the new literary journals which enjoys the reputation of “the first journal in the China’s literary world” in the 1920s.（Han,2018 ）Since it was published, the article has received both high praise and fierce criticism. From this perspective, it has witnessed the history of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> In this prose, the author is sleepless and sits in his yard to enjoy the cool in the evening. Suddenly, it occurred to his mind that the lotus pond where he passes every day and the pond must be different at night with the moonlight. So, the author wandered lonely on a cinder footpath around the lotus pond, he feels that he is a “free man”. As he sees the pond cover with trim lotus leaves and white lotus flowers, hearing the sounds of the cicadas and the frogs, Zhu thinks that &quot;this animation was theirs alone, I had no part in it（Yang ,1990 ）.&quot;<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Two English Versions ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is one of Zhu Ziqing’s masterpieces and was selected into Chinese textbook. Most scholars say that the prose is “文质相称，形神俱美” which has attracted an amount of scholars and students.（Chen ,2018）The prose has been introduced to foreign countries in different languages, especially in English since the May 4th Movement. The notable translations include Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, Li Ming’s version and Wang Jiaosheng’s version. This thesis choices Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version. Both Zhu ’s version and Yang’s version are faithful to the original meaning and concise to the sentence structure and close to the original style. But Zhu prefer to employ literal translation and Yang uses the free translation, like the words “热闹” ,“冷静”, “群居”and “独处”, Zhu translated these as “a serene and peaceful life”,“a busy and active one”, “being in solitude” and “in company”, in contrast Yang’s translation is “excitement and stillness”.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Basis of Theory ===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Functional Equivalence Theory ====<br /> The first scholar in history to propose the equivalence effect is the British translation theorist Alexander Fraser Tytler in 1790. He defined the “good translation” in his book ''A Brief Introduction to Translation Principles''. He introduced that the good translation completely transfers the advantages of the original work to another language, so that the target language readers can clearly understand and feel strongly as the original readers do. This is to say that a good translation should be able to produce the same effect as the original in different linguistic societies. Then, the German translation theorist Kaul called it a comparable effect in his book ''The Art of Translation'' in 1896.<br /> <br /> Nida’s translation theory was formed in the 1960s and introduced to China in the 1980s. The functional equivalence principle is one of his central translation ideas. In 1964, Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Toward Science of Translating'', proposing to shift the focus of translation research from the attention of static text information to reader’s attention to the dynamic information of the text. In ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida defined this theory again. He proposed that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. Here, the dynamic equivalence refers to the functional equivalence. The basic point of functional equivalence is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by readers with that of the recipient of the target text. It requires the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the original text when understanding the translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Three Kinds of Beauty ====<br /> Xu Yuanchong ,the highly respected translator and famous professor, is known as “the only person who translates Chinese poems into English and French”. He introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties”principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book ,he said that “the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem.”(Xu, 2003) Xu Yuanchong said that “in translation, the beauty in sense is the most important, beauty in sound comes next and the last is beauty in form, when it is difficult to achieve them all, translator should stress beauty in sense.”(Xu, 2003)And professor Xu also claimed that the “Three Beauties” principles can use in researching and studying the translation of prose.<br /> <br /> ===4. On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence ===<br /> Zhu Ziqing used a large number of rhetorical devices and reduplicated words to describe the beauty of the lotus pond under the moonlight at night, to express his gloomy and upset mood, which brings great difficulty to translation, in his famous prose--''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. This part is aimed at using the functional equivalence theory and Xu Yuanchong’s theory of “Three Beauties” to analyze wheatear the two English versions of such prose achieving the degree of function equivalance.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 ====<br /> Words are the basic meaning of sentences. G •Leech divided “meaning” into two categories: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(Leech,1987) The conceptual meaning is the meaning that we can find in dictionary, and the associative meaning is the actually meaning of the word in the special context. It is a truly universal acknowledge that the meaning of the sentence is not simple addition of word meaning. Thus, the translator should find the conceptual meaning and the associative meaning of the original, especially the associative meaning. Here are some typical examples:<br /> <br /> Example 1: “这几天心里颇不宁静。”（Zhu Ziqing , 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu ’s version: “I have felt quite upset recently.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang ’s version: “The last few days have found me very restless.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> This sentence is the first sentence in the first paragraph. Here “不宁静” refers to “quite uncomfortable”, which can be translated as “upset, restless, untranquil, disquieting and so on”. However, considering Zhu Ziqing’s patriotic feeling and his responsibility for his wife and kid, he cannot devote his whole life to the great revolution. Therefore “不宁静” in the context means the author is anxiety, because he want to change his condition. Zhu Chunshen translated it as“upset”which means“unhappy or disappointed because of something unpleasant that has happened”in the ''OED'', which emphasized the unhappy mood. And Yang Xianyi employed it as “restless”, which means “unable to stay still or happy where you are, because you are bored or need a change ” in the ''OED'', which stressed on one needing a change. It is clear that the word “restless” is more exactly than the word “quiet” in this sentence.<br /> <br /> However,“宁静”has an end rhyme“ing”and neither“upset”in Zhu’s translation nor“restless”in Yang’s version opted the words with the same end rhyme for they both focused on the meaning. And such sentence in original text is a 9 characters short sentence with no subject, Yang translated it into 9 words,used the“the last few day”as the subject, while Zhu’s version only has 6 words and selected “I” as the subject. Therefore, Yang’s version is expressive to the original in this sentence and it retains the beauties of form and sense in this sentence at the same time. In short, the two versions are good translation, but the Yang’s version is much better from this point. <br /> <br /> Example 2“这是一条幽僻的路；白天也少人走，夜晚更加寂寞。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: It is peaceful and secluded here, a place not frequented by pedestrians even in the daytime; now at night, it looks more solitary......”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “It is off the beaten track and few pass this way even by day, so at night it is still more quiet.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> The word “幽僻” means “安静和人迹罕至” here. Zhu rendered the word “幽僻” into “peaceful and secluded”, emphasized that there is silent and private. Yang employed it into “off the beaten track” which means no one knows here and quiet. From this perspective, both translations are very similar in understanding the writer’s meaning.<br /> <br /> However, the word “幽僻” is an adjective word with two meanings: quiet and not disturbed by other people. Zhu’ s version “peaceful and secluded” ,are two adjective words and has two similar meanings, which keep the form and sense of the original sentence. In conclusion，according to the “Three Beauties” principle, Zhu’s translation is much better than Yang’s for it retains the form of the original.<br /> <br /> Example 3: “这路上阴森森的，有些怕人。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “The foliage, which, in a moon-less night, would loom somewhat frighteningly dark.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “ On nights when there is no moon the track is almost terrifyingly dark.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> In this sentence, Zhu Ziqing uses “怕人” to describe the atmosphere of the air on the road and his feeling of walking on this path at such a night. “怕人” referred to “令人害怕的” in Chinese, it is an adjective to present his feeling. “Frightening ” means “making you feel afraid”, and “terrifying” means “to make somebody extremely frightened”in the ''OED'' , which can be regarded as synonyms. Both use the adverb to translate the adjective “怕人”. But in Zhu’s translation, “the foliage” is “frighteningly dark” and in Yang’s version, “the track” is “terrifyingly dark”. Both translators have their own understanding of the original content, but the both translations are faithful to the word “怕人”. We could say the two translations achieve the beauty in sense. However, in “Three Beauties” principle, we should consider the beauty in form and sound. As for sound ,the last sound of “怕人” is [en] in Chinese, but both “frightening” and “terrifying” has the same end sound of [en]. As for “frightening” and “terrifying”, the last sound of these are [iŋ] which could be regarded as the similar pronunciation with [en] .So, the two translations achieved beauty in sound from this aspect. In all the both versions are great from this perspective.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 ====<br /> The two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond do a good job in two aspects: “grammaticality”and “idiomaticness”. This part will analyze their features of“clarity”and “ organization”.(“stylistic adaptability” will be analyzed in the next part)<br /> The first is the“clarity”. A qualified translation should be fluent and easy to understand. Here it does not means the two versions have grammatical mistakes.Readers should not be confused by the cultural and social background of a word. In Moonlight over the Lotus Pond ,there are also some words with Chinese cultural or social characteristic. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> Example4 : “我悄悄地披了大衫，带上门出去。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “ Shrugging on an overcoat, quietly, made my way out, closing the door behind me.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang ’s version: “I quietly slipped on a long gown, and walked out leaving the door on the latch.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> The words “大衫”and“带上门” with Chinese characteristics, cannot be simply translated, the translator should carefully apt the best words owing to their traits.<br /> <br /> First of all,“大衫”is means “身长过膝的中式单衣”. Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xianyi employed this word into “overcoat” and “gown” respectively. The overcoat is a long warm coat worn in cold weather. And the gown is a long loose piece of clothing. At the beginning of the prose, the author sits in his yard to enjoy the cool. So, it is hot and the overcoat is not suit for summer. Then, the Chinese people in the later Qing Dynasty and the period of Republican, especially the men who were educated, preferred wearing the long and loose clothes. Thus, “大衫” translated into “grow” is more proper than “overcoat ”. By doing so, readers can correctly understand the meaning of the original text and draw a picture in his mind without confusion: why he wears a thick coat in summer.<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, a house with a courtyard has two doors, the gate of yard and the door of house in China, and when the owner need to go out for a short time, he will not lock the gate of yard, just as the Chinese people says “我一会就回来，别锁门”. Thus the word “带上门出去” translated as “leaving the door on the latch” in Yang’s version is more faithful to the original meaning than the word “closing the door ” in Zhu’s translation. In this sense, readers can receive more information about Chinese cultural or social background.<br /> <br /> To sum up, both two versions of this sentence are fluent without any grammatical errors and successful convey the meaning of original. However, Yang masterly selected the words “long gown” and the expression “leaving the door on the latch” .<br /> <br /> Example5 : 月光如流水一般，静静地泻在这一片叶子和花上。薄薄的青雾浮起在荷塘里。叶子和花仿佛在牛乳中洗过一样；又像笼着轻纱的梦。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: The moon sheds her liquid light silently over the leaves and flowers, which, in the floating transparency of a bluish haze from the pond, look as if they had just been bathed in milk, or like a dream wrapped in a gauzy hood.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: Moonlight cascaded like water over the lotus leaves and flowers, and a light blue mist floating up from the pool made them seem washed in milk or caught in a gauzy dream.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> In order to make the translation more authentic and smooth English, both Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xiangyi used the translation method of combination to combine the original three sentences into a long sentence, but the two versions have their different features. As for the form of the translation, Zhu Chunshen rendered his translation in three segments, short parts and long parts combined that is similar to the original sentence.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 ====<br /> Style is a difficult and hot issues of literary translation. Leech defined style as “the way in which the language is used in a given context, by a given person, for a given purpose and so on”.(Leech,2001:10) Many scholars believe that although the style is not translatable to some extent, the translation should still strive to reproduce the style of the original text. Liu Zhongde emphasized the importance of being close to the style of the original text in his the three-character principle of translation--faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness. Zhu Guanqian also believed that “对原文忠实，不仅是对表面的字义忠实，对情感，思想，风格，声音节奏等必须同时忠实。” (Zhu Guangqian,1984:447)So how should the translator reproduce the original author’s style?<br /> <br /> In the following part, the author of this thesis is going to compare the two English versions, and is based on the translation of rhetorical devices , to discuss whether or not the two versions can reproduce rhetorical effects of the original. This thesis focus on the analysis of metaphor, personification and other rhetorical devices, and selects several fragments of these rhetorical devices as the comparison of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example 6: 叶子出水很高，像亭亭的舞女的裙。层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花......正如一粒粒的明珠，又如碧天里的星星，又如刚出浴的美人。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927) <br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: ...reaching rather high above the surface, like the skirts of dancing girls in all their grace. Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms... like scattering pearls, or twinkling stars, or beauties just out of the bath. (Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: ...which rose high out of the water like the flared skirts of dancing girls. And starring these tiers of leaves were white lotus flowers... like glimmering pearls, stars in an azure sky, or beauties fresh from the bath.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)<br /> <br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing used three extremely beautiful metaphors to form a parallel construction, to enhance the language strength, to express his love of lotus, gives people endless feeling of beauty. <br /> <br /> The author uses “亭亭的舞女的裙” to describe the lotus leaves above the surface, vividly and lively depicted the lotus leaves as the skirt of the dancing girls, which is beautiful and charming. Zhu Chunshen rendered“亭亭” into “in all their grace”, though the meaning is relevant, there is an inappropriate: the metaphor here uses to focus on the dance dress rather than dancing girls, so it is not correctly using too much words to modified the dancer. Yang Xianyi added the word “flared “before the “skirts of dancing girls”, which seems out of thin air. However, “flared” referring to the cloths being “wider at the bottom edge than at the top”, the word is more appreciated and reproduces the scene of lotus leaves. In general, Yang handling of metaphor the first sentence is the most appropriate, also can best affect the beauty of sense.<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing used “一粒粒的明珠”, “碧天里的星星”and “刚出浴的美人” to describe the “白花 ”. The writer used three different things to describe the lovely lotus blooms. As for the form and sound, Zhu Chunshen employed “一粒粒的明珠” and “碧天里的星星” into two same phrases “scattering pearls” and “ twinkling stars ”which end with “-ing”, which is well-read and looks greater; while Yang translated them into two sentences in different forms, which differs from the original form for such sentence is just faithful to the literal meaning of original. As for the clause “刚出浴的美人”, Zhu’s translation is similar to Yang’s.<br /> <br /> All in all, Yang’s version is more appreciated for keeping the sense of beauty in the first sentence of this fragment. And Zhu’s version better reproduces the beauties of sound and form. <br /> <br /> Example 7: “层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花，有袅娜地开着的，有羞涩地打着朵儿的......”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms, some in demure bloom, others in shy bud ...”.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “And starring these tiers of leaves were white lotus flowers, alluringly open or bashfully in bud ...”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)<br /> <br /> “袅娜”and “羞涩”are the words used to describe people;“袅娜” uses to describe elegance posture and expression, especially women’s and girls’. Zhu Chunshen rendered “袅娜” into “demure”, which means “behaving in a way that does not attract attention to herself or her body; quiet and serious” in the OED, which seems inconsistent with the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated it into “alluringly”, which refers to attractive and exciting in a mysterious way in the dictionary. It seems much appropriate. Then as for the word “羞涩”, Zhu translated it into “shy” and Yang’s version is “bashfully”. Both the two words can use to describe people, and use to translate the word “羞涩”. However, the word “bashful” means “shy and easily embarrassed” which is more appropriate to reproduce the beauty of sense. Moreover, yang’s translation retains the beauty of form, because “羞涩” in original text is a adverb, and “bashfully” is a adverb too. Therefore, it is obvious that Therefore, it is obvious that Yang’s version is more appropriate.<br /> <br /> Example8: “微风过处，送来缕缕清香，仿佛远处高楼上渺茫的歌声似的。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “A breeze stirs, sending over breaths of fragrance, like faint singing drifting from a distant building”. (Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “The breeze carried past gusts of fragrance, like the strains of a song faintly heard from a far-off tower.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)<br /> <br /> Synaesthesia is the production of a sense impression relating to one sense or part of body by stimulation of another sense or part of the body. The author uses “歌声” to describe the fragrance of the lotus flowers. Here the fragrance of flowers is originally the sense of smell, but the author written it as a melodic song, the sense of hearing. Zhu Chunshen used “breeze...breaths...building” and “fragrance...faint...from”to describe the faint sound of the song which is vividly and close to the original text. And Zhu employed an alliteration, “drifting from a distant” to make the readers feel the dynamic beauty of lotus and achieve the same effect as the original text.In general, Zhu’s version is more appropriate for he reproducing the beauties of sense and sound .<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> We learn from the study and comparison. We develop from the study and comparison. While we are accumulating English and Chinese knowledge and practicing translation skill, we should also study others’ translations carefully. Through comparative study, we can improve ourselves.<br /> <br /> Through the comparative analysis of these two English translations, we will find that functional equivalence theory has been fully embodied. Functional equivalence theory is a bridge connecting world cultures, fully reproducing the original text through form equivalence, content equivalence，so that the readers of the target texts receive the same feeling as the readers of the original. Functional equivalence theory not only has a wide range of applications now, but in the future, functional equivalence theory will certainly play its role in promoting the exchange and development of various cultures and promoting the prosperity of the world’s culture.<br /> <br /> ===6..Reference===<br /> * Leech G N,(2001) Short M H.Style in Fiction:A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2001:10.<br /> * Chen Bohui.陈波慧(2018).汉英叠词对比及其英译——以《荷塘月色》两个英译本为例.[ Comparison of Chinese and English Reduplication and Their English Translation——Taking the Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' as an example ].海外英语.[''Overseas English'']. 2018.7<br /> * Han Zhengshun, Wang Jian.韩征顺,王健. （2008）月朦胧,荷朦胧,雾蒙蒙,意浓浓——《荷塘月色》四译文“模糊美”研究. [A Study on the “Fuzzy Beauty” of the Four Translations of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''] .西安外国语大学学报.[ Journal of Xi’an International Studies University] 第16卷　第4期.Vol. 16 Issue 4<br /> * Liu Huiqun.刘慧群(2015).《荷塘月色》修辞翻译管窥[ A Glimpse of Rhetorical Translation of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'']. 语文学刊 [''Chinese Journal'']外语教育教学[Foreign Language Education and Teaching ].2015年第10期. 2015, Issue 10<br /> * Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲.(1978)毛泽东诗词四十二首.[Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong]. 洛阳：中国人民解放军外国语学院[Chinese People's Liberation Army Institute of Foreign Languages] 1978.<br /> * Yang Xianyi, Gladys Yang杨宪益，戴乃迭(1990,5). ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. 英语学习[''English Learning''], 1990(5).<br /> *Yuan Lei.袁雷.功能对等理论指导下的散文英译及三美分析——《荷塘月色》的两个英译本比较[ On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence]贵州师范大学.[Guizhou Normal University]<br /> * Zhu Ziqing.朱自清(1927).荷塘月色[''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''].全日制普高高一语文第一册第 5 课.[General High School Chinese Book 1 Lesson 5],原载 1927年7月10日《小说月报》第18卷第7期[originally published in ''Novel Monthly''].北京：人民教育出版社[ Beijing: People’s Education Publishing Society] <br /> * Zhu Chunshen.朱纯深(1992). ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''.中国翻译.[''Chinese Translation'']. 1992, (1).<br /> <br /> ==Lexical Gap between English and Chinese and its translation strategies 孟莹 Meng Ying==<br /> <br /> ==On Form and Spirit in Translation -文偲荇 Wen Sixing, 202020080649==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 文偲荇 Wen Sixing &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Both the form and the spirit should be pursued in translation, which is a dialectical relationship. However, in translation, it often loses its spirit because of various factors that lead to excessive pursuit of formal resemblance. It is very important to deal with the problem between the formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance in translation. While emphasizing the spiritual resemblance, do not forget the formal resemblance. If possible, try to achieve a balance between the two, and make a choice in the specific context. Only in this way can the translation realize the new unity of the form and content of the source language in the target language. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Formal resemblance; Spiritual resemblance; Form and Content; Dialectical unification<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 论翻译中的形的贴合与神的韵味<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 翻译时应追求形神兼备，这两者是一种辨证关系，但在翻译时常常会因为各种因素导致过度追求形似而失去神韵。处理好翻译中形似与神似之间的问题至关重要。在强调神似的同时不要忘记形似，在可能的情况下尽量达成两者之间的平衡，而在特定的语境下也可做出取舍，才有利翻译在译入语中实现传达原语形式和内容新的统一。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 神似与形似；形式与内容；辨证统一<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition====<br /> Formal resemblance means that when translating, the target text should be consistent with the original text in terms of words, sentence structure, expression and figurative means. And spiritual resemblance means that when translating, we should try to keep the spirit and charm of the original work and achieve the artistic effect of the original work.<br /> “&quot;Form&quot;, in translation activities, is the most important refers to &quot;language&quot;. And &quot;deformation&quot; is what we call &quot;language transformation&quot;. From the source language to the target language, &quot;deformation&quot;, that is, &quot;language transformation&quot;, is inevitable. The change of sound and shape, as well as the combination of sound, shape and meaning should also be changed. And &quot;spirit&quot;, to use the terminology of contemporary linguistics, refers to the product of &quot;linguistic activities&quot;. From the point of view recognized by the current translation circle, &quot;spirit&quot; refers to &quot;meaning&quot; to a large extent, but the problem lies in the definition of &quot;meaning&quot;, and the linguistic field has not formed a unified view. In fact, many debates about &quot;spirit&quot; and &quot;form&quot; are more or less rooted in the understanding of &quot;spirit&quot; and &quot;form&quot;”.（Xu Jun 2003:01）<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Spiritual resemblance in Translation====<br /> The spiritual resemblance is first put forward by Fu Lei(1950). He said, &quot;As far as effect is concerned, translation should be like painting. What is sought is not resemblance in form but resemblance in spirit.&quot; Zhu Shenghao also put forward the idea of &quot;keeping the spirit of the original&quot;. He said, &quot;The aim of the book is to preserve the spirit of the original as far as possible. Must be forced to seek the next, also must be clear and clear words, faithfully convey the meaning of the original; However, the hard translation with word-for-word contrast is not appreciated &quot;. “神”, means the spirit of the original. Good literary works always have rich feelings, profound artistic conception, strong appeal and strong artistic effect. <br /> <br /> ===2. The relationship between Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Correlation====<br /> Yan Fu, said in &lt;Theory of natural selection&gt;, &quot;Three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expression and elegance&quot;. &quot;Faithfulness&quot; means that the meaning does not differ from the original text, that is, the translation should be accurate, not deviate, not omit, and not add or subtract meanings at will. &quot;Expression&quot; means not sticking to the original form, but making the translation smooth and clear; &quot;Elegance&quot; means that the words chosen in the translation should be appropriate and the article itself should be quaint and concise. In translation, it is difficult to be faithful to the ideological content of the original text. However, if you correctly understand the original text without &quot;expressing&quot; it in a smooth translation, it is equivalent to no translation. Therefore, emphasis should be placed on &quot;expressing&quot; at this time. Since then, the expression of translation has become the focus of translation studies.<br /> Formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance is two different means of translating expression, question of &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; in translation also is one of the most discussed and most difficult fundamental issues to be unified. &quot;The relationship between form and spirit, which directly reflects the relationship between signifier and signified, which is closely related to the means and ends of translation. The so-called means is the transformation of form, while the end is the rebirth of spirit.&quot;by Xu Jun(2003:01). Fundamentally speaking, &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; are interdependent. No &quot;form&quot; means no &quot;spirit&quot;. <br /> However, the saying that &quot;sprit follows form&quot;, which we often emphasize, gives form the primary character as the material basis for spirit's existence. &quot;Form&quot; is concrete, and the relationship between &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; involves every aspect of human life. The discussion about &quot;body&quot; and &quot;soul&quot; is, to a certain extent, a dispute about the relationship between &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot;. &quot;soul&quot; and &quot;flesh&quot; in religion, &quot;substance&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; in philosophy, &quot;form&quot; and &quot;content&quot; in literature, etc, all originate from the fundamental problem of &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot;. &quot;As far as translation is concerned, the question of &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; can be said to be an obvious paradox. The contradiction lies in the fact that &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; are interdependent and inseparable in nature, while the fundamental task of translation is to achieve the rebirth of &quot;spirit&quot; through &quot;form&quot; transformation&quot;, by Xu Jun(2003:02). And then, the question is, if the form changes, will the spirit remain the same?<br /> <br /> ====2.2 In translation, numerous factors may cause the Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance out of step====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Metaphors and Associations=====<br /> Due to the different ways of expression in the two languages, the metaphors and associations used in SL(source language) are often unacceptable to TL(target language) readers, or TL readers cannot understand them at all. Or from the surface structure, target language is similar to source language said, but in the sense is not exactly the same, even lost a thousand miles. In this case, for example, the expression form of source language is still used in translation and try to be similar in appearance, which is bound to form a semblance, with similar appearance and spirit completely lost.<br /> <br /> ex）&quot;A man may break a word with you,sir,and words are but wind.&quot;(SL)<br /> “先生，跟你说话的人可能会失言，而言语总会随风而逝。”(TL)<br /> <br /> &quot;Break a word with you&quot; and &quot;words are but wind&quot; are all metaphors in English that may be difficult for non-native speakers to understand when translated.<br /> <br /> ex）&quot;The rain came down in long knitting needles.&quot;(SL)<br /> “雨滴像长长的编织针一样落下。”(TL)<br /> <br /> &quot;Long knitting needles&quot;, is a special thing that exists in the context of a native speaker, so non-native speakers are likely to have no accurate concept of it, so it's hard to fully grasp the metaphor even with an honest translation.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 The cultural differences=====<br /> The translator and the author have different cultural backgrounds, so their understanding of the original text is naturally different. This difference in understanding is mainly due to the influence of preconceived notions. This is a pervasive cultural phenomenon.<br /> <br /> ex）He is really the man in the moon(SL) <br /> “他是个真正的月老”(TL)*<br /> “他是个真正远离世俗的人”(TL)<br /> <br /> In Britain, people traditionally think of the dark shadow of the moon as a person. The moon is far from the earth, the people in the moon of the nature, he must be unknown to the human world. So He is really a man in the moon means &quot;He is really a man out of the world&quot;(他是个真正远离世俗的人).(Niu Chuangyue,2006:215). Under the influence of traditional Chinese culture, once people see the image words &quot;moon&quot; and &quot;man&quot; combined together, they will naturally think of &quot;Yuelao(月老)&quot;——The legendary god of marriage, which leads to the deviation in translation.<br /> <br /> ex）He is always politically correct(SL) <br /> 他总是政治正确(TL)*<br /> 他说话四平八稳(TL)<br /> <br /> Many people take this sentence that &quot;He is always politically correct&quot; as &quot;He is always correct in politics&quot;, which is in line with the Chinese mindset, but it's not what it says. Politics in Chinese refer to principles of thought and ideology while in English politics refer to how they approach people. &quot;He is always politically correct&quot; is not &quot;He is always correct in politics&quot;, but &quot;He's smooth talking.&quot;<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3 The context of languages changes=====<br /> The surface layer of words, is a relatively fixed objective reality; And its deep, namely its connotation, but often because of the person's subjective will shift. For language learners and users, it is not difficult to get familiar with the surface, but to grasp the connotation of its continuous shift. To grasp the connotation of words is to analyze the actual meaning of users in a specific context, which is also known as &quot;understanding&quot; in translation. The change of context can be divided into subjective and objective. The so-called subjective change refers to the meaning given to words by users for certain needs; And the objective change is the change in meaning caused by the natural environment.<br /> <br /> ex) Made in China(SL)<br /> （由）中国制造(TL1)<br /> （在）中国制造(TL2)<br /> <br /> Made in China was, of course, “由中国制造”, before western multinationals entered the country. But when multinational companies enter China, the products they set up in factories in China are still marked &quot;Made in China&quot;, but they are not “由中国制造” but “在中国制造”. Made in China, likewise, is different by circumstance, either “由中国制造” or “在中国制造”, of which its connotation is different. Therefore, when understanding the original text, it is not enough to just focus on the literal itself, More attention should be paid to the impact of changes in social history and context.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.4 Human factors=====<br /> &quot;Language is a dog&quot;. It means that people are subject to language. In fact, this metaphor only illustrates one aspect of the relationship between man and language, namely, man's passive adaptation to language changes. Such passive adaptation certainly exists objectively. But a closer look reveals that the so-called passive adaptation is also due to some human factors rather than the powerful inertia of non-language itself.<br /> On June 20, 2005 British farmers grow potatoes held a noisy protest in London, protesting the Oxford English dictionary, included the couch potato (refers to passive while sitting idly spend your leisure time, especially all day watching TV or DVD), think it said the potatoes too unhealthy, so strongly asked the Oxford English dictionary, delete the entry with couch slouch replace the couch potato.<br /> This event vividly illustrates the human element of semantic change. Potato is originally a plant without any emotional factors, but it has been artificially given some kind of associative meaning. In a sense, of course, this is an expression of the richness of language, but this richness comes at the cost of deducing the actual meaning of specific concepts. If we compare documents from hundreds or thousands of years ago with the languages we speak today, we will find a general phenomenon that today's languages are much more complex and abstract than those of old. The reason is that we are constantly deducing the semantic meaning of specific concepts or words for various rhetorical purposes. In the concrete application of language, such deduction exists objectively and is also the concrete manifestation of the normal function of language communication. However, in translation, the translator should try to avoid the appearance of such deduction and manifestation, or at least control it within a certain limit, which may lead to the semantic variation of the primitive concept in the translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Balance of Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance in Translation====<br /> Of course, it is best to retain the original spirit in translation, but is form and spirit necessarily contradictory? The answer is clearly no. This is because sometimes formal resemblance is spiritual resemblance. The ideological content and emotional charm of a literary work must be expressed in a certain form. Sometimes the original text has some metaphors or associative images, vivid and lifelike, with strong appeal, the emotion and artistic conception appear on the paper, and the source language habits are also close to the target language. At this time, keeping the original form of the translation actually plays a role of spirit evocative. By keeping this form, the translation can achieve the unity of form and spirit. <br /> <br /> ex) He was a friendly and very hospitable man.(SL)<br /> 他是个友善而又十分好客的人。/他为人友善，热情好客。(TL)<br /> <br /> ex)Though somewhat pompous, he was an entertaining companion.(SL)<br /> 虽然有些浮夸，（仍不免承认）他是个娱人的伴侣。(TL)<br /> <br /> ex)He was a man of good understanding and talents.(SL)<br /> 他为人通达而富有才情。(TL)<br /> <br /> ex)There are people to do everything for money.(SL)<br /> 为了钱什么事情都有人做。/有些人为了钱无所不为。(TL)<br /> <br /> The above examples show that, at some point, Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance can achieve a harmonious unity. Proper formal equivalence not only helps to preserve the language style of the original text, but also enriches the expression form of the target language. Such expression can achieve both the form and the spirit of the target language, on the one hand, it can retain the form of the original language, on the other hand, it cannot lose its spirit.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Choice====<br /> <br /> =====2.4.1 The pursuit of spiritual resemblance first=====<br /> But in more cases, Formal resemblance and Spiritual resemblance cannot be both.In the translation of literary works, the pursuit of a similar-looking translation lacks vitality. It would be best if the two languages can have both formal resemblance and spiritual resemblance. However, due to great differences in thinking mode, cultural basis and language structure of the two languages, especially the target language and the source language belong to two different language families with great cultural differences, it is difficult to achieve the unity of the formal resemblance and the spiritual resemblance. In this case, if the blind pursuit of form similarity, the pursuit of language structure, vocabulary, grammar and other aspects of equivalence, will make the translation stiff, obscure, difficult to understand. For example, in English-Chinese translation, translators with low proficiency are often unable to get rid of the linguistic structure and form of the original text, resulting in a large number of European languages appearing in the Chinese translation.<br /> Professor King Shenghua(2006), a famous Hong Kong translator, once criticized this Europeanized language and called it &quot;translated style&quot;. &quot;What is 'translated style' ?&quot; she said. “The word 'translationese' in English. In the past, it has been called the &quot;translation cavity&quot;, which means the translation has a strange-sounding, and unbearable tone of European language. However, up to now, the &quot;translation cavity&quot; is no longer enough to describe this phenomenon, because the evolution so far has formed a style, which appears not only in the translation, but also in the daily life of writing, meeting and communication.” This phenomenon is not conducive to the development of translation. From the following examples, you can see the awkwardness of pursuing only the form of translation. <br /> <br /> ex)There was much traffic at night and many mules on the road with boxes of ammunition on each side of their pack—saddles and gray motor trucks that carried men, and other trucks with loads covered with canvas that moved slower in the traffic.(SL)<br /> 晚上交通甚繁，有许多骡子走过，鞍子驮着军火箱子，灰色的摩托货车装着人，此外，还有一些装货的货车，上面用帆布盖着，走起来慢一点。(TL)*<br /> 夜间，这里运输繁忙，路上有许多骡子，鞍子的两侧驮着弹药箱，灰色的卡车上坐满了士兵，还有一些辎重车辆，用帆布盖着，在路上慢慢的行驶着。(TL)<br /> <br /> Boxes, motor trucks, and trucks were used to identify the “军火箱子”,“摩托货车”, and “装货的货车”, totally be loyal to the source language. But in literary translation, the translation needs to consider the specific context. The writing background of this article is the period of war, so the translator should also put these words in the specific writing background of war, i.e. the “弹药箱”, “卡车”, “辎重车辆” in the next translation. The translation here obviously violates the original meaning and is a kind of betrayal to the original text. However, this kind of betrayal is the result of the translator's proper re-creation after considering the writing background of the original text. That is to say, in the process of translation, the translator lays emphasis on the spiritual resemblance of the original text, and thus abandons the formal resemblance in part.<br /> <br /> ex)“原始森林景区是一个最具自身特点的生态观光区。放眼沟畔，‘林涛万顷接天碧，幽谷百丈入地青’ 的峡谷奇观，总会让人长久驻足; 登上矗立于沟畔的望火楼极目远眺，会真切体验登临泰山那种‘会当凌绝顶，一览众山小’的感觉。”(SL)<br /> “The scenic primitive forest, as an eco-tourism place of interest, possesses its distinctive style. No tourists will not take time to enjoy the canyon spectacle: the vast expense of trees choiring in the wind and the deep valley dressed in green stretches long and deep. When climbing up the fire-watching tower and gawking into the distance, touristscanexperiencethesense: &quot;I have now ascended the mountain's crest that dwarfs all peaks under my feet&quot; , just as standing on top of Mount Tai. ”(TL)<br /> <br /> “Artistic creation originates from a different national (aesthetic standard). As for the translation of artistic conception, some uncertain factors, such as language structure, narrative method, aesthetic method and context creation, often make it difficult for the translation to realize the absolutely correct &quot;equivalence&quot;. The implication of this is that contextual translation has a lot of arbitrariness (i.e., asymmetrical equivalence) and is often not limited to any theory. This arbitrariness is reflected in the inspiration generation and Aesthetic creation of the translator in the process of translation. In other words, the translator is affected by the artistic conception of the original text, arouses infinite emotion and artistic conception, and naturally puts this feeling into the translation. The key lies in the expressiveness, that is, the fluency and accuracy of the narration, and the completion of the transformation from one kind of beauty to another. ”(Zhang Ju,2011:76)<br /> <br /> =====2.4.2 Formal resemblance first=====<br /> The choice of formal resemblance is preferred, mostly in the case of neat alignment and elegant form. For example, the translation of Chinese couplets, or poems, such as antithetical couplets, is a very important form of text.In the translation of general text, content is the primary form. However, when translating poetry, both content and form must be paid equal attention to. For poetry, form is often an integral part of the content that cannot be divided.<br /> <br /> ex)《芣苢》：“采采芣苢，薄言采之。采采芣苢，薄言有之。采采芣苢，薄言掇之。采采芣苢，薄言捋之。采采芣苢，薄言袺之。采采芣苢，薄言襭之。”(SL)<br /> Gathering plantain, Here we go plucking it; Gathering plantain, Here we go picking it. Gathering plantain, Quick fingers strip it; Gathering plantain, By handfuls pull it. Gathering plantain, Here we fill skirts with it; Gathering plantain, Belt up full skirts. (translated by Yang Xianyi)(TL)<br /> <br /> ex)You say that you love rain, but you open your umbrella when it rains...<br /> You say that you love the sun, but you find a shadow spot when the sun shines...<br /> You say that you love the wind, But you close your windows when wind blows...<br /> This is why I am afraid; You say that you love me too...(SL)<br /> 你说烟雨微芒，兰亭远望；后来轻揽婆娑，深遮霓裳。<br /> 你说春光烂漫，绿袖红香；后来内掩西楼，静立卿旁。<br /> 你说软风轻拂，醉卧思量；后来紧掩门窗，漫帐成殇。<br /> 你说情丝柔肠，如何相忘；我却眼波微转，兀自成霜。(TL)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that in order to maintain the evenness and the artistic conception of the poem, many images and function words that were not in the original text were added in the translation. Thus it can be seen that it is of course ideal to achieve spiritual resemblance in translation, but it is also a choice to achieve formal resemblance. As long as it conveys the connotation of the original text and achieves functional equivalence, it should be regarded as a success.<br /> <br /> ===3. Discussion on Form and Spirit===<br /> It should be noted that in the history of translation, the thinking about &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; has been going on almost all the time. In the 20th century, there have been many heated discussions about &quot;form&quot; and &quot;spirit&quot; in Chinese literary translation, and the focus of the discussions is mainly on whether translation should seek formal resemblance or spiritual resemblance. On the surface, it does not seem to be a problem whether the translation should seek resemblance in form or in spirit, because seeking resemblance is not and should not be the purpose of translation. “However, those who advocate formal resemblance believe that only by seeking formal resemblance first can the spiritual resemblance be guaranteed. But the school that advocates spiritual resemblance thinks, shape resemblance is hard to find, can rely on spiritual resemblance only. The former pursues the first appearance and then spirit, and &quot;both form and spirit&quot; is the best realm; The latter takes &quot;spiritual resemblance&quot; as the only pursuit, and clearly puts forward that &quot;what the translation seeks for is not in appearance but in spiritual resemblance&quot;. Due to the difference in emphasis between the formal resemblance school and the spiritual resemblance school, there are also differences in translation methods. The former advocates literal translation while the latter advocates free translation.”(Xu Jun,2003:02)<br /> The discussion of form and spirit in translation can be traced back to Mao Dun's article &quot;Responsibility and Efforts of New Literature Researchers&quot;, published in &lt;Fiction Monthly&gt; (1921), in which he proposed that &quot;the most important artistic color of a literary work is the spirit of the work. Chen Xiying also published &quot;on Translation&quot; in &lt;New Moon&gt;(1929), proposing the theory of sculpture and painting. He pointed out that &quot;translation is the same as painting, of course, imitation is the most important. But the imitation art of a original painting uses the same brush color, while the original text of a book and the translated text use very different languages. Due to different tools, the methods vary greatly.&quot; Chen also divides translation into three levels, formal resemblance, meaning resemblance and spiritual resemblance. Chen's &quot;Three Levels&quot; theory is similar to Zhu Shenghao's &quot;Three Levels&quot;: (spirit, interest and charm, and rigid translation) theory in translation of Shakespeare's plays. Xu Yuanchong, a famous translator and professor of Peking University, also put forward the theory of &quot;three likings&quot;, based on his own experience in poetry translation. In the &lt;Art of Translation&gt;, he said, &quot;In order to convey the beauty of meaning, sound and form of poetry, the degree of meaning resemblance, sound resemblance and shape resemblance in the translation can be changed.&quot; Jiang Feng, a translator, pursues &quot;Resemblance in form followed by resemblance in spirit&quot;. He said in the afterword of translation of &lt;Selected Shelley poems&gt; that &quot;In translating poems, one should strive to be alike in form and spirit&quot;, because &quot;Spirit lives in form, and those who lose his form are bound to perish his spirit&quot;. Bian Zhilin, also advocated that the translated poems should be translated in accordance with the original form.<br /> Therefore, as far as translation is concerned, Mao Dun and Fu Lei advocate the emphasis on spiritual resemblance rather than formal resemblance, Jiang Feng advocates both form and spirit, while Bian Zhilin advocates that form resemblance is spiritual resemblance.<br /> <br /> ===4. Conclusion===<br /> In the process of translation, to achieve the dialectical unity of form and spirit, at least two aspects need to be considered: one is the restriction of form on content; the other is the stylistic meaning of form itself. We should not only consciously convey the content of the original text, but also convey the formal meaning, so as to achieve a new unity of form and content in the target language, to produce a better translation and achieve a harmonious unity between form and spirit. However, in some cases the formal resemblance is the spiritual resemblance. The two are not completely separated, but there is a part of you and a part of me in each other. Sometimes the formal resemblance is bigger than the spiritual resemblance, and sometimes spiritual resemblance is bigger than the formal resemblance. This is the dialectic of things, if we insist on consistency, it will backfire. Therefore, we should not only get a thorough understanding of the original text, in-depth study, strive for both form and spirit, grasp the key points and master them thoroughly, but also be prepared to abandon the form of the original text, grasp the essence of the original text, use appropriate form, the original text for artistic recreation, so as to strive for the ideal effect of spirit resemblance.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> Cui Yonglu. 崔永禄. (2002). 得意不可忘形——试论翻译中形与神的辨证关系. [Pride must not Be Lost in Shape -- On the dialectical relationship between form and God in Translation]. 天津外国语学院学报. [Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University] 1-5. <br /> <br /> Li Zhengguo. 李振国. (2016). 从奈达的功能对等理论视角探析英汉翻译中的“形神兼备”——以程雨民的《初次与约翰逊见面》译本为例. [An Analysis of &quot;Both form and Spirit&quot; in English-Chinese translation from the Perspective of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory -- A case study of Cheng Yumin's First Meeting with Johnson]. 贵州师范学院学报. [Journal of Guizhou Normal University] 92-94. <br /> <br /> Niu Chuangyue. 牛喘月. (2006). 形与神俱,不可分离——从语义与语境的演变看中医翻译中的“常”与“变”. [Form and Spirit are inseparable -- &quot;Chang&quot; and &quot;Chang&quot; in TCM Translation from the Perspective of Semantic and Contextual Evolution]. 中西医结合学报. [Journal of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine] 215-220.<br /> <br /> Pang Xuefeng. 庞学峰. (2013). 翻译中的文质之争与神形之辩. [The quality of the text and the form of the debate in translation]. 赤峰学院学报(汉文哲学社会科学版). [Journal of Chifeng College (Chinese Philosophy and Social Sciences edition)] 150-151. <br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). “形”与“神”辨. [&quot;Form&quot; and &quot;Spirit&quot;]. 上海外国语大学学报. [Journal of Shanghai International Studies University] 57-66.<br /> <br /> Zhang Ju. 张巨. (2011). 汉英意境翻译中的形与神. [Form and Spirit in Chinese-English translation of Artistic Conception]. 江苏外语教学研究. [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu province] 74-78.<br /> <br /> Zhang Rui. 张蕊. (2015). 从形与神之矛盾看“翻译者即背叛者”. [From the contradiction between form and Spirit, &quot;translator is a traitor&quot;]. 鸭绿江(下半月版). [The Yalu River (second Half)] 122+117. <br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaoman. 张小曼. (2006). 诗歌翻译中的形神问题——以杜甫《望岳》一诗的英译为例. [The Problem of Form and Spirit in Poetry Translation -- Taking The English translation of Du Fu's Wangyue as an example]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版). [Journal of Hefei University of Technology (Social Science edition)] 157-160.<br /> <br /> ==Book Analysis: The Way of Transaltion: Theories and Applications 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing==<br /> <br /> A shallow Analysis of the Book--The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications<br /> Abstract: The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications closely circled around the mutual relationship between translation theory and practice to make explanation about translation studies. This article aims to make a summary about the original text, which includes a brief translation history, the present situation about the translation study, the detailed analysis about the “cultural turn” as well as some important redefined concept about translation studies and the deep reflection about the translation studies. The author would like to make some analysis about the book from different perspectives, includes the introduction, major contend, academic contributions, strength and weakness etc.<br /> <br /> Key Words: translation theory and practice; “cultural turn”; medio-translotology; translation study; textual purpose<br /> <br /> I. Introduction<br /> <br /> 1. About the Background<br /> As we all know, the theory and practice are interrelated with each other closely. Since the beginning of the social practice and people began to work, human beings know exactly how to use their wisdom to accumulate their experience. So did translation activities. Translation activities began from the fact that human beings used language to communicate. At the early stage, it was mainly serving to the purpose of ideology. With the development of formal translation activity, translation activities diversified. Since the contemporary and modern times, translation studies have been prospered across the world. In the west, the representatives were scientific linguistics, philological school. In China, we mainly focused on the study of literature translation at that time. After the May 4th Movement as well as the contemporary event called reform and opening up, we Chinese citizens appealed to learn the advanced western approaches and theories. As western advanced theories were introduced into China, different areas of scientific studies like theory of literature and art, psychology, philosophy and sociology provided rich contends and materials for the study of translation, which helped the later became an independent and disciplinary subject. However, after Cultural Turn, translation studies followed this trend. They no longer solely targeted at the translation activities and theories, but also included other spheres which concerned about various aspects of human activities (Cao Minglun, 2003). This made translation studies lose their defined focus on translation research itself. Since the translation studies were transitioned into other spheres while the translation activities kept its own sphere, the relationship between the two was no longer closely interrelated with each other. Therefore translation teaching jobs and translation and interpretation activities have become worse. Because of this, it turned to be an urgent need to establish a systematic and cohesive guiding system about translation theories and practice.<br /> <br /> Thus, the publishment of the book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications quickly won the praise and good comments from translators and students majoring in translation. At the same time, this book provided a systematic and scientific study for translation teaching practice and researches. <br /> <br /> 2. '''About the author'''<br /> Cao Minglun, professor as well as doctoral supervisor of Sichuan University, received his doctor degree at Peking University. He majored in the studying of British and American literature, translation studies, literature translation and the study of comparative culture. During his three years at Peking University, Professor Cao systematically studied the present translation researches and the realistic problems. Combined with his decades of translation experience, he dived into the study translation books and monographs. Through the combination of logical researches and provision of living samples, the combining approach of diachronic review and synchronic research, Professor Cao built up a systematic academic system about translation practice and theory by transcending various subjects, providing research direction for our researchers.<br /> The book The Way of Translation: Theories and Applications published in 2007 and revised in 2013, was the most famous representation of him. The author would like to introduce this book in the following and make some analytical comments about it based on his understanding and facts.<br /> <br /> II. '''Main body'''<br /> <br /> 1. '''The brief introduction'''<br /> From the point of view of Professor Cao, the interrelationship between translation practice and theory can be summed up with six characters, which are “mutual construction, mutual supplementation and mutual manifestation”. Centering on the relationship between translation theories and practice, the book The way of Translation Studies explained effectively how to analysis properly this kind of relationship. This book is divides into eight chapters; each of them clearly focuses on how to manifest the relationship based on different perspectives. First of all, in the first chapter, it made a vivid review about both the eastern and western translation history which highlights the fact that the two are closely interrelated with each other since the beginning of the translation activity. Second, in the second chapter, the book targeted on the contemporary situation of translation theory and practice and pointed out the essential matters. The author then made a thorough research about “the Cultural Turn” and the origin of the discipline of Translation Studies. He pointed out the urgent problem of the focus of translation research and the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice. Thirdly, the author reaffirmed respectively about the concept of translation, its aim as well as the tasks of translation studies in a logical manner. In his strong belief, the content of translation will not lose with the diversification of scientific researches. Translation should be regarded as the activity of the transformation of linguistic signs. Fourthly, the author made a detailed description of the present situation of translation theory and practice. Then he taught us how to combine both the theory and practice together, which provides us with a practical approach to further study the relationship between translation theory and practice. During this process, the author pointed out that the purpose of translation should be focused on the transformation of the texts itself rather than other purposes and he also proposed the concepts of “textual purpose” and “non-textual purpose”. Besides this, Professor Cao borrowed Benjamin’s appeal to the translators ’tasks, pointing out that a translator must be loyal to the original book and the translation version should not stick to one type and be independent. In terms of the translation standard, Professor Cao made a clear distinguish between translation studies and medio-translatology and he emphasized the weak points of new criticism. In the next chapter, that is chapter five, the Professor draw a line between translation study and translation theory. The concept of translation study includes translation theory, translation history and translation analysis. At the same time, he creatively established “the location map of translation theory”, they are “introvert ontology” and “extrovert comprehensiveness”. The six and seven chapters made a detailed reviewed about the translation theory and practice. For the theory part, researches did not provide strong evidence and lack of prove and identification, the translation of terms and translation nouns did not consist with each other and the logical problems about thinking pattern and language organization. He also tackled on the recognition process to prove whether it was objective. Finally, Professor proposed the effective way of combining translation theory and practice together, pointing out the scientific approach for translators. Above all, the whole book followed by severe and strict scientific demonstration of the relationship between translation theory and practice, providing us with effective approach to combine both the practice and theory together during which process, the systematically theoretical guidance was constructed. This all contributed to an excellent academic book rich in content and vivid in demonstration. <br /> <br /> 2. '''The Specific Exposition'''<br /> To be more specific, in the second chapter, Professor Cao made a description about both the east and west contemporary translation study. Since many scholars have previously contributed the reasons of the imbalanced relationship between translation theory and practice to the phenomenon called “cultural turn”, Professor Cao had done a great program in the study of “cultural turn”. For example, to discover why the imbalanced situation between translation study and theory appeared, Professor Cao did quite a lot of comparative study of the previous scholars’ work. He found out that a lot of intellectuals had already discovered the problems, believing that translation theory and practice were broke up with each other for quite long time. Many scholars thought the most severe problem was that translation theory did not focus on the practice itself but other spheres like human activity or cultures etc. Therefore, the Professor made a thorough investigation about the history after “cultural turn”. During this process, he discovered that decades of years of “annual overview” towards translation study had severe problems published in Chinese Translation Journal. In fact, translation study in China did not establish comprehensive and scientific study towards translation practice. The name of this subject is called Translation Studies, the author made a deep exploration of this name. Among which, the most impressive one should belong to translation study’s concept of Holmes by Tury as well as the four research fields divided by Bassinet in the late 1980s. This transition made a great impact on the happening of the phenomenon of “cultural turn”. Besides this, Professor Cao did a thorough research about the book written by Bassinet and the other person named “Translation, history and culture”. In the introduction part, the content can be called the announcement of “cultural turn”. Before the translation subject became an independent subject, it was considered in the fields of literature. In the announcement part, Professor pointed out that the review about the translation study in the fields of literature helps to give power to let translation get independent. <br /> <br /> While in terms of the origin of the term ‘Translation Study”, the Professor made a detailed and scientific study about a period of history about scholar Holmes. In 1972, from August 21st to 26th, the Third International Applied Linguistics Seminar was opened in Copenhagen. The American Scholar Holmes, the Professor of Amsterdam University attended this conference and he also handed in the paper named “The Nature of Translation Studies”. This paper used a third length to revise the formal name of translation study. For the English alone, the previous used names were Science of Translation, Translation Theory, Translatology, and Translatistics. In Holmes’s view, he points out that the names above had their respective weakness as the names of these translation versions did not have a solitary direction, this would greatly impact the future development of this subject because people found it hard to have a common consensus. Therefore, he recommended using Translation Studies as the set name of this subject. In the later part of this article, Holmes set this subject as an empirical discipline and set the research scope as well as designs the disciplinary framework. However, in the later ten years, although the name Translation Studies was widely accepted, Holmes’ design and plan did not receive wide response. Until he was passed away two years later, his paper collections “Translated! Paper on Literary Translation and Translation Studies, 1988” was published. His translation philosophy won the positive response and recognition from the translation circle and was widely considered the establishing announcement of the subject of Translation Study. (Gentzler, 1993:92/2004:933). In 1995, Toury in his book Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond, he constructed Toury’s concept of translation study as Holmes’ basic “map” of Translation Studies :(Toury, 1995:10).<br /> <br /> From this map we can see, the blueprint of Holmes can be grand and his written one can be regarded as much greater.(Holmes, 1988:72-73). As we can see from this above picture, translation study is divided into two dimensions, one is the pure theory and the other is applied linguistics. According to Holmes’ explanation, the branch of descriptive translation study, that is function-oriented DTS will gradually developed into socio-translation study, while the process-oriented DTS will developed into socio-translation study(Holmes,1988:72-73). However, in his explanation, Holmes did not neglect totally those questions that translators concerned about for 2000 years. For example, Translation Critics and the Translator Training in Applied Translation study, while in the theoretical part, for the text-type restricted analysis and problem restricted type, they were picked out for specific analysis. For the original purpose of his revising of the subject’s name was to make itself more inclusive and open. However, the so-called Manipulation School positively accepted this name. But they tend to analyze translation study from the background of translation study. This has led to the mistaken perception that Translation Studies refers to the study of literary translation and translations. (Shuttleworth&amp; Cowie, 2004:183). Due to this, Bassinet divided translation into four spheres in 1980, that is History of Translation; Translation in TL culture; Translation and Linguistics; Translation and Poetics.(Bassnett,1991:7-8/2004:16-17). Based on this, we can tell translation is sometimes combined with literature study, which must be paid attention to by Chinese scholars. What’s more, the cultural turn in translation studies urges intellectuals to lay great importance to the study of the independent development of translation. By analysis, the result can be that translation unit would be more put as the culture as the unit but not the word in linguistics or text in literature. Thus, this contributed to the later development of cultural turn. <br /> <br /> From this above, we can see that Professor did make a thorough investigation in great detail to make analysis about the origin of the term Translation Studies and the history of cultural turn. By learning and studying previous scholars like Shuttleworth, Holmes and Toury and so on, it would make it easier to understand how translation become independent and how it was transitioned from the branch of literature to translation itself.<br /> Second, when it comes to the responsibility of the translator, Professor Cao made a specific analysis and defines again about the real purpose of this task. First of all, he makes a clear definition about translation, regarding it as an activity of the transformation of semiotics between different languages. Next, he thought that translation study should not focus on other spheres but the text itself, because if we analyze other fields like culture or anything else we would find it easy to lose the original analysis of translation activity itself but to talk about other things that have no direct relationship with the translation activity thus it will be too superficial and lack of depth.<br /> <br /> The core issue of translation study should be centered on its concept, aims, tasks and standard and so on. Despite in the micro-aspects, western theories like deconstruction, new criticism and teleology was not studied clearly in China, we should still make clear understandings about this theory. In the response to what kind of responsibility a translator should bear, Professor Cao copied Benjamin’s view. In Benjamin’s book, The Task of Translators, the author divides into two parts, one is to analyze the idea readers and the other is to describe the idea translators. In this book, Benjamin vividly describes what kind of qualities an adequate translator should have; these are divided into 11 points containing the key elements demonstrating from two perspectives, one is the science and the other is theology. Benjamin thought qualified translators must obey the original sentence and the textual style. Translators must obey the original text and thus transform the source language into the target language from a purified manner.<br /> <br /> 3. '''The writing features'''<br /> 1.1 '''Complete system with extensive quotations'''<br /> In the second chapter, the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice is described. However, the author has found the common root of the problems in the studies of many eastern and Western scholars. Among them, The Chinese scholar Mr. Long Luo pointed out that the most serious problem in China's translation circle is the disconnection between theory and practice. Professor Alby argues that modern scholars seem to have forgotten to look at translation from the perspective of translation practice itself. Translation scholars seem to pay more attention to the relationship between translation and human culture, ignoring the relationship between translation theory and translation activities themselves. After more than ten years of investigation, the author found that the imbalance between the two is also due to the &quot;annual review&quot; of Chinese translation studies. For this reason, the author makes a research on the &quot;cultural turn&quot; which causes these problems and the source Translation Studies of the subject name. Second, the second chapter on the definition of translation and literary translation learning concept, reference many translation books, such as &quot;equivalent translation exploration&quot;, &quot;contemporary translation theory&quot;, &quot;translation&quot;, &quot;the basic framework of the translation in China&quot; in these books to find the definition of translation and from an introduction to comparative literature, the theory of comparative literature &quot;and other books found in the corresponding to the concept of translation study, the author detailed comparative analysis of the two, and by logical reasoning, analyze their difference in addition, the authors also find problems, points out that translation scholars into the difficulty of translation study, The final reason for the imbalance between translation theory and practice caused by regression. And, the author in view of the status quo proposed the problems effectively, citing industry scholar ji, scholar GuZhengKun’s point of view, emphasizes the necessity of the combination of theory and practice, emphasis on translation theory must be given priority to with translation studies, cultural studies is complementary, define the nature of good translation, purpose, combining introverted text research and export-oriented text research.<br /> In the third chapter, in the process of defining the concept and connotation of translation, a large number of previous researchers, including Venuti and Philophor, are quoted and compared.<br /> <br /> 1.2 '''Logical and philosophical Explanation'''<br /> At the beginning of the third chapter, the understanding of translation is discussed. The definition of translation will not change with the progress of practical activities, and the attribute of translation is the unchangeable concept of the transformation of language symbols. Fourth chapter, the first first, the author applies the formal logic to define the concept of translation, with the method of analogy to clarify language information and the relationship between language carrier, then the author is to distinguish between translation concept connotation and denotation, secondly, the author applies the theoretical thinking of philosophy to translation after the concept of qualitative to define the nature of translation activity, is art or science of translation activities, to make a strong argument to translation and the relationship between translation and classified, then respectively for the purpose of translation, tasks, and standard is defined. First, the author proposes two pairs of concepts: textual purpose and non-textual purpose, textual behavior and non-textual behavior. As mentioned in the preceding chapter &quot;cultural turn&quot;, known as translator for the purpose of present diversification trend, the purpose of the text should be stressed again and again, which is the core of the translation purpose, translation study of the text itself, rather than in the service of other USES, such as ideology, culture, aesthetics and other text purpose can be used as a reference. Secondly, the author reinterprets Benjamin's The Translator's Task and divides the concept of deconstruction into two parts. The translator's task is to &quot;make foreign books understood by non-foreign language readers&quot;. As for the standard of translation, the author introduces the concepts of new criticism, deconstruction and translation mediology, and points out the connections and differences between them and translation studies, so as to help us better grasp the methods of translation studies. The fifth chapter, the author of modernism puts forward the concept of &quot;translation theory location map&quot;, can be seen as an extension of the translation purpose, respectively, introverted and export-oriented comprehensive text, introverted text should be closely around the translated text itself to research, and export-oriented comprehensive for translation text such as interdisciplinary field theory to provide support for translation study.<br /> <br /> 1.3 '''Powerful Critism with strong evidence'''<br /> Throughout the full text, from the status quo of the theory and practice of the second chapter, especially the book in the last few chapters, the author through a large number of reading and rely on the accumulation of translation practice for a long time, have been put forward for the theoretical study and practice of translation problems in reality, the relationship between problem, theory research example, textual research is lax, citing uncertainty, terminology translation and the translation is not unified, there thinking logic and language logic problem, theory and problems such as monotonous and argument, and the question of whether cognitive process is objective, translator translation practice have a &quot;betrayal&quot; of the problem of the wind, vision, objective, to the point, In the last chapter, the author elaborated on the relationship between pure theory and translation, provided a way to combine theory with practice, and improved a complete methodology and action guide for us to better combine theory with practice.<br /> <br /> III. '''Conclusion'''<br /> From all of these analyses above, the author has explained the book following the order of introduction part including the background and the introduction of the author, the main body part which includes the major contend and the specific explanation as well as the writing features. Professor Cao made an overview towards the history of both the east and west translation history, the proper description of the current situation of the relationship between translation theory and practice, the careful and strict definition about the core concepts of translation theory such as the purpose, aim, translators’ tasks and standards. Besides this, Professor Cao also locates the situation of translation theory by distinguishing the translation theory and mediotology. In the end, he also returned to the present problem about the breaking up of the relationship between theory and practice. To solve this, he teaches us on how to study the pure theory and then how to combine theory with practice, which provides a practical guidance for translation study and teaching activities. <br /> <br /> In the following, the author would like to make some comments about this book.<br /> Frist of all, this book closely centered on the relationship between translation theory and practice to make scientific explanation and study in a very logical and scientific manner. Since the beginning of translation activities, theory and practice have become interrelated with each other closely. Both in the east and the west, translation practice has been paid great attention to while translation theory closely followed the translation activities. At the very beginning translation activity has been focused on the democracy and ideology purpose. With the development of the society, human activities have been prosperous thus translation activities become more diversified and vivid. From translation history, the current situation of translation theory and practice, the defined concept of translation purpose and tasks as well as standard to the effective approach of translation practice and theory, Professor Cao opened a new area of translation study which covers a wide range of multidisciplinary subjects and areas. <br /> <br /> Hence, Professor Cao strict academic attitude and research spirit deserves to learn.<br /> <br /> Second, in the process of defining several concepts such as translation aims, purposes, translators’ tasks as well as translation standard, Professor Cao introduced many useful terms such as textual purposes, translators’ tasks and the translation study and mediotology and textual purpose and non-textual purpose etc., among these newly introduced concepts, some of them are pioneered and innovative. Thus, from this we can see, the author is very creative while following the principle of scientific researches. The most impressive theory is his own theory called “translation theory location”, which vividly introduced us the defined circle of translation circle and research range. This translation map is divided into two parts, one is “introvert ontology translation theory” and the other is “extrovert comprehensive translation theory”. He point out that scholars working on the extrovert should pay attention to the following four aspects, the academic results and theoretical approaches of translation issue should be to enrich translation theory while not to replace it, when you study some phenomenon of translation restricted with certain social context, cultural background and ideology, researches must take the limitation of time and locality into consideration but not assentation, when we analyze translation as a certain behavior with certain purpose relates to society, culture, politics or economy, we must distinguish between textual and non-textual behavior, textual purpose and non-textual purpose and the last is the research about the translation version analysis on the culture of the target language, while in China, it belongs to the branch of comparative literature called mediotology. Academic study must be very strict and severe which need to be logical and scientific.<br /> <br /> Third, the construction of the book is independent, for example theoretical analysis is combined with problem solving, and conclusion is combined with new problem rising. For example, as Professor Cao made a detailed description of the present relationship of translation theory and practice, he introduced the term translation study and analyzed the origin of culture turn. Translation study includes several aspects like translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. As translation study is a borrowed term, Professor Cao made a research in China to define the real concept of translation activity. He made a thorough distinguish between translation study and the mediotology in comparative literature. The borrowed term translation study brought us a lot of reflections and lessons. He proposed some urgent and practical issues whether translation theory should be combined with practice and how to avoid the crisis of the discipline. We should keep a calm and practical attitude to keep the features of this subject. Based on the practical researches, Professor Cao could analyze the thesis and propose proper scientific construction towards translation circle in China. Since in China translation study mainly focuses on the study of literature and besides this, comparative literature would more or less pay attention to the fields of literature but not translation. However, the Professor made a clear distinguish between translation study and mediotology and argued that translation study includes translation history, translation theory and translation criticism. This helps to set a clear definition towards translation study and effectively avoid translation study’s confusion.<br /> <br /> Last but not the least, the language use in the whole text is very beautiful and comfortable. Although Professor Cao uses a lot of samples and evidences as well as a lot of historical samples, the transition is very smooth and he would also quotas many poems and history which makes his article seem more poetic and vivid. Through long terms of translation practice, there is no doubt that Professor Cao had a rich experience in translation practice and strong base of translation basis. What’s more, Professor Cao also had a very specific purpose for translation study. He is not only an excellent translator, professor and scholar, but also a very responsible educator and practitioner. <br /> <br /> To sum up, Based on the above analysis, the author elaborates on the current imbalance between translation theory and practice, and puts forward targeted solutions, which provide the direction and action guide for translation research and translation teaching. In addition, the author can benefit a lot from his rigorous academic attitude, rigorous theoretical system construction and critical logical thinking. First, Professor Cao Minglun's full text is fluent in writing and appropriate use of professional vocabulary, which fully reflects his profound academic accumulation and solid foundation of academic research. In addition, more importantly, Professor Cao's logical reasoning ability provides reference for the author's future academic research. The author uses rigorous logical thinking to accurately explain these concepts, both in terms of defining the relationship between translation theory and practice, and in terms of defining the relationship between translation concepts, objectives and tasks. Third, the author in the process of building the book chapters, layer upon layer, closely around the core of the theory and practice of the main line, from the macroscopic roughly summed up as above summary review, described the status quo, put forward the problems to solve the problem, finally the logical context is very clear, from the micro level above, each chapter, cited fully detailed, illustration, contrast analysis, the most important thing is that the author according to the research of the early learning put forward their own theoretical system or solution to the problem. Translation is indeed a cross-cultural discipline, but the study of translation must be closely centered on the translated text itself and supported by the theories of other disciplines, such as comparative literature studies and linguistic studies. Finally, the author uses standard words and the language is exquisite, which reflects the strong academic writing ability. The above contents are the valuable wealth of the author's future theoretical learning career!<br /> <br /> '''Reference:'''<br /> <br /> Bassnett,Susan and André Lefevere .Translation, History and Culture[M].London and New York: Pinter Publishers.<br /> Mark Shuttleworth，Moira Cowie：翻译研究词典[M]．外语教学与研究出版社，2005<br /> 谢天振，王宁 翻译学:作为独立学科的求索与发展 [M]．复旦大学出版社，2017<br /> 曹明伦，翻译之道 ：理论与实践 [M]．保定：河北大学出版社，2007<br /> 甘雪梅 ．2010．“学 、“术 共生 ，“道”、“器”互彰——评曹明伦教授 《翻译之道：理论与实践》一书[J]．湖北 函授大学学报，(5)：110-111<br /> 黄中习．2008．努力构建翻译理论与实践的和谐关系——翻译之道理论与实践介评[J]．北经济学院学报 ，(10)：150一l51<br /> 朱蕤 ．2010．对翻译研究 “文化转向”的反思—— 以 《翻译之道 》为伽 R1．福建省外国语文学会2010年年会 ．厦门<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Strategies'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Study on the Translation Strategies, Translation Methods and Translation Techniques in Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao==<br /> <br /> ==Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” to “Visibility” 胡百辉 Hu Baihui==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;胡百辉 Hu Baihui 202070080590&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This chapter is on translator’s subjectivity from translator’s “invisibility” to “visibility”. As we all know, the translator is the subject of translation, by whom the meaning of the translated text is conveyed. However, the invisibility of translator has always been emphasized in the traditional theory of translation. Until 1970s, with the “cultural turn”, the translators’ role has been redefined and their subjectivity in translation has caught much attention. As a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with. Translators should give full play to their subjective initiative and deal with the relationship between them.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> translator’s subjectivity, invisibility, visibility.<br /> <br /> ==='''题目'''===<br /> <br /> 译者主体性：从“隐形”到“显性”<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 本章从译者的“隐形”到“显形”论述译者的主体性。众所周知，译者是翻译的主体，翻译文本意义的传达是通过译者实现的。然而，传统译论一直强调译者在翻译中“隐形”。直到20世纪70年代出现了翻译研究的“文化转向”，才重新定义了译者的角色，其主体性才得到关注。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点，我们不能简单说译者的角色从“隐形”转化为“显性”，而是从多个方面探讨，并且关注和解决其面临的挑战。译者要合理发挥自己的主观能动性，合理地处理二者之间的关系。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 译者主体性；“隐形”；“显性”。<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> The translator's “invisibility” and “visibility” have always been a controversial topic in the field of translation, both of which have their own theoretical basis and purpose; however, both of them are the result of the exertion of the translator's subjective initiative. These arguments are not to prove who is right and who is wrong, but to enrich the arguments in the process of proving their own views or persuading others, so as to perfect the relevant theories.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 128)<br /> <br /> For a long time, the translator's subjectivity has been one of the focuses of scholars, but we have always neglected the role of translators in translation activities. It was not until the “cultural turn” in the 1970s that translators and some scholars began to study and discuss this issue. There are some translation theories in the West that face the target culture. So with these translation theories that face the target culture, the scholars will inevitably do some research in translator’s subjectivity.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129) <br /> <br /> At present, there are many researches on translator's subjectivity in China. This shows that the study of translator's subjectivity is deepening day by day. The translator should not continue to be invisible in the process of translation. The translator's subjectivity will directly affect the translator selecting words and sentences and the style of translation. In short, at present, the status of translator and translator's subjectivity are highly praised in the field of translation studies. However, it should be emphasized that in today's information technology era, the translator's subjectivity is not only valued, but also faced with great challenges.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> ==='''Translator's Subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional translation theories often neglect the study of translator's subjectivity, but tend to explore the linguistic level of the translated text. Therefore, translation, as a dynamic process, is often ignored and the translator's subjective factors are not paid enough attention. Actually, the traditional translation view, on the one hand, holds that translation is not creative and can not be compared with creation. On the other hand, it is against advocating the translator's subjectivity and creativity, and requires the translator to worship the original author, which also tends to the original. &quot;And the traditional role of translator was identified as the “servant” of the author, while assessing fidelity to the original text was primary. Pulled between the two poles: fidelity and treason, the translator faced the dilemma of lacking independence and subjectivity&quot;(Shufen Huang 2019, 100). Now it seems that this view of negating translator's subjectivity is unreasonable.<br /> <br /> As mentioned in the abstract, attention to the translator’s subjectivity did not arise until 1970s, when Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefevere have come up with the idea of “the cultural turn”. They stated that translation is not the simple transform between two languages, it goes in special cultural environment. &quot;And studies on the role of translators as well as the function of their subjectivity in the translating process have begun to flourish. However, the role of the translator and his subjectivity have been renewed and affirmed with the development of translation theory and translating activities. In the transitional years for translation studies, new translation theories were proposed&quot;(Shufen Huang 2019, 100). &quot;Those influential translation series, such as the polysystem theory and manipulation school have integrated researches on translator’s subjectivity into their massive system respectively&quot; (Zhiwei Gu 2017,24). At present, the study of translator's subjectivity is emerging in an endless stream.<br /> <br /> '''1. Definition of translator's subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> According to Za Mingjian and Tian Yu, translator’s subjectivity can be defined that on the premise of respecting the translation text, the translator shows his subjective initiative in order to achieve the purpose of translation. Its basic characteristics are the cultural consciousness, humanistic character, cultural and aesthetic creativity of the translator. And the essential characteristics of the translator’s subjectivity refer to the translator’s “active cultural consciousness”, “human character” and “ascetic creativeness”.(Zha MIingjian, Tian Yu 2003, 22)<br /> <br /> '''2. Related theories on translator's subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> In the 1970s, some scholars proposed the idea of “culture turn”, and since then many scholars such as Susan Bassnett (1980), Theo Hermans(1985), Andre Lefevere(1992), Tejaswini Niranjana (1992), Lawrence Venuti(1995), and Douglas Robinson (1997) have made studies on translator’s subjectivity. The issue of translator's cultural identity and subjectivity has naturally become an important research topic. While in China, some scholars studying in translation theory have conducted in-depth study in the translator’s subjectivity since 1980s. In recent years, there are many papers on the study of translator's subjectivity.<br /> <br /> In the following, the studies on translator’s subjectivity will be introduced by typical schools.<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Polysystem theory'''<br /> <br /> This theory is introduced by Tynjanov, and he argues that &quot;elements do not exist in isolation, but always in an interrelationship with other elements of other systems&quot; (Even-Zohar, Itamar 1979, 287). Actually, Tynjanov is a cultural theorist, but his polysystem theory has made the study on translator more popular. But his pioneering work continues to exert considerable influence on translation, particularly when studying translation in emerging cultures or cultures in crisis. He said, it is necessary to include translated literature in the polysystem. &quot;And through studies on the translated edition, it provides a feasible way to reconsider issues like the proper translator, suitable network on translation edition, translating adequacy and so on. This theory ushers in the cultural shift paves the way for the appearance of manipulation school&quot; (Zhiwei Gu 2017,24).<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Manipulation school'''<br /> <br /> The name of manipulation school was given by the title of a collection of essays edited by Theo Hermans(1985), The Manipulation of Literature:Studies in Literature Translation, which gathers a number of studies by scholars such as Van Gorp and Andre Lefevere. &quot;From the point of view of the target literature, all translation implies a degree of manipulation of the source text for a certain purpose&quot; (Hermans 1985, 30), said Hermans. They sited that &quot;translating is rewriting”, which is the foundation of the manipulation school. They have made the translation studies shift from the source-text oriented to target-text oriented. In their opinion, translators have their own feelings for the source text, and they respond to their intuitive feeling, and render the source text in the target culture.<br /> <br /> '''3. Factors influencing the translator's subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> The exertion of translator's subjectivity runs through the whole process of translation activities. When different translators read the same article, their understanding varied. Also when selecting words, choosing translation strategies, the translators would have their own opinions. Understanding the factors that influence the translator's subjectivity makes great contribution to the study of the translator's translation style and characters.(Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The historical background of translator'''<br /> <br /> The historical background determines the criteria of value evaluation of translation, which also leads to the trend of mainstream translation style. The era in which translators live will limit the breadth and depth of their understanding. Therefore, the former translation standards may no longer conform to the contemporary development. It took a long time for the translator's position to rise from invisibility to visibility. Yan Fu, a famous translator in China at the end of the 19th century, has put forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. At this time, China was written in classical Chinese, so the “elegance” here means that the translation should be elegant and be translated in classical Chinese. <br /> <br /> Since the May Fourth New Culture Movement, vernacular gradually replaces classical Chinese. Translators begin to translate a large number of classic works of Marxism Leninism, literary theory, progressive literary works of Soviet Union and other countries. Therefore, the translation at this time emphasizes the plainness and energy. So in 1979, Liu Zhongde, a translation theorist, has come up with a new translation criteria of “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, which is accepted by the majority now. Different background determines different criteria of translation value, and the change of criteria also leads the trend of mainstream translation style, with obvious era brand.(Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Translator's bilingual cultural competence'''<br /> <br /> The translator's bilingual cultural competence includes linguistic knowledge and cultural knowledge. When translating an article, the translator accepts the cultural influence of the original text and brings the translation into another culture. The coordination of the two cultures reflects the translator's bilingual cultural ability,which directly affects the translator's choice of translation strategies. In general, if the translator has a strong native language ability, he tends to choose the “domestication” strategy when translating the foreign language into the native language. On the contrary, when translating the native language into a foreign language, the translator often uses the strategy of “foreignization” because he can't find the corresponding foreign language expression.(Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21) <br /> <br /> This is often seen in the translation of literary works and proverbs. It rains dogs and cats, which means it rains heavily. When translating into Chinese, it should be “大雨倾盆”. If this sentence is translated words by words, the target readers will not understand it. In fact, it is obvious in translation whether a translator's bilingual ability is good enough.If not, it will often make errors.<br /> <br /> '''3.3 Understanding of the original'''<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, only when the translator has a thorough understanding of the meaning of the original can he accurately convey the meaning of the original to the readers. As a saying goes,&quot; A thousand readers make a thousand Hamlets &quot;. There is a growing tendency to believe that it is the reader that decides the meaning of the literary text. <br /> <br /> Zhu Shenghao, a famous translator, has translated a lot of Shakespeare's works in his life. Shakespeare's works began to be introduced and translated in China at the beginning of last century. Zhu Shenghao is recognized as an early translator of Shakespeare's works in China, and his translation style has also been highly recognized. Different from the chronological arrangement of the Oxford edition, he divides the works into comedy, tragedy, historical drama and zaju, which are arranged in a self-contained system. Since he has a thorough understanding of the original, he could rewrite and rearrangement it and his translation text is well received at home and abroad. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 22)<br /> <br /> In a word, the process of translation is also a process of recreation. And under the new study of translation theory, the translator's subjectivity is encouraged and supported, but it needs to be limited. In the process of translation, the translator can always choose their preferred translation strategy and style, and fully develop your own style and characteristics in the translation. In this kind of recreation, it is always restricted by the original work, and can't be separated from the original meaning. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 22)<br /> <br /> ==='''The influence of translator's invisibility and visibility on translator's Subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> In literary translation, the word &quot;invisibility&quot; refers to &quot;the translator should insist on the translation in a smooth and accurate way, and can not add the translator's emotion&quot;; while &quot;apparent&quot; is put forward according to the opposite of &quot;invisibility&quot;, which means that the translator can put his own subjective feelings into literary translation, At the same time, in literary translation, translators can make use of the fact that there are some differences in the transformation of language symbol system to make reasonable and appropriate explanation of words, sentence processing, space structure reconstruction and other forms of translation through their own understanding.(Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 71) <br /> <br /> Cultural differences refer to different cultural styles in different cultural environments. Cultural differences also provide a more free creative environment for translators' translation. They can display their own unique styles by refining words, sending sentences and making sentences. This difference leads to the inevitable existence of the translator's &quot;appearance&quot;.(Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 71)<br /> <br /> '''1. Translator's invisibility'''<br /> <br /> The traditional translation theory focuses on the issue of language, focusing on how the ideal translator should do and what kind of requirements a perfect translation should achieve. It tries its best to eliminate the translator's traces in language and cultural transformation, and faithfully and completely convey all the information of the original work.<br /> <br /> Under the traditional translation theory, the translator should be invisible, that is, to achieve &quot;transparency&quot; and &quot;invisibility&quot;. The &quot;transparency&quot; of the translation requires the translator to strive to achieve fluenct, while the &quot;invisibility&quot; refers to that the target readers should not see the trace and influence of the translator when reading the translation text. &quot;The translator's invisibility depends on the following three conditions, which are often emphasized in the traditional translation theory: first, the translator should not incorporate his own subjective idea into the translation; second, the translator should not show his own personality in the translation; third, the translator should take the original text as the basis.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2003). <br /> <br /> In a word, &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;equivalence&quot; should be achieved in translation. The criterion of &quot;faithfulness&quot; also contributes to the tendency of traditional translation theories to neglect the translator's subjectivity. The traditional translation theories would emphasize to eliminate the differences in language, even some extreme domestication translation, even cultural differences. In domestication, the translator seems to be invisible. But the fact is that in order to meet the requirements of the target language and cultural norms, and get the recognition of the target language readers, the translator will spare no effort to exert his subjective initiative, which is the process of subject intervention. In this process, the translator should give full play to his subjectivity and bring his subjective idea into play. Therefore, on the surface, the translator seems to be &quot;invisible&quot;, but in essence, this &quot;invisibility&quot; is also the result of the translator's subjective initiative, which is the translator's conscious choice and abandonment.(Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 72)<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2. Translator's visibility'''<br /> <br /> In the 1970s, some scholars proposed the idea of “culture turn”, and since then many scholars have made studies on translator’s subjectivity. The issue of translator's cultural identity and subjectivity has naturally become an important research topic. The most familiar one is the Translator's Invisibility by American scholar Lawrence Venuti. In this book, he put forward the concepts of “foreignization” and “domestication”. According to his view, “domestication” emphasizes fluency and smoothness in order to minimize the exotic flavor in the translation and provide a natural and fluent translation for the target language readers.(Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006) <br /> <br /> However, “foreignization” is intended to break through the conventions of the target language, retain the exotic flavor in the original text, and inject the linguistic and cultural differences in foreign texts into the target language. He called on translators to &quot;resist&quot; and adopt poor translation. &quot;Venuti believes that foreignization translation can not bring about the improvement of faithfulness. On the contrary, it is a misuse of faithfulness. Not only will some features of the original language be lost, but also new things will be added.&quot; (Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)<br /> <br /> As a result, the translator appears and the independent status of translation is revealed. In the actual translation process, the translator deliberately uses the &quot;resistance&quot; translation strategy to deliberately retain the expression and sentence pattern of the original text, so as to avoid the smooth translation, so that the readers can clearly feel that what they are reading is the translation, thus feeling the existence of the translator, reflecting the creativity of the translator and highlighting the role of the translator.(Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)<br /> <br /> ==='''The challenge of translator's Subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> As the focus of translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be limited to the transformation from being ignored to being valued, but should be found and faced up to the challenges it is facing from a comprehensive perspective.<br /> <br /> '''1. The challenge of modern information technology to translator's Subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of modern information technology, translation activities can be completed efficiently in a short time. In the past, translation was time-consuming and laborious, and the executor was the translator. Now, with the emergence of translation software and machines, the subject of translation activities has been increased in the traditional sense. These modern technologies have become the active elements in translation activities, which has caused a challenge to the translator's subjectivity. In some occasions where the requirements for translation are low and there is a certain tolerance for translation errors, translators have completely retired from the background. Because software and machines are supported by powerful corpora, they cover a wide range of fields, can process all kinds of texts, and can produce high-quality translations in a short time. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the target language readers can quickly get the original translation through the translation software or machine. In addition, in other occasions where translation requirements are high, translators with the help of translation software and various tools can not only shorten the translation time, but also obtain the translation with high accuracy. However, without the help of translation software and other tools, the translator needs to spend time to mobilize the initiative of all aspects, which can not be as fast and efficient as the machine assisted.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> There is no doubt that a series of modern information technology assisted translation work has played a positive role, which requires the translator not only to have the consciousness of language operation, cultural characteristics, artistic creation, aesthetic standards and humanistic character, but also to closely combine his own ability with modern information technology and have the ability to skillfully apply translation software and various auxiliary tools, However, the excessive dependence of translators on translation software can not be ignored.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> Some translators are eager for quick success and instant benefit, and make use of translation software and machines to make them become money making accelerators and produce poor quality translation works. In the mixed translation market, there are not a few translators who completely rely on machine for translation with only minor modifications. In the absence of machine translation, translation activities mainly rely on the translator's mental operation, and the translator's subjectivity can be brought into full play. <br /> <br /> But now, with the shortcut of translation, some translators can't help being lazy, which makes the most important part of the translation activities to fully display the translator's demeanor and play the translator's subjectivity lose its significance and turn into mechanical language output. In this process, the translator is satisfied with the convenience of machine translation and ignores the full play of the translator's subjectivity. Although translation tools can speed up the translation and improve the quality of translation in the process of translation activities, the excessive dependence on translation tools poses a challenge to the translator's subjectivity.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> '''2. The challenge of the era to the translator's Subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> In the past, professional translators always had to practice a lot of translation, combined with their preferences and strengths, to be able to translate works of interest to people. Many famous translations were produced at that time. Now, with the “one belt, one road” and the common destiny of mankind, the political, economic and cultural exchanges between China and other countries are becoming more frequent. More and more translators need to be served as bridges. The increasing number of translators and the professionalization of translation make translation a means of livelihood. <br /> <br /> The common existence of translation companies makes the threshold of becoming a translator too low, which reduces the requirement of translators' competence to a certain extent. From the recruitment information released by various companies, it can be found that many companies place too much emphasis on the language proficiency of interpreters, and they do not attach importance to translation experience or request to check relevant translation works, and neglect to investigate whether the translator's subjectivity, which reflects their profound skills, is fully exerted in their works. At present, the requirement of the translator's ability to survive in the field of translation has been reduced. Translation activities have become a kind of assembly line operation, and the translators participating in the assembly line have also changed from elite translators with strong translation ability to mechanical translation product producers.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129) <br /> <br /> From this point of view, professionalization also challenges the translator's subjectivity. With the continuous updating of the information in various fields, the powerful corpus behind the translation software and machine can not be updated automatically, so it is necessary for the translator to explore the untranslated fields in order to obtain the relevant corpus to fill the corpus. From this point of view, as the subject of translation activities with individual thinking, translators must be prior to machines. If they excessively rely on modern technology, they will despise their initiative of thinking and choosing translation strategies in the process of translation, and can not give full play to the translator's subjectivity.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> '''3.The rational exertion of translator's subjective initiative'''<br /> <br /> The translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;manifestation&quot; are both the manifestation of subjectivity, and have their specific social and theoretical background. &quot;Translation is the active creative activity of the subject and the author's own language experience. Only through the translator's translation and interpretation can the text survive. The original text needs the participation of the translator's subject to help it obtain new life. The objective &quot;uncertainty&quot; needs to be filled and processed by the translator, so that the original intention of the composition can be revealed &quot;(Wang Zhengliang, Ma Tan, 2010). <br /> <br /> However, this kind of filling and processing is not random. Before translation, translators should first confirm whether their own conditions and temperament can adapt to the original text, and then translate the original composition. If the translated text is translated and interpreted at will, it will exaggerate the translator's autonomy to control the original work, and overemphasizes the translator's intervention in the work and the translator's interpretation space. Even under the banner of respecting the translator's identity and status and highlighting the translator's subjectivity, it is difficult to avoid the suspicion of &quot;overcorrection&quot;. In this process, we should pay attention to the influence of the mainstream ideology and Poetics in the historical background of the translator.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 130) <br /> <br /> When there is a conflict between the ideology of the translator and the ideology of the target culture, there are many translators in history who delete and change the original content in order to conform to the mainstream ideology and exert their subjective initiative. When the source language poetics is different from the target language poetics, the translator also needs to play an active role in mediating the differences between the two poetics, so as to make the translation get new life in the target language.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 130)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Many scholars have put forward their own views on the translator's subjectivity. However, few scholars have mentioned the challenge to the translator's subjectivity. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the challenges faced by translators' subjectivity. On the one hand, translators are required to improve their ability to exert their subjective initiative, closely integrate their own abilities with modern information technology, learn and skillfully apply various translation software, search tools, corpus and other auxiliary tools to improve the speed and quality of translation, On the other hand, the translator should be warned not to rely solely on the tool while neglecting the translator's subjectivity. The translator's subjectivity is an important support for our translation research and translation activities. We must face up to the challenges and actively deal with them.<br /> <br /> Translation is a process of gradual development and change, not a process of translating one language into another. Translators should fully understand, be familiar with and be familiar with the cultural differences in the original language in order to realize the true transmission of the original content. According to &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;manifestation&quot; in contemporary literary translation, we should know &quot;invisibility&quot; when necessary to ensure the fluency of language. According to Venuti's viewpoint of &quot;invisibility or invisibility is to make the translator invisible&quot;, we can better understand the meaning of &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator, and pay attention to the application effect of &quot;manifestation&quot; when necessary, which can not only make people pay attention to the translator, At the same time, it also reflects the cultural differences and image understanding in the process of reading. Therefore, the choice of &quot;invisible&quot; or &quot;explicit&quot; in translation is worth considering.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1] Even-Zohar, Itamar. (1979) &quot;Polysystem Theory&quot;. Poetics Today (1) 287.<br /> <br /> [2] Hermans, Theo. (1985) &quot;The Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;. London and Sydney: Croom Helm. (12) 30.<br /> <br /> [3] Lan Hongjun 蓝红军. (2017) 译者主体性困境与翻译主体性建构[J] [Translator's subjectivity dilemma and construction of translation subjectivity]. 上海翻译Shanghai Translation Journal (2) 21-27.<br /> <br /> [4] Li Hua, Li Guochao 李华,李国超. (2019) 文学翻译中译者的“隐身”与“显形”——以《第十个人》翻译中人物形象的塑造为例[J] [The translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;manifestation&quot; in Literary Translation--Taking the creation of characters in the translation of the Tenth Man as an example].智库时代 Think Tank Tines (42) 130-132.<br /> <br /> [5] Li Yingying, Lan Jie 李盈盈,兰杰.(2014) 浅谈翻译中的译者主体性[J] [On the translator's subjectivity in Translation]. 考试周刊 Weekly examination (24) 21-22.<br /> <br /> [6] Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 李铮;杨贤玉. (2011) 论译者的“隐形”和“显形”[J] [On the translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;visibility]. 邢台学院学报 Journal of Xingtai College (26) 71-72.<br /> <br /> [7] Shufen Huang. (2019) “A Study of the Translator’s Subjectivity in Literary Translation--Exemplified by the English Version of The Border Town”. Open Journal of Social Sciences(JSS) (7) 100. <br /> <br /> [8] Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 王玉,田翠芸. (2020) 从译者的“隐形”“显形”到“忘形”谈译者主体性[J] [Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” and “Visibility” to “Complacency”]. 华北理工大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of North China University of science and Technology (SOCIAL SCIENCE EDITION) (28) 128-131.<br /> <br /> [9] ZhaMingjian, Tian Yu 查明建,田雨.(2003). 论译者主体性—从译者文化的边缘化谈起[J] [On Translator's Subjectivity -- from the Marginalization of Translator's Culture]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1) 22.<br /> <br /> [10] Zhiwei Gu. (2017) &quot;On Zhang Peiji's Prose Translation from the Perspective of the Translator's Subjectivity&quot;, English Language and Literature Studies (1) 24.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 06:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility - 马智星 Ma Zhixing==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;马智星 Ma Zhixing 202020080625&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> '''translator's view;translation behavior;invisibility;'''<br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> '''翻译观；译者行为；隐形'''<br /> <br /> ==='''Ⅰ.Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory'''===<br /> '''In the 1980s, culture, rather than text, emerged as the Unit of translation, bringing cultural studies into a new stage of translation theory: Cultural Theory of translation. This change is called the &quot;cultural turn&quot; in the field of translation studies. Andrea, a representative of the Cultural School of Translation Studies, is an important theoretical figure in the field of contemporary Western Comparative Literature and Translation Studies. The translation studies school originally originated in Europe, and Lefevere's profound insight enriched and advanced the further development of this theory in the United States and the world.<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory is a well-known theory in the Cultural School of Translation Studies. Lefevere regards translation as a rewriting of the original and a manipulation of the original, which breaks the traditional thinking of evaluating translation with the original as the criterion. Lefevere's manipulation theory generally refers to the process of translation, adaptation, compilation, criticism and editing of literary works. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and a form of creating another text image Literary criticism, biography, film, drama, parody, reader's guide, compilation of history, criticism and editing are all rewriting of the text, which are all forms of creating another text image. In other words, translation creates the literary and cultural images of the original text, the original author, and the original text. And all rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics.(Bassnett &amp; Lefevere, 1990:8) <br /> Lefevere studies translation in a broad sociocultural context, emphasizing the role of ideology, mainstream poetics and culture. Translation is bound to serve certain ideology and poetics. In his view, &quot;rewriting&quot; is &quot;manipulating&quot; . It can &quot;manipulate&quot; literature and &quot;culture&quot; , the positive aspect of which is to help the evolution of literature and society through the introduction of new concepts, new literary genres and new means of expression. The rewriting of different historical periods should be controlled by ideology and mainstream poetics, and finally be related to power and become a means to serve it. The three elements of Lefevere's manipulation theory are set out in translation, rewriting, and the manipulation of literary fame. In his opinion, translation can not truly reflect the original work, mainly because it is always manipulated by three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.<br /> <br /> Ideological<br /> ideology refers to a system of ideas that reflects the interests and requirements of a particular economic form, class or social group. Its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. . Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communicative activity, will inevitably be affected by ideology. Lefevere points out that ideology has a great influence on translation, which exerts a subtle influence on the translator's thinking and translation activities. Ideology influences the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Under the control of ideology, the translator may add, delete or change the original text at will, making the translation serve his own political purposes. At the same time, different translators will form their own ideology because of their different personal experience, educational level, social and cultural environment, etc. . If a translated work wants to enter into the social and cultural system of the target language, it is bound to be restricted by the corresponding social and ideological standards. If the translation violates or offends ideological taboos, it will be difficult to spread smoothly in the target language culture, and may even be banned. Through the analysis of famous translators such as Lin Shu's works, we can clearly feel that it was controlled and influenced by the ideology and poetics of Chinese society at that time. Ideological manipulation of translation can be reflected in the influence on the purpose of translated novels, the choice of translated texts and the application of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Poetics<br /> Poetics is a theory about poetry and the study of poetry and its techniques. It is also a theory about literature and art. The formation of poetics occurs in a certain period, which is often a choice for some types of practice at that time, while excluding other types. According to Lefevere, the methods of translation adopted by translators are carried out under the restriction of certain poetic factors. The study of poetics is as small as a word, as large as a sentence, the style of the whole text and the translation strategies. Translation greatly influences the interpenetration of different literary systems, not only by successfully introducing the image of a writer or a work into another literary system, but also in the introduction of new literary means into a certain poetics. In lefevere's opinion, as the manipulator of translation, such rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because in the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. The rewriting of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriter works. In order to conform to the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the work is rewritten and to be accepted by as many readers as possible, the rewriter often makes some adjustments to the original work. Some masterpieces have also been dealt with to varying degrees so that they can be adapted to the cultural background of different social and historical conditions. In the development of translation theory, more and more attention has been paid to the indispensability of poetics in translation. Poetics is concerned with what literature should or could be, and has two components, &quot;One is a list of literary techniques, genres, themes, typical characters and situations, and symbols; the other is an idea of what role literature plays or should play in the overall social system. &quot; To a certain extent, the poetic factors also determine the social role that the translation will play and the degree of its influence. The aesthetic sense of poetry in a work will disappear if the significance is emphasized but the poetic factors and the literary brilliance are ignored.<br /> <br /> The power of patronage<br /> Lefevere regards literary translation and other forms of rewriting as one of the social systems. This literary system has two controlling factors, one is the internal factor of the literary system, which is made up of various professionals such as critics, critics, teachers and translators The other is a patron who works outside the system and is &quot;generally more interested in the ideology of literature than in the poetics of Literature&quot; , &quot;The powers (people or institutions) that promote or discourage literary reading, writing or rewriting, such as religious groups, classes, government departments, publishing houses, mass media organizations, can also be personal forces&quot; (Lefevere, 1992:17) <br /> In Lefevere's theory of the three elements, the most important factor is the power of the sponsor, who is always in charge of the whole process of translation. Translation itself is not an isolated act, but closely related to political, social and economic factors. Most translators translate well and safely within the space allowed by the social and political authority of their times. As &quot;any force that may contribute to the production and dissemination of literary works and may hinder, prohibit and destroy literary works&quot; (Chen Dehong, Zhang Nanfeng, 2000:176) , the power of patron can play a role through ideology, economic interests and social status. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the trend of translation activities, the development of translated literature and the social status of translators. For example, Yan Fu, as a translator and thinker, although he had his own clear goals and ideas in selecting translation materials, he was also an official appointed by the Qing government, therefore, his selection of translation materials is also controlled by the ideology of the sponsors. There is also a series of translations, translated or edited by Lin Yutang, that are closely related to the requests and suggestions of his patrons, the Pearl Buck and her husband. <br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has opened up a new perspective for translation studies, which has shifted researchers'attention from the internal factors of the text to the external factors of the text, such as ideology, poetics and the power of patronage, this is of great significance to translation studies. Manipulation theory broadens the horizon of translation studies from text to culture. In recent years, with the rise of the Cultural School of Translation, the Study of translation from the perspective of the three elements of manipulation theory has become increasingly attractive.'''<br /> ===''' Ⅱ. Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility'''===<br /> ==='''Ⅲ.The association of Lefever and Venuti's theory'''===<br /> ==='''Ⅳ.Conclusion'''===<br /> ==='''Reference'''===<br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,1992.<br /> <br /> [2]郭建中.当代美国翻译理论[C].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [3]施建伟.林语堂传[M].北京:十月文艺出版社,1999.<br /> <br /> [4]陈德鸿,张南峰.西方翻译理论精选[M].香港:香港城市大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [5]Bassnett,Susan and André Lefevere .Translation, History and Culture[M].London and New York: Pinter Publishers.<br /> <br /> [6]Lefevere,Andre.Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame[M].London: Routledge,1992a.<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Business Contracts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 胡瑾 Hu Jin 202070080591 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization in China and the increasing frequency of modern commercial activities, commercial contracts are particularly vital in order to ensure the smooth progress of commercial activities. In a business contract, it is required to ensure that the expression of any text in the contract is accurate as far as possible, and the same is true when translating it. Contracts provide vital basis for the smooth development of business and the protection of rights. Accurate and vivid translation of contracts has an important impetus to the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations and the resolution of disputes. Therefore, it is of practical significance to study the translation of business contracts. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory, equivalence is first realized in meaning and then in form. Dynamic equivalence is used to break the static equivalence and maximize the meaning of the translation. This thesis gives a preliminary introduction to the translation of business contracts, studies the application of functional equivalence theory in contract translation, and puts forward some major translation skills and methods, which will be of some guiding significance to the future translation of business contracts, thus avoiding unnecessary disputes between the two parties.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> business contract; Functional Equivalence Theory; contract translation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中国全球化进程不断加快，现代商务活动日益频繁，为了确保商务活动的顺利进行，商务合同的签订显得尤为重要。在商务合同中，要求尽量确保合同中的每一个文字都表达准确，在对其进行翻译时也是如此。合同是确保业务开展顺利和进行权利保障的重要依托，对合同进行准确生动的翻译对业务的开展和权利、义务的保障以及出现争议时的解决等有着重要的推动力。因此，研究商务合同的翻译有一定的现实意义。根据奈达的功能对等理论，对等首先在意义上实现，然后在形式上实现，利用动态对等，打破静态对等，使译文意义最大化。此课题初步介绍了商务合同的翻译，研究了功能对等理论在合同翻译中的应用，提出了一些主要的翻译技巧和方法，对今后商务合同的翻译具有一定的指导作用，从而避免合同双方出现不必要的纠纷。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 商务合同；功能对等理论；合同翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since China promoted the Silk Road Economic Belt, China's economic exchanges with other countries in the world have been increasing day by day. China's exports volume is also increasing, and goods are exported to other countries in the world. In 2013, China overtook the United States as the world's largest trading nation. In this context, in order to ensure the smooth progress of transactions and reduce trade friction and disputes, commercial contracts, which have legal effect, have attracted more and more attention. Contract translation belongs to the category of legal translation. Accurate translation of contracts plays an important role in the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations, and the resolution of disputes. However, commercial disputes in China's foreign economic and trade business are very common, and many disputes are caused by various problems in contract translation. Therefore, they should be guided by scientific translation theories. (Jin Di 1998，112)<br /> This paper mainly includes 3 chapters. The first chapter is the introduction of business English contracts, including the definition of business contract, the categories of business contract, and the linguistic features of English business contract. (Jin Di 1998，115)<br /> The second chapter introduces the theoretical framework of functional equivalence translation, including Nida's main principles and viewpoints of functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> The third chapter is the main part of the article, including the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. (Jin Di 1998, 115)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 General Introduction of Business Contract===<br /> <br /> This chapter first introduces the definition of business contract and the categories of business contract, and then analyzes the linguistic features of English business contract from lexical, syntactic and textual levels respectively. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> As an important link in foreign trade activities, business contracts have always been valued by people. Article 2 of The PRC Contract Law clearly stipulates that Commercial contract refers to the agreement clauses that are formally concluded according to law, notarized and must be abided by jointly in order to determine their respective rights and obligations during certain commercial cooperation between the parties concerned. It can be seen from this that a commercial contract is the result of the consensus reached by the parties and is a civil legal act. A legally established contract shall take effect from the date of its establishment and shall be legally binding. This provides a legal guarantee for effectively avoiding trade frictions. However, special attention should be paid to the fact that China's Economic Law on Foreign Contracts stipulates that commercial contracts can take many forms, such as formal contracts, letters of intent, memorandum, agreements, commissioned purchase orders, etc. But no matter what form it takes, it should be signed in writing. The oral agreement cannot be submitted to the court as evidence after the dispute occurs.(Ma Huijuan 2005, 24)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Categories and Structure of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> Based on different standards, business contracts can be divided into many categories. According to the contract maker, they can be divided into sales contract (made by the seller) and purchase contract (made by the buyer); according to the subject matter, they can be divided into technology transfer contracts, processing contracts, foreign labor contracts, and agency agreements, etc; according to the details of the contract, they can be divided into sales contract, sales confirmation letter, purchase contract and purchase confirmation letter; according to the price terms used in the contract, they can be divided into CIF contract, FOB contract and goods arrival contract, etc.<br /> Although there are many types of commercial contracts, the structure of commercial contracts is generally relatively fixed, generally including three parts: preface, text and contract end. The first part is the preface, which generally includes the name of the contract, the parties to the contract, the date of signing and the place of signing. The second part is the main body of the contract, which mainly stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties to the agreement, the specific conditions of the traded goods, such as commodity name, quantity, total value, delivery date and validity period, port of shipment and destination, insurance and confidentiality clauses, payment clauses,etc. The third part is the end, which mainly includes the signatures of all parties to the agreement, the language of the contract, the number of copies of the contract and the explanation of the validity of the contract. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 27)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 A Contrastive Analysis of Stylistic Features of Chinese and English Business Contracts====<br /> <br /> English business contract is a solemn style with the highest degree of formality among all styles of English. A comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English business contract in terms of vocabulary, syntax and discourse will be made in this chapter. (Wang Yang 2009, 13)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Lexical Features of Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> As the most basic semantic constituent unit, vocabulary plays the most basic and important role in the whole contract text. When reading any text, the characteristics of words can often reflect the characteristics of the whole text. Therefore, it is necessary to study the characteristics of vocabulary so as to lay a foundation for the study of the whole text. (Wang Yang 2009, 30)<br /> <br /> First of all, the use of archaism is the most prominent feature in international business contract English. The extensive use of archaic words in business contracts and legal styles fully reflects their solemn and serious style, which is related to the social function of English style of business contracts and the particularity of international business. The archaism most commonly used in business contract English are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中)，therein-after(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于). (Wang Yang 2009, 34)<br /> <br /> In contrast, some classical Chinese words are often used in Chinese business contract terms, such as“兹、若”. This is to reflect the conciseness and clarity of the Chinese contract text. However, strictly speaking, Chinese business contract terms are more straightforward, the classical Chinese vocabulary is less frequently used, and the stylistic features are not as obvious as English business contracts. (Wang Yang 2009, 36)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the use of synonyms is another feature of English business contracts. Two or more synonyms are often used together in English business contracts. This is to make the terms of the contract more precise and accurate, and to avoid ambiguities and omissions as much as possible, for example, by and between, sole and exclusive, make and enter into, etc. (Wang Yang 2009, 37)<br /> <br /> However, we must note that synonyms are not commonly used in Chinese business contracts. This is mainly because of the differences in expression habits between Chinese and English and the differences in legal and cultural traditions between countries. (Wang Yang 2009, 38)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, as a contractual document with legal effect, legal terms are also used in the contract. In formal English business contracts, drafters often use “convene” instead of “hold or assemble”; “dispatch” instead of “spread out or handout”; “terminate” instead of “stop”. Similarly, in Chinese business contracts, interpreters use“承诺”to indicate “commitment”;“撤销”to indicate“cancel”instead of “取消”;“裁决” to mean “decision” instead of “决定”. Finally, the contract contains many professional knowledge and terminology. (Wang Yang 2009, 40)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.2 Syntax Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> Besides vocabulary, the syntax of business contracts also has their own characteristics, such as common clauses, declarative sentences, passive voice, modal verbs, etc. <br /> <br /> The most obvious feature in business contracts is the use of subordinate clauses. They are in obvious positions to explain, restrict and supplement the meaning of the main sentence. The positions of these clauses are relatively flexible. For example, attributive clause can be placed together with the central word or separated from the central word. A noun can be modified by multiple attributive clauses, and an attributive clause can also modify multiple nouns. The adverbial clause of time can be placed either at the beginning of the sentence or at the middle and end of the sentence. (Wang Yang 2009, 44)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the positions of attributive clauses and adverbial clauses in Chinese are relatively fixed. The adverbial clause of time is usually next to the modified verb because there is no temporal change in Chinese verbs. Declarative sentences are clear in meaning, division of powers and responsibilities, objective and fair in stating facts, and conform to the requirements of business contract terms. Therefore, they are frequently used in Chinese and English business contracts, but interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences are seldom used. (Wang Yang 2009, 45)<br /> <br /> Passive sentences are also quite common in business contracts. The passive voice is often used when there is no need to clearly indicate the sender of the behavior and the emphasis is placed on the object of the behavior. (Wang Yang 2009, 47)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.3 Textual Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> The textual features of Chinese and English business contracts are mainly reflected in textual cohesion and textual structure. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> In business contracts, whether Chinese or English, contextual cohesion is realized by adding conjunctions or repetitions of words, which indicates the logical relationship between sentences and reflects the rigour and solemnity of business contract language. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 45)<br /> <br /> The discourse structure of Chinese and English business contracts is basically the same, with highly stylized features. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 47)<br /> <br /> This kind of consistency is not only to obtain formal uniformity, but also often mainly due to the requirements of meaning, so that readers have the impression that the contents expressed by clauses with the same sentence pattern are equivalent in the legal effect of the contract.① (Liu Miqin 1998, 310-312)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 General Study of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This chapter introduces Nida's functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida first proposed the“dynamic equivalence”theory, then further developed the theory, emphasizing the equivalence of two aspects, namely“formal equivalence”and“dynamic equivalence”.“Formal equivalence”emphasizes the form and content of the information itself and believes that the translation should be close to the original structure. “Dynamic equivalence”refers to“reproducing source language information from semantics to style with the closest (original) natural equivalent in the recipient language”.② (Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward 1986, 113-120 ) Tan Zaixi（谭载喜） pointed out, in this definition, there are three key points: 1. Natural, the translation cannot have a translation cavity. 2. Closeness, referring to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of nature. 3. Equivalence, which is the core. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 23-27)<br /> <br /> After the proposal of dynamic equivalence, many disputes have arisen. It is considered as free translation or live translation. In order to change people's misunderstanding of it, Nida pointed out:“Everything in the text is meaningful, including speech forms, so forms cannot be sacrificed easily.”④ (Nida, E. A 1993, 119-130) Therefore, he replaced“dynamic equivalence”with “functional equivalence”. There is no essential difference between the two, but the latter highlights the concept of“function”.<br /> <br /> On the question of which level equivalence should be reflected, Nida pointed out that in addition to content and form equivalence, style equivalence should also be considered. (Nida, E. A 1993, 119-130)<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida divided functional equivalence into“maximum functional equivalence”and“minimum functional equivalence”since absolute equivalence is impossible to achieve. The so-called“maximum functional equivalence”means that the target readers can understand the original text in a way consistent with the original readers and further appreciate the original text while“minimum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand how the original readers understand and appreciate the original through their understanding of the target text. (Nida, E. A 1993, 154)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Researches on Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Abroad, Beekman(1972: 32) pointed out:“Nida's functional equivalence theory makes theorists and translators believe that a good translation must be able to convey the meaning and dynamics of the original text at the same time.”⑤ (Beekman 1974, 191-221)<br /> <br /> Wilss(2001: 51) stressed:“Nida's functional equivalence theory can be applied to translation practice because it can achieve effective translation.”⑥ (Wilss 2001, 72-86) <br /> Venuti said:“Functional equivalence theory also eases the debate between translators on“domestication” and “foreignization” from the perspective of language and culture.”⑦ (Venuti 1995, 76-89)<br /> <br /> At home, Jin Di(金堤) put forward“equivalence theory”on the basis of“functional equivalence theory”, and applied it to the translation of Ulysses, which illustrates the feasibility of“functional equivalence” theory in practical translation. Tan Zaixi made a comprehensive and systematic summary of the formation process of Nida's translation theory and its profound connotation. In addition, in the CNKI database, retrieval using“functional equivalence theory” as the key word shows that there are 2444 related articles in various core journals and magazines. (Jin Di 1998, 122)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Applicability of Functional Equivalence Theory to E-C Translation of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> At present, there are no authoritative translation principles and standards for commercial contract translation, but the three principles of contract translation put forward by Ma Huijuan(马会娟) are highly recognized: First, the words used are accurate and the translation is complete. The translator shall not add, delete or change any information contained in the contract at will. The language of the translation shall be accurate, complete and natural. Second, the organization is clear and the format is equivalent. The translation should correspond to the original text format as a whole and reproduce the structural features of the source language as much as possible. Third, the translation should be in line with the stylistic characteristics of the contract. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 134)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory emphasizes content equivalence, form equivalence and style equivalence. These three requirements are consistent with the three principles above put forward by Ma Huijuan respectively. Both of them limit the translation standards from the aspects of content, form and style. Therefore, the functional equivalence theory can be fully applied to the translation practice of business contracts. (Ma Huijuan 2005, 154)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Business Contract Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This part focuses on the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. Combining with actual translation cases, this chapter analyzes the common problems in contract translation and puts forward corresponding solutions. (Miao Xipu 2011, 78)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Equivalence at the Lexical Level====<br /> <br /> Vocabulary is the basic component of sentences and chapters. In the specific translation process, if vocabulary translation is not handled well, sentence and chapter translation will be impossible. (Miao Xipu 2011, 98)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Equivalence of Technical Terms—Literal Translation and Free Translation=====<br /> <br /> The contents of business contracts involve all trades and professions, and there are many subject matters, including many professional knowledge and terminology, which is a big obstacle for many translators who do not know the professional knowledge of the industry. Therefore, before translation, translators should understand the relevant industries involved in the contract and master the necessary knowledge in the industry so as to avoid the layman's words and semantic errors in the translation, which will affect the accuracy and formality of the contract and cannot achieve functional equivalence. (Miao Xipu 2011, 116)<br /> <br /> Example1:The balance 80% ( Eighty percent ) of the contract value shall be paid against irrevocable L/C at 360 days sight to be accepted by both parties. <br /> 译文：合同金额的80%（百分之八十）以不可撤销信用证的方式在交单的360 天予以支付。<br /> <br /> Many words in the contract appear in the form of letter abbreviations. As shown in this example,“L/C”is the abbreviation of letter of credit, which is translated literally into“信用证”. This is a well-established translation method in the industry, which can reflect both the equivalence of meaning and the professionalism of language expression. (Liao Ying 2005, 23)<br /> <br /> Example2:“The seller shall present the following documents required for negotiation or collection to the banks.”<br /> 译文:“卖方应向银行提交议付或托收所需的下列文件。”<br /> <br /> In this sentence,“negotiation”and“collection”are both technical terms of the contract, they are translated into“议付”and“托收” respectively, instead of“谈判”and“收取”. The expressions not only conform to the professional expression of the economic and trade industry, but also accurately reflect the meaning of the original text and achieve the meaning and style equivalence emphasized by the functional equivalence theory. (Liao Ying 2005, 34)<br /> <br /> Example3:“UNIT PRICES: FOB Xingang, Tianjing USD 22 150.00 per unit (US Dollars twenty two thousand, one hundred and fifty only)。”<br /> 译文:“单价: FOB天津新港, 每辆22150.00美元（贰万贰仟壹佰伍拾美元）。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“FOB”is an abbreviation of “Free on board”. It can be translated into “FOB” by free translation or by shifting translation. This is mainly because the readers of business contracts themselves are professionals in the industry. They usually exchange price terms in the form of English letters and abbreviations in their daily work. Therefore, when translating such price terms, their source language expressions can be retained. (Liao Ying 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Equivalence of Archaism—Omission, Addition and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Archaisms are rarely used in modern English, but they are still common in business contracts. They can not only reflect the formal rigour of business contracts, but also highlight the conciseness and clarity of language. The archaisms most commonly used in English business contract are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中), hereinafter(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于), etc. (Miao Xipu 2011, 118)<br /> <br /> Example1:“The parties hereto shall, first of all, settle any dispute arising from or in connection with the contract through amicable negotiation.” <br /> 译文:“合同双方首先应该通过友好协商，解决因合同而发生的或与合同相关的争议。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“hereto”means“本协议的、本合同的”. It can be translated with omission. The contract subject relationship is clear, literal translation will only lead to redundant repetition of the translation, so there is no need to translate it. (Liao Ying 2005, 50)<br /> <br /> Example2: Now, therefore, in consideration of the recitals set forth above and the mutual covenants, promises, and agreements contained herein, and other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged, the Parties do hereby agree as follows: <br /> 译文：因此，考虑到上述陈述和本协议中包含的共同契约、承诺和协议，以及其他良好和有价值的对价，双方特此达成如下协议，特此确认其接收和充分性。<br /> <br /> In this example, herein usually means“此中，于此”. But such translation here will confuse readers. Therefore, we can adopt addition and translate it into“此协议中”. Although this expression is not as concise as“于此”, accuracy is the first requirement in contract translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 53)<br /> <br /> Example3: After arrival of goods at port of destination, the buyer shall apply to China Commodity Inspection Bureau (hereinafter referred to as CCIB) for a further inspection as to the specifications and quantity/weight of the goods.<br /> 译文：货到目的港后，买方将申请中国商品检验局(以下简称商检局)对货物的规格和数量重量进行检验。<br /> <br /> In this case, the original meaning of“hereinafter”is“以下，在下文中”. Its original meaning is directly inserted into the sentence, which not only accurately expresses the original meaning, but also makes the translated language natural and smooth, meeting the requirements of functional equivalence theory. (Liao Ying 2005, 63)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Equivalence of Formal Words—Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> “Functional Equivalence”emphasizes the transmission of reading experience, requiring the translator to transmit not only language functions but also legal functions, so as to enable the target readers to feel the reading experience of the original readers. (Miao Xipu 2011, 122)<br /> <br /> Example1: The agreement does not operate as an acceptance of any conflicting terms and conditions and shall prevail over any conflicting provision of any purchase order or any other instrument of Customer. <br /> 译文：本协议不接受任何与本协议产生冲突的任何条款。若在乙方订单或任何文件中出现与本协议相冲突的条款，应均以本协议为准。<br /> <br /> Example2:“Time of shipment: within 15 days after receipt of the advance payment and the L/C of balance value to be accepted by the × Bank.” <br /> 译文:“装运日期：收到预付款且剩余货款的信用证被××银行承兑后的15天内装运。”<br /> <br /> In the first example, although the basic meaning of“胜过”is also expressed, it is usually translated into“以....为准” or “效力高于”in legal texts. In the second example, the common meaning of“accept”is “接受”, but in legal translation it is usually translated as “承兑”. Formal words are usually translated according to conventions, so the difficulty in translation lies not in the choice of translation strategies, but in the grasp of semantics and the reproduction of style. (Miao Xipu 2011, 113)<br /> <br /> =====3.1.4 Equivalence of Juxtaposition—Contracted Translation=====<br /> <br /> English business contracts often use two or more synonyms to ensure the uniqueness of words meaning. The functional equivalence theory emphasizes the equivalence of meaning and form, but in the actual translation process, the absolute equivalence between the two, that is, the “maximum functional equivalence”proposed by Nida, is impossible to realize. (Miao Xipu 2011, 115)<br /> <br /> Example1:“The agreement is made and entered into on April 16, 2007 by and between Party A and Party B.”<br /> 译文:“此合同由甲乙双方于2007年4月16日达成。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“made and entered into”and“by and between”are juxtaposed by two pairs of synonyms. When translating, these words only need translate once, which is called contracted translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 83)<br /> <br /> Example2: This agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the subject matter hereof and supersedes all prior agreements, understanding, warranties, representations, negotiations and discussion, whether oral or written, of the parties except as specifically set forth herein.<br /> 译文：此合同是双方就合同主体所达成的全部协议，将取代双方过往所有口头或书面的协议、理解、声明、保证、谈判和讨论，在此明确阐明的除外。<br /> <br /> In this example, several synonyms are juxtaposed to make the terms of the contract include all relevant matters as much as possible so as to make the writing strict and clear. Here, we can adopt literal translation strategy, keeping the total number of words listed in the original text, and looking for the corresponding Chinese words to achieve the double equivalence of content and form. (Miao Xipu 2011, 116)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Equivalence at the Syntactic Level====<br /> <br /> Cliches are commonly used in official document and usually have a fixed translation method. Passive sentences and subordinate clauses have long sentence patterns and complicated logical relations, which tests the translator's translation ability and logical expression ability. (Miao Xipu 2011, 122)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Conventional Phrases—Imitation Translation=====<br /> <br /> There are many cliches in business contracts, which are common at the beginning and end of contracts. (Miao Xipu 2011, 139)<br /> <br /> Example1:“In consideration of the mutual covenants contained in this agreement, the parties agree as follows:”<br /> 译文:“考虑到本协议中的共同承诺，协议双方约定如下:”<br /> <br /> Example2:This Agreement may be executed in two or more counterparts, each of which shall be deemed an original and all of which together shall constitute one instrument. <br /> 译文：本协议可签署两个或两个以上的副本，每一副本构成本协议的一份原件，所有副本构成一份法律文件。<br /> <br /> Although the original expression of each text is not the same, the basic meaning is the same. A relatively fixed translation method has been formed, so the translators should know the common expressions in advance, or look for the parallel text to imitate the translation. (Miao Xipu 2011, 140)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Equivalence of Passive Sentence=====<br /> <br /> Passive voice is a typical language structure in English business contracts. It can effectively reflect the objectivity and fairness of contracts. However, unlike English, passive voice is seldom used in Chinese. Therefore, in translation, we usually use various translation strategies to convert passive voice into active voice. The most common translation strategy is conversion, that is, the object of the original text is converted into the subject, and the subject is converted into the object. (Miao Xipu 2011, 150)<br /> <br /> Example1: This Contract is made by and between the Buyer and the Seller whereby the Buyer agree to buy and the Seller agrees to sell the commodity in attached Annex according to the terms and condition stipulated below: <br /> 译文：买卖双方同意按下述条款购买出售附件中的商品并签订本合同： <br /> <br /> Example2: Agent shall be entitled to nominate mandate other third parties to act upon behalf of Agent in generating business to the Parties, as Agent’s sole discretion. <br /> 译文：代理人有权自行指定、授权其他第三方代表代理人为缔约方带来业务。<br /> <br /> From the first example, “by and between” is used as adverbial in the sentence. The object“the Buyer and the Seller” is the originator of this sentence, which is transformed into the subject of Chinese, and the recipient of the action“this contract”is transformed into the object of Chinese, thus the passive sentence of English is transformed into the active sentence of Chinese. In addition, some passive sentences in business contracts can also be translated into active sentences without changing the subject of the original sentence, as shown in the second example. (Miao Xipu 2011, 158)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Equivalence of Long Sentence—Combination, Division and Reconstruction=====<br /> <br /> Long sentences must contain many clauses and modifiers, and their writing ideas are quite different from those of Chinese. Therefore, how to split the sentences into several parts, how to extract the core meaning of complex logical relations and how to reorganize Chinese are the three major difficulties. (Miao Xipu 2011, 188)<br /> <br /> Example1: Agent’s undertaking and obligation is to search, locate and refer (lead) potential and prospective clients/customers to Principal who are seriously interested, ready, willing and able to apply for the Product. <br /> 译文：代理人的责任和义务是为委托人寻找、定位和推荐（引导）潜在的、真正对本产品感兴趣、准备好且愿意申请的客户。<br /> <br /> This is a restrictive attributive clause. We often adopt a combination method, translating the subordinate clause into“...的” and putting it before the modifier in the form of adjectives. This is mainly due to the structural differences between English and Chinese. The attributive elements in Chinese are not as flexible as the attributive clauses in English. (Miao Xipu 2011, 190)<br /> <br /> Example2: The parties may not assign or transfer this Agreement or any of its rights and obligations under this Agreement without the prior written consent of the other party, which shall not be unreasonably withheld. <br /> 译文：未经另一方事先书面同意，缔约方不得出让或转让本协议或本协议项下的各项权利和义务，此要求不得被无理拒绝。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a non-restrictive attributive clause. Since this clause and the antecedent are not closely related and generally play an explanatory role, we often use division method in E-C translation. That is to say, the two should be separated and naturally combined by repeating antecedents. (Miao Xipu 2011, 192)<br /> <br /> Example3: Should Principal be reasonably sure that Agent violated this rule, or should any client/customer present proof of such violation, Agent will not be entitled to its omission for the particular client or group of clients and Principal may terminate this Agreement with immediate effect at its own discretion. <br /> 译文：如果委托人有理由确定代理人违反了此项规定，或如果有客户提供了其违反此项规定的证据，代理人将无权享这一客户或这一组客户的佣金，委托人可自行终止本协议，即刻生效。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a adverbial clause. The structure of“should+subject+verb”belongs to the unreal conditional sentence. But there is no such usage in Chinese. Therefore, we can reconstruct the original text according to the logical structure of the original sentence and adjust the word order appropriately to make it natural and more in line with the Chinese expression habits. (Liao Ying 2005, 103)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Equivalence at Textual Level====<br /> <br /> The text consists of sentences, so the following focuses on the cohesion and format of the text. (Miao Xipu 2011, 218)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Text Cohesion=====<br /> <br /> Text cohesion is realized through the use of conjunctions and lexical repetition, reflecting the rigour and solemnity of business contract language. (Miao Xipu 2011, 228)<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> Thereafter, this Agreement shall be renewed automatically for successive additional one-year terms under the same terms and conditions unless either party chooses not to continue the relationship and provides written notice 30 days prior to the natural expiration of the existing one-year term. <br /> 译文：此后，本协议应以同样的条款自动延期一年，除非任何一方选择解除合作关系，并在一年合同期满前30天提交书面通知。<br /> <br /> Here, explicit connectives,“thereafter, and, unless”are clearly translated, which is conducive to textual cohesion and indicates the logical relationship between sentences. Therefore, we can translate them into “此后、和/并、除非”, which not only realizes the formal equivalence between the translation and the original, but also achieves the semantic equivalence. (Liao Ying 2005, 213)<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Text Format=====<br /> <br /> As one kind of legal documents, commercial contracts are highly normative and have strict writing format. Therefore, attention should be paid to the corresponding format in translation. (Miao Xipu 2011, 238)<br /> <br /> Contract No: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Date: Aug. ××,2013 <br /> <br /> The Buyer: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Representative: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> The seller: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××<br /> <br /> Representative: ××××××<br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> 译文：合同编号：×××××× <br /> <br /> 日期：2013年8月×号 <br /> <br /> 买方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：×××××× <br /> <br /> 卖方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：××××××<br /> <br /> Here, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the contract text, and keep the format of the translation and the original text in alignment during translation. Firstly, capital words with the first letter should be emphasized in terms consistent with Chinese expression habits. Secondly, the parts marked in bold or italics in the contract shall still be marked in bold or italics in the translation. (Liao Ying 2005, 223)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> To sum up, according to the requirements of functional equivalence theory on translation quality, commercial contract translation should meet the following standards:<br /> <br /> In terms of content, first, the translation language should be natural and fluent and conform to Chinese expression habits. Second, pay attention to the professionalism of the language expression in the translation, avoid using colloquial expressions, and achieve the meaning equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)<br /> <br /> In terms of format, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the commercial contract text and try our best to achieve the formal equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory. (JIn Di 1998, 298)<br /> <br /> In terms of language style, the translation should retain the original language style as much as possible. The business contract language is professional and solemn, so the translation should reproduce the strict and formal legal style of the original text on the premise of ensuring accurate content and natural language. (JIn Di 1998, 298)<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes and summarizes specific contract terms and puts forward countermeasures. Although the translation strategies given in this paper have certain universality, the research text is slightly narrower than that of the whole commercial contract text research. Due to the space limitation, the cases provided are limited. Therefore, the scope of the research text should be broadened and analyzed from a broader research perspective in future research. (JIn Di 1998, 310)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> [1] Beekman, J. &amp; John C. Translating the word of God [M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974. <br /> <br /> [2] Catford, J. C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965. <br /> <br /> [3] Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> [4] Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986.<br /> <br /> [5] Nida, E. A., and R Taber, Charles. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. New York: E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1969.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995.<br /> <br /> [7] Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [8] Yallop, C. The construction of equivalence[A]. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2001.<br /> <br /> [9] Dun Guangang 顿官刚. (2002). 经贸英语词汇的特点及翻译[Characteristics and Translation of Business English Vocabulary]. 山东外语教学 Shandong Foreign Language Teaching Journal.<br /> <br /> [10] Liao Ying 廖瑛. (2005). 实用公关英语[Practical English PublicRelations]. Shanghai: University of International Business and Economics Press 对外经济贸易大学出版社. <br /> <br /> [11] Liu Miqin 刘宓庆. (1998). 文体与翻译[English Varities and Translation]. Beijing: China Translation Corporation Press 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> [12] Jin Di 金堤. (1998). 等效翻译探索[Translation Theory and Practice Series]. Beijing; China Translation Corporation Press 中国对外翻译出版公司. <br /> <br /> [13] Ma Huijuan 马会娟. (2005). 论商务文本翻译标准多元化[On Diversification of Business Text Translation Standards]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal. 24-154.<br /> <br /> [14] Miao Xipu 苗锡璞. (2011). 功能对等理论指导下的商务英语翻译[Business English Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory]. 内蒙古财经学院学报 Journal of Inner Mongolia. 78-238.<br /> <br /> [15] Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史[A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> [16] Wang Yang 汪洋. (2009). 浅析商务合同的词汇与句法翻译技巧[The Lexical and Syntactic Features of Business Contract and its Translation]. 科技文汇 The Science Education Article Collects. 13-47.<br /> <br /> ==The identity of translator in translation activities张毓婕 Zhang Yujie==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In translation activities, translators have freedom in the choice of texts to be translated and translation strategies. They also have freedom in the choice of ways to understand the author’s emotions and values and reproduce the connotations and cultural flavor of the text. And Only when translators truly realize what roles they should play in translation activities and play these roles well can they create high-quality translations. Therefore, the translation is deeply imprinted by the translator, and the roles of the translator have become an important issue that cannot be ignored in translation studies. And with the development of translation studies, the issue of translator's identity has received due attention. This article also discusses the issue of translator’s identity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> identity of translator, translation activities, roles of today’s translator <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 论翻译活动中译者的身份<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 翻译活动中，译者既可以在翻译文本、翻译策略的选择上发挥主观能动性，也可以在对作者情感和价值观的理解、语言的选择、文化风味的重现上发挥主观能动性。而只有译者真正认识到自己在翻译活动中应该扮演什么角色并且扮演好这种角色，他们才能创造出高质量的译作。因而译作深深地打上了译者的烙印，译者的身份角色成为翻译研究中不可忽视的一个重要问题。而随着翻译实践的发展，译者的身份问题受到了应有的重视，本文也对这一问题进行了探讨。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 译者的身份，翻译活动，当今译者的角色<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translators’ playing roles well in translation is vital to the accomplishment of high-quality translations. Therefore, the identity of translator is an important issue in translation studies and we should pay much attention to it. As for this paper, first of all, it makes an analysis of the importance and necessity of valuing the issue of translator’s identity. Then, it expounds different kinds of roles translators have played in the history. Next, it concludes the features of the changes of translator’s identity and its complexity. Finally, from the perspective of today’s translators, it shows what roles today’s translators should play with today’s development of society and technologies, so as to explain how can we make more contributions to culture and development of the world.<br /> <br /> ===1.The importance and necessity of valuing the issue of translator’s identity===<br /> Two scholars Zhong Weihe and Zhou Jing made the following overview: as the subject of translation, translators need to respect the objective translation environment and fully understand the cultural needs of the target language, and they must also show their self-consciousness through subjective initiative. For example, they can show it through language operation, cultural characteristics, artistic creation, aesthetic standards, and humanistic character. In addition, they must give full play to their autonomy, initiative, purpose, creativity, and acceptance. This is the subjectivity of translation. （Zhong and Zhou, 2006）The two scholars not only pointed out the objective conditions that translators need to consider in translation activities, but also further explained that translators need to stimulate their subjective initiative and creativity, which is very enlightening. As the subject of translation, the translator’s activity is the specific translation behavior, that is, the conversion between two different languages and cultures. He can be creative and active in the choice of the text to be translated, the order of translation and translation strategies. The translated version is also deeply imprinted by the translator. Although the translation is derived from the original, it is no longer the original and have a new life. In addition, the translator can not only give the original work a new life, but also decide which new life to give it, so that it will be presented to the target language readers in an acceptable appearance. Therefore, the identity of the translator runs through the entire translation activity and is closely linked to the original and translated work. It is an important issue worthy of our attention.<br /> <br /> ===2.Different kinds of roles translators have played in history===<br /> <br /> ====2.1The identity of translator under the source language centralism====<br /> Under the source language centralism, the purpose of translation is to reproduce the author’s original meanings and the highest standard of translation is being faithful to the original text. In these translation theories, translators’ cultural status is marginalized, and many of these translators are invisible, given various kinds of humble titles and roles.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1Translator as a servant=====<br /> There are certain common cognitions and understandings of the identity of translators in China and western countries. Due to their long-exist limitations in public awareness of translation activities and the low social status of translators, translators were once generally regarded as playing the &quot;servant role&quot; in both East and West.<br /> <br /> John Dryden compares a translator to a slave, thinking that the &quot;slave&quot; can only work in someone else's manor, manuring and pruning the grapes, while the wine produced belongs to the owner. （Tan, 1991）<br /> <br /> American modern translator Weinberger complained that although his translation works had attracted millions of readers, there was no his name on the cover of the translations, so he was merely an unsung hero.<br /> <br /> Yang Jiang also said in her book Experience of Failures-Trial Translation: At least, this is a hard job, because translators as servants have to follow the master and cannot be self-assertive. Moreover, a servant serves two masters at the same time: one is the original text, and the other is the readers of his translation. (Jin and Huang, 2019)<br /> <br /> The identity of servant requires translators to be completely faithful to the original text, adhere to the source-centered and author-centered theory, and not be affected by their own emotions and values. Playing this kind of role, the translator should only faithfully convey the connotation of the text and the author's original intention, so he just like a slave in shackles without personal freedom, and can only follow the author in anywhere. Of course, it is true that translators’ playing a role as a servant can help translators to faithfully restoring the author’s intention and not distorting his original meanings so that meet the requirements of “faithfulness” and “loyalty”, but this kind of theory ignores the translator’s subjectivity and will place translators in a very low social status. Just as an ancient craftsman did not have the right to sign his name on his carvings, a translator also doesn’t have this kind of right and is neglected in their translations. Therefore, this theory reveals various prejudices and disregard of public for translators. And even in today’s China with prosperous economy and society, most people still hold the view that translation is merely the mechanical conversion of the source language and the target language. They believe that if they understand English, they are absolutely qualified for the job of translation. At the same time, a lot of issues such as a chaotic translation market, low salary for translators, talent shortage in translation and gloomy employment prospects are very prominent. What’s more, even in the Chinese translation circles, there are long-exist serious problem of &quot;seeing things but not people&quot;. Translators have a low status in the literary world and are treated with indifference and contempt. And their fruits, that is, translations, are not valued or even recognized on many occasions.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2Translator as an invisible person=====<br /> One topic that has been heatly debated for a long time in the translation world is that whether translators should be invisible or visible in translation. The translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;visibility&quot; have their own purpose and theoretical basis respectively, but both &quot;invisibility&quot; or &quot;visibility&quot; are translators’ own choices made after deliberations.<br /> Venuti, the translation theorist of deconstruction, explained invisibility in his monograph The Translators Invisibility: A History of Translation with Norman Shapiro's words and he thought that the translation should be transparent so that it does not look like the translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass. There are only small imperfections on the glass like scratches and bubbles. Of course, the ideal is to have nothing. The translation should never cause readers to feel that they are reading the translation. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu also had similar points of view and he stated in the article The Translation of Lin Shu that: The highest standard of literary translation is &quot;sublimation&quot;. In translation, if you can not only do not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched due to the differences of language habits, but also completely preserve the original flavor, then it has met requirements of “sublimation”. In the seventeenth century, someone praised this kind of translation as &quot;the transmigration of souls&quot; of the original text, whose body was changed and the spirit remained the same. In other words, the translation should be so faithful to the original that it does not read like the translation, because the original work will never read as if it is translated from somewhere else. （Qian，1984）<br /> <br /> The French translation theorist Munin once wrote in his translation monograph Les Belles Infideles: &quot;The ideal translator, as defined by Gogol, should turn into a glass, so transparent that readers can’t even feel its existence.<br /> <br /> The &quot;invisible&quot; identity of the translator means that the translator can reproduce the spiritual essence and style of the source text naturally, so as to achieve the &quot;transparency&quot; of the translation and the &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator. The translation needs to be fluent and natural, in line with the reading habits of the target language readers, and translators should avoid obscure word choice and mechanical sentence conversion. While reading the translated text, readers should not feel the existence of the translator and the influences he exerts on the text. And when the translator is nowhere to be seen and felt in the text, we can say that the translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; has been achieved. This requires translators to pay attention to three points that are often emphasized in traditional translation theories: one is that the translator should not incorporate their own emotions and values in the translation; the second is that the translator should not show his or her own personality in the translation; the third is that in translation the author should be based on the original text and follow the author in each choice. （Xu，2003）<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Translator as a painter=====<br /> Dryden once compared the translator to a painter. He advocated the translation view of comparing translation to painting: In translation, a translator should regard the original text as a model, and use his own colors to express the power and effect of the original text. The earliest Chinese translator who used metaphor like this was Chen Xiying. He believed that: translation is the same as a painting, although imitation is the most important, the colors used in the copy of a painting and the painting itself are the same. While the languages and strategies used in the original text and the translated version are totally different. On the other hand, a person who can appreciate the original painting has the ability to appreciate the copy one, while most people who can read the original book cannot read the translated version, and most people who can read the translation cannot understand the original text. This is the first difficulty the translator will face. &quot;And Chinese are much more familiar with Fu Lei’s statement: “In terms of effect, translation should be like a painting, and what you should restore is not the form but the spirit.” This theory extracts the common characteristics of translation and painting, and vividly elaborates the process and details of translation activities.<br /> <br /> ====2.2The identity of translator under the translator centralism====<br /> In 1980s, there was a cultural turn of translation studies in western countries from language translation to cultural translation. Translation theorists began to study translation with valuable theories from other subjects such as Semiotics, Hermeneutics, Philosophy, Literature and so on, which helped them to improve the traditional translation models. The subjectivity of translators were valued at that time and there appeared various kinds of roles of translators which emphasize the creativity, imagination, and activity of translators. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1Translator as a manipulator=====<br /> The manipulator status of the translator originated from the manipulation school. Manipulation school was an important part of the cultural school of translation studies in the 1980s. It was developed in the category of comparative literature. The main representatives are Hesman and Lefevre. Hesman said: From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for a certain purpose. Lefevre combines translation studies with power, ideology, patronage, and poetics and believed: “Translation, of course, is a rewriting of the original text. Rewriting is manipulation.” （Lefevere, 2010）The manipulation school is different from those schools that put &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;faithfulness&quot; in the most important place. Its representatives believe that translation is the manipulation and rewriting of the original text, the translator is the manipulator of the text, and the translation and the original text are both important. This theory is contrary to the original work-centered theory and author-centered theory, and is subversive to the previous translation theories. It shifts the focus of translation from the original author to the translator, which is conducive to improve the status of translators. They also particularly emphasized the status of culture in translation and the significance of translation to culture. They believed that the purpose of translation is not to simply complete the conversion of words, phrases and sentences, but to achieve cultural correspondence, so that the cultural meanings conveyed by the translation is consistent with the cultural meanings in the original text. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2Translator as a writer=====<br /> Women and translation have been long connected with each other for both of them occupy very humble positions. The traditional view holds that translation is considered as a secondary work dependent on and subservient to the original text, just as women are inferior to men under patriarchal power. <br /> <br /> Feminist translation theory came into being in a wave of opposition to this kind of traditional thought. It combined feminism and translation, and its representatives put forward many translation viewpoints influenced by feminism, providing a new perspective for translation studies and subverting the traditional translation theory. The representatives of feminist translation theory include Sherry Simon, Lori Chambelain, Luise von Flotow, etc. Thus, translation studies “began to distrust the traditional hierarchical order and gender roles, and began to question the faithful rules and universal standards of meaning and value.&quot; They believed that translators should not be faithful to the original text or the author, but the identity and discourse power of women. The purpose of translation is to make language speak for women, improve their status and liberate women through language. Feminist translators revealed many sexist words and phrases in translation, re-examined the relationship between the original text and the translated version, advocated rewriting translation strategies, and required feminist intervention and rewriting of the original text. In this way, feminist translation theorists improved the status of translators and helped them to go to the front of the stage from behind the scenes, playing the role of an author.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3Translator as a conqueror=====<br /> As a social practice activity, translation is also a product of political thoughts and ideologies in a sense. When translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously affected by their political stance and ideologies, and the translator’s cultural identity and cultural attitude are always political. Therefore, the translated text is not exactly equivalent to the original, because in the process of translation, translators will add their own feelings and values to the translated version. What's more, some people think that translators are aggressors, and the purpose of translation is to impose one culture on another, such as the translations serving as a tool for the construction of subjectivity of colonialism in the process of colonization and maintaining cultural hierarchy after the end of the colonial era. This type of translation is used as a tool for political purpose and is just like a conqueror. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.4The translator's &quot;independent&quot; status=====<br /> Post-colonial research in the field of modern translation believes that translation has three functions: (1) the means of colonization (2) the lightning rod for cultural inequality (3) the tools of decolonization.(Robinson, 1997) As is mentioned above, when translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously influenced by their own political stance and ideologies, and thus become a tool for cultural expansion and maintaining cultural hierarchy in the colonial era. Similarly, this tool can also be applied to the activities of anti-colonialism. In fact, in the process of anti-colonialism, translation has also played an important role, providing a stage for anti-colonialism activities and becoming a tool used by the colonized to get rid of the colonial yoke and weaken cultural hegemony.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.5Translator as a creative rebel=====<br /> The term creative rebellion comes from French literary sociologist Robert Escarpit. He holds the view that translation is rebellious, because it puts the work in a completely unexpected reference system (referring to language); Translation is creative, because it gives the work a new look and makes it more comprehensive. So that readers can have a brand-new literary exchange. （Escarpit, 1987）That is to say, on the one hand, this theory believes that translation is creative, that is, in the process of translation, in order to restore the original contents and cultural flavor, the translator must use his creativity and imagination to find suitable words and styles in the target language to stimulate readers to have similar associations. This is a kind of creative work that can give the original work a new life in a new language. On the other hand, translation is rebellious. When using the target language to restore the connotations of the original text, the translator must discard some of the original form. Creative rebellion can be divided into three types: the creative rebellion of the translator, the creative rebellion of the recipient, and the creative rebellion of the receiving environment. The creative treason of the translator can be conscious and unconscious, such as personalized translation, mistranslation, omission, compilation, adaptation and so on.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.6Translator as a language quality controller(Li and He, 2018)=====<br /> In recent years, with the development of the world economy and Internet technology, computer-assisted translation has become more and more popular. It has overturned the traditional translation model and most of the work of language conversion is completed by computers instead of translators. However, although the computer can complete the task of translation, the translated texts usually don’t have a very high quality and need to be improved by human translators. Especially in literary translation, as we all know, when translating a literal work, translators need to have sufficient cultural background knowledge, and in the process of literal translation, they must put themselves into the author’s context and fully understand his emotions, attitudes and values in order to create translations with high quality. This is something that computer translation software are unable to achieve. Therefore, translators play the role of processing, modifying, and polishing the texts produced by computers. They are the controllers of language quality, making up for the flaws in the translation given by the computer, ensuring the fluency of the translation and choosing an appropriate style for it. This identity of the translator does not mean that the translator is marginalized again and in a low position. On the contrary, translators are playing an irreplaceable role in ensuring the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> ===3.The features of the changes of translator’s identity and its complexity===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The identity of translators changed from invisible to visible, from subordinate to dominant, from author-centered to translator-centered. ====<br /> At the beginning, due to the limitations of people’s understanding about translation activities, translators had low social status, and most of them played the roles of &quot;invisible man&quot;, &quot;slave&quot;, &quot;servant&quot; and &quot;painter&quot;. The author and the original text were the center of translation activities, while the translators were marginalized. Later, with the cultural turn of translation studies, translators gradually got rid of the shackles, moved from behind the scenes to the front stage, and became the subject of translation activities. （Yao, 1996）This feature is reflected in translation views of manipulation school, feminist translation theories, creative treason translation views and post-colonial translation views. At that time, translators played many other roles, such as &quot;manipulator&quot;, &quot;writer&quot;, &quot;creative rebel&quot;, &quot;conqueror “and so on. Nowadays, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have gained more roles such as &quot;language quality controller&quot;, &quot;learners of new technology and new knowledge&quot; and so on. Although part of the translator's work is done by a computer now, this is not a manifestation of the translator's marginalization again, but a manifestation of the translator's freedom and subjectivity. Therefore, translators today should grasp the trend of the evolution of the translator's identity, give full play to their subjective initiative in translation practice, and avoid becoming servants or slaves of the original text. At the same time, this does not mean that the translator can distort the author’s original meaning arbitrarily. Translation is just like “dancing with shackles&quot;. On the one hand, we should be faithful to the author and adhere to certain translation principles. One the other hand, we can adjust our translation strategies according to our purposes of translation and find a good way to restore the feelings, values and attitude of the original author as well as cultural flavor of the original text. In this way, the translator can present a high-quality translation to readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The identity and status of translators are closely connected with the era in which they live.==== <br /> Throughout the history of translation studies at home and abroad, the role of the translator was ignored in the early translation studies due to the limitations of the times, and translators had a low cultural and social status. It was not until the cultural turn in the 1970s that translators truly moved from behind the scenes to the foreground. We can say that the shift of the focus of translation studies and the change of the identity of translators are deeply influenced by the time and cultural backgrounds. For example, in the 1970s, the slogan &quot;women must be liberated from language, and women's liberation must start with language&quot; emerged and translation had always been in a position similar to that of &quot;women&quot; in its own hierarchical structure. Therefore, the feminist translation theory rose and its representative translation theorists revealed discriminations in the field of translation, and liberated women by liberating translation. Another example is that many translated works under colonial expansion and anti-colonial struggle have obvious ideological characteristics, and translators of that time hoped to use culture as a tool to achieve certain political goals. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation activities are complex, and so is the identity of translator.====<br /> In different times, the identity of translator is complicated. Faced with different works, the identity of translator changes, because we have different purposes and needs when translating different works. Even when the translator is only faced with one work, in many cases, the identity of the translator will not be a single one, but a combination of multiple identities. It is the integration of these identities that makes the translation more smooth and complete. For example, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have multiple identities such as &quot;learner of new knowledge and new technology&quot;, &quot;selector of the style&quot;, and &quot;controller of language quality&quot;. We can say that translators can play different roles for different translation purposes and requirements as well as in different steps of translation.<br /> <br /> ===4. The roles of today’s translators===<br /> ====4.1 Dancers in shackles. ====<br /> Historically, there are many arguments about whether translators should be visible or invisible, servant or master. From today’s point of view, translators should keep a balance between them. They should not merely follow the author’s steps, and be the “servant” of the original text, nor should they believe that they can distort and rewrite the original text arbitrarily. Instead, they should act as a dancer in shackles: He should not only be faithful to the original text, adhere to specific translation standards and principles, carefully consider the choice of words and sentences, but also give full play to his subjective initiative and choose the most appropriate, natural and easily acceptable languages to convey the connotations of the original text.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Megaphones of real problems.====<br /> Feminist translation theory combined feminism with translation, and at that time translation became a tool for women to fight for independence and liberation. This reflects that translations are instrumental in reflecting social problems and seeking appropriate solutions to them. Excellent translation theorists can not only pay attention to the text translation itself, but also pay attention to the reflecting and solving of realistic issues in the field of translation and using translation as a tool to reasonably convey their appeals to the public on behalf of a specific group.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Learners who keep up with the time.====<br /> Translation is progressing with the time developing. If you stand still, you will lose out, and so will translators. They need to continuously learn new translation theories and accumulate more experience in practice in order to create excellent translation works. In addition, they must continue to learn new technologies and other new knowledge, such as computer-assisted translation technology, so that they can not only keep the traditional translation model in mind, but also find better ways to translate. In this way, they can adapt to the society and technological development more easily, and create high-quality translated works more efficiently. What’s more, translators should also pay attention to hot issues happened around the world, because translators should not only practice their translation skills, but also learn more new culture, which is vital in translation in the future.<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Promoters of cultural communication.====<br /> Translators are the bridges between the source language and the target language, the author and the readers. Translators with profound knowledge in language skills and cultural backgrounds can accurately grasp the connotations of the original text, reproduce the original style, convey cultural messages, and bring readers to foreign authors with unique emotional attitudes and values. With the globalization, today's world is characterized by frequent economic, political, and cultural exchanges between China and the West. Translators play the role of cultural communicators of the world. But this is different from the “conqueror” in the context of colonial expansion in the past, because China has long respected the diversity of world culture and treated the culture of every country and nation equally, so the purpose of translation activities for today’s translators is not cultural aggression but spread valuable Chinese culture to other countries and receive the essence of other countries' cultures. The role of today’s translators is the promoter of communication of cultures.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The identity of translator is an important issue of translation studies. Throughout the history, translators have played various kinds of roles in translation. At the beginning, translators had a low cultural status and are given such roles as “servant” and “invisible man”. And the subjectivity and creativity of translators were ignored in translation studies. Later in 1970s, with the cultural turn in translation studies of western countries, translators got much more attention and walked from behind the scenes to the front stage, and various kinds of roles are given to them such as: “manipulator” “writer” “creative rebel”. The status of translators had been improved. Then with the development of society and technology, translators are playing more roles such as “language quality controller” “new learner” and “selector”. From the changes of the translators’ identity, we can conclude many features of it and realize what roles should today’s translators play in order to give full play to their creativity and subjectivity, so as to create wonderful translated versions.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1] Venuti (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility'': London and New York: Routledge. <br /> <br /> [2] Robinson, D (1997). Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theories Explained: Manchester: St.Jerome Publishing. <br /> <br /> [3] 埃斯卡皮，罗贝尔(1987).文学社会学-罗•埃斯卡皮文论选:杭州：浙江人民出版社. <br /> <br /> [4] Lefevere, Andre (2010). ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame'': Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> [5]仲伟合、周静（2096），译者的极限与底线-试论译者主体性与译者的天职，外语与外语教学（07）：42-46。<br /> <br /> [6]谭载喜（1991），西方翻译简史，北京：商务印书馆：153。<br /> <br /> [7]许钧（2003），翻译论，武汉：湖北教育出版社。<br /> <br /> [8]杨武能（2003），再谈文学翻译主题，中国翻译（03）。<br /> <br /> [9]李晖，郝思源（2018），计算机辅助翻译中的译者身份研究，校园英（17）。<br /> <br /> [10]钱钟书（1984），林殊的翻译，北京商务印书馆。<br /> <br /> [11]姚亚平（1996），中国当代修辞学，广州：广东教育出版社：37。<br /> <br /> [12]金圣华，黄国斌（1996），因难见巧-名家翻译经验谈，香港：三联书店有限公司。<br /> <br /> ==Study of Domestication and foreignization in Cross-cultural Translation 顾东方 Gu Dongfang 202070080635==<br /> <br /> 顾东方 Gu Dongfang<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's economic globalization, international cultural exchanges are expanding, and translation as a communication tool is also crucial. As a form of cross-cultural and cross-linguistic communication, translation is a kind of communication and interaction between two cultures with very different social backgrounds and cultural traditions. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, the application and selection of translation strategies should not only reflect the translator's style, but also directly affect the audience of the translated work among the target language readers. In 1995, Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization , in The Invisibility of Translators. domestication and foreignization are both opposed and unified, i.e. there is no such thing as absolute domestication or absolute foreignization. This paper will discuss the selection and application of domestication and foreignization in cross-cultural translation, based on the two translation strategies themselves and actual translation cases, so that translators can use these two translation strategies more flexibly in translation to better convey the meaning of the original texts and make the translations reach more readers, and thus promote the communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication and foreignization; cross-cutural; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在经济全球化的今天，国际间文化交流也在不断扩大，而翻译作为一种交流工具也显得至关重要。作为一种跨文化、跨语言交际的形式，翻译是一种社会背景与文化传统很不相同的两种文化间的交流与交往。因此，在跨文化翻译中，翻译策略的运用与选择不仅仅要体现出译者的风格，也会直接影响译作在目的语读者中的受众程度。美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出了归化与异化两种翻译策略。归化与异化，既对立又统一，也即绝对的归化或者绝对的异化都是不存在的。本文将从归化与异化这两种翻译策略的本身出发，并结合实际翻译案例，来探讨归化与异化在跨文化翻译当中的选择与运用，使得译者能够在翻译中更灵活地使用这两种翻译策略，更好地传达出原作的意蕴，使译作受众于更多的读者，以此促进不同文化之间的交流。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化与异化；跨文化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> === Definitions of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Domestication is to localize the original language and focuses on the target language or readers by conveying the original text in the way target readers are familiar with. In order to close the readers of target texts.Domesticated translation requires the translator to speak like a native author, and the translation must become authentic to the native language if the original author is to speak directly to the readers. It helps the reader to better understand the translation and enhances the readability and enjoyment of the translation.<br /> Foreignization is that the translator tries not to disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader can get closer to the author&quot;. In translation, it means to accommodate the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorb foreign expressions, require the translator to approach the author, and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the original content. The purpose of the foreignization strategy is to consider about the differences in national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationalities and linguistic styles, and to preserve the exoticism of the translated text for the readers.<br /> <br /> ===The relationship between literal translation and free translation ,and domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Historically, foreignization and domestication can be seen as extensions of, but not identical to, literal and free translation. The terms &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot; are English translation version. Literal translation is a kind of method or text that keeps the original content and the form of the original text. Free translation means that it keeps only the content of the original text, not the form of the original text. Literal translation appeared during the May 4th Movement, emphasizing the need for faithfulness to the original text so that the translation can be &quot;expressive&quot; and &quot;elegant&quot;. Literal translation does not mean translating word for word in mechanical way. Since English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate them word for word. Literal translation is to fully and accurately clarify the meaning of the original work, without any distortion or random addition or deletion of the original ideas to maintain the original style. Sometimes even the original mood or emotion, such as anger or embarrassment, sarcasm or irony, joy or happiness, should not be ignored. Fu Si Nian and Zheng Zhenduo both advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, literal translation is the overriding rule. The work of Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren, The Collected Works of Extra-territorial Novels, is regarded as the representative of literal translation. The free translation, on the other hand, starts from the meaning and requires only the main idea of the original text to be expressed without excessive attention to detail, but a natural flow of the translation. In translation, if we cannot directly adopt the structure and expression of the original, we must change the sentence structure and expression to convey the meaning of the original according to the form and characteristics of the expression. Since there are many differences between the original language and the translated language in word order, grammar, changing forms and rhetoric, we can only use appropriate ways to convey the meaning of the original and reproduce the effect of the original. Mr. Jing-Shen Zhao once said, &quot;A smooth and fluent version is better than one that focuses only on fidelity to the original&quot;. Obviously, Mr. Zhao was in favor of foreignization, and so did Mr Yan Fu. Foreignization has been used in many works of Yan Fu, for example, the Evolution and Ethics is a typical example . In literal translation, faithful to the original form should be placed first, followed by faithful to the original content, again the fluency and popularity of translated language; while in free translation, faithful to the original content should be placed first, translation language fluency and popularity of the second, but free translation is not limited to the form of the original. Some scholars often discuss literal translation, free translation and domestication and foreignization together, which is understandable, but it is necessary to make a distinction. Based on the level of language and culture,domestication and foreignization focus more on the use of language from the perspective of cultural differences and are a kind of translation strategy, while literal and free translation is a translation technique, which is only at the level of language. There may be only one main translation strategy for a text or a work, but each strategy may use both literal and free translation methods, and each method serves the general direction of the translation strategy. The choice of the main translation strategy depends on the purpose of the translation, if it is to maximize the understanding of foreign cultures or cross-cultural comparative study, then the main focus is on foreignization; if it is to understand the information or story development through reading, then the domestication may be the best choice. Taking the translation of the famous work Dream of the Red Chamber as an example, there are two versions by two masters, Yang Xianyi and Hawkes, the former adopts foreignization to deal with the cultural factors in the language, that is, to keep the source culture as much as possible in the translation, while Hawkes adopts domestication in order to avoid the conflict between two different cultures, Chinese and English.(Wang Ying 2007)<br /> <br /> ===National and international research on the development of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> <br /> ===The history of the development of domestication and foreignization abroad.===<br /> The German translator Schleiermacher, in his work, On the Different Methods of Translation, elaborated the need for translations to bring the reader as close as possible to the original author, and for the first time introduced the concepts of domestication and foreignization.<br /> At the same time, in the British academic circles of the time, domestication was the main translation strategy, but Francis Newman in England, when discussing the transl ation work on Homer, advocated that translators should consciously translate in the ancient language to emphasize the heterogeneity of the work.<br /> In the 1960s A.D., Nida proposed the theory of domestication for the first time in many structuralist theoretical works, and since then the climax of the debate on domestication and foreignization rose on the stage in western translation field . In Nida's view, domesticated translation does not need to stick to the form of the original text, but only needs to express the content with the closest and most natural equivalent in the translated text to achieve equivalence.<br /> The French theorist Antoinette Bellman deplored the tendency of eliminating foreignization in translation through the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot;. He said: &quot;The proper theoretical goal of the translation action is to accept heterogeneity as it is.&quot; This view seems to have an impact on Venuti's strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot; .<br /> In his book The Invisibility of the Translator, Italian scholar Venuti discusses the &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator by combining the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization for the first time. He strongly advocates foreignization and questions domestication, arguing that domestication is essentially a means of cultural colonization by Western colonizers. At the same time, he also suggests that the purpose of translation is not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express linguistic and cultural differences.(Liu Ping 2008)<br /> <br /> ===Domestic development history on domestication and foreignization===<br /> The earliest translations of Buddhist scriptures have included the debate between assimilation and dissimilation. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the translator Zhiqian pioneered the translation style of using free translation instead of transliteration, which had far-reaching significance and influence in history.<br /> At the end of the 19th century, several other great translators emerged in Chinese history, and Yan Fu was one of them. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, foreign powers invaded extensively and the Chinese nation faced an existential crisis, under such a background, Yan Fu believed that translation must be carefully chosen based on the social and historical reality of the country into which it is translated. In the translation, the translator should take the literary tradition of the nation and the specific historical and cultural purpose as the main purpose, combining the cultural and linguistic background of the readers. The translator should not focus on how to be &quot;faithful to the original&quot;, but how to adapt to the social and cultural choices of the time.<br /> With the rise of the May 4th New Culture Movement, many translators tried to learn from foreign literature in order to transform literature and society.Lu Xun's most famous dictum relating to translation was &quot;I'd rather be faithful than smooth&quot;, and advocated &quot;preserving the foreign flavor as much as possible&quot; and &quot;the need for exoticism&quot;. <br /> After the founding of New China, China's translation industry entered the third high point, and a large number of Western and Soviet works were introduced, which was connected with the spiritual needs of people at that time. After the reform and opening up, with the influx of Western translation ideas, &quot;foreignization&quot; has emerged. Many scholars have put forward the idea that &quot;Foreignization is primary while domestication is supplementary&quot;.(Liu Ping 2019)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===domestication and foreignization of cultural exchange translation===<br /> <br /> ====the relationship between culture and language====<br /> In a broad sense, culture refers to the material and spiritual wealth created and accumulated by human beings in the course of social development; in a narrower sense, it refers to the ideology of society and the system of organizational constructs that corresponds to it. Culture has the following four basic characteristics 1) culture is owned and shared by all members of a society; 2) culture is acquired rather than inherited; 3) culture is biologically based; and 4) culture is based on a symbolic system. The relationship between language and culture is between the part and the whole; language is a subsystem of culture, and language cannot exist apart from culture; it embodies all the beliefs and emotions of a cultural group. Language and culture interact and influence each other and are inseparable. Based on the close relationship between language and culture, more consideration should be given to cultural factors in translation research, which means that translation research should be carried out in a more macro context. Translators should be aware of enough cultural differences when dealing with the cultural differences between the original language and the target language. Due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese, many English and Chinese phrases, although literally having the same or similar meanings, are inherently different. Therefore, a word-for-word translation without considering cultural factors can lead to ambiguity.（Wang Hongwei 2002）<br /> <br /> ==== Translatability and untranslatability of cultures====<br /> On the one hand, the similarity of human experience worldwide contributes to the translatability of cultures. In this regard, Nida has said that &quot;all human beings eat, work, sleep and procreate, and they produce objects such as furniture, tools and vehicles. They also organize themselves into families, clans, internal and external groups, nations and inter-national organizations. They have a conscious similarity in their views of the universe, values, religion and supernatural forces. In fact, the different groups of people in the world have much more in common with each other than they do with each other.&quot; It is the similarity of the cultures of different peoples that allows people of different cultures to understand each other and makes translation possible. Nida thus states, &quot;Linguists and anthropologists have discovered that what binds human beings together far outweighs what alienates them, and this is the basis for generating communication.&quot; Many expressions that are unique to one culture can be found almost identically in a culture and become the best evidence of cultural translatability.<br /> On the other hand, each people has a culture that is distinct from the others, which hinders mutual understanding with the others and may even cause cultural shock. Due to different cultural inheritances, the languages of different nationalities have their own symbol systems and lexical, syntactical and grammatical characteristics, which often make them untranslatable. For example, the Chinese phrase &quot;客上天然居，居然天客&quot; is one of the examples of untranslatable culture.(Wang Hongwei 2007)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Factors influencing cultural translation strategies====<br /> <br /> =====Motives and objectives of translation=====<br /> <br /> Different motivations and purposes for translation lead to different translation principles and methods<br /> <br /> =====Text type=====<br /> <br /> Different texts influence the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord, translation can be divided into instrumental translation, which refers to the means of transferring information from the source language to the target language, and documentary translation, which refers to the means of transferring information about communication activities from the source language to the target language. This type of translation emphasizes the transmission and conveyance of information and mainly includes non-literary writing, including advertising, media writing, scientific writing, propaganda and announcements, etc. With this method of translation, which is guided by the culture of the target language, the information that needs to be conveyed can be better expressed and accessed. The other type of text is documentary translation. This type of translation refers to the presentation of real communicative activities and information to the target language readers. The term &quot;documentary translation&quot; is appropriate for translating (language-)-specific expressions, where translation of language and content are equally important. eter Newmark distinguishes between communicative and semantic translation of such texts, emphasizing the &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot; of the message. &quot; in order to achieve the same effect on the readers of the original language as on those of the target language. Although this type of translation is a subjective process, the translator will attach great importance to the effect of the translation on the reader's mind. By reorganizing and rearranging the order of sentences, the translator will eliminate obscurities and ambiguities in order to achieve &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot;. Most non-literary writing, informative articles and books, as well as textbooks, bulletins, standardized writing, and novels are suitable for this type of communicative translation; because it emphasizes the need to have the same effect on both the original and target language readers, it often uses expressions that are customary and easily understood in the language in which they are written. Thus, communicative translation is equivalent to naturalized translation, where the translator's preference for idiomatic expressions is produced or determined by the translator's preference for the target language. Semantic translation attempts to get as close as possible to the exact meaning of the original text in terms of wording. Semantic translation focuses on the expression of the exact meaning of the content in order to preserve as accurate a style of the original text as possible. This type of translation is an objective process during which the translator focuses only on whether the translation is precise and retains the flavor of the original text. In this type of translation, the translator tries to preserve the semantic and syntactic structure of the original text, as well as the tone of the original text, etc. semantic translation applies to autobiographies, private correspondence, personal emotional texts and quotations. A semantic translation is equivalent to an alien translation in an attempt to achieve the preservation of the flavour of the original, due to the translator's original language preference.(Wang Hongwei2007)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====Acceptance by readers=====<br /> In the past, traditional translation theories placed one-sided emphasis on extra-author-centred and text-centred research, neglecting the involvement of translators and target language readers. Modern reception aesthetics considers the reader not as an unimportant and unnecessary perspective, but as a historical, active and creative factor in the relationship between author, text and reader. This is why different people have different interpretations of the same text of Hamlet. Naida was influenced by the acceptance of the aesthetic sub. His theory and practice of translation are very much focused on the readers' reflection. He pointed out that &quot;Judging the validity of a translation does not stop at the comparison of word meanings, grammar and rhetoric; what is important is the extent to which the recipient is able to understand and appreciate the translation correctly.&quot;(Wang Hongwei2007)<br /> <br /> ====the cultural school of translation====<br /> In 1990, the representatives of the cultural school of translation, Bassnett and Lefevere, in their co-edited book Translation, History and Culture, formally proposed the slogan of &quot;Cultural Turn of Translation&quot;, which also marked the official emergence of the cultural school of translation. In the following years, they published several monographs, individually or together, discussing about the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. In the following years, they published several monographs, either individually or jointly, to discuss the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. Unlike the literary or linguistic schools of translation in the past, the cultural school is a school with a strong &quot;revolutionary&quot; element in translation theory, and some people even consider their views to be &quot;subversive&quot; to the previous translation theories. This is mainly because they especially emphasize the status of culture in translation and the importance of translation to the spread of culture and the promotion of social and cultural progress. Other translators, such as Lambert and Robyns, argue that translation is more accurately regarded as a communication activity between two cultures than as a bilingual conversion activity. Therefore, they believe that translation activity is a cultural conversion. In recent years, Chinese scholars have done some research and reflection on the essence of translation. In the researches of many scholars, under the current globalization environment ,the importance of translation to cultural exchange and communication is getting more and more attention from people. For example, Lv Jun proposes that &quot;translation is a kind of cross-cultural information exchange activities, and its essence is dissemination. To a certain extent, the viewpoint of Chinese scholars and the Western cultural schools can be said to echo each other. Language is not only a carrier of information, but also a carrier of culture. Therefore, in essence, translation as a kind of inter-linguistic communication, it is not only the conversion of language information , but also the transplantation of cultural information. Therefore, in essence, translation is not only a language information conversion, but also a cultural communication activity.(Wang Hongwei2007)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===discussion domestication and foreignization from translation examples===<br /> <br /> ====Application of domestication in English-Chinese Translation====<br /> Chinese famous writer Mo Yan has won the Nobel Prize for Literature for a series of works including Fatigue of Life and Death (2006) and Frog (2009) and American sinologist Ge Haowen should also be credited , who was called “the only midwife of Mo Yan’s works”.Ge's translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out reflects his consistent principle: &quot;The author is writing for the Chinese, while I am translating for foreigners,translating is a process of rewriting”. Ge Haowen did a lot of rewriting and compilation based on respecting the original work, and in the translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out, the domesticated translation reflects his relentless pursuit of &quot;accuracy&quot;, &quot;readability&quot; and &quot;acceptability&quot;. (Zhou Yongkun 2019) <br /> <br /> 例一： 常言道‘螃蟹过河随大流’，‘识时务者为俊杰’，不要顽固不化，不要充当挡路的石头，不要充硬汉子。<br /> <br /> Join the commune and stop working for yourself, end your quest for independence.Stop being headstrong,and an obstructionist.<br /> <br /> “螃蟹过河随大流” is a two-part allegorical saying in Chinese folks . It means &quot;following the majority of people to speak or act&quot;. A post-slip is a short, witty phrase that can be used as a philosophical and wisdom-boosting phrase. A man who knows the times is a hero&quot; is an idiom derived from a historical allusion, meaning &quot;only those who can recognize the trend of the times can become heroes and heroines&quot;. Ge Haowen domesticated these two slang expressions: first, because they have the same meaning as the one that follows: &quot;Don't be stubborn ...... don't be a tough guy anymore&quot;, which is used to kindly advise people who are unable to see the current affairs of the day, but are still stubbornly stubborn. The deletion of these two daily phrases does not affect the main content of the narrative and the expression of ideas in the context. Secondly, there is the concern that the translation may not produce the desired effect of depth, image, and humor as the source language. And then there is the fact that the target language readers are relatively unfamiliar with Chinese slang, so it is better to delete it directly than to translate it to increase the readers' reading burden and affect their understanding and grasp of the whole text. Ge Haowen's domesticated translation method reflects his holistic view of discourse as a unit<br /> <br /> 例二：但一个二十多岁就当了县级领导干部的人，和农村姑娘结婚的可能性几乎是零，无论她貌如西施还是色比婵娟。<br /> <br /> There was no chance that a leading country-level cadre in his twenties would ever actually marry a peasant girl , no matter how pretty or fetching she might be.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaojun ,Xishi, Diao Chan and Yang Yuhuan were the main characters with unique beauty at that time in historical illusions ,named as “Four Beauties in ancient times”.In the original work, Mo Yan chose only two historical figures, &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, to contrast and emphasize the beauty of rural girls. In the process of translation, Ge did not translate &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, nor did he make any commentary, but took into account the target audience's alienation from the historical allusion to the Four Beauties. Therefore, he adopt a domesticated translation method to make a simplification, breaking the constraints of the original language and enhancing the readability of the translation, without deviating from the original meaning.(Zhou Yongkun 2019) <br /> In the above example, when dealing with unfamiliar allusions or common sayings and proverbs, Ge Haowen boldly rewrote and deleted them, translating the work from the reader's point of view, so that the target readers will be pleased with his translation.<br /> 5.2 The Application of Foreignization in English-Chinese Translation<br /> The nature of foreignization is such that it deals with elements of the original language that are culturally distinctive, and the result of the translation is to bring in new forms of expression that are different from the mother tongue and the cultural connotations attached to them. Language is an open system with a strong capacity for absorption and inclusion. With the deepening of communication among countries and peoples, various languages have been enriched to different degrees, and variant translation plays a more important role in this process. In Chinese, the terms &quot;internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot; are used to refer to the &quot;Internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot;. &quot;Time is money&quot;, &quot;ivory tower&quot;, &quot;washroom&quot;.... (crocodile tears), &quot;black humor&quot; , and &quot;qi gong&quot; ), &quot;taijiquan&quot; , &quot;kong fu&quot; , &quot;typhon” These words did not originally exist in the Chinese and English language systems. However, translators make a large number of words with exoticism in the way of foreignization more popular and acceptable among the massive culture . Therefore, foreignization is not only beneficial to introduce local history and culture to foreign countries, but also gives local readers the opportunity to understand foreign customs and realize the purpose of cross-cultural communication.<br /> （Wang Ying 2007）<br /> 例一.打破铁饭碗<br /> <br /> Break the”iron rice bowl”<br /> <br /> &quot;Iron rice bowl&quot; is a Chinese idiom, in Chinese we compare &quot;rice bowl&quot; to an occupation, while &quot;iron rice bowl&quot; refers to a stable job, no doubt, it is difficult to convert such words with obvious Chinese characteristics into the target language through the method of &quot;domestication&quot;, but foreignization not only retains the imagery of the source language, but also introduces the unique culture of China to Western readers.<br /> 例二.下海<br /> <br /> A.to jump into the sea of business<br /> <br /> B.To turn professional<br /> <br /> In the early days of reform and opening up, the word “jumping into the sea of business” was popular, mainly meaning the trend of doing business.For this new phenomenon ,translators adopt different methods. Text A used foreignization and direct translation while the later domestication. In comparison, the former was more expressive and vivid, conveying the meaning of source language in a proper way.<br /> Domestication and foreignization is more apparent in the literary translation. Here I will take the translation of Dream of the Red Chamber as an example and compare the translations of Mr. and Mrs. Yang Xianyi ,and Mr. Hawkes. The translation of Dream of the Red Chamber by Yang Xianyi and his wife is a typical representative of foreignization, which is highly praised by domestic readers, but some scholars have conducted a survey and found that it is far inferior to the British sinologist David Hawks in terms of the number of borrowed readers, citations and reprinted editions. Why the &quot;cold shoulder&quot;? Let's find out by comparing and analyzing some examples of the two translations.<br /> <br /> 例一.刘姥姥道: “这倒不然。谋事在人，成事在天。咱们谋到了，靠菩萨的保佑，有些机会，也未可知。”<br /> <br /> A.“ Don’t be so sure,” said Granny Liu. “Man proposes, Heaven disposes. Work out a plan,trust to Buddha,and something may come of it for all you know.”<br /> <br /> B.“ I wouldn’t say that.”said Grannie Liu.”Man proposes, God disposes.It is up to us to think of something. We must leave it to the good Lord to decide whether He’ll help us or not. Who knows, he might give us the opportunity we are looking for.”<br /> <br /> Dream of the Red Chamber is a literary work full of Buddhist and Taoist thoughts. Yang Xianyi and Hawks have different approaches to the phrase“谋事在人，成事在天”， which also reflects different religious thoughts. In Yang's translation, &quot;God&quot; is replaced by &quot;Heavenly Father,&quot; which is in line with the Chinese religious belief that Heavenly Father in control of everything, while retaining the religious flavor of the source culture. However, Hawks gave priority to the religious background and acceptance of the English readers, so he adopted the English proverb directly without any modification, thus transforming the Buddhism and Taoism in the East to Christianity in the West, in accordance with western religious belief and thinking ways.<br /> The two translations have their own merits. The choice of translation strategies is based on different objectives. Mainly depending on the foreignization stategy, Mr. and Mrs. Yang tried to spread Chinese literature classics and convey Chinese traditional culture originally.However, they didn't get the desired results.One of the main reasons is that Mr. and Mrs. Yang regard faithfulness as the first priority and overemphasize the foreign culture of the translated works, neglecting to consider the reception environment and the recognition of the target readers.（Wang Ying 2007）<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> With the continuous expansion of international cultural exchanges, the human cultural gap is gradually narrowing, language as an important carrier of culture has also been affected by the same, an appropriate increase in the use of &quot;foreign&quot; translation,can not only inject the new elements into domestic culture, but also promote the spread of local culture, achieve cross-cultural exchange and accelerate the process of &quot;cultural globalization&quot;. It should be pointed out foreignization is not at the expense of forgetting one's own culture, on the contrary, it is based on the familiarity with other cultures, and then carry out painstaking, creative translation work. To give more attention to &quot;alienation&quot; translation is not to deny, reject the domesticated translation method, because domestication and foreignization play an irreplaceable rol in the target language and culture.Therefore, the two translations will always co-exist and complement each other. Flexible use of foreignization and domestication is the real way of addressing the cultural conflicts. (Xiong Bing 2003)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> 1. Wang Ying王瑛. &quot;跨文化翻译中的归化和异化.&quot; 内蒙古财经学院学报(综合版) 03(2007):83-87.<br /> <br /> 2. Zhou Yongkun周永堃. &quot;归化异化在跨文化翻译中的选择与运用——以《红楼梦》和《生死疲劳》为例.&quot; 邵阳学院学报(社会科学版) 18.01(2019):103-108.<br /> <br /> 3. Wang Hongwei王红卫. &quot;跨文化交际翻译方法:归化和异化策略.&quot; 西南民族学院学报(哲学社会科学版) 9(2002):250-253.<br /> <br /> 4. Xiong Bing熊兵. &quot;文化交流翻译的归化与异化.&quot; 中国科技翻译 16.003(2003):5-9.<br /> <br /> 5. Liu Ping刘苹. &quot;中国翻译史上的归化和异化.&quot; 滨州学院学报 24.001(2008):74-75.<br />  <br /> <br /> ==The Translation Strategies of Chinese Political Discourse under the Standard of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; 202070080585 高明珠 Gao Mingzhu 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With the development of globalization, the political communication among countries is more and more frequent, and the translation of political terms has gradually become one of the heated topics in the translation field. Political discourse translation is challenging, because not only does it concern the relationship between countries, national status, political attitude and other important issues, but also it is developmental. Political neologisms will keep emerging, and some political terms will contain new connotations with the advancement of the times. In addition to the above characteristics, Chinese political discourse has many affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases, metaphors.In 2008, Yang Mingxing and other scholars put forward the &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; based on Eugene Nida's &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; theory for the translation of Chinese political discourse, which pointed out that the translation of political discourse should follow the three principles of &quot;political&quot;, &quot;dynamic&quot; and &quot;balanced&quot;. On the basis of some related papers, this chapter will sum up the specific strategies such as supplement, omission, keeping or converting analogical body, adding explanation and narration for translating Chinese political discourse with characteristics of having lots of affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases and metaphors following the guidance of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> political equivalence Chinese political discourse translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着全球化的发展，各国间的政治交流愈加频繁，政治话语的翻译也逐渐成为翻译界讨论热点之一。政治话语的翻译是具有挑战性的，不仅是因为它关系到国与国之间的关系、国家地位、政治态度等重要问题，而且因为政治词汇是发展性的，政治词汇中会不断有新的词汇涌进，且某些政治词汇会随着时代的发展而增加新的内涵。而中国政治话语除了具有以上特点，它还有多词缀、缩写、四字短语[1]，多用隐喻等修辞手法的特点。2008年，杨明星等学者针对中国政治话语的翻译，基于尤金·奈达的“功能对等”理论提出了“政治等效”翻译标准，该标准指出政治话语的翻译要遵循“政治性”、“动态性”、“平衡性”三大原则。本文基于相关文献，总结出在该标准下，对中国政治话语在具有多词缀、缩写、四字短语及多采用隐喻这几个特点下的翻译可采用的具体的翻译策略，如增补法、省略法[1]、喻体保留法（完全保留、部分保留）、喻体转换法、喻底补充法、喻义直叙法[2]等。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 政治等效 中国政治话语 翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction of Background===<br /> <br /> Political discourse is a communication carrier or one kind of discourse behaviors that elaborate a country's foreign policies, governance mechanisms or political ideas, including oral expression and written expression. Oral expressions includes leaders' speeches, the contents conveyed by various government agencies' press conferences, and written expressions includes diplomatic documents, white papers, legal provisions, treaties, agreements and communiques issued by relevant state agencies. With the improvement of China's comprehensive national strength and the continuous expansion of its global influence, the study of the translation standards, principles, strategies of Chinese political discourse has become an important topic in the field of translation. A study in 2019 has shown that domestic political discourse translation studies started in 2000 and entered a stage of rapid development with the convening of the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012. The current research hot spots of political discourse translation include the translation of Xi Jinping's speeches and works, the application of various translation laws and interpretive theories, the principle of political equivalence and the theory of ecological translation(Chu Xingjun 2020,36).<br /> <br /> ===2. The Significance of Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> This chapter holds that the significance of political discourse translation mainly involves two aspects----politics and linguistics. Firstly, in terms of politics, translating political discourse is to facilitate the political communication between countries, show the country's political attitude, theory and policy to the outside world. Political discourse translation plays a significant role in promoting the relationship between the countries, taking one’s stand, safeguarding one’s national interests and shaping one’s national image and so on. Secondly, in terms of linguistics, political terms are developmental. With the advance of the times and the rapid development of the world, new political terms will constantly emerge, which is also the process of language expansion. The study of the translation of new words is not only the bounden duty of translators, but also of great significance to the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Difficulties in Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> The difficulties are mainly reflected in three aspects. Firstly, the translator should correctly understand the political connotation of the source language and translate it as the target language faithfully. Secondly, different expression ways between two languages. There are rare equivalent words in both languages, so when translating the source language as the target language, the expression habits of the target language users should be taken as account, so as to facilitate the target language users to accurately understand the original meaning. Especially, Chinese political discourse often present metaphor rhetoric which may not be easy for foreigners to understand, thus when translating such words, methods that we can adopt not only include literal translation, transliteration plus explanation, but also sometimes it would be better to translate those words on the basis of the target language’s culture to make the translation more vivid and help readers understand the meaning accurately. In a word, be more flexible in adopting methods according to different cases; Finally, the same political term may have different meanings in different contexts, or it may require translators to adopt different translation methods in different contexts. In addition, the connotation of some political terms will develop with the advance of The times. Therefore, translators should keep up with current events and deal with them flexibly in translation.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Connotations of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal and connotation of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard<br /> <br /> In 2008, US Department of Defense mistranslated the term &quot;韬光养晦&quot; to propaganda &quot;China threat theory&quot;. Therefore, based on Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, a scholar, Yang Mingxing, proposed the translation concept of &quot;political equivalence&quot; for the first time from the perspective of international relations and diplomatic analysis (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). The connotation of this concept mainly involves three aspects: firstly, the translator needs to truthfully convey the political thought of the source language as well as the speaker; secondly, when translating, the translator should choose the target language according to the expression ways that the target language users get used to, so that the information and political thoughts brought by the target text to the target language users are equivalent to those brought by the source text to the source language users; Thirdly, in different contexts and historical backgrounds, the connotations of political discourse will be different. Translators' translation should keep pace with the times and be determined in accordance with the situation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). In 2012, Yang Mingxing and other scholars further proposed three prominent principles or characteristics of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; translation standard: political, balanced and dynamic (Yang Mingxing, Yan Da 2012, 35). Among them, political nature, namely accurately grasping the political connotation of the source language, is the most prominent characteristic, which is determined by the strong political color of the political terms themselves. Balance means to strike a balance among source language, target language, speaker and audience without focusing on either side, and strive to make the effect produced by the translation in the foreign readers be similar or equivalent to that produced by the original text in local readers. Dynamic means that the equivalent process mentioned above is a dynamic equivalent process. Because political terms’ connotation changes with the advance of the times and varies from different contexts, translators need to keep pace with the times, follow up the connotation development of political terms, and translate flexibly according to different situations. In 2018, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed a compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + aesthetic representation&quot; on the basis of the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; (Yang Mingxing, Qi Jingjing 2018,15). This standard was put forward in the context of the appearance of ancient poetry in political discourse. Besides meeting the requirements of &quot;political equivalence&quot; mentioned above, this standard asks to take the literary beauty of ancient poetry and prose, such as rhythm, form, artistic conception, etc as account. In January 2020, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed another compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + image representation&quot; based on the frequently used the rhetoric device metaphor in political discourse(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2018,41). The purpose of realizing &quot;image reproduction&quot; and &quot;aesthetic reproduction&quot; is basically similar, both of which are to reproduce the aesthetic experience of the original text. In October 2020, Yang Mingxing and some other scholars made a review of several major diplomatic event in the Sino-British diplomatic history and put forward that the realization of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard should not only rely on the translator's ability, but also have some connections with the national policy of translation, translation system and equal speaking rights between two countries, among which equal speaking right is the key to realize &quot;political equivalence&quot;(Yang Mingxing 2020,05).<br /> <br /> (2)The differences between “political equivalence” and “functional equivalence” put forward by Nida<br /> <br /> &quot;Firstly, the 'equivalence' emphasized by Nida does not pay enough attention to the political connnotations of the original text in translation, ignoring the particularity of diplomatic or political discourse, and that whether the original text and translation are quite consistent in political standpoint and political connotation. Secondly, although functional equivalence pays attention to the information equivalence between the original text and the translated text, it does not pay enough attention to the real intention of the speaker or writer of the original text, because the literal meaning of the original text cannot be equal with the political standpoint and ideological connotation of the speaker or writer. Thirdly, the 'dynamic' concept Nida proposed in 'functional equivalence' theory ignores the dynamic changes in context and connotation of original text and translation. However, for diplomatic or political discourse, the connotations of the political terms do not remain unchanged. It changes constantly with the speaker's context, political tendency and historical background at that time. On the other hand, the target language is also dynamic, because the meaning and usage of the target language are constantly changing, the translator must keep track of the latest development of the target language and the domestic political and cultural background of the target audience &quot;(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> In a word, the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; is an important theory aiming at the translation of foreign affairs, diplomacy and political discourse, and provides theoretical guidance and normative requirements for the translation of political terms.<br /> <br /> ===5. Requirements of “Political Equivalence” for Translators ===<br /> <br /> First of all, translators should grasp not only the meaning of the original text, but also the political intention of the speaker or the writer, because sometimes the literal meaning of Chinese words in the political discourse cannot fully represent the real intention of the speaker or the writer.What translators should do is to learn more about the related background knowledge before the translation and keep pace with the worldwide current events in daily life, and choose the proper translation strategies according to specific situations to make the translation be in line with the context and political background of the speaker or the writer as well as the audience or reader, which is the key to the realization of &quot;political equivalence&quot;.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)<br /> <br /> Secondly, translators should treat both the source language and the target language equally, and grasp the relationship between the speaking country and the receiving country. The translation of political discourse should not only aim at correctly understanding and expressing China's political thoughts, but also fully consider the national emotions, language habits and identity psychology of the receiving country, which requires the proper selection and use of the target language. If the translation only focuses on one side, it will be difficult to achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; and even cause political events.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, translators should know well about the differences between English and Chinese customs, cultures, national emotions and ideologies.As we all know, translation is not only the transformation of language symbols, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication behavior. The translation of political discourse is closely related to the cultural background of language. Due to the differences between China and West in way of thinking and language environment, corresponding words in English and Chinese may have different national emotion and political connotation.For example, sometimes we may meet idioms, metaphors, allusions, myths and fables in the political discourse which are the quintessence of a nation's language with its own characteristics. They formed and developed on the basis of different culture and living environmnet, so it is necessary to strictly distinguish their differences in cultural connotation and political orientation which are the difficulties and key points in political discourse translation.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, translators should also know well about the differences between the two languages.In English, there are many grammatical rules different from Chinese, such as tense, voice, subjunctive mood, singular and plural, case, article, etc. If translators deal with these special expressions improperly, these expressions will hinder the realization of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; in translation. (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, to achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; in political discourse translation, the translation strategies cannot be single, rigid but flexible and diversified. In addition, the translation either cannot be confined to the primitive form of the original text and the original or even several extended connotations of the words in it,instead,translators should recognize the real connotations of the political terms according to the context and different occasions. Translators should make the necessary adjustment and bold choices in supplement and omission to the language form of the original text in accordance with the context and the real thoughts of the speaker or the writer and the background of the political relationships between the two countries.(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)<br /> <br /> lastly, translators should ensure the political correctness in the translation of political discourse using their knowledge reserves. Many countries have such sensitive issues as appellation, ethnicity, religion, sovereignty and territory. These are the &quot;minefields&quot; of political translation. When translating, one must handle it carefully and respect the language and cultural habits of the other party, otherwise it will easily lead to &quot;translation storm&quot; and affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation. (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05)<br /> <br /> ===6. Translation Strategies under The Standard of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of the standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot;, the following translation strategies are provided for reference on the characteristics of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> (1) Characteristics of Chinese political discourse<br /> <br /> Affixes are often seen in Chinese political discourse such as “化” in &quot;现代化&quot; and &quot;城镇化&quot;, so are abbreviations like &quot;‘十四五’规划&quot;, &quot;四个自信&quot;, etc., and four-character phrases such as &quot;和平共处&quot;, &quot;和而不同&quot;, etc. Besides, metaphor is also used frequently in Chinese political discourse such as &quot;‘老虎’、‘苍蝇’一起打&quot;, among which &quot;老虎(tiger)&quot; and &quot;苍蝇(flies)&quot; refer to officials accused of bribery and corruption. So, how do we translate these words that have Chinese language characteristics but need us to take their political implications as consideration? Pointing at these characteristics, some scholars have proposed specific translation strategies based on the &quot;political equivalence&quot;standard.<br /> <br /> (2) The strategies of supplement and omission for affixes, four-character phrases and abbreviations(Wu Jing 2014, 30)<br /> <br /> ① supplement<br /> <br /> The supplement strategy is to add words appropriately in the translation so as to convey the meaning of the original text accurately. In the foreign translation of Chinese political terms, this strategy is mainly applicable to two situations. Firstly, the abbreviation, which is a refined utterance of many political words for the convenience of memory. When the target language users don’t have relevant knowledge or language background about those abbreviations, supplementary explanation plays its role. Secondly, four-character phrases. Four-character phrases are typical examples of Chinese expressions. In order to conform to the expression habits of the target language, these condensed words should be supplemented and explained so that the audience can understand the meaning of the original text correctly.<br /> <br /> The strategy of supplement can be applied to the following situations: firstly, supplement relevant knowledge background. For example, “‘十四五’规划”is translated by China Daily as “the 14th Five-Year Plan(2021-25) for economic and social development”. In the translation, “十四”is translated as “the 14th” and“五” is translated as “Five-Year”, which adds category words to those numbers and time horizon as well as the nature of the plan to the content; Secondly, supplement detailed content to abbreviations. For example,“四个自信”is translated as “confidence in the path, theory, system and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics.”<br /> <br /> ②Omission<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belong to two kinds of language families, having great differences from vocabulary to the sentence structure, expression ways, etc. There are very little equivalent words in the two languages, so in order to make the translation smoother and be more in line with the expression ways of the target language, translator can use the strategy----omission, namely omitting those expressions without practical significance but hindering translation work, on the basis of being loyal to the original text.<br /> <br /> The strategy of omission is often used in the process of translation from Chinese to English, and the translation of Chinese political terms is no exception. For emphasizing, Chinese political leaders often use parallel sentences or repeated words, so we can omit those repeated words in the translation. For example, “治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字仍然在扩大。”can be translated as “Governance, trust, development and peace deficits continue to grow.” In addition, there are situations where multiple sentences express the same meaning, in which omission is also available. For example, “改善人民生活，增进人民福祉。”can be translated as “improve people’s livelihood”.<br /> <br /> (3) Translation strategies for metaphor<br /> <br /> Metaphor refers to the use of known figurative concepts to explain abstract concepts in diplomatic discourse. The translation standard and strategies of metaphor are determined by their inherent special attributes, which are not only the key factors to select their translation strategies, but also the important yardstick to test whether those strategies are applicable(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41). Metaphor is an objective phenomenon that has existed in political discourse for a long time. Its special attributes are reflected in political discourse, such as high political sensitivity, high cultural load and strong national characteristics. In view of the strong political sensitivity of diplomatic discourse, plain and direct words in political discourse is often empty of words, which is difficult to produce obvious communicative effect in foreign relations. In most cases, metaphorical discourse can be used to imply and disseminate a country's diplomatic ideas, attitudes and positions to achieve better communication effects (Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41).<br /> <br /> Through reading relevant papers, this chapter finds that the translation strategies proposed by scholars for metaphorical rhetoric in political discourse are mainly as follows(Long Xinyuan, Li Qiuxia 2020, 27):<br /> <br /> ① Literal translation of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> Although English and Chinese belong to different language families, and the cultural background and geographical area on which they live are also different, language is created by human beings, and human emotions always have something in common. At the same time, human beings live in the same world, especially in an increasingly integrated world like today, where the communication between human beings and the collision between cultures are inevitable. As a result, we are becoming more tolerant and understanding of different cultures and languages. When translating metaphorical words with cultural characteristics, we can render the metaphorical words in literal translation under the condition that the audience can understand them correctly, which is easier to arouse emotional resonance and cultural identity.<br /> <br /> For example, “新时代的长征路” is translated as &quot;Long March of the new era&quot;. The original text compares China's development path in the new era to the new Long March. In Chinese history, the Long March was a bloody road trodden by the communist party of China to save the country and the people. On the one hand, the literal translation of &quot;The Long March&quot; retains the historical allusions used in the original text, so that the audience can understand its meaning only by a simple association. On the other hand, it is more conducive to show the national spirit of China.<br /> <br /> ② Substitution of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> After all, differences are greater than similarities between different languages, so sometimes adopting literal translation in the text using metaphor does not make the audience clear, but may mislead. However, different metaphorical entities are often used to express the same abstract concept between Chinese and English. At this time, in order to make the audience better understand and accept the original metaphor, translator can replace the original metaphorical entities with those referring to same thing in the target language, which can also improve the external communication effect of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> For example, foreign ministry spokesman Hua Chunying once said:”The US wants to make China a scapegoat(对于美国的花式‘甩锅’，我们不想接也不能接。).”“甩锅”is an internet buzzword in China used to vividly express the meaning of shifting the blame onto someone else. And “scapegoat” originates from an allusion in the Bible which has the same meaning with the Chinese word “甩锅”(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41), so translator made a conversion between the two words. In this way, English readers can better understand the political connotation of the original sentence. However, if adopting literal translation, English readers won’t understand.<br /> <br /> ③literal translation+explanation<br /> <br /> In some other cases, either literally translating those metaphorical entities or using corresponding ones to substitute them cannot eliminate the language barrier caused by cultural differences, then translator can adopt the strategy of “literal translation+explanation”, which is to literally translate the metaphor entity and then add explanation to it. In this way, the translation not only keeps the cultural characteristics of the source language while making English readers be clear with the meaning of them, but also contributes to the spread of Chinese culture to the outside world.<br /> <br /> For an instance, “不能腐的笼子越扎越牢”is translated as “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption has been strengthened”. The Chinese words “笼子”refers to the strict management institutions against corruption set up by Chinese government. Comparing the institution to the cage makes the action of fighting against corruption become more vivid. However, for English readers, it is hard to understand the original political connotation according to a simple word “cage”, so translator needs to add some explanations like “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption.” As a result, the meaning is clear and vivid.<br /> <br /> ④abandoning the figurative body and translate its connotation directly<br /> <br /> Metaphor, as a figure of speech, is highly culture-loaded, while political discourse is a kind of words with high political sensitivity. These characteristics make the translation of Chinese political discourse more difficult, and it is inevitable that translators may meet the situation where they cannot easily balance and take all these characteristics into consideration. At this time, the translator should choose to abandon the figurative body and keep the metaphorical meaning, after all, it is the first important thing to convey the correct political implication.<br /> <br /> For example, “保障‘米袋子’、‘菜篮子’安全”is translated as “ensure the security of grain supply and non-staple food supply”,among which the Chinese words “米袋子(rice bag)”and“菜篮子(vegetable basket)”refer to major grain supply and non-staple food supply respectively. Because rice is the staple food in most ares of China while vegetable is the complementary food, such a metaphor is very vivid and down to earth. However, it's hard for foreigners to understand the meaning of &quot;rice bag&quot; or &quot;vegetable basket&quot; without a similar living environment, so we have to discard the original figurative body and translate its meaning directly.<br /> <br /> ===7. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the summary of the above-mentioned translation strategies pointing at different situations in translating Chinese political discourse, we can see that every strategy follows the three principles under the standard of &quot;political equivalence” ---- political, balance and dynamic. Every translation strategy takes the correct transition of the political implications of the original text as the first rule, namely being political; and then keeps the cultural or linguistic characteristics of the original text as much as possible, namely keeping balance; additionally, adopting appropriate translation strategies according to different contexts or situations, namely being dynamic. The translation of political discourse has its particularity and is of great importance, so it is necessary to be careful when choosing translation strategies. Translators should not only have high linguistic literacy and fair political standpoint, but also keep up with current events, correctly and fully understand the political meaning of the original text, and make specific analysis according to different contexts and occasions to adopt the most appropriate translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===8. References===<br /> <br /> [1]楚行军. 中国政治话语翻译研究二十年(2000—2019)[Studies on the Translation of Chinese Political Discourse over the past 20 years(2000-2019)]——基于中国知网的分析[J]. 焦作师范高等专科学校学报,2020,36(03):24-27+40.<br /> <br /> [2]吴静. 基于“政治等效”的中国政治新词翻译策略解析[An analysis of translation strategies of Chinese new political terms on the basis of &quot;political equivalence&quot;][J]. 兰州文理学院学报(社会科学版),2014,30(01):95-98.<br /> <br /> [3]龙新元,李秋霞. “政治等效+认知趋同”：认知翻译观视阈下的政治文本翻译研究[&quot;Political Equivalence + Cognitive Convergence&quot; : A Study of political Text translation from the perspective of cognitive Translation][J]. 天津外国语大学学报,2020,27(05):104-120+161.<br /> <br /> [4]杨明星. 论外交语言翻译的“政治等效”——以邓小平外交理念“韬光养晦”的译法为例[The application of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; in diplomatic Language Translation -- Taking Deng Xiaoping's diplomatic idea &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2008,(05):90-94.<br /> <br /> [5]杨明星,闫达. “政治等效”理论框架下外交语言的翻译策略——以“不折腾”的译法为例[Translation strategies of diplomatic language under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;-- Taking the translation of &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2012,35(03):73-77.<br /> <br /> [6]杨明星,齐静静. 外交修辞的复合性翻译标准:“政治等效+审美再现”——以国家领导人外交演讲古诗文为例[The composite translation standard of diplomatic rhetoric: &quot;Political equivalence + aesthetic reproduction&quot; -- taking the ancient poems and essays in diplomatic speeches of national leaders as an example][J]. 中国外语,2018,15(06):89-96+109.<br /> <br /> [7]杨明星,赵玉倩. “政治等效+”框架下中国特色外交隐喻翻译策略研究[A research on translation strategies of metaphors in diplomatic discorses with Chinese characteristics under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence plus&quot;][J]. 中国翻译,2020,41(01):151-159+190.<br /> <br /> [8]杨明星,张琰. 中英外交翻译中“政治等效”与话语平等辩证关系分析——从马戛尔尼使华到共建“一带一路”(1792-2019)[Dialectical relationship between &quot;political equivalence&quot; and discourse equality in diplomatic translation between China and Britain -- from macartney's mission period to &quot;One Belt And One Road&quot; period(1792-2019)][J]. 上海翻译,2020,(05):24-29+94.<br /> <br /> ==Classification, Chinese translation methods and Strategies of Russian Proverbs - 张虎 Zhang Hu==<br /> &lt;center&gt;张虎Zhang Hu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Russian proverbs are produced under the specific cultural background and have rich cultural connotations. They are an important part of Russian language and culture. However, there are great cultural differences between Russian and Chinese, and the language forms of Russian and Chinese proverbs have their own characteristics. This paper attempts to classify Russian proverbs and explore the translation methods and Strategies of Russian proverbs.(This article only discusses the Chinese translation of Russian proverbs, the English translation of proverbs is for reference only.)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Russian proverb，classification，Chinese translation methods，translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 俄语谚语的分类、汉译方法及策略<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 俄语谚语于特定的文化背景下产生，具有丰富的文化内涵，是俄语语言文化的重要组成部分。 而俄汉两族文化差异较大，俄汉谚语语言形式各具特色，俄语谚语的翻译问题成为一个难题。本文试对俄语谚语进行分类，探究俄语谚语的翻译方法及翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 俄语谚语；分类；汉译方法；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Proverbs are a genre of folk literature（Wang Yanrong 2013,114) , and they are simple, popular and meaningful fixed sentences commonly used by the people. Generally speaking, proverbs are rhythmic in form, including various life phenomena in content, rich in educational significance, vividly reflecting the cultural connotations and characteristics of a nation, and are the result of wisdom of the broad masses of people and the essence of a national language（Zhou Changyu 2006,5). Therefore, understanding proverbs is an effective way to understand a nation. Proverbs of different nationalities have their own characteristics. The translation of proverbs among different nationalities has become an important issue in translation studies. This paper attempts to explore the translation methods and principles of Russian proverbs.<br /> <br /> ===2.Classification of Russian proverbs===<br /> The formation of Russian proverbs is inseparable from the production, life, customs, religion, culture and history of the nation, and has a distinctive national style. The Russian and Chinese languages belong to different language systems, and there is a big difference in the way of expression. In order to fully understand Russian proverbs and grasp the translation methods of Russian proverbs, this article first compares Russian and Chinese proverbs, and divides Russian proverbs into three categories based on the degree of consistency between Russian and Chinese proverbs, namely “complete consistency” and “partial consistency” and “complete inconsistency”（Wang Yanrong 2013,114).<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Classification of Russian proverbs===<br /> &quot;Complete consistency&quot; means that Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs are completely consistent in terms of thinking and figurative meaning. Such Russian proverbs can be found in Chinese that fully correspond to them. The number of such proverbs is relatively small, but they reflect the cultural commonality between the Russian and Chinese languages, indicating that the two peoples are similar in cognitive mode, thinking mode and personality characteristics between the two countries(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114).<br /> <br /> For example, there is an ancient Chinese proverb in the Biography of Zhao Chongguo, The History of the Former Han Dynasty in ancient my country “百闻不如一见.” The meaning of this sentence is “it is better to see once than to hear a hundred times,” which expresses that hearing more is not as reliable as seeing it. And there is a widely used proverb in Russian “Лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать.(Jia Shufen 1996,146)” They are completely consistent and show that the people of the Russian and Han ethnic groups have the same understanding of the importance of “seeing with their own eyes.” <br /> <br /> Another example is “Из искры возгорится пламя” in Russian. It was first written by Decembrists, famous Russian poet, A. I. Odoevsky(А. И. Одоевский) in reply to Pushkin’s support of Decembrists’ revolution, and was later written by Lenin. The application in Iskra is well known and circulated. The Chinese counterpart “星星之火, 可以燎原(A single spark can start a prairie fire)” is widely known and become a proverb because of Mao Zedong's articles(Chen Ying 2000,89). <br /> <br /> Similarly, &quot;Беда не приходит одна.&quot; and &quot;祸不单行(Misfortune never come alone)(Jia Shufen 1996,6)&quot;, &quot;Сытый голотного не разумеет.&quot; and &quot;饱汉不知饿汉饥(Fatty people do not know hungry people are hungry)(Jia Shufen 1996,378)&quot;, &quot;Близкий сосед лучше дальней родни.&quot; and &quot;distant relatives are not as good as neighbors&quot;, “Одно дерево - не роща, одна птица - нестая” and &quot;孤树不成林，孤鸟不成群(A single tree does not form forests, a lone bird does not form flocks)(Wang Jinhua,Zhang Li 2006,76)&quot;, etc., are completely consistent in image and meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 Partial consistency===<br /> &quot;Partial consistency&quot; means that Russian proverbs are the same or similar in thinking, cultural image or meaning to Chinese proverbs. Such Russian proverbs can find corresponding or related proverbs in Chinese to a certain extent. The large number of such proverbs reflects the differences in the understanding of different things and phenomena between nationss(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114).<br /> <br /> For example, the Russian proverb &quot;Расти как грибы после дождя&quot; means &quot;grow like mushrooms after rain&quot;, which means that things develop rapidly. Due to factors such as geographical location and natural environment, Russia is rich in mushrooms, and mushrooms grow rapidly after rain in Russia. In the same way, our country's &quot;雨后春笋(bamboo shoots in spring)&quot; have also grown rapidly, becoming a proverb that expresses the rapid development and emergence of things(Chen Ying 2000,90). This pair of Russian and Chinese proverbs uses the same thinking mode and different cultural images to express the same meaning. <br /> <br /> Another example is the Russian proverb &quot;Первый блин комом.&quot; It means that the first time you make a cake, you will always make a dough, which means that the first attempt is always easy to fail. The &quot;блин&quot; in the proverb is the unique Russian food &quot;Russian pancake&quot;, which reflects the distinctive national characteristics. In Chinese, the proverb &quot;三脚难踢，开锣的戏难唱(It's hard to kick the first three feet, and it's hard to sing the gongs)&quot; uses images such as &quot;三脚(three feet)&quot; and &quot;开锣的戏(plays with gongs)&quot; to express that things are difficult at the beginning of attempts, and that &quot;万事开头难(everything is difficult at first)&quot; meaning. The two are very similar in their embodied meanings.<br /> Some other examples included in this category are:<br /> (1)Два медведя в одной берлоте неуживутся. 一个洞穴中不会住两只熊(Two bears in one berlot won't get along)(Lei Yumei 2014,114).<br /> (2)И Москва несразу строилась. 莫斯科不是一下就建成的(And Moscow was not built immediately)(Chen Ying 2000,89).<br /> (3)Гром не грянет, мужик не перекрестится. 不打雷，农夫不祷告(Thunder won't strike, the man won't cross)(Yang Min 2017, 202).<br /> (4)Скарть со стола, и дружба сплыла.桌布一撤，友谊全无 (Scrap off the table and friendship floated away)(Lei Yumei 2014,114).<br /> <br /> These Russian proverbs correspond to the Chinese &quot;一山不容二虎(The mountain cannot accommodate two tigers)&quot;, &quot;一口吃不成个胖子(You can't make a fat man with one bite)(Chen Ying 2000,90)&quot;, &quot;临时抱佛脚(Temporary holding a Buddha's feet)&quot;, and &quot;人走茶凉(No sooner has the person gone away than the tea cools down)(Lei Yumei 2014,114)&quot;. These sets of corresponding Russian and Chinese proverbs have different cultural images, but the meaning is the same.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Complete inconsistency===<br /> There are some Russian proverbs that have nothing to do with Chinese proverbs either in image or meaning. Such Russian proverbs can be classified as &quot;completely inconsistent&quot;(Chen Ying 2000,89/Wang Yanrong 2013,114). The Russian and Chinese ethnic groups have their own unique national cultures. The differences in political economy, geographical environment, climate characteristics, vegetation, animals, historical allusions, living customs, religious beliefs, etc. have given birth to a series of ethnic proverbs(Yang Min 2017, 200).<br /> For example, the literal translation of the Russian proverb &quot;Дело-табак&quot; is &quot;事关烟草（it's about tobacco.）&quot; What does it mean? It turned out that the boatmen on the Volga River used to hang tobacco bags around their necks to prevent the tobacco from getting wet. This sentence was used to remind people that the water depth is close to the neck. It has now been used to express &quot;things are bad, the situation is not good&quot;. (Chen Ying 2000,90)<br /> <br /> Another example is the Russian proverb &quot;Хвалилась синица, что море зажжет.&quot; literally translated as &quot;山雀吹嘘要把大海点燃(The tit boasted to light the sea)&quot;. This proverb comes from an allusion in Krylov’s fable: &quot;The tit yelled everywhere that it was going to burn the sea. The news reached the animals' ears. Everyone ran to see the result, but the sea did not dry up. Everyone ran to see the result, but the sea did not dry up. &quot;This proverb satirizes those who like to brag, but can't get things done. Such ethnic-specific proverbs are sometimes difficult to understand, and it is necessary to trace their roots to understand their meaning(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).<br /> <br /> These three types of Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs have different levels of consistency in content, and the degree of difficulty of understanding also varies. Therefore, in the translation process, it is necessary to select one or a combination of multiple translation methods for translation according to different proverb classifications to achieve the purpose of &quot;prescribe the right medicine&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===3. Chinese translation methods of Russian proverbs===<br /> Chinese and foreign translation theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; to Qian Zhongshu's &quot;Concept of Transcendence&quot;; from Qu Qiubai's &quot;Concept of Equivalence&quot; to &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A•Nidar Or &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. We can see that the central point in their proposition is that the translation should faithfully express the meaning of the original text and reflect the appearance of the original text(Sheng Yichao 2009,110). <br /> <br /> On the basis of this important point of view, we analyze the classification of Russian proverbs and apply various methods comprehensively in order to obtain a more perfect translation. Specifically, there are the following methods: translation method, set translation method, literal translation method, free translation method, borrowed translation method, and added word and annotation method(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Equivalent translation(对译法)===<br /> &quot;Equivalent translation&quot; is directly using Chinese proverbs corresponding to Russian proverbs for translation. When using this translation method, the information conveyed by the literal and image meanings of Russian and Chinese proverbs should be the same. This translation method can correctly convey the pragmatic information contained in the image of the original language, enhance the readability of the translation, while completely retaining the rhetorical color of the original language, so that readers can understand the original text most accurately(Zhou Changyu 2006,40).<br /> <br /> This translation method is applicable to the &quot;completely consistent&quot; Russian proverbs mentioned above. For the Russian proverbs listed in 1.1, the existing proverbs in Chinese proverbs can be directly used as translations, and for example:<br /> (1)Век живи, век учись. 活到老,学到老。(Live and learn.)<br /> (2)Капля камень точит. 滴水穿石。(Constant dripping wears away a stone.)<br /> (3)Куй железо, пока горячо. 趁热打铁。(Strike while the iron is hot.) (Jia Shufen 1996,135)<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Corresponding and literal translation===<br /> In the Translatology Dictionary , the translation method “corresponding” is interpreted as the mutual translation of synonymous idioms. If the content, form, and rhetoric color of the target language roughly match the target language, then it is possible to adopt this method(Fang Mengzhi 2003,111). If the images and metaphors are the same or similar, this translation method is more appropriate; while the literal translation method is based on the form of the original text, which retains the metaphor, image and national characteristics of Russian proverbs. These two methods can be used simultaneously in translation practice.<br /> <br /> “Corresponding” is suitable for the translation of &quot;partially consistent&quot; Russian proverbs introduced in 1.2 of this article. &quot;Partially consistent&quot; Russian proverbs can be found in Chinese with corresponding proverbs with different images but the same or similar meaning. At this time, if the “equivalent translation” is adopted, readers will be misunderstood and the translated language will lose the national characteristics of Russian proverbs. Therefore, when translating such proverbs, the original image should be kept as much as possible and the expression form of Chinese proverbs should be used. In addition to the examples already mentioned above, there are similar ones:<br /> (1)Ложка дёгтю в бочку мёду. 一勺焦油坏了一桶蜜(A spoonful of tar breaks a bucket of honey), referring to the Chinese proverb &quot;一粒老鼠屎坏了一锅汤(A mouse poop breaks a pot of soup)&quot;(Jia Shufen 1996,145)<br /> (2) Нет дыма без огня. 无火不生烟(No fire, no smoke)， refers to the Chinese proverb &quot;无风不起浪(No wind, no waves)&quot;(Jia Shufen 1996,240).<br /> (3) Шила в мешке не устаишь. 口袋藏不住坠子(Pendant cannot be hidden in the pocket）, refers to the Chinese proverb &quot;纸包不住火(Paper cannot keep fire)&quot;(Jia Shufen 1996,303).<br /> <br /> Such Russian proverbs refer to the expression form of Chinese proverbs. On the basis of retaining the language structure characteristics of Russian proverbs, they do not lose the national cultural characteristics of Russian proverbs. They are successful translations. “Corresponding” uses the expression form of Chinese proverbs to make the translation easier to be accepted by readers. While using the translation method “corresponding”, in fact, the literal translation method is also used. The two are closely combined to maximize the original image and style(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).<br /> <br /> ===3.3 Free translation and loan translation===<br /> The national cultures of China and Russia are quite different. When Russian proverbs and Chinese proverbs use completely different figurative images, the figurative images in the literal original text will make the translation difficult to understand and accept, or cause misunderstandings. Using “corresponding” to translate Russian proverbs may cause deviation in understanding. In order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text, free translation can be used for translation at this time. Free translation refers to a translation method that readjusts the structure of the original text on the basis of the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the original text clearly in a new way of expression. <br /> <br /> For example, the Russian proverb &quot;Язык до Киева довезёт. 舌头（语言）把你带到基辅。(The tongue (language) brings you to Kiev)&quot; Kiev is an ancient city in the former Soviet Union. In ancient times, Kiev was called the mother city of the Russians and one of the most famous cities (Chen Ying 2000,90). Therefore, as long as you ask for directions, you will find Kiev. Therefore, this Russian proverb actually emphasizes the importance of &quot;язык&quot;. The literal translation will obviously make readers puzzled. However, it can be translated as &quot;有嘴走遍天下（With a mouth to travel all over the world）&quot; through free translation, which is more appropriate and easy to understand(Zhou Changyu 2006,39). <br /> <br /> &quot;На воре шапка горит(Jia Shufen 1996,176).&quot; is literally translated as &quot;小偷的帽子着火(The thief's hat is on fire)&quot;. If you don’t understand the source of the proverb, you cannot understand its meaning. This proverb originated from a story: Someone found a thief stealing, so he shouted in the crowd, &quot;The thief's hat is on fire.&quot; When the thief heard it, he involuntarily looked at his head and exposed himself and was arrested. . Through free translation, this proverb can be translated as &quot;the thief has a guilty conscience&quot;, so that the meaning of the original text can be more accurately conveyed to the reader(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).<br /> <br /> There are always commonalities and individualities in Russian and Chinese national cultures. Therefore, as mentioned in 1.2, there are cases where Russian and Chinese proverbs express the same or similar meanings in different cultural images. In this case, when the differences between Russian and Chinese proverbs are too prominent, you can also consider loan translation to translate, that is, by analyzing the internal meaning of Russian proverbs, borrowing Chinese proverbs with different images but expressing the same meaning for translation(Zhou Changyu 2006,39). E.g:<br /> (1) Семь раз примерь, один раз отрежь.三思而后行(Jia Shufen 1996,345)。(Look before you leap.)<br /> (2) Всякая лисица свой хвост хвалит. 王婆卖瓜，自卖自夸(Jiang Xiuhua 1999,166)。(Every cook praises his own broth.)<br /> (3) Горбатого могила исправит. 禀性难移。(Human nature is hardly changed.)(Ye Fanglai 1987,102)<br /> <br /> Using this translation method, the translation is not exactly the same as the original, and the content and form of the two are also very different. This distinguishes the loan translation method from the equivalent translation counterpart translation method and the “corresponding”. In fact, the loan translation method can be regarded as a variant of the free translation method, because the loan translation is actually an expression made by re-adjusting the structure of the original text on the basis of understanding the meaning of the original text. But it should also be distinguished from free translation, because the loan translation method borrows the proverbs already in Chinese. This method has lost the image in the original proverb and cannot be called a perfect translation method. It should be avoided as much as possible(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).<br /> <br /> ===3.4 Addition and annotation===<br /> Addition and annotation are compensatory translation methods, which supplement and reveal the cultural information in the original text.(Wang Yanrong 2013,114), the two explanations in the translatology dictionary are &quot;to add some words according to the needs of semantics, rhetoric or syntax in translation, so as to faithfully and smoothly express the ideological content of the original text.&quot; And a translator's compensation method in order to fully express the original semantics and style in the process of translation is to help achieve the equivalence of translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2003,111)<br /> <br /> Many Russian proverbs may produce pragmatic failure after literal translation. In order to avoid this failure, we can use the method of adding words or adding notes to introduce the image and cultural background of the original text in the form of annotation. This method makes the translation more vivid and intuitive, while retaining the image of the original text, showing the national characteristics of Russian proverbs(Zhou Changyu 2006,39).<br /> <br /> For example, the Russian proverb &quot;И на солнце есть пятна.&quot; is literally translated as &quot;太阳上也有黑点。(There are black spots on the sun.)&quot; This translation is obviously difficult for readers to accept and understand, but if the Chinese proverb &quot;金无足赤，人无完人(Gold can't be pure and man can't be perfect.)&quot; with the same meaning is added after it to reveal its connotation, “太阳上也有黑点—金无足赤，人无完人。(There are also black spots on the sun—Gold can't be pure and man can't be perfect.)” This form of translation can allow readers to understand the meaning of the proverb clearly and keep the original image in Russian proverbs(Zhou Changyu 2006,40). <br /> <br /> Another example is &quot;В Тулу со своим самоваром не ездят.&quot; literally translated as &quot;不要带着茶炊去图拉。(Don't take a samovar to Tula.)&quot; This Russian proverb has a strong Russian national color. Tula was once famous throughout the country for the production of samovars, and was the center of Russia's metallurgical industry and metal manufacturing. Taking the samovar to Tula, which is rich in samovars, actually means &quot;make an unnecessary move&quot;. This proverb is very vivid. Russians can naturally understand and understand its meaning, but as Chinese readers who do not understand Russian culture, it may be difficult to understand the literal translation of this proverb. <br /> Therefore, this proverb can be translated as &quot;带着茶炊去图拉—多此一举(Bring a samovar to Tula--make an unnecessary move)&quot;, or add a note in brackets: &quot;Tula is famous for making samovars.&quot; In this way, readers can not only understand the meaning of proverbs, but also intuitively feel the cultural elements of Russia. It can said as killing two birds with one stone(Zhou Changyu 2006,40). This translation method is often used in the situations described in 1.3. Examples also include:<br /> （1）За двумя зайцами погонишься ни одного не поймаешь. 一人追双兔，到头两手空—一心不可二用。(One man chases two rabbits, and in the end two hands are empty--no man can do two things at once.)<br /> （2）На языке мёд а в сердце лёд. 嘴上甜似蜜,心里冷若冰—笑里藏刀。(Sweet as honey on the mouth, cold as ice in the heart--hide a dagger in a smile.)<br /> The above-mentioned several Chinese translation methods of Russian proverbs have their own advantages and disadvantages. In the practice of Russian proverb translation, we should not be limited to one of them. We should make a specific analysis according to the specific situation, flexibly use different translation methods, and learn from others' strong points, so as to achieve a harmonious translation.<br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of Liaison Interpreting from the Perspectives of Reception Aesthetics and Translator-Centered Theory 李璐伊 Li Luyi==<br /> &lt;center&gt;李璐伊 Li Luyi 202020080612 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In a time of increasing intercultural communication, the working scenes of liaison interpreters are increasingly complex, and the role of interpreters are still controversial. From the perspective of aesthetics of reception and translator-centered theory, this paper analyzes the role positioning of liaison interpreters in terms of customers' expectations on the role of interpreters and their own understanding of the role of interpreters, and develops corresponding strategies for different types of liaison interpreters.<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> Liaison Interpreting；Positioning of Interpreter；Reception Aesthetics ；Translator-Centered Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在跨文化交际日益频繁的今天，联络口译译员的工作场景日益复杂，而其角色定位还存在争议。本文拟通过接受美学和译者中心论的视角分别从客户对口译译员的角色期待以及口译译员自身角色认识两方面分析了客户对口译员的角色期待和口译员对自身的角色定位，并针对不同联络口译类型制定了相应的应对策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 联络口译；译员角色定位；接受美学；译者中心论<br /> <br /> ===I. Introduction===<br /> In a broad sense, where there is a society, there is intercultural communication, which usually refers to the communication activities carried out by people in different cultural backgrounds. With the acceleration of globalization in recent years, cross-cultural communication has become increasingly frequent and complex. Susan Bassinet once argued that translation is by no means a purely linguistic act, it is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is spoken, and that translation is the communication within or between cultures.<br /> <br /> This view is also reflected in his book ''Translation, History and Culture''“Translators are allowed more liberties on what one might be tempted to call‘the purely linguistic level,’ certainly if the translation is not meant to‘represent’ the original in the translators' culture, but simply to help translators refine their knowledge of their own language.”(Bassnett, Susan; Lefevre, Andre 1996,4). <br /> <br /> As an important bridge in intercultural communication, interpretation is real-time, which requires interpreters to adjust their interpretation strategies in the new era to meet the increasing demand for interpreting.<br /> <br /> Translation studies is a relatively young research field, the current translation studies work an obvious trend to written translation studies, with less attention in the study of interpreting, this is probably due to the earlier tradition of the translation studies -- In the past, people only discussed the translation strategies of literary classics. As for this point, some scholars have proposed before that &quot;in terms of translation theory research itself, only written translation theory research is paid attention to rather than interpretation research, especially the study of specific problems in the process of interpretation by interpreters&quot; (Liu 2014,141- 143).<br /> <br /> We believes that the reasons for this situation are as follows: first, the corpus of written translation recorded in the form of words are easier to preserve than the interpreted corpus, and the research is also easier to retrieve the corpus of written translation; Second, Culture-related content is more common in translation than in interpretation. In addition, at present, the entry point of interpretation studies on cultural issues in liaison interpreting is often limited to a specific interpreting scene. For example, Zhao Xiaomei makes an analysis of the role of medical liaison interpreters, and believes that interpreters should abandon the tradition of complete neutrality in the process of interpreting (Zhao 2020, 105-108). However, different interpreting scenes have different requirements for interpreters, so the study confined to a specific scene does not accord with the actual situation that interpreters must be in multiple settinfs to interpret.<br /> <br /> In addition, many Chinese liaison interpreting studies are practice reports of MTI majors, lacking systematic theoretical discussion. Against such a background of translation studies, it is very necessary to study liaison interpretation from the perspective of receptive aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;. The value of this study lies in: first, it provides a new theoretical perspective for liaison interpretation analysis; Second, it provides coping strategies to solve the cultural barriers of interpreting in intercultural communication.（Wang 2020,39-40/Mao 2020,33-34）<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, interpretation is divided into consecutive interpretation and simultaneous interpretation according to its working mode, while it is divided into two-way interpretation and one-way interpretation according to the direction of interpretation. The liaison interpretation we discuss here is a typical two-way interpretation. We generally believe that liaison interpretation is a kind of interpretation which is different from conference interpretation and has a variety of working scenes, and it's working mode is mainly consecutive interpretation. Henri van Hoof, when talking about liaison interpretation earlier, described it as an interpreting practice existing in business negotiations (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,12).<br /> <br /> This is the early propositions which business interpretation is equivalent to liaison interpretation, and in the later long period of time has been recognized and widely used, but this description has obvious limitations. With the development of society and the diversification and complexity of interpretation scenes, the connotation of liaison interpretation has been expanded to include various forms of interpretation within the society or within the community. Later, R. Bruce W. Anderson (1976/2002) generically described liaison interpreting as a &quot;tripartite communication&quot; model, which is characterized by the emphasis that liaison interpreting is an activity in which two monolingual speakers communicate through a bilingual interpreter (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,14).<br /> <br /> Of course, this definition is more in line with the current practical understanding of liaison interpreting, but it is also difficult to distinguish the specific forms of liaison interpreting because of the high generality of its description. According to Anderson's point of view and the definition of conference interpretation, liaison interpreting is a &quot;bilateral interpreting&quot; within the society, rather than an international conference interpreting for representatives of several countries. Therefore, not only business interpretation, but also legal interpreting and guide-interpreting should be included in liaison interpretation.<br /> <br /> Based on the &quot;reader-centered theory&quot; of reception aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; of &quot;Eco-translatology&quot;, this paper mainly adopts the method of literature research and takes liaison interpreters as the object to discuss customers' expectations on the role of interpreters and interpreters’ awareness of their own role, so as to seek interpreting strategies in different situations of liaison interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===II. Reception Aesthetics and Translator-Centered Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.Reception Aesthetics====<br /> Reception aesthetics, also known as reader-centered theory, is a critical approach in literary studies, developed in the 1960s by H.R. Jauss and Wolfgang. Iser. This theory is different from the previous critical method which is centered on author or works. It turns to the critical method which is centered on readers' aesthetic acceptance and aesthetic experience. Phenomenology and modern hermeneutics are the theoretical basis of reader-centered theory, and the term &quot;reception aesthetics&quot; was first introduced in Hans Robert Jauss's essay ''Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory'', which is a manifesto for reception aesthetics to become an independent school (Jin 2002, 264-267). Izer once said, &quot;Reception aesthetics advocates the reader's initiative and creative ability. Reading is not a passive perception but an active creative activity. The transformation of the reader's role can be said to be an epoch-making transformation in the development of literature&quot;(Guo，1997，338-339). There are several important concepts in reception aesthetics. The first is the &quot;the horizon of expectations&quot;， which Jauss coined. Jauss believes that due to the complex reasons of individuals and society, readers who are the subject of receiving literature often have established thinking orientation and concepts in their psychology before and during the process of literature reading (Wang 2020, 198-199). The second concept is the &quot;response-inviting structure&quot;, which was proposed by Iser. Iser considers the meaning of a text to be indeterminable, so the meaning of a text would never have been generated by itself, but there is a &quot;text blank&quot; in the text that only the reader can fill (Jin 2002,274). &quot;Text blank&quot; can induce the reader to think aesthetically. Reception aesthetics in interpreting is reflected in that the success of a interpretation product largely depends on the response of the recipient to the work and whether the recipient has generated aesthetic pleasure, and the evocation of the text and the satisfaction of the recipient have become the criteria for evaluation of interpretation products. From the perspective of reception aesthetics, interpreting serves the recipient completely.<br /> <br /> ====2.Translator-Centered Theory====<br /> The concept of &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; is closely related to &quot;Eco-translatology&quot; put forward by Professor Hu Gengshen. &quot;Eco-translatology&quot; is a new concept, and there are still many controversies and misunderstandings about it among Chinese scholars. In the opinion of Leng Yuhong, &quot;If we want to construct a systematic and complete “Eco-translatology Theory”, the first thing to be overturned must be the 'translator-centered'!&quot; (Leng 2011, 72-73). The main reason for his conclusion is that he has a misunderstanding of &quot;translator-centered&quot;. Leng Yuhong believes that the &quot;translator-centered&quot; puts the &quot;translator&quot; above the &quot;original text&quot; and the &quot;recipient&quot;, and takes the translator to an extreme like “translation-center theory”. Some other scholars believe that, on the one hand, the &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; fails to break through the dichotomization of subject and object; on the other hand, it is interpreted from the perspective of concrete operation instead of philosophical reasoning. Therefore, it lacks an organic connection with the anti-centrism and equality core contained in the Oriental ecological wisdom (Luo 2017-65). Then professor Hu retorted, the &quot;translator-center&quot; concept, in the process of translation is mainly reveals the &quot;leading&quot; role of the translator in the translation process, specifically refers to the translator in the translation process must first &quot;adapt to&quot; the ecological environment of translation, and then, the translator in according to the ecological environment of translation to decide on the &quot;choice&quot; of translation , which includes the translator &quot;selective adaptation&quot; and &quot;adaptive selection&quot; and so on, all the translation behaviors of translation activity is determined by translator, this is the core and intention of &quot;translator-center theory . In other words, the translation system is pluralistic, and the translator should actively adapt to the environment in the process of translation, instead of destroying the relationship between each subject in the translation system to reach the dominant position. Professor Hu also emphasizes the distinction between &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; and &quot;subjectivity&quot; in order to emphasize the dynamic role that translators can play in translation (Hu 2013, 208, 218-219) . Yin shuqiong also believes that ecological paradigm is not a commonality between translation studies and natural ecosystems, but a feature shared by all social science research systems (Yin 2017, 56-62). Hu (Hu 2017, 63-68) said that Yin's erroneous conclusion is based on a misunderstanding of the concept of &quot;paradigm&quot;, and that “Eco-translatology” and its &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; are the common beliefs of recent translation scholars, rather than emphasizing that they are unique to translatology and natural ecosystems. In addition, there are many arguements about “Eco-translatology” and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; in China, we think that the “translator-centered theory” under the perspective of “Eco-translatology” not mean that &quot;translator&quot; above the &quot;source language&quot; and &quot;recipients&quot;, but hope from the perspective of &quot;translator&quot; thinking about the problems in the translation process and the solution to the problem, emphasizes the &quot;translator&quot; actively adapt to the social scene and positive response to this strategy.<br /> Then, what is the relationship between the &quot;reader-centered theory&quot; of reception aesthetics and the &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; of Eco-translatology studies? We think that the two are dialectical unity, reception aesthetics require the translator to fully consider the recipient's cultural quality and cognitive levels, but completely according to the requirements of the recipient to make the choice of translation strategy and translation quality evaluation is too biased, because recipient's aesthetic of translation products too subjective and lack of professionalism, and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; advocate that the difficulties encountered in the translation should be solved by translators according to their professional judgment and also encourages translators to seek more change through its own development strategy. Of course, &quot;reader-centered theory&quot; and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; are not diametrically opposed, and translator-centered theory also requires translators to consider the needs of recipients of translation products. It can be said that &quot;reader-centered theory&quot; is a reference item of &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;, and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; is a further development of &quot;reader-centered theory&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===III. Positioning of liaison interpreter===<br /> In the field of interpretation, there have always been different opinions on the principle of fidelity of interpretation products: some people believe that &quot;sentence by sentence translation&quot; should be carried out, and interpretation products should be faithful to the original text in form. That is, the interpreter should &quot;be like a megaphone&quot; ; Some people believe that interpreters should take into account the cultural context in which communication takes place, and that interpretation products should be faithful to the &quot;meaning&quot; of the original text, that is, the central meaning expressed by the speaker .(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,153)<br /> <br /> However, there are significantly more supporters of the latter than the former. This is similar to the debate on the principle of translation in translation studies: literal translation v.s. free translation. The discussion of translation principles is generally focused on literature. At present, we generally believe that different translation strategies should be adopted according to different literary genres and themes. It is also similar in the study of interpretation. Liaison interpreters should adopt different interpreting strategies according to different interpretation scenes and themes. The difference between liaison interpretation and translation comes from R. Bruce W. Anderson's &quot;tripartite communication&quot; theory.(Franz.Pǎchhacker 2010,14）<br /> <br /> Liaison interpreters are directly facing customers when interpreting, and their interpreting products will be delivered to customers in a timely manner, so the quality of their translation products depends entirely on customers' judgment at present. So when we think about the role of the liaison interpreters, one of the most important references is what the client expects of the interpreter. In addition, the interpreter acts as a bridge between the two sides in communication, and the role of the liaison interpreter is more prominent than that of other types of interpreters. Therefore, the positioning of the interpreters on themselves is also very important. In addition, another characteristic that distinguishes liaison interpreters from other types of translators is that liaison interpretation is often in a dynamic and diversified scene, unlike other translators who are only in a single translation scene. Therefore, analysis of the interpretation scene is also a part that cannot be ignored when discussing the role positioning of the interpreter.<br /> <br /> ====1.Client's Expectation of the Interpreter's Role====<br /> From the perspective of reception aesthetics, clients will estimate and expect interpretation products in advance according to their reading experience and aesthetic taste. Donova-Cagigos talked about the measurement and judgment of interpretation quality, and believed that if &quot;faithfulness&quot; could not be quantified, it could only be relevant to specific communicative occasions so the results of the clients expectation investigation, such as the user's preference for the delivery of the main idea over the full translation, can be used as an important criterion for rating accuracy and omission (Pǎchhacker 2010，169). This requires the liaison interpreter to adjust his/her role to the client's expectations. Each user's knowledge base, education level and other aspects of the difference will lead to their expectations of liaison interpreters change. We divide clients' expectations on interpreters into two categories: one is that interpreters are expected to interpret faithfully, neutrally and impartially, without mixing their own interpretation with concise output of source language information; The other is to expect interpreters to add their own explanations through omission, addition and other interpreting techniques when interpreting source language information, so as to make interpreting products better understood.<br /> The role expectations of the above two kinds of clients depend largely on the nature of the clients and the purpose for which the clients accept the interpretation. The first kind of clients who hope interpreter completely follow the principle of &quot;faithfulness&quot; , have a comprehensive understanding of the areas involved in interpretation, they receive interpretation mainly for the purpose of obtaining extended knowledge of known fields or general information, or because of the limitation of interpretation theme requires an interpreter to stay neutral, such as legal interpreting . In this regard, Collados Aís studied the requirements on the interpretation quality standards of the interpreting clients who are experts and found that the subjects did not give low marks to the content errors in the &quot;pleasant to hear&quot; interpretation, but scored them according to other standards. The principle of &quot;faithfulness&quot;, which the clients attach most importance to, did not play a corresponding role in the evaluation (Pǎchhacker 2010，171). The second group of clients expect interpreters to go beyond &quot;translation machines&quot; and become helpers who can answer their own questions and facilitate communication. Such clients generally have little knowledge of the fields involved in the interpreting content, and the purpose of receiving interpreting of them is to understand a completely unfamiliar knowledge field and acquire as much new knowledge as possible.<br /> <br /> In practice, most clients prefer the latter, which is also determined by the nature of liaison interpreting. One characteristic of liaison interpreters is that interpreters often act as &quot;escorts&quot; (Zhan, 2010,3). As an example, the author accompanied the &quot;Confucius Institute&quot; visiting group of South Korea's Wonkwang University during undergraduate years., for the purpose of cultural communication, the school asked the author with the delegation visit to cultural sites such as Hunan Provincial Museum, the author's main role in the trip is interpreter, but due to the particularity of interpreting theme, the author needs to explain the names of cultural relics and supplement relevant historical knowledge to the delegation members, so while interpreting, the author also plays the role of a tour guide.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Interpreter's Position on Themselves====<br /> In the perspective of Foucault's power theory, the interpreter is no longer the traditional &quot;transmitter&quot;, and the subject consciousness of the interpreter is highlighted. In the practice of interpreting, the interpreter's cognition of his/her status, ability and value is an important manifestation of the interpreter's subjectivity (Wang 2019,14). In liaison interpreting, as a person directly involved in communication and proficient in bilingualism, the liaison interpreter must have the advantage of adopting appropriate interpretation strategies according to power distribution in a communication. From the perspective of &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;, liaison interpreters also have the obligation to adapt to different interpreting environments and coordinate the discourse of communication parties. Then the following situations usually occur:<br /> In order to ensure the quality of their interpretation products and promote the progress of communication, liaison interpreters tend to go beyond the act of interpretation itself and make supplementary explanations of the content of interpretation that may cause communication barriers, either intentionally or unintentionally. Or when the interpretation content is of a strong national or national nature, liaison interpreters will inevitably have a tendency to protect the rights of their own country and nation and increase the discourse power of their own country and nation. Of course, in general, interpreters will try their best to follow the principle of &quot;faithfulness&quot; in interpretation, and the ratio of &quot;faithfulness&quot; to &quot;creativity&quot; depends on the &quot;choice&quot; made by the liaison interpreter according to the translation environment.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Role of Interpreter under Different Liaison Interpreting Types====<br /> =====3.1.Business Interpreting=====<br /> Business interpreting is different from other liaison interpreting. First, business interpreting usually takes place in the context of cooperative project negotiation. In communication, the monolingual speakers respectively represent the interests of their enterprises and, usually, the interests of the countries where the enterprises are located. Secondly, the communicative parties usually have the purpose of long-term cooperation. Third, the content of business interpreting usually contains a large number of professional terms and figures; Fourth, business interpreters are usually permanent employees of one side of the communication. Fifthly, advanced diction is usually used in business interpretation. Due to the above characteristics of business interpreting, it is necessary for liaison interpreters to have the following accurate understanding of their role positioning.<br /> <br /> First, business interpreters are channels to convey &quot;meaning&quot;. This is the basic professionalism of an interpreter. Liaison interpreting is also known as bilateral interpretation. The existing bilateral interpretation model is based on the &quot;tripartite communication&quot; model. As one of the three parties, the liaison interpreter, like the Internet connecting two terminals, undertakes the task of processing the communication information between the two parties.Second, business interpreters are debaters for the benefit of their clients. Because of the long-standing relationship between liaison interpreters and clients, clients tend to treat the interpreters they hire as their &quot;inside&quot; colleagues (Zhang 2014，29). In many business communication situations, clients represent the interests of their own enterprises and are in a fast-changing vanity fair, and the business interpreters employed by them, as bilingual and with certain knowledge of the business, are bound to be the target for clients to seek help.Third, business interpreters are mediators of the negotiation atmosphere. In business negotiations, it is often the case that the two parties in communication fight for their own interests and the negotiation comes to a deadlock. Business interpreters have the obligation to use interpreting strategies and techniques to soften the atmosphere and act as a buffer when both sides are using increasingly extreme language and tone.Fourth, a business interpreter is also a professional &quot;business practitioner&quot;. Business interpreters are professional &quot;business practitioners&quot; who are the second most important role besides &quot;interpreter&quot;. This is also based on the first point of the basic role of the interpreter positioning. Sometimes the two sides of communication have different professional terms for the same concept. In order to facilitate the smooth communication between the two sides, usually the interpreter needs to be familiar with the relevant terms and interpret them quickly and accurately. In other words, it requires not only a good command of a foreign language, but also a good knowledge of business.（Zhang 2014，29）<br /> <br /> =====3.2.Guide-interpreting=====<br /> In addition to the business interpreting and legal interpreting mentioned by Pǎchhacker in the classification of interpreting, guide-interpreting is also distinguished from other liaison interpreting in that it has the most prominent intercultural characteristics and the emphasis of interpretation is on the inheritance of the culture reflected in the source language. In a sense, the role of a guide-interpreter is similar to that of a diplomat, who not only needs to make tourists understand the history and culture of China, but also needs to answer their questions accurately and timely. (Jia 2017，223) As a result, guide-interpreters should pay more attention when making role positioning.(Pǎchhacker 2010,160-162)<br /> <br /> First, guide-interpreters are facilitators of communication. In the tourism-themed interpreting work, the interpreter's duty is to help tourists and tour guides communicate, which is also the embodiment of the interpreter's &quot;bridge&quot; role in the field of tourism. So in some cases, it is necessary for an interpreter to supplement the source language, such as when a Chinese tour guide introduces a mountain to English-speaking tourists and says:“大家现在看到的山远看像一条卧龙，因此取名卧龙山。”and then the interpreter can interpret this sentence as:&quot;The mountain you see now looks like a sleeping dragon from a distance, so it was named Wolong Mountain.&quot; or &quot;The mountain you see now looks like a sleeping dragon from a distance, so it was named Wolong Mountain. ‘Wolong’ means sleeping dragon.&quot;Obviously, the first interpreting product does not convey the original intention of the tour guide to the tourists. The tour guide's original intention is to let the tourists know that the name of the mountain has something to do with its appearance. However, if the name of the mountain is transliterated directly without supplementary explanation, the tourists will still not understand the connection between the name of the mountain and its shape.Second, tour interpreters are &quot;cultural brokers&quot;. Besides interpreting the words of tour guides to tourists, interpreters should also properly explain some incomprehensible cultural phenomena to tourists. For example, a tour guide introduces the Palace Museum in Beijing to foreign tourists. The Palace Museum in Beijing is a completely symmetrical building built along a central axis. The ancient Chinese, influenced by Confucianism, believed that a completely symmetrical building could foil the majesty of the emperor. If the interpreter only changes the language of the original when interpreting this sentence, it will not make the foreign tourists understand The Chinese Confucian culture correctly. Because the guide as well as Chinese tourists learn at an early age and contact with Confucianism, so the Chinese subconsciously has &quot;symmetrical architecture&quot;, &quot;Confucianism&quot; and &quot;Confucianism&quot; link up without the need for further explanation, but as an interpreter should be aware that foreign tourists are likely to have no contact with Confucianism, also don't know &quot;symmetrical architecture&quot; and &quot;Confucianism&quot;, so when the tour guide has no further explanation, the interpreter is necessary for additional instructions, play the role of a &quot;cultural agent&quot;.(Pǎchhacker 2010,161)Third, guide-interpreters are the keepers of the atmosphere. The working scenes of guide-interpreters are informal, such as scenic spots and hotels, so the intonation and wording of interpreters should be in line with the current atmosphere. If the intonation is too plain and the wording is too serious, foreign tourists will find it difficult to adapt to it, and the interpreting products of interpreters will also &quot;reject&quot; the interpreting scenes.Fourth, guide-interpreters are &quot;experts&quot; in the tourism industry. Similar to a business interpreter, a guide-interpreter requires a comprehensive and detailed knowledge of the relevant field, which is the basis for the interpreter to act as a &quot;culture broker&quot;.Fifthly, there is another special case in which a guide-interpreter may be both an interpreter and a tour guide. When the author was an undergraduate, the author acted as an interpreter for the &quot;Confucius Institute&quot; delegation of Wonkwang University in South Korea, mainly following them to various cultural tourist attractions. Since the author had been to relevant scenic spots for many times, the author acted as a dual role of &quot;interpreter&quot; and &quot;tour guide&quot; without employing professional guides.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.Legal Interpreting=====<br /> Legal interpreting refers to interpreting under legal settings, including judicial interpreting and quasi-judicial interpreting. Judicial interpreting refers to &quot;interpreting under court settings&quot;, while quasi-judicial interpreting refers to interpreting taken place outside the court and closely related to court procedure (Zhao,Dong 2020,70). In distinguishing between international and community settings, Pǎchhacker points out that court interpreting is &quot;the most obvious binding setting for community interpreting&quot;. (Pǎchhacker, 2010,177) the author takes courtroom interpreting as an example for analysis. In court interpreting, the situation of interpretation is more serious than that of other types of interpreting, because of the rigor of the law, the interpreter should also be more precise in the wording and sentence construction. The roles of court interpreters are as follows:<br /> First, an invisible interpreting machine. In most court interpreting, the restrictions imposed by the legal system on interpreters are often contrary to the standards advocated by the interpreting profession (Pǎchhacker 2010,178). In order to maintain the rigor of the law, court interpreters are required to be &quot;invisible&quot; and interpret word by word, so the nature of the law gives court interpreters a role positioning that distinguishes them from other types of interpreters -- &quot;artificial intelligence interpreting machine&quot; with high accuracy.Second, conflict mediators. This role is due to the large power gap between legal practitioners such as judges and non-legal practitioners such as defendants and plaintiffs in the courtroom. In tense court debates, interpreters often act as conflict mediators in order to keep communication going.Third, intercultural agents. In fact, it is not only guide-interpreting, there will be more or less cultural barriers in any intercultural communication, and court interpreting is no exception. There was a famous case in which a Chinese-grandmother who lived in the United States gave &quot;刮痧&quot; to her sick grandson. Her son-in-law mistakenly thought that she had abused the child, so she was brought to court. The grandmother argued in court that it was only &quot;刮痧&quot;, and the interpreter made additional explanations and said：&quot;‘刮痧’is a traditional Chinese medicine therapy&quot; in order to make the American judge understand &quot;刮痧&quot; , and the case was finally dismissed. This example well demonstrates the important role of interpreters as intercultural agents in court interpretation. (Du,Tan 2013,106-107)Fourth, legal &quot;experts&quot;. In order to ensure the accuracy of the interpreting and the accurate understanding of legal terms by the listener of the TL, interpreters usually need to master a large amount of legal knowledge and relevant vocabulary accurately, and be able to provide basic answers for the listener lacking legal knowledge when necessary.<br /> <br /> To sum up, the role of an interpreter is generally related to the above three aspects. In other words, due to the limitations of client's expectation and interpreter's own knowledge and setting, interpreters need to make &quot;adaptive selection&quot; and &quot;selective adaptation&quot; to different interpreting environments according to client's expectation and interpreter's own knowledge. The role positioning of the interpreter affects the interpreting strategies that the interpreter chooses in the actual interpreting process, so the balance between &quot;reception aesthetics&quot; and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; in different interpreting settings is of vital importance.<br /> <br /> ===IV. Interpreting Strategies in Different Interpreting Settings===<br /> ====1.The Influence and Application of Reception Aesthetics and &quot;Translator-Centered Theory&quot; on Interpreting Strategies====<br /> As mentioned in the previous section, there are two main types of interpretation customers: those who expect faithful interpreting and those who expect supplementary interpreting. When interpreters fail to communicate with clients in advance and adjust their interpreting strategies according to clients' expectations, they will often produce interpreting products deviating from clients' needs, thus leading to errors in the transmission of interpreting information and resulting in interpreting barriers. The influence of such factors can be largely eliminated by preparation before interpreting. In the pre-interpretation preparation stage, interpreters can understand the cultural background of clients in advance or directly communicate with clients to understand their needs. Only by integrating interpretation products with clients' expectations can they be regarded as successful interpreting products. However, in practical interpreting, interpreters also encounter another kind of difficulty, that is, clients have aesthetic expectations of interpreting products and expect interpreters to make detailed explanations of relevant information. We know that the aesthetic value of an interpreting product derives from the &quot;places of indeterminacy&quot; of the product. Generally speaking, it is the space to appreciate an interpreting product, similar to the &quot;blank space&quot; in a Chinese painting. A balance should be struck between the degree of supplementary explanation and the degree of artistic &quot;white space&quot; in interpreting, which is difficult to grasp precisely because the clients who often make such requests do not have an accurate definition. In order to deal with this problem, interpreters have to make perceptual judgments based on their rich practical experience. Of course, it is not feasible to develop interpreting strategies based entirely on clients' expectations. Lv Jun once put forward, &quot;Every reader has different natural talent, endowment, experience and cultivation, so the works will present different meanings to each reader... If based on such a theory, how can we draw the conclusion of ‘principle of equivalence’?&quot; This is also the paradox between reception aesthetics and Nida's ‘functional equivalence theory’&quot; (Lv 1997，51).<br /> As interpreters are participants in intercultural communication, their own factors must have a great impact on the quality of interpreting. The author believes that the problem of interpreting obstacles caused by interpreters' own factors can be solved through the &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; in &quot;Eco-translatology&quot;. The &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; requires interpreters to develop themselves, that is, interpreters should change their interpreting circumstances and improve their interpreting ability, so as to obtain freedom of choice to ensure their central position in interpreting activities. Interpreters can expand their power in interpreting activities by improving their interpreting ability and using interpreting techniques. According to Pǎchhacker, there are two ways to improve interpreting skills: personal qualities and professional skills. Personal quality includes biological individual function and psychological quality. Professional skills mainly refer to bilingual skills. First of all, how to improve personal quality and ability. Apart from the inherent intelligence factor, interpreters should actively improve their psychological quality, which is a necessary guarantee for the smooth progress of interpreting. In case of difficulties, interpreters should not be flustered, but should actively take various countermeasures to overcome or temporarily avoid the difficulties to ensure the quality of the overall interpreting products. Zhan Cheng suggested that interpreters could simplify this by seeking help from the speakers (Zhan 2010，153-154). In addition, the author believes that the predicament of interpreting can also be solved by &quot;imitation words&quot;， which is a special kind of loanwords. Take Chinese-Korean interpreting for example. In the Hunan Provincial Museum, there is a collection called &quot;纪念木牍&quot;, which is a piece of wood used for writing in ancient China to records the time of some events, a time when the interpreter didn't know its corresponding proper nouns, can according to its pronunciation rules imitate a word - &quot;기년목독&quot;. Since both countries belong to the same cultural cycle of Chinese characters , Koreans learn basic Chinese characters from an early age, so they can understand the meaning and use of the imitated words even if they are not accurate. There is also a case in French where the word science-fiction is directly interpreted into English (Jeremy Mundie 2014，80). This is very useful for solving the sudden interpreting obstacles encountered in the process of interpreting. In terms of improving professional skills, before the beginning of interpreting, interpreters should have a systematic system of interpreting notes, which should be as concise as possible to improve the efficiency of interpreting symbols, and should be used to test the practicality of symbols in practice. Interpreters should also accumulate professional knowledge and vocabulary in various fields in daily life, and be familiar with the interpreting content and background knowledge before starting an interpreting. At the end of the interpreting work, the interpreter should review the difficulties encountered in the interpreting activities and think positively about the solutions to avoid repeating the past mistakes. With the development and progress of science and technology, modern science and technology have been widely used in the field of interpreting. Using digital recording technology, the interpreters can replace the notes in the interpreting by simply using portable devices such as computers to attach the source words to the digital audio tape and then playing them through headphones (Pǎchhacker 2010，186). In addition, modern technology can also be used to build artificial intelligence corpus, which can be used to classify corpus according to different translation topics.(Pǎchhacker 2010,181-184/Luo 2019,219)<br /> <br /> ====2.Interpreting Strategies in Different Sittings====<br /> Whether it is business interpreting, guide-interpreting or legal interpreting, interpreters are faced with the choice of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;creativity&quot;. However, different types of liaison interpreting have different &quot;interpreting ecological environments&quot;. The author analyzed the interpreting strategies applicable to these three types of liaison interpreting respectively.<br /> The clients of business interpreting have unclear requirements on interpreting products, which require interpreters not only to profit for the company but also to regulate the atmosphere, while the ecological environment of business interpreting requires interpreters to be both &quot;faithful&quot; and &quot;creative&quot;. Therefore, the interpreter has to adjust the strategy according to the specific interpreting content at any time. When both sides of the communication are negotiating for benefits, the interpreter should adopt the strategy of “faithfulness” rather than “creativity”; when the two sides are chatting, the interpreter should adopt the strategy of “creativity” rather than “faithfulness”; and when the two sides enter into a deadlock, the interpreter should use the &quot;creative&quot; interpreting to ease the atmosphere.<br /> In guide-interpreting, the interpreter's role as &quot;cultural broker&quot; and &quot;atmosphere maker&quot;, clients are usually expect interpreters interpret products for their own pleasure, so in the interpreting process of the guide-interpreting, interpreters should be as creative as possible throug omission or addition, lively tone and appropriate word choice to achieve clients' expectations. At the same time, interpreters should not completely rebel against the principle of &quot;faithfulness&quot; without regard to the content of the SL.<br /> Although interpreters also play the role of intercultural agents in legal interpreting, their more important role is interpretation machine for legal provisions. The ecological environment of legal interpreting is in a highly tense and rigorous atmosphere, which requires interpreters to adapt to the rigorous atmosphere and try their best to interpret sentence by sentence.<br /> <br /> ===V. Conclusion===<br /> In this paper，we discussed how interpreters should adapt to the interpreting environment and make correct translation strategies from the perspectives of reception aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;. The first part of this paper is an introduction, which introduced the definition of liaison interpreting, the current situation of interpreting studies in translation studies and the significance and methods of this study. The second part introduced the two perspectives of this research -- reception aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;. The third part analyzed the influence of two perspectives on the role positioning of liaison interpreters and the different types of liaison interpreters. The fourth part puts forward how to adjust translation strategies and how to use translation techniques to achieve the balance between &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;creativity&quot;.<br /> <br /> We believes that in the context similar to business interpretation, contact interpreters should adjust the translation strategies of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;creativity&quot; according to the constantly changing interpretation content. In the guide-interpretation, interpreters should pay more attention to the &quot;creativity&quot; of interpretation products on the basis of &quot;faithfulness&quot;, so as to bring tourists more relaxed and pleasant experience. In legal interpretation, due to the rigor and inviolability of the law, interpreters should try their best to interpret &quot;word by word&quot;. Only in certain circumstances can they provide necessary explanations for both sides of communication by adding interpretation content. This paper also puts forward other specific strategies. Interpreters can reduce errors in interpreting by communicating with customers in the preparation stage. In the process of interpreting, the translation strategies can be flexibly adjusted by adopting various translation techniques, such as addition and omission. After the end of interpretation, we can reflect on the mistakes and make an interpreting corpus to avoid repeating the mistakes in the future.In a word, interpreters should strike a balance between &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;creativity&quot; by relying on their professional quality and customers' expectations, which is the only way to improve the quality of interpretation products.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Appreciation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Study on Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden'' from the Stylistic Perspective 袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi 202020080664==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'' is a classic literary work of Henry David Thoreau, which has become a classic work in the Treasure house of American literature. The Chinese translator Xu Chi first translated it into China, and since then ''Walden'' has been retranslated and republished for many times. In China, the version of ''Walden'' translated by Xu Chi is the most widely spread and influential one, and has been highly regarded as a classic translation. There hve been a lot of studies on ''Walden'' both at home and abroad, such as studies on the ecology of the book, studies on birth background and living conditions of the author Henry David Thoreau, and systematic studies on Chinese translation version of ''Walden'' under different theoretical frameworks. However, there are few studies on Chinese translations of ''Walden'' from stylistic perspective. This paper will focus on the lexical, syntactic and rhetorical features of Xu Chi’s translation and analyze their stylistic effects. It is hoped that this study will be of certain value to the translation studies of ''Walden'' and the literary translation criticism from the stylistic perspective.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'', Chinese Translation of ''Walden'' by Xu Chi , Stylistics<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从文体学角度看《瓦尔登湖》徐迟译本<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》是亨利·大卫·梭罗的经典文学作品，已经成为美国文学宝库中的经典之作。中国译者徐迟首先将其译入国内，此后《瓦尔登湖》多次被重译再版。在中国，徐迟翻译的《瓦尔登湖》汉译本流传最广、影响最大，而且一直被推崇为“译文经典”。对于《瓦尔登湖》的研究，在国内和国外有很多，例如对散文涉及生态的研究，对于作者亨利·戴维·梭罗出生背景和生活状况的研究，以及不同的理论框架下对于《瓦尔登湖》中文翻译版本的系统研究。但是从文体学角度研究《瓦尔登湖》中译本的不多。本文着重探讨徐迟译本在词汇、句法、修辞层面上的特征，分析其文体效果。希望本研究对《瓦尔登湖》的翻译研究及从文体学视角开展文学翻译批评具有一定的参考价值。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》、徐迟中译本、文体学<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau and ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a collection of essays written by American writer Henry David Thoreau. Henry David Thoreau was born in 1817 and died in 1862. He was a famous writer, philosopher, representative of Transcendentalism, abolitionist of slavery and naturalist in the United States. He was deeply influenced by Emerson. He advocated returning to original mind and being close to nature. Thoreau created more than 20 first-class prose collections in his whole life. His essays are concise and powerful, simple and natural, full of thought, which hava unique style in American proses in the 19th century. In 1845, he lived in seclusion by Walden lake, two miles away from Concord. He cultivated and ate by himself and experienced a simple and close to nature life. Thoreau loved, appreciated and immersed in nature. He understood the world through nature and regarded the world as a whole for people to appreciate and enjoy. He advocated simple life, so he abandoned all material enjoyment and pursued spiritual enrichment. With a keen thinking of a philosopher and rigorous spirit of science, Thoreau put himself into the embrace of nature and explored everything around him.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a record of Thoreau's life when he lived alone by Walden lake. ''Walden'' is composed of 18 essays, which record Thoreau's hands-on life by walden lake for two months from 1845 to 1847. This book advocates simple life, appeals readers to return to nature, and expresses Thoreau's love for nature. The simple way of life in the book reflects Thoreau’s view of nature.This book has certain philosophical significance as well as artistic and aesthetic value.<br /> ''Walden'' is a Transcendentalist classic and is recognized as the most popular non-fiction work in American literature. After more than 100 years of circulation, the book has become a classic in American literature. So far, it has been published in more than 150 editions and translated into more than 40 languages. <br /> Thoreau's own practice in Walden lake and his works have a consistent proposition, that is, returning to nature. In his works, he constantly pointed out that most of modern people are trapped by family, work and various material needs, thus lost their spiritual pursuit and lived a materialistic life. Thoreau persisted in the pursuit of spiritual happiness and rejected material comforts. This is why Thoreau lived a simple life by Walden lake, enjoying a life of leisure while his neighbors pursued a life of wealth and material comforts, enslaved by their own desires.<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Xu Chi and His Translation of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi=====<br /> Xu Chi is famous for his poems, essays and reportage. He was once awarded by Mao Zedong's inscription of &quot;poetry expresses ambition&quot;, and he was known as &quot;Contemporary Chinese Goethe&quot; and &quot;Father of Reportage&quot;.Another little-known identity of this famous Chinese writer is being as a translator. He not only wrote poems, essays, reportages, novels and reviews, but also translated and introduced a large number of foreign literary works, with a total of 10 million words in his life (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden''=====<br /> In 1949, Xu translated Walden into Chinese called &quot;华尔腾&quot;, which failed to elicit widespread attention because at that time, people all over China were immersedin the joy of gaining cmancipation from feudalism and imperialism, so that ''Walden'',promoting tranquility and transcendentalism, was ignored.<br /> <br /> In 1982, Xu Chi retranslated it and titled it &quot;瓦尔登湖&quot;, which was so popular that it was republished for many times since then. Xu's version of ''Walden'' chosen in this study is its second edition, published in 1982, to which Xu Chi added a preface to present information about Thoreau and comments on ''Walden''. To some extent, readers are able to have a glimpse of Xu's own emotions and thoughts in his translation of ''Walden''(Yao Junwei 2005, 145).<br /> Xu Chi usually selected and translated works that were close to his own nature and could move him, because only in this way, he could have more resonance with the writers and their works, and reproduced the style of the original author. For Xu Chi, he expressed his own feelings and thoughts through translating these writers'works to a certain extent (Yao Junwei 2005, 146).<br /> <br /> Only when his soul was in harmony with Thoreau's, did Xu Chi love this book so much and rised to translating this book. It was in the summer of 1949 that Xu Chi began to translate Thoreau's ''Walden''. Because Xu Chi was extremely fond of this book, he spent lots of efforts in translating this famous work. In the first stage of translation, he tried to understand the meaning of the original work, hoping to be able to deeply understand the original work. He confessed that it was a very profound book which is full of translation challenges. He was very busy during the day, so he sometimes couldn't read it.Because this book was too difficult to understand, it seemed that this book was suddenly not so interseting and attractive to him, and it seemed that it was of no benefit to translate it. However, he found that his mood gradually became peaceful after dusk. When he read this book at this time, he suddenly felt the book quite interesting. What he saw was the chapters that could’t be seen in the daytime. The language was amazing, the words were shining, and his heart was touched. When the ningt became quiet, the book became not so obscure. Under the recitation, he could not help but be fascinated by it (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).<br /> <br /> His most successful translation is ''Walden'', which he translated first in 1949, then again in 1982 and in 1996. The masterpiece of David Thoreau, a famous American transcendentalist writer, still shines brightly in the vast Chinese translated literature. In recent ten years, there have been more than 20 new translations of ''Walden'', but Xu Chi's translation is still regarded as the best translation and is the first choice for many presses to publish as Chinese translations of ''Walden'' in recent years. Although there are many Chinese translations of ''Walden'', most of them take Xu Chi's translation as a reference , which indicates the authority of Xu Chi's translation (Wang Zhao 2009, 147).<br /> <br /> ====Style and Styllistics====<br /> =====Style=====<br /> Originated from the Latin or Greek word &quot;stile&quot; or &quot;stilus&quot;, &quot;style&quot; originally refers to a sharp instrument made of metal or bone, used as a writing tool, and later symbolizes a way of writing. At first, it was mainly used in writing. As time goes by, its application has been broadened into areas like music, dance, painting, fashion, behavior,literature, architecture and so on. As it has been mentioned in the introduction part, the research object ''Walden'' is a piece of literary work, consequently, this thesis will mainly study literary style (Hu Zhuanglin 2015,374).<br /> Since ancient times, style has always been the object of people's study. Aristotle, Cicero, Demetrius, and Quintilian all used style as an appropriate decoration for thought. This view prevailed throughout the Renaissance, when devices of style could be classified. An essayist or orator needs to construct his or her point of view by means of exemplary sentences and prescribed kinds of &quot;figures&quot; that conform to his or her mode of discourse (Hu Zhuanglin 2015,375).<br /> <br /> For a long time, the definition of style has remained varied, and different scholars have given different definitions of it. It is unnecessary and impractical here to list them all. Some definitions will be given below to help us understand what style is.<br /> <br /> One of the most successful attempts to define style in a comprehensive way is Leech and Short’s (1981). Although claiming that “unsuccessful attempts to attach a precise meaning” to the term “style” have often resulted in an impoverishment of the subject , they offer a list of the items forming the basis of their own concept of style, which can be summarized as follows:<br /> (a) Style is a way in which language is used; therefore it consists in choices made from the repertoire of the language; <br /> (b) A style is defined in terms of a domain of language use (e.g. what choices are made by a particular author, in a particular genre, or in a particular text);<br /> (c) Literary stylistics is typically concerned with explaining the relation between style and literary or aesthetic function;<br /> (d) Stylistic choice is limited to those aspects of linguistic choice which concern alternative ways of rendering the same subject matter.<br /> <br /> Nida Eugene (1982, 12) defines that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”So in translation of literary works, the author’s style should be represented through the translator’s style, and the translator’s style should depend on the style of the author. Many translators are good at representing different writers’styles and yet has its own unique translation style.<br /> <br /> The broad view of style includes the elements of linguistic style and non-linguistic style. Among them, the elements of language style mainly include the means of language style, such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structure and rhetorical devices, and the elements of non-language style include the author's emotion factor, the author's imagination factor and the author's intelligence factor. The narrow sense of style only involves the author's means of language style and rhetorical style (Lv Jun &amp; Hou Xiangqun 2001, 320).<br /> <br /> In conclude, translation (especially literary translation) as an across-culture process dose not only focus on the content of source text but also the style which is about how the writers write. Therefore, it is essential for a translator to know how to figure out the style of source text and reproduce it with target language.<br /> <br /> =====Styllistics=====<br /> Stylistics is a comprehensive frontier discipline that studies the characteristics, essence and laws of text forms, and is in the ascendant between linguistics, literature and art, aesthetics, psychology and other disciplines.<br /> It is difficult to determine when stylistics became a field of academic study. It can be argued, however, that it was not until the late 1950s that stylistics began to make significant and measurable progress. This is a young frontier discipline that is growing over time. Stylistics has developed into a well-targeted and technically effective interdisciplinary field of study, which is expected to provide useful insights for literary criticism and literature teaching. It has also been influencing translation criticism. Modern stylistics provides an important theoretical basis for translation studies. As far as the development of the subject of translation is concerned, stylistics has been recognized for its value and function. <br /> Modern stylistics uses the tools of formal linguistic analysis coupled with the methods of literary criticism; its goal is to try to isolate characteristic uses and functions of language and rhetoric rather than advance normative or prescriptive rules and patterns.<br /> <br /> =====Language Style and Stylistic Features of ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a masterpiece of prose style. It is concise, eloquent and profound in thought. Just as he pursues the simplest life, his language style of ''Walden'' can be summarized into four points: concise writing, accurate description, incisive argument, and pithy argumentation and causal narration. ''Walden'' is also a book aimed directly at the reader. Anyone who read this book feels that they are listening to and sharing Thoreau's ideals. This book is not easy for readers to understand, especially those who read it for the first time. Correspondingly, the prominent stylistic characteristics of ''Walden'' are manifested in four aspects: exquisite scenic description, complex syntax, various rhetorical devices and rich quotations (Zhang Jianguo 2005, 107).<br /> <br /> So it is helpful for the translator to understand the original text and reproduce the stylistic equivalence in the translation. Therefore, the translator should fully understand his stylistic characteristics, which is the premise of reproducing his style in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===Stylistic Features of ''Walden''===<br /> ====Lexical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Degree of Formality=====<br /> There are a lot of obsolete and old words in ''Walden''and the use of these words makes the book more flavor, solemn and elegant. However, the use of these words will also bring great trouble to the translation at the same time. It is difficult for the translators to grasp these words, so they can not use literal translation but use creative way to make readers feel what the author wants to express in this book.<br /> <br /> In ''Walden'', Thoreau uses concise words to demonstrate his own ideas, natural scenery and cultural customs of Walden Lake. Unlike official documents, regulations, or academic creations, general style of ''Walden'' suggests that Thoreau’s choice of words is less formal. This section aims to analyze the degree of formality of nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the Xu Chi’s translation. In terms of nouns, Xu Chi tends to choose words with literary charm and formal style, which are not suitable for the informal style of the original text.<br /> Example 1：<br /> …；where the washing is not put out, nor the fire, nor the mistress, and perhaps you are sometimes requested to move from off the trap—door; when the cook would descend into the cellar, and learn whether the ground is solid or hollow beneath you without stamping．(Thoreau 2012, 277—278)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：在那罩，洗瀣物不比晒在外面，炉火不熄，女主人也不会生气，也许有时要你移动一下，让厨子从地板门里走下地窖去，而你不用蹬脚就可以知道你的脚下是虚是实。 (徐迟 2009, 270)<br /> <br /> The passage describes part of Thoreau’s dream of a bigger house for more people. The original text provides a natural and causal description of the scenes and activities in Thoreau's dream house. There are five commas and a period in this 47-word sentence with employment of concrete nouns，the structure of the original is loose and casual. As can be seen from the above, &quot;washing&quot; in Xu's translation is loosely understood as “洗涤物” which means the process of eliminating unnecessary ingredients through detergent, which is formal in Chinese. Xu Chi reproduced the content of‘'the washing’’but he ignored the degree of formality in choosing word, thus falling to deliver the casualness reflected by the original text．<br /> Because ''Walden'' is full of depictions of landscape, adjectives are indispensable in Thoreau's creation of various images and pictures, as well as his insightful comments. Let us look at a example of it.<br /> Example 2：<br /> Often the poor man is not so cold and hungry as he is dirty and ragged and gross．(Thoreau 2012, 85)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：往往是那个穷人，邋遢、褴褛又粗野，但并没有途堡查选。(徐迟 2009, 83)<br /> <br /> The first adjective “poor” is used as an antecedent modifier and the other five adjectives are used as predicates. With the six adjectives being short and plain, the original text is generally of informal style. Xu transfered “cold and hungry” into a four-character noun phrase“冻馁之忧”which means “sufferings from cold and hunger.” However, this phrase is somewhat old-fashioned and is too formal to keep in line with the original style．Besides，it appears uncoordinated with three adjectives“邋遢、褴褛又粗野”being placed before the noun phrase“冻馁之忧”. So, it is not appropriate to reflect the original style.<br /> Verbs are also frequently employed in ''Walden'' to depict the fighting between animals or other activities. The degree of formality marked by verbs is the target of the study here. <br /> Example 3：<br /> I took up the chip on which the three I have particularly described were struggling, carried it into my house，and placed it under a tumbler on my window-sill，in order to see the issue．(Thoreau 2012, 262-263)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation：<br /> 我特别描写的三个战士在同一张木片上搏斗，我把这张木片拿进我的家里，放在我的窗槛上。罩在一个大杯子下面，以便考察结局。(徐迟 2009, 256)<br /> <br /> As we can see from the examples, these verbs are short and common in our everyday speech. They come mainly from Anglo-Saxon English and have informal stylistic characteristics. Therefore, the style of the original text is informal and should be preserved in Chinese translation. In this sentence, Thoreau prepared to wait and see with interest how the battle between the ants would go on after a series of arrangements. Xu Chi translated the word “see” into “考察”which sounds serious and formal, because “考察”means carefully checking certain items or situations, and is often used in formal situations, such as “考察人” or “考察情况”. So, Xu's version deviates from the original natural and informal flavor.<br /> <br /> =====Expressive Meaning=====<br /> Roman Jakobson, building on Karl Bühler (1934), coined the term expressive or emotive for one of the functions of language. He describes it as the function focused on the ADDRESSER [speaker], aims a direct expression of the speaker's attitude toward what he is speaking about (Jakobson 1960, 354) and gives interjections as the prime example of this function.<br /> <br /> It is worthy of our attention that differences between words in terms of expressive meaning are not simply equal to a matter of whether an expression of a certain attitude or evaluation is reproduced or not. The same attitude or evaluation may be expressed to widely varying degrees of forcefulness.<br /> Example 4：It is said that a flood-tide, with a westerly wind，and ice in the Neva, would sweep St. Petersburg from the face of the earth. (Thoreau 2012, 22)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：据说，涅瓦河要是涨了水，刮了西风，流来的冰块可以把圣彼得堡一下子大地的表面上冲掉的。 (徐迟 2009, 21)<br /> <br /> According to the Oxford Advanced English-Chinese Dictionary, &quot;sweeping&quot; is the act of sudden movement (of weather, fire, etc.), forcing a movement in an area or in a particular direction. In the original context, the combination of “flood tides, westerly winds, and ice” was destructive and therefore clearly detrimental to St.Petersburg. So the word &quot;sweep&quot; here reflects the speaker's negative attitude toward the possible outcome. Obviously, the word “冲掉” in Xu Chi’s translation is a neutral term and does not reflect the speaker’s attitude or feelings towards the potential disaster caused by flood tide, westerly winds and snow. Xu ignored the author’s emotional attitude, thus ignoring the influence that these forces may cause, and did not produce systematic equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====Syntactic Features of ''Walden''====<br /> Raffel (1994) points out that &quot;the syntax of prose shows the style of the author, and the reproduction of the original style is the key to prose translation which stresses not only what message says, but also how the message is said.&quot; So, the syntactic features of ''Walden'' should never be ignored.<br /> <br /> In the original text, short sentences in English have neat structure and harmonious rhythm. Xu Chi did not change the original structure in translation, but adopted literal translation. The so-called literal translation is to retain the content and language expression habits of the original text as well as the form and style of the original text under the condition that the target language allows. Since Both Chinese and English are discourse systems and they have something in common, literal translation is a good way to deal with them.<br /> Example 5:<br /> It is no dream of mine, To ornament a line; I cannot come nearer to God and Heaven, than I live to Walden even. I am its stony shore, and the breeze that passes o’er; In the hollow of my hand, are its water and its sand, and its deepest resort Lies high in my thought. (Thoreau 2012, 137) <br /> Xu Chi’s Translation:<br /> 这不是我的梦，用于装饰一行诗;我不能更接近上帝和天堂甚于我之生活在瓦尔登。我是它的圆石岸，飘拂而过的风;在我掌握的一握，是它的水，它的沙，而它的最深邃僻隐处,高高躺在我的思想中。 (Xu Chi 2012, 151)<br /> <br /> The translation of this paragraph has a neat structure, neat antithesis, and pays attention to the regularity and rhythm of the literal. The original is composed of ten verses and the translation retains the original format, which can increase the depth and appeal of the translation, thus producing artistic effect and aesthetic value.<br /> <br /> ====Rhetorical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Metaphor=====<br /> Metaphor means to &quot;shift a word from its original meaning to another word that is generally not interchangeable but similar, and to emphasize its identity, that is, the two are similar but not a simile&quot;.<br /> <br /> Example 6: <br /> Public opinion is a weak tyrant compared with our own private opinion. (Thoreau 2012， 7)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation: 和我们的自知之明相比较，公众舆论这暴戾的君主也显得微弱无力。(徐迟 2009，6）<br /> <br /> The ontology and metaphor in this sentence are &quot;public opinion&quot; and &quot;weak tyrant.&quot; There must be something similar between them. The following statement gives the reason: &quot;Compared to our own private opinions&quot;, which is quite clear. People are used to focusing on themselves in front of others, so public opinion is only slightly weak. The subtle use of metaphor shows Thoreau's wisdom and thorough understanding of human nature. Xu Chi dealt with this metaphor perfectly.<br /> <br /> =====Pun=====<br /> Puns are deliberately declared polysemous words or homonyms created with double meaning in a certain language environment, with implicit, humorous and profound effects. Newmark (2001, 217) points out that &quot;pun translation is unimportant but fascinating&quot;. <br /> <br /> The use of puns in Walden is remarkable.The basic function of pun in ''Walden'' is to express logical relations. Because puns can express two levels of meaning in a word, phrase, or sentence, they are often used as a link between the text before and after it. A key problem that haunts the reader when reading ''Walden'' is the lack of connection between the two passages. A clear logical relationship is a prerequisite for expressing other special effects, such as rhetorical and aesthetic effects. Therefore, the improper translation of puns will seriously affect logical coherence and other rhetorical devices.<br /> <br /> Example 7：<br /> If the name was not derived from that of some English locality - Saffron Walden, for instance, one might suppose that it was called originally Walled-in Pond. (Thoreau 2012, 209)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation: 如果这个湖名不是由当地一个叫萨福隆•瓦尔登的英国人的名字化出来的话，——那么，我想瓦尔登湖原来的名字可能是围而得湖。(徐迟 2009, 172)<br /> <br /> This classic example of puns has been discussed many times. Thoreau suggested that &quot;Walden&quot; might come from “Walled-in”. &quot;Walled-in Pond&quot;, as ahomophonic pun, serves as the logic link of the whole paragraph. Xu wisely translates it as “围而得”, retaining not only the similar pronunciation but also the importance of meaning. “围而得” maintains the logical relation of the whole paragraph.It is eye-catching and stimulates readers to think more about Thoreau's intentions to use this word.<br /> <br /> =====Personification=====<br /> Personification refers to &quot;the practice of representing a person, quality, or characteristic as a human being in art and literature.&quot; People subconsciously tend to reflect non-human things with their lives in order to express their feelings and thoughts. In view of the characteristics of human behavior, literary works can vividly express the feelings of the author, and make readers feel that the description of the object is more vivid and appropriate, which makes the article more vivid.<br /> <br /> Example 8：<br /> This further experience also I gained：I said to myself,1 will not plant beans and corn with so much industry another summer，but such seeds, if the seed is not lost, as sincerity, truth, simplicity, faith, innocence, and the like, and see if they will not grow in this soil，even with less toil and manurance，and sustain me, for surely it has not been exhausted for these crops. (Thoreau 2012, 186-187)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation:<br /> 我还获得了下面的更丰富的经验：我对我自己说，下一个夏天，我不要花那么大的劳力来种豆子和玉米了，我将种这样<br /> 这样一些种子像诚实、真理、纯朴、信心、天真等等，如果这些种子并没有失落，看看它们能否在这片土地上生长，能否以较少劳力和肥料；来维持我的生活，因为，地力一定还没消耗到不能种这些东西。 (徐迟 2009, 182)<br /> <br /> Thoreau here is sharing his experience in growing beans and his plans next summer with readers. As we know, words like &quot;sincerity,truth，simplicity, faith and innocence&quot; usually refer to qualities of human. But here, these words are adopted to describe the characteristics of seeds and humanize these seeds，constructing a vivid personification. Xu Chi reproduce the rhetorical feature of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The language of ''Walden'' is rich in vocabulary, complex and diverse sentence structure, the author's writing is flexible and fluent, and the use of various rhetoric makes the translation work more difficult. <br /> To sum up, Xu Chi's translation appears more formal than the original text and some words of his translation can not reflect the expressive meaning of the original one. It is found that Xu Chi tended to use words with typical features of his time which seem out of date at present. But due to the time he lived in, we believe that Xu Chi's translation satisfied the need or linguistic expectation of the target readers of his time which has its significance. We also find that sentences in Xu's translation follow the syntax of English language. Xu Chi kept the structure beauty of the original work properly, respected the original work and kept the structure orderly, directly conveying Thoreau's thoughts and feelings. And Xu Chi indeed do well in reflecting rhetorical features of the original text, which is refered by many translators later. In general, Xu Chi's translation is close to the original text in style and language characteristics and is a classic translation of ''Walden''.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Leech.G.N. &amp; M. H. Short. (1981). Style in Fiction：A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. <br /> <br /> Newmark P. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> Nida Eugene. (1982). Translating Meaning. Sandimas: English Language Institute. 12.<br /> <br /> Raffe. (1994). The Art of Translating Prose. Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press．<br /> <br /> Roman Jaobson. (1960). “Linguistics and Poetry” in Style and Language. Cambridge: MIT Press.<br /> <br /> Thoreau Henry David. (2012). Walden. New York: W. W. Norton &amp; Company, INC.<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin 胡壮麟. （2015). 语言学高级教程 [Advanced Course in Linguistics]. Beijing：Peking University Press <br /> <br /> Lv Jun &amp; Hou Xiangqun 吕俊,侯向群. (2001) 《英汉翻译教程》[English-chinese Translation Course].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.320.<br /> <br /> Wu Siying &amp; Li Jing 吴巳英,李靖. (2011). 外国文学翻译体例的时代演变——基于《瓦尔登湖》不同译本的比较. [The Time Evolution of Foreign Literary Translation Styles: Based on the Comparison of different versions of Walden]. 湖南农业大学学报（社会科学版) Journal of Hunan Agricultural University (Social Science edition) 12 83-87.<br /> <br /> Xu Chi 徐迟. (2009). 瓦尔登湖. [Walden]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. <br /> <br /> Yao Junwei 姚君伟. (2005). 徐迟与美国文学在中国的译介[Xu Chi and the Translation of American Literature in China]. 外国文学研究 [Study of Foreign Literature] 4 145-149.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jianguo 张建国. (2005). 梭罗《瓦尔登湖》的语言风格探析 [Analysis on language Style of Walden By Thoreau]. 河南商业高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Henan Commercial College] 03 106-107.<br /> <br /> ==A Comparison Beteewn the Translation Systems Proposed by Tan Zai and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people’s overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===: Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===：一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===：谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''==== <br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shy.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> The translation of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper Translatology must be established, which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> <br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems====<br /> <br /> =====Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> <br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000. <br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005. <br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation. 王美玲 Wang Meiling==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;王美玲 Wang Meiling&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> The Renaissance is the fourth peak in the history of Western translation and a great development in the history of Western literature. During the 16th century and the period following the Renaissance in Europe, translation reached an unprecedented climax in the fields of thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion. At that time, the German translation of the Bible by the Martin Luther is the most well-known one in the whole translation circle, and its influence is unique and long-standing in Germany as well as in the whole Europe continent. Since the Reform and Opening-up, China has gradually stepped into the center of the world arena, and its literary works bearing the quintessence of Chinese culture has become a crucial bridge connecting the rest of the world with China. Despite the rise of machine translation, it can never replace the overwhelming role of human translation in the literary translation. Luther’s translation thoughts have exerted an important influence on the development of Western translation theories, so what sparks can be drawn between his translation principles and Chinese modern culture and literary works? This paper makes a brief comment on the main translation activities of renaissance, then compares the translation thoughts of Luther and Lu Xun, and applies Luther’s detailed translation principles to the actual translation practice. Finally,some thoughts are acquired.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Renaissance; Luther; literary works; translation principles; influence;<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴运动是西方翻译史的第四次高潮，也是西方文学史上的一次大发展。文艺复兴在欧洲普遍开展的16世纪以及随后一个时期，翻译活动达到了前所未有的高峰，深入思想、政治、哲学、文学宗教等各个领域。在整个翻译界，德国马丁·路德的《圣经》德译本是该时期最负盛名的译本，其影响不论是在德国乃至整个欧洲都是独一无二且源远流长的。改革开放以来，中国日益走进世界舞台中央，承载着中华文化精髓的文学作品成为了中国连接世界的重要桥梁。纵然机器翻译兴起，但绝不能替代人工翻译在文学翻译领域的绝对性地位。路德的翻译思想对西方翻译理论的发展产生了重要影响，那么其翻译思想和理论原则与中国当代文化及文学作品又能擦出什么样的火花呢？本文将通过对文艺复兴时期的主要翻译活动进行简评，再对比路德与鲁迅的翻译思想，接着将路德的翻译细则运用到实际的翻译实践中，最后得出一些思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴；路德；文学作品；翻译原则；影响；<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The Protestant Reformation Movement in Germany in the 16th century ushered in a new era of translation and dissemination of Bible. Under the protection of Protestantism, Martin Luther devoted himself to the German translation of the Bible. By the time of 1544 Luther’s death, 430 versions of his Bible translation had been published. In order to make common people more directly understand the meaning of the Bible, Martin Luther translated it in national language. He insisted on his translation thought and fought against the church power and his opponents. He made unremitting efforts in the great project of the Bible translation, which promoted the unification of German language and created a graceful literary language.His translation thoughts are still of great significance to the current translation theory and practice.&quot;First of all, from a historical point of view, translation has two main functions in promoting the birth and development of national culture and the transformation of national culture into world culture: one is to promote cultural exchange; the other is to disseminate ideas.&quot;（Tan Zaixi，2004：10）<br /> <br /> Since the beginning of reform and opening-up, China has gradually stepped onto the world arena. China persists in its cultural development geared to the needs of the world and actively promotes cultural development to the world. Literary works bear the essence of Chinese culture, whose export is an crucial way to spread Chinese culture to the world. Over the years, despite the rise of machine translation, which has a certain practical role, it can not replace the overwhelming role of manual translation in literary translation. So what significance does Luther’s translation thoughts and principles have in guiding modern translation theory and practice, especially in the field of literary translation?<br /> <br /> ===2.Brief Comments on Translation Thoughts in the Period of Renaissance===<br /> <br /> Translations must respect the original text and combine content and form, free translation and literal translation in the translation process. &quot;In the high tide of translation in 16th century France, there were two outstanding contributors, one is Amyot, the King of Translation, and the other is Dolet, the translation theorist.&quot; Amyot believed that the translator must understand the original text thoroughly, and that the translator's task was not only to restore the author's meaning, but also to imitate and reflect the author's style and mood to some extent. He also emphasized the unity of content and form, and of free translation and literal translation; in France, the important figure in translation theory is Dolet. He believed that translators should avoid word-for-word translation because it was detrimental to the conveyance of the original meaning and to the beauty of the language. As we can see, Dolet's translation ideas were quite modern and involved the basic principles and problems of translation commonly raised by later European translation theorists. Holland of England was the most outstanding English translator in the 16th century and was regarded as the &quot;Chief Translator&quot; of the Elizabethan era, and he also advocated that the style of the original text must be reflected in the translation in order to make the translation authentic and without foreign accent. Thus, it can be seen that translators from various European countries actively explored new literary fields and brought new ideas to their own countries, inspiring the national consciousness and humanistic thoughts of their own people while trying to explore classical literature.<br /> <br /> Translation must convey new ideas on the basis of respecting the original work, that is, being innovative, and seek the style of translation.In his translation of ancient Greek and Roman masterpieces, Amyot put forward the idea of &quot;trying to be comparable to the original work&quot;, and blended the language of the people with the language of scholars, forming a unique style of translation. Thus, some people commented that Amyot adopted the creative meaning; Dolet advocated that translators should not do translations word by word, but must choose the words and adjust the word order as well as use various rhetorical devices to make the style of translation consistent with that of the original text, giving readers a &quot;feeling of beauty&quot;. The English translator North, who had little knowledge of the classical language and whose translations were not translated from the original text of Greek, was able to bring the translation style into full play. The prose style used in his translation of Biography of a Celebrity was new and elegant, which has become an immortal model in the history of English translation. There was another famous English translator, Florio, whose translation of The Tempest was the first to show English readers that prose could exist as a literary genre. From this, we can see that translators not only respected the cultural works of the classical period, but also gave full play to their own initiative in the translation process and injected humanistic thoughts and spirits into their translations during the Renaissance. Liu Junping said: &quot;In the past years, translators were servants attached to God, but now they have shifted from God to the translator as the center, and their personal developments have become the goal and value of life. &quot;（liu Junping,2009:76）<br /> <br /> Translators focus on the practical spirit of translation.Emphasizing the needs of translations to serve reality, Holland compared his translations to the fruits of conquest and once asked Queen Elizabeth to protect his translations with the hope that his translations would benefit the country. &quot;The translators, with the idea of serving their country, introduced the wisdom of the ancients to their own people through their translations, providing not only serious lessons for the Queen and the statesmen, but also story plots and materials for the dramatists and readers.&quot; This word profoundly reflects the dialectical relationship among culture, politics,and economy in Marxism: a certain culture is determined by certain economy and politics, and culture，in turn，acts on politics and economy with great influence on politics and economy. The above-mentioned translation ideas indicate the practicality and practical spirit of the practice of translation culture, which originated from the specific social and cultural contexts of the time. Under the guidance of these translation ideas, the translation culture and cultural practice of translators promoted the political and economic development, and laid the ideological foundation for the political and cultural needs of Western European countries.<br /> <br /> In the practice of translation, translation of all national languages achieved parallel and independent development when Latin gradually receded into a tributary.<br /> During the Renaissance, national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and linguists recognized the unique style and expressive ability of their own languages, and began to shift the emphasis of translation from the original language to the translated language. Finally, Latin was no longer prevalent. These phenomenon were especially prominent in Germany. Under the pressure of the national language and the Reformation, the German translator Luther adopted the language of the people to translate the great work of the Bible, that is, to translate the original text into the authentic German one. Luther's German translation of the Bible not only had a profound influence on German life and religion, but also created a literary language form accepted by the German people, which played an immeasurable role in the development of the unified German language and shook the absolute and unshakable position of Latin in the European language system.<br /> <br /> ===3.Comparison Between Luther’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Thoughts===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction to Luther and Lu Xun====<br /> <br /> Lu Xun was the greatest literary scholar, thinker and revolutionary of modern China, an important participant in the New Culture Movement, who was regarded as &quot;the writer who occupied the largest territory on the cultural map of East Asia in the twentieth century&quot;. Lu Xun also had outstanding achievements in translation, and made a series of superb remarks on translation issues, which had great influence on the whole translation circle at that time and established a monument in the history of Chinese translation theory.<br /> <br /> Martin Luther was a German religious reformer and translator in the 16th century. In his translations, Luther followed the principles of being popular, clear, and acceptable to the public. His translation of the Bible is known as the &quot;first Bible of the common people”and enjoyed the highest reputation in the entire translation community. Luther was a leader in the Reformation movement in the 16th century in Europe, so his translation had a significant impact on Germany and Europe as a whole.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Different Translation Thoughts====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Lu Xun's &quot;Foreignization&quot;=====<br /> <br /> Lu Xun lived in the period of the May Fourth New Culture Movement，whose translation thoughts and activities were closely connected with his political life. In the period of transition between the old culture and the new one, literary translation was also at its climax. In this regard, Lu Xun put forward the translation concept of &quot;Foreignization&quot; , which preserved the &quot;exoticism&quot;. Moreover,he insisted that the translation should be consistent with the original text as much as possible and put fidelity in the first place and fluency in the second, and exchanged unfluent translation for fidelity. He believed that the translation method of &quot;Foreignization&quot; could introduce foreign sentences to enrich Chinese language and culture. Lu Xun said bluntly, &quot;Like carrying arms for the uprising slaves, translation is directly aimd at servicing the revolution.&quot;（Chen Fukang,2000;286）<br /> With regard to his translation concept of &quot;Foreignization&quot;, he had such remarks :<br /> <br /> “还是翻译《死灵魂》的事情。……动笔之前，就先得解决一个问题:竭力使它归化，还是尽量保存洋气昵?日本文的译者上田进君，是主张用前一法的。……所以他的疑问，有时就化一句为数句，很近于解释。我的意见却两样的。只求易懂，小如创作，或者改作，将事改为中国事，人也化为中国人。如果还是翻译，那么，首先的目的，就在博览外国的作品，小但移情，也要益智，至少是知道何地何时，有这等事，和旅行外国，是很相像的:它必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也小会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌介神离，从严辨别起来，它算小得翻译。……(Lu Xun,1935:4th Volume)<br /> <br /> From this, we can see that Lu Xun engaged in translation work with the aim to &quot;conveying feelings&quot; and &quot;improving education&quot;, and his translations could facilitate readers to experience foreign customs, history, language and culture, as well as advanced ideology. Lu Xun would enrich these at a deeper level, so as to subvert the outlook on life and values of the whole society at that time and to inspire and educate the young generation to achieve the purpose of saving the country, thus promoting the revolutionary cause.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Luther's &quot;Domesticization&quot;=====<br /> <br /> In the context of the Reformation, Martin Luther embarked on the translation of the Bible. As the leader of the German Reformation movement, he could only ensure the eventual victory of the Reformation cause by quickly establishing and growing the Protestantism . Under the pressure of the Reformation and the national language, Luther had to translate the Bible in a way that served a specific audience, not priests and pastors, but the common people. It required that Luther had to do translations in people’s language and that &quot; Translation had to adopt authentic German instead of Latinized German.&quot;<br /> In the A Short History of Translation in the West, Tan zaixi made summary about Luther's translation thoughts：(Tan Zaixi,2004:64-67)<br /> <br /> &quot;Translation must employ the vernacular language; translation must pay attention to the connection between grammar and meaning; translation must follow seven principles (translators can change the word order of the original text; one can make reasonable use of intonation auxiliaries; translators can add necessary conjunctions; translator may omit word in the original that was not equivalent word in the target language;translator may use phrase to translate a single word;translator may translate metaphorical usage into non-metaphorical usage and vice versa; translator should pay attention to variation from usage and accurate explanation of a word (Wen Jun, 2004:39);Translation must be a brainstorming exercise.&quot;<br /> <br /> Luther insisted on these principles in order to translate the Bible from the reader's point of view on the basis of a grasp of the original meaning and to achieve the greatest possible approximation to the reader's level for the purpose of &quot;naturalization. Generally speaking, Luther advocated translation based on a grasp of the meaning of the sentence. When the original meaning of a sentence could not be well expressed in words, Luther used illustrations to represent it. Luther's German translation of the Bible enabled the common people of Germany to directly quote from the Bible to defend their own class interests, which played an invaluable role in the unification and development of the German language.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Lu Xun's translation principle of &quot;Foreignization&quot;, which preserved &quot;exoticism&quot;, satisfied Chinese readers' curiosity and appreciation of foreign culture and made them experience exoticism, which, to a certain, awakened the thought of common thoughts and stimulated the patriotic consciousness and revolutionary enthusiasm of some youth groups. That was the aim and purpose of Lu Xun's translations, and was also what that volatile age longed for.<br /> <br /> Luther's “Domesticization” thought was based on his recognition that the German people began to value their own national language as a counter to the Church's forced use of Latin. Luther translated the Bible in the language of common people, so that readers who knew neither Hebrew, Greek, nor Latin and had a low level of literacy could understand the Bible in German.<br /> <br /> Translation thoughts between Luther and Lu Xun are rather different, but their translations equally made profound implications and were recognized by the two peoples of their respective countries. Moreover, their audience were both the common people, and they took into full consideration the receptiveness of their readers in the process of translation. Therefore, the dichotomy in translation is only relative, and finitude and infinitude are dialectically unified.<br /> <br /> ===4.The Application of Luther's Translation Principles and Thoughts for Modern Literary Translation Practice===<br /> <br /> Engels praised Luther:&quot;Luther not only cleared the church's Ogias, but also cleared the German language of the Ogis, created modern German prose, and wrote the words and songs of the hymns of the Marseilles with victory and confidence into the 16th century.&quot; (Tan Zaixi，2004:64）In his translation of the Bible, Luther came up with systematic translation thoughts and principles, followed the principles of being popular, clear and acceptable to the public, and created modern German prose. Thus, his translation thoughts and principles have certain significance for us to translate literary works whose language style is “grounded”.<br /> <br /> '''Example one '''<br /> <br /> “You can translate metaphor usage into non-metaphorical usage.”<br /> <br /> “The translator can change the word order of the original text”<br /> <br /> “严闭的心幕，慢慢的拉开了，涌出五年前的一个印象。” （《笑》—— 冰心）<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the original text, the translator finds that this sentence uses metaphor,because the action of &quot;拉开&quot; can only be issued by human beings, and the &quot;心幕&quot; is not a physical object which cannot be &quot;pulled open&quot;. In the process of translation, we find that the action of &quot;拉开&quot; does not have a subject, and the predicate-object pairing of &quot;拉开&quot; and &quot;心幕&quot; is unreasonable, not to mention translated into the passive voice. Therefore, it is not feasible to translate the metaphor usage. The translator chooses to omit this metaphor and the verb &quot;拉开&quot;, which is in line with Luther's sixth principle of translation. The translator finds that the emphasis of the original text is on the second half of the sentence, so we changes the order of the whole sentence and choose&quot;涌出&quot; as the predicate and translated it into the intransitive verb &quot;unveil&quot;. Naturally, the phrase &quot;五年前的一个印象&quot; becomes the subject. scene of five years ago&quot;, and the word &quot;before&quot; was used to show the relationship between “印象” and “心幕”. It is in line with language habit of English, that is, to express the main content clearly and put it in the important position as an important component. Here comes the translation &quot;A scene of five years ago slowly unveiled before my mind's eye.&quot; It is consistent with the first principle of Luther's translation. If translated according to the original word order, it would be translated to &quot;The tight mind's eye was opened slowly, and a scene of five years ago slowly unveiled.”Although its meaning is complete, the sentence structure is incoherent and the relationship between the &quot;心幕&quot; and the &quot;印象&quot; is not highlighted. As a translator, we need to read the original text carefully and then relate it to the context in order to get close to the original style and to achieve the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot;, meanwhile, we should take into account the reading feelings of the audience.<br /> <br /> '''Example Two'''<br /> <br /> “The necessary conjunctions can be added.”<br /> <br /> “作为一个中国人，经书不可不读。我年过三十才知道读书自修的重要。” （《时间即生命》—— 梁实秋）<br /> <br /> After reading the original text, we find that the original text is composed of two sentences. If we do not read it carefully, we will not grasp the key point, that is, the relationship between the two sentences: transition. The translation is“The reading of Chinese classics is a must for all chinese. But it was not until I was over 30 that I came to realize the importance of self-study.”We all know that Chinese sentences are short with more punctuation marks, and that Chinese is a formative language with few conjunctions between sentences. Therefore, when doing translation, translators should carefully search for the hidden logical relationship between sentences and fit the language habits of the readers in order to accurately convey the ideas that the author wants to convey and to arouse the emotional resonance between the author and the readers. During the Renaissance, Luther found the characteristics of the readers, German citizens, and grasped their aesthetics. Then he made certain degree of stylistic shaping with the Bible as a benchmark and focused on integrating the spirit of humanism into the translation.<br /> <br /> '''Example Three'''<br /> <br /> The translator can use a phrase to translate a single word.”<br /> <br /> “不过，花草自己会奋斗，我若置之不理，任其自生自灭，它们多数还是会死了的。” （《养花》——老舍）<br /> <br /> Translator find that the original text is inclined to be colloquial and its literal meaning is easy to understand. But for the readers, if they only saw the literal meaning, the central idea of the original text would be not well conveyed,leading to their losing interest in reading the work, then the translator was not much of doing a good translation job. In the original text, the word &quot;奋斗&quot; may be a confusing point for readers, they may wonder how flowers and plants could struggle? When it comes to &quot;奋斗&quot;, the first word that comes to the translator's mind may be &quot;struggle&quot;, &quot;fight&quot;, and &quot;strive&quot;, one of which most translators would choose if they wouldn’t look deeper into the original text and take into account the characteristics and writing style of the original text. The theme of the original text is &quot;raising flowers&quot;, which tells the story of the author and his inner feelings in the process of raising flowers. We should relate to the reality that the &quot;奋斗&quot; of flowers and plants is to resist the wind, rain and sun. Therefore, a good translator will choose to enrich the word &quot;struggle&quot; by using such phrases as &quot;weather through&quot;, &quot;carry on the struggle for existence&quot; to express the real experience of plants and flowers. It is in line with Luther's fifth principle. In translation, the translator should pay attention to the language habits of the readers, because different people of various countries will have rather different interpretations of the same literary work. Although the literal meaning of modern Chinese literature is easy to understand, the literary ideas are between the lines. If the translation does not convey the meaning of the original text properly, readers will not feel the meaning conveyed by the author. This is just as Luther took into account when he translated the Bible, he would create a literary form of language acceptable to the German citizens according to their language habits.<br /> <br /> '''Example Four'''<br /> <br /> “Translation must be a brainstorming exercise”<br /> <br /> In addition to translation principles, Luther also placed great importance on team cooperation. Luther believed that doing a translation on one's own was not enough, especially for a masterpiece like the Bible.As Luther said, &quot;One cannot go it alone in the matter of translation, for the correct and proper translation words won’t always occur to the only him.&quot;（zecher, 1993:12-13) Thus, Luther's later revisions of his New Testament, as well as his translations of the Old Testament and the Apocrypha, were done with the assistance of the Collegium biblicum, an academic translation committee.<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, the professor who teaching me the course Introduction to Translation Studies, also worked with a team in the translation of the great work, Dream of the Red Chamber. It is the first complete German translation of Dream of the Red Chamber. In 2000, Professor Wu set up a workshop consisting of 57 translators, and this team was so strong that the average annual translation volume increases considerably. According to Martina Ulrike Hasse, only 11 new works by Chinese authors were published in Germany in 2011. In recent years, thanks to the efforts of the team, the number of Chinese literature translated into German has increased to 17 per year, which has greatly contributed to the translation and dissemination of Chinese literature in the German-speaking world.<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> In conclusion, the Renaissance saw the independent and parallel development of national languages and the promotion of social changes, thanks largely to the extensive literary translation activities undertaken by key advocates, especially Martin Luther's German translation of the Bible, which ushered in a new era in the development of the German language. Luther's translation principles and thoughts were so influential due to the great success of his German translation of the Bible . When Wlliam Tyndale in England and Reina and Valera in Spain later translated the Bible into English and Spanish respectively, they both referred to and partially adopted the translation principles and thoughts proposed by Luther.<br /> After carefully reading Tan Zaixi's A Short History of Translation in the West and Chen Fukang's A History of Translation Theory In China, the author has gained a better understanding of Luther's and Lu Xun's translation thoughts and principles, and has gained two insights: first, even though their countries, political environments,translation thoughts are rather different, the nature of translation determines that there must be certain similarities in their translation thoughts; second, even though the age between Luther and the author is so long, his translation thoughts and principles still have implications for the author and other translation learners of her time.<br /> <br /> As an interdisciplinary student, the author lacked a systematic understanding of many translation thoughts and principles at the beginning of this term. After studying in this semester and reading related professional books,the author have benefited a lot and formed her own translation habits and thinking implicitly, and she hopes to improve her translation quality by practicing a lot more.<br /> <br /> ===6.References===<br /> <br /> [1]谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M].北京:商务印书馆,2004.<br /> <br /> [2]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史[M]．武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> <br /> [3]陈福康，《中国译学理论史稿》，上海:上海外语教育出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> [4]鲁迅.且介亭杂文二集.“题未定”草(二、三),《鲁迅全集》,第六卷;二心集.“硬译”与“文学的阶级性,《鲁迅全集》.第四卷.1935.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M].北京:商务印书馆,2004.<br /> <br /> [6] Eric. W.Gritsch.Luther as Bible translator [J] in Donald K. Mckim ed., The Cambridge Companion of Martin Luther (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2003),62-63.<br /> <br /> ==Study on Interpreter's Memory and Translation Memory in Interpreting 康浩宇 Kang Haoyu 202070080638==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康浩宇 Kang Haoyu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In interpreting, the translator's memory plays an important role, and the level of memory even determines the quality of interpreting and affects the interpretation results. Memory cognitive ability is one of the comprehensive qualities of interpreters. The exertion of journalists' memory ability is closely related to memory principles, types and mechanisms. With the development of science and technology, translation memory, as a new type of &quot;memory&quot;, appears in front of the public and is widely used in translation field. In the field of interpretation, some interpreters are also doing interpreting with the help of such tools. This paper aims to explore the translator's memory ability and the application of translation memory in the interpretation industry from the principle of memory.<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Memory; Translation Memory; Interpreting<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 在口译中，译者的记忆里发挥着举足轻重的作用，记忆水平的高低甚至决定了口译质量的好坏，影响口译结果。记忆认知能力是口译员的综合素质能力之一。记者记忆能力的发挥与提升和记忆原理，类型，机制等因素息息相关。 随着科学技术的发展，翻译记忆作为一种新型的“记忆”出现在大众面前并在翻译领域广泛使用。 而在口译领域，一些译员也在通过这类工具来协作口译。本文旨在从记忆的原理出发探究译者记忆能力以及翻译记忆在口译行业的运用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 记忆； 翻译记忆； 口译<br /> <br /> ===1 Introduction===<br /> <br /> '''1.1 Background'''<br /> <br /> Memory plays an important role in interpreting and it is a kind of interpreting competence. The information processing in interpreting is complicated. When the information is input, interpreter first recognize and keep the information, which will then be analyzed, encoded, stored and retrieved. And the interpreter finally decode the information into target language.Because of the fast input of information and limited time for pausing, great memory is required for interpreters. Whether a good or poor memory has a direct effect on the quality of interpreting(Wang Jianhua, 2019）. <br /> With the development of science and technology, machine translation and computer aided translation, which is also called CAT, was invented as two effective and efficient ways for translation. In CAT, there is a concept called translation memory. Different from human beings’ memory, translation memory is more likely a database. Nowadays, translation memory of CAT has been put into wide use in translation. And in recent years, translation memory has also been applied as a tool in interpreting. As the technology is not yet mature, there are still some limitation and weakness(Su Mingyang, 2007, 73).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Significance of the Study'''<br /> <br /> There are some studies on the memory of interpreters. But most of them focus on its practical aspects such as how to improve interpreters’ memory or how to make the best of memory in interpreting, instead of substantial facts. The nature of memory and mechanism of memory is also worthy to be studied, so readers can have better understanding and cognition of what is memory and how it works. Therefore, readers can better address our problems in memory of interpreting. The study will fully analyze memory from the aspect of psychology and science. And then it will study on memory of interpreting in details including systems, mechanism, coding and theories(Li Jun, 2020, 127). <br /> <br /> Translation memory is quite a novel topic as it belongs to a sort of science and technology. As the world stepped into information era, digital era and even Artificial Intelligence era, translation memory has been used more widely than ever before. It really facilitates the translators as it both saves a lot of time and greatly improved the translation efficiency. However, there are few studies on the translation memory application in interpreting field. Actually, in many situations, interpreters also uses this kind of technology to help their interpreting. They study will research on the fact of translation memory in interpreting(Li Jun, 2020, 127).<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Structure of the Study'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be developed in five chapters. <br /> Chapter 1, the introduction part, is initiated by introducing the background, research problems, and significance of the study.<br /> Chapter 2 is functioned to define and categorize the memory.<br /> Chapter 3 will present the memory mechanism and related theories in interpreting.<br /> Chapter 4 will mainly focus on the translation memory technology at present and its application in interpreting.<br /> The concluding chapter generalizes the content of the study and put forward the limitations.<br /> <br /> ===2 Study on Memory===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 The definition of the Memory'''<br /> <br /> Memory has different definitions in different fields. Generally speaking, human memory is a reflection of what the brain has experienced. From the perspective of psychology, memory is the recognition, maintenance, reappearance of experienced things by the human brain, and it is the basis of advanced psychological activities such as thinking and imagination. It is the retention and extraction of past experience by human brain. It is a psychological process in which individual experience is accumulated and preserved in the mind. All things that have been perceived can be kept in people's minds, and can be reproduced when necessary. This refers to the process in which the human brain encodes, stores and extracts meaningful information input from the outside world. From the perspective of neurology, human memory is closely related to the changes of chemical composition in hippocampus and brain. All memory that exists in the brain depends on various nerve cells of the brain, which are called neurons. According to information processing theory, memory process is the process of encoding, storing and extracting input information. Only coded information can be remembered. Coding is the process of processing and transforming the input information, and coding is the key stage of the whole memory process(Che Wenbo, 1987, 403).<br /> <br /> '''2.2. Memory Systems'''<br /> <br /> Based on the structure, memory can be categorized into three systems. There are sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. The later two systems are also often referred as STM and LTM. The three memory systems are different from each other but closely related(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1 Sensory Memory'''<br /> <br /> As the shortest memory system, sensory memory is the first channel for human brain to get the information. It has some capacity. According the research in Cognitive Psychology(Wang Su, Wang Ansheng, 1992), People’s visual sensory capacity is more than 9 chunk while their auditory sensory memory capacity has less capacity, which is about chunk. chunk here are memory units, and the size of chunk varies with people's knowledge and experience. A chunk can be a word, a number, a phrase, a sentence, a word list, etc. Sensory memory works as temporary storage for sensory information. It depends on the physical nature of external stimulus to code the information and it is the real copy and transcription of the external stimulus. Most sensory memory can stay for one to two seconds and then disappear. Only with more attention and focus can the sensory memory be processed and then become short term memory(Bao Gang, 2005). People’s visual sensory memory can just keep for less than one second while their auditory sensory memory can keep for 4 seconds. It is inevitable that information will lose with the disappearance of sensory memory(Bao Gang, 2005, 150). <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2 Short Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Short term memory is the second memory system. Short term memory is based on the neuron network in hippocampus. It keeps the information that has been selected in the hippocampus of human brain. In some cases, part of information will move from the short memory in hippocampus to long term memory in cerebral cortex. In psychology, short term memory can keep for about one minute with the capacity of about 7 chunks. That means that people can memorize seven unrelated numbers or phonemes for about one minute with their short term memory. However, the capacity of short term memory is not decided by the amount of stimulus but by the modes of chunk and coding. Chunks can effectively expand the capacity of short-term memory. When processing information, people can use the knowledge and experience stored in long-term memory to combine several single stimuli into larger information units, which can effectively expand and increase short-term memory span and improve memory efficiency. Moreover, the coding of short-term memory is mainly auditory coding, and there are also visual coding and semantic coding. Instead of chunk and information unit, people can also use retelling to transfer short term memory to long term memory. Retelling refers to the psychological operation process of repeating the materials just memorized by language to consolidate memory. In the case of retelling, the learning materials kept in short-term memory will transfer to long-term memory. The content of short-term memory can be transformed into long-term memory by retelling(Bao Gang, 2005, 150). <br /> <br /> There is a special type of short term memory, working memory. The concept working memory was first proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. It is used to describe the process of a person temporarily memorizing the fact and thoughts when addressing problems or working(Baddeley, 2006, 22). In spite of limited resources and storage time, working memory is still different from short term memory in temporary storage of information(Hitch, 2012, 266). Compared with short term memory which store information passively, the working memory process is more dynamic. Generally speaking, there are three differences. First, working memory emphasizes storing and processing information at the same time, while short-term memory only focuses on information storage. Secondly, working memory is a multi-factor system, while short-term memory is a single system. Third, working memory is more important than short-term memory for many advanced brain functions and even almost all human cognitive work(Wang Jianhua, 2019， 76). The disappear of short term memory is often due to the interruption.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3 Long Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Different from short term memory, long term memory is stored in human’s cerebral cortex where there is more room for storage. Long term memory is very important in keeping information for long time. It can keep information for more than one minute and even for a whole life. Its capacity is unlimited. All the information kept by long term memory has been selected and filtered.According to Tulving, long term memory is stored mainly as two types(Tulving, 1974). They are episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory is about one’s experience of some specific situations. Semantic memory refers to knowledge such as words, concepts, rules and other abstract things.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Memory Mechanism'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, the process of memory includes three key steps. They are memorizing, keeping and recalling. In interpreting, memorizing is related to interpreters’ listening and understanding to what the speaker says, keeping is related to the storage of original information and recalling refers to the output of interpreting(Tulving, 1972, 36).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 Memorizing'''<br /> <br /> Memorizing refers to the process of distinguishing and recognizing the characteristics of things and leaving a certain impression in the mind. Some things can be remembered after one perception, while most of the contents need to be perceived repeatedly, so that the new information can be connected with the existing knowledge structure. As the first step in the memory process, memorization has a very important influence on the memory effect. Therefore, understanding and mastering the rules of memorization will help improve memory(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997, 23).<br /> <br /> According to whether memorization has a purpose or not, memorization can be divided into unconscious memorization and conscious memorization(Ma Zhengyu, 2013, 26).<br /> Unconscious memorization refers to memorization that happens naturally without a predetermined purpose and without a certain effort of will. When they are perceived, there is no intention to memorize them, but these contents can reappear in people’s mind in the future naturally. And this is unconscious memorization. The content of unconscious memorization is an important part of experience, and it has great effect on people’s psychological activities and behaviors. Inadvertent experience can do as much help as existing experiences when people consciously face certain situations and deal with certain problems. In daily life, the environment, contact and work will influence people unconsciously in psychology and behavior. Generally speaking, there are two characteristics of unconscious memorization. First, the stimulation acts on people's sensory organs which is of great significance and attracts people's attention. For example, people will never forget new and different things; Second, it is in people's needs, interests and content so that it can produce deeper emotional experience. Unconsciousness plays a positive role in people's acquisition of knowledge and experience(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004, 173).<br /> <br /> Conscious memorization refers to memorizing with a predetermined purpose, which requires a certain amount of will and effort in the process of memorizing. The process of conscious memorization is controlled by the purpose of memorization. The purpose of memorization determines that memorizing process is an active coding process for memorizing content. This coding includes &quot;what to remember&quot; and &quot;how to remember&quot;. &quot;What to memorize&quot; determines the direction and content of memorization, and &quot;how to memorize&quot; is the method to better memorize the content. All people's knowledge and experience are acquired through conscious memorization and unconscious memorization. However, in terms of memorizing effect, conscious memorizing is better than unconscious memorizing(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004, 173).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 Keeping'''<br /> <br /> Keeping refers to the process of remaining and consolidating the memorized materials in brain. It is the process of information storage. Keeping is the middle step which is between memorizing and recalling and it is closely related the quality and effect of recalling(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).<br /> <br /> The effect of keeping is related to whether the materials to be memorized are vivid or not. When brains memorize verbal materials, if the materials are vivid, they can leave a deep impression on people, while the materials with empty contents are easy to be forgotten quickly. Many psychological experiments have also proved the important role of the &quot;image&quot; in the memory of human brain. The memory effect of image materials is generally better than that of words materials, and similarly, the effect of visual memory is generally better than that of auditory memory. This suggests that if interpreters make full use of the image carrier of the source language in interpreting memory, it is possible to improve their information storage of the source language(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).<br /> <br /> Keeping is a dynamic process during which the amount and nature of the stored information could be changed. In the aspect of amount change, the amount of stored information will decrease with time. In other words, this is forgetting. Forgetting is a very natural phenomenon that experienced by every person. Although forgetting is a complex psychological phenomenon, its occurrence and development have certain rules. Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, was the first to do this research. He used meaningless syllables as experimental materials and himself as experimental object. After memorizing the materials, he relearned them at regular intervals, and drew the forgetting curve with the time and times saved by heavy school as the index. Forgetting curve reflects the relationship between forgetting variables and time variables. This curve shows the rule of forgetting: the process of forgetting is unbalanced, and the amount of forgetting is relatively large in the initial period after memorization, and then gradually decreases. That is, the speed of forgetting is fast at first and then slow. After Ebbinghaus, many people have studied the forgetting process and confirmed that Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve is basically correct(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997, 26). <br /> <br /> Keeping is the process of consolidating what have been memorized in people's minds, and it is also the process of storing information. It is not a static and solidified process, but a process of reconstruction(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 Recalling'''<br /> <br /> The final step of memory is recalling. It is the process of retrieving the information that has been stored in people’s brain(Zhang Wei, 2011, 33). <br /> Recalling is the reappearance process of past experiences in the mind under the action of certain inducement. Memories can be divided into two categories: intentional memories and unintentional memories. Intentional recalling is the recalling of past experience under the action of intended purpose. Unintentional memories are memories that happen naturally without a predetermined purpose. Memories can be divided into direct recalling and indirect recalling according to whether there are intermediary factors involved in the recalling process. Direct recalling is the recollection of old experiences directly aroused by current things. Indirect recalling is a kind of recalling with the help of intermediary factors. In terms of difficulty, indirect recalling is more difficult than direct recalling(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 72).<br /> <br /> '''2.4 Primacy Effect and Recency effect'''<br /> <br /> Primacy effect and recency effect are two famous phenomena related to people’s memory. And both of them play a very important role in interpreting(Bao Gang, 2005, 166).<br /> <br /> '''2.4.1 Primacy Effect'''<br /> <br /> The concept “primacy effect” was first proposed by A. S. Lochins, an American psychologist. It refers to the fact that the first impression has a huge effect. Although the first impression may not always be right, but it is most vivid and solid. In primacy effect, information input plays a key role. Experimental psychology research shows that the order of external information input is important in determining the cognitive effect. The first input information plays the most important role, and the last input information also plays a great role. This feature of brain processing information is the internal cause of the primacy effect. When different information is combined, people always tend to attach importance to the former information. Even if people pay attention to the following information, they will think that the following information is non-essential and accidental. More importantly, even if the following information is inconsistent with the former information, people will succumb to the former information.<br /> <br /> '''2.4.2 Recency Effect'''<br /> <br /> Recency effect, also put forward by American psychologist Lochins, refers to the phenomenon that when people memorize a series of things, the memory effect of the last part is better than that of the middle part. The reason is that the previous information is gradually blurred in memory, while the recent information clearer in short-term memory. Recency effect is contrary to the primacy effect, and recency effect emphasizes that the last received information has the greatest effect. In people's perception, when the information obtained before and after is different, if there is irrelevant work in the middle to separate them, then the latter information plays a greater role in forming the total impression(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 81).<br /> <br /> Obviously, the primacy effect and recency effect are different, or even opposite. The primacy effect emphasizes the information received initially, while recency effect pays more attention to the information that comes into contact later. However, the primary effect and recency effect exist in our society and play their respective functions. Through a large number of experiments, it is found that the primacy effect and recency effect depend on people themselves. Generally speaking, people with relatively simple cognitive structure are prone to produce the primacy effect, while those with complex cognitive structure are prone to produce recency effect(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 82).<br /> <br /> Although the primacy effect and recency effect are different form each other, both of the effects are extremely beneficial to the memory of interpreters, and they can be used in different interpreting situations(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 82).<br /> <br /> ===3 Memory in Interpreting===<br /> <br /> In interpreting, time is very limited for interpreters to do the work and the information of original language is transient. Thus, interpreters are required ton have a good memory. The memory in interpreting is not mechanical. It refers to the processing and coding of original language, and then storage and retrieval of the coded information. The process of language understanding in translation is based on the information stored in memory such as pronunciation, grammar and speech structure(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Memory Mechanism in Interpreting'''<br /> <br /> When interpreters listen to what the speakers says, their brains are receiving stimulus. That means their brains begin to process these information. In interpreting, when the language area of the brain is stimulated, the interpreter will use the brain to process the existing related information by identifying, explaining, inferring and analyzing the pronunciation, and then stores the results in the form of internal speech, thus completing the information processing in a short time(Xu Han, 2007, 124).<br /> <br /> Only through sensory memory can people obtain external information. Therefore, in a broader sense, the initial stage of memory is sensory memory, not short-term memory. Once the recipient's cells are activated, the information is retained in the sensory storage. Attention should be paid to selecting certain information as pattern cognition, and changing it from sensory memory to short-term memory to obtain its meaning. Therefore, when interpreters listen to the content, they first store all the information in their sensory memory. Then their brain begins to identify which is the important information and pay more attention to it in order to store it in short term memory. For those unnecessary information, it will be forgotten naturally as sensory memory can just be kept for less than one second(Wang Jianhua, 2019,77).<br /> <br /> Short-term memory is the link between sensory memory and long-term memory. On the one hand, it directly accepts the information filtered by sensory memory; On the other hand, through a certain retrieval method, the relevant knowledge can be extracted from the long-term memory, and then combine the two to process and store the discourse information. Short-term memory plays a key role in connecting sensory memory and long-term memory, and functions as a central processing unit. When the information stored in sensory memory has been filtered by interpreters’ brain, then it is stored in short term memory. When interpreters start to interpret, they recall all those information that has been encoded in their short term memory and decode it into target languages. In most cases, these information become useless after the interpreting is finished, so it will soon be forgotten naturally by interpreters as short term memory also has a limitation of time. If there is some necessary and important information such as words or expression that could be useful in the future, interpreters can give it more attention and memorize it repeatedly to encode the information into long term memory(Han Xiaoming, 2004, 156).<br /> <br /> Long-term memory is like an knowledge base of experiences, and the stored information needs to be activated before it can be decoded into short-term memory to participate in the processing of new information. When the speech chain is released, the brain will quickly activate the long-term memory, extract the relevant knowledge stored before, and start the sensory memory and short-term memory to analyze and process the information , so as to fully understand the meaning carried by the speech, thus making the communication proceed effectively. Long-term memory is the basis of interpretation(Ma Yingmai, Sun Changyan, 2004, 78). In the whole process of interpretation, long-term memory has four functions. The first one is information confirmation. That is to identify information consistent with interpretation long-term memory. The second function is information understanding. If the new information to be processed is consistent with the existing old information in long-term memory, its meaning will be accepted. The third function is information anticipation. The activation of knowledge system will bring about the anticipation of future information. The last one is information expression. When the interpreters understands what the original text conveys, they must look for appropriate words or expressions in long-term memory to express their meanings in the target language(Wang Jianhua, 2019,77). Long-term memory, like a database, stores a large amount of information that can be extracted at any time. More importantly, it also has great influence on sensory memory and short-term memory. If there is no information in long-term memory, the receiver will not be able to recognize familiar stimuli, and short-term memory will not be able to encode and store information in chunks, so information will not be able to change from short-term memory to long-term memory. Therefore, long term memory plays a decisive role when interpreters store the content of original language(Bao Gang, 2005, 160).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Deverbalization Mode'''<br /> <br /> In the field of translation, as for the understanding of interpreting thinking process and interpreting memory mechanism, there are four different schools of translation theories, namely, information theory school, cognitive psychology school, neural network school and hermeneutic school. Among them, the most authoritative and influential interpretation theory is the &quot;Deverbalization Mode&quot; theory put forward by the French hermeneutics school(Liu Guiying, 2006, 117).<br /> <br /> &quot;Deverbalization Mode&quot; theory was proposed by the French hermeneutics school, which is represented by French interpreting theorist Seleskovitch. In a language, sense is the content while words and linguistic signs are the shell. In this mode, what the interpreter needs to do is “shell” the language by coding the information. That is to only keep the sense of the language in memory and remove all the other things(Seleskovitch, 1978). According to the theory, the whole process of interpreting is divided into three stages. They are listening, understanding and expressing respectively. Understanding is considered to be the most important part in the process of interpreting(Seleskovitch, Lederer 2003, 41). <br /> <br /> In interpreting, interpreters should first listen to and make clear these linguistic signs and find out the sense and content they express through analysis and understanding. Then the interpreters need to remove the “shell” of the language and forget the linguistic signs and their structure. Only the sense needs to be memorized. The final step for interpreters is to reconstruct the information of original language. They need to decode these sense with the linguistic signs of target language(Xu Ming, 2010, 6).<br /> <br /> Deverbalization is not just a coding process from original language to target language but also a dynamic process of understanding and expressing. The central idea is that the interpreters should memorize the pure sense of content instead of the language shells. And they then should process these information with the language shell of target language(Xu Han, 2007, 124).<br /> From the perspective of the theory, interpreters’ memory is not mechanical memory of isolated phonetic codes and information symbols of the source language, but the memory of the main meaning and key words of the source language information on the basis of understanding. Moreover, interpreters’ memory is not simply recalling of information stored in the brain, but a storage and extraction of input information after analyzing, screening, processing and coding. Interpreters must extract the relevant background knowledge stored in the brain by means of &quot;semantic retrieval&quot;, identify, interpret and reason the speech chain, then store the textual meaning in the form of internal speech, and complete the information restoration process in a short time(Xu Han, 2007, 124).<br /> <br /> '''3.3 Memory Strategies for Interpreters'''<br /> <br /> '''3.3.1 Logical Memory''' <br /> <br /> Logical memory means that when the interpreters receive new information, they can fully stimulate the existing schema in their mind according to the main content of the information, get rid of the limitations of the source language, better remember the newly acquired information, and truly achieve the combination of &quot;recalling&quot; and &quot;interpreting&quot;. In interpreting, interpreters use discourse knowledge to logically sort out the internal relations of the source language content and list the framework. In this process, the interpreters’ notes should mainly include the logical relationship between key words and information, and what the interpreters memorize in his brain is the main meaning and connection of the source material, rather than isolated phrases and sentences. In the interpreting stage, the interpreter uses the newly acquired information to activate the related schema in the brain to summarize and edit, so that the known information can reduce the memory burden. This memory method is suitable for interpreting materials with organized contents and clear priorities(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).<br /> <br /> '''3.3.2 Visual Memory'''<br /> <br /> Visual memory refers to a method in which an interpreter can quickly visualize the source language content in his mind, combine the existing background knowledge schema, and use the imagery thinking established in his brain to remember when he or she hears the interpretation content. Visual information storage tends to be more complete, and its retention time is relatively long. If images can be formed in the brain, it will definitely reduce the memory burden and produce better translations. Using visual memory of information in descriptive or introductory interpreting materials will produce very good results(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).<br /> <br /> For examples, the following is part of President Xi’s, state leader of People’s Republic of China, speech at the 12th BRICS Summit.<br /> <br /> “同时，我们坚信，和平与发展的时代主题没有改变，世界多极化和经济全球化的时代潮流也不可能逆转。我们要为人民福祉着想，秉持人类命运共同体理念，用实际行动为建设美好世界作出应有贡献。”(Xi jinPing, 2020)<br /> <br /> The official translation is given as fallowed from XinHua News Agency.<br /> <br /> “Despite all this, we remain convinced that the theme of our times, peace and development, has not changed, and that the trend toward multi-polarity and economic globalization cannot be turned around. We must keep people’ s welfare close to heart and pursue the vision of a community with a shared future for mankind. Through concrete actions, we will contribute our share to making the world a better place for everyone.”<br /> <br /> From president Xi’s speech, he mentioned the theme of times, world and peace, multi-polarity and economic globalization, people’s well being. Thus interpreters can use visual memory here to imagine peace as a peace bird, globalization as a the picture of earth and people’s well being as a picture of a happy family(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).<br /> <br /> '''3.3.3 Chunk Memory'''<br /> <br /> In the process of memory, individual information is often grouped into larger units, that is, recombined or recoded, which is called chunks. Although people's short-term memory capacity is only about 7 chunks, the information storage capacity of each chunk can be extended to a certain extent. People can reorganize the information of short-term memory by using the related schema in their minds, and form familiar larger meaning units. Therefore, in interpreting memory training, the translator should actively use the schema in his mind to make information memorized in chunks efficiently. Interpreters should reconstruct the information they hear, get rid of the language form of the original text, and transform it into meaningful information chunks. With the help of schema theory and interpretive theory, several single sentences can be condensed into several meaningful information chunks, thus reducing the memory pressure in interpretation and greatly improving the interpretation effect. Materials with poor logic and consistency are more suitable for this memory method(Miller, 1956, 63).<br /> <br /> There is also a part from President Xi’s speech at the 12th BRICS Summit as followed.<br /> <br /> “环顾全球，疫情使各国人民生命安全和身体健康遭受巨大威胁，全球公共卫生体系面临严峻考验，人类社会正在经历百年来最严重的传染病大流行。国际贸易和投资急剧萎缩，人员、货物流动严重受阻，不稳定不确定因素层出不穷，世界经济正在经历上世纪30年代大萧条以来最严重的衰退。单边主义、保护主义、霸凌行径愈演愈烈，治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字有增无减。”(Xi jinPing, 2020)<br /> <br /> And the official translation is given as followed. <br /> <br /> “Around the world, COVID-19 is posing a grave threat to people’s life and well-being. The global public health system is facing a severe test. Human society is going through the most serious pandemic in the past century. International trade and investment have shrunk considerably. The flow of goods and personnel has been impeded. Factors for uncertainty and instability are numerous. The world economy is witnessing the worst recession since the Great Depression in the 1930s. Unilateralism, protectionism and acts of bullying are becoming rampant, and the deficit in governance, trust, development and peace is widening instead of narrowing.”<br /> <br /> In this part, president Xi mentioned many aspects. They are current situation, public heath, people’s health, economy and politics. Each aspect can function as a chunk. When interpreters hear these information, they can memorize these information in these chunks(Chen Weihong, 2014, 87).<br /> <br /> ===4 Translation Memory in Interpreting===<br /> <br /> '''4.1 Translation Memory'''<br /> <br /> With development of science and technology, translation technology become widely use in translation field such as computer aided translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translators. And translation memory is a tool used in computer aided translation(Shi Yuntao, 2000, 36).<br /> <br /> '''4.1.1 Definition'''<br /> <br /> Translation memory is also called TM. It is different from the psychological memory that has been well elaborated. It is a kind of database to aid the translation. The principle of Translation Memory (TM) technology is that users build one or more translation memories by using existing original texts and translations. In the process of translation, the system will automatically search the same or similar translation resources such as sentences and paragraphs in the translation memories, and give reference translations, so that users can avoid unnecessary repetitive work and only focus on the translation of new content. At the same time, the translation memory keeps learning and automatically storing new translations in the background, which becomes more and more &quot;smart&quot; and more efficient(Lv Lisong, Mu Lei, 2007,36).<br /> <br /> '''4.1.2 Mechanism'''<br /> <br /> The translator first provides a source text to the translation memory, and the program will analyze this text first, and try to find out whether the existing translation section is consistent with the translated text in the past in the database. If matching translation pairs are found, they will be presented to the translator for reference. Translators can choose to accept the old translation, reject it or modify it. If it is modified, the modified version will also be recorded and stored in the database(Wang Jinquan, 2004, 14).<br /> <br /> Some translation memory systems only search for 100% matching words, which means that only the new source that is accurately compared with the database and completely matching data will be presented. There are also other systems that use the fuzzy comparison principle to find similar segments, and present them to translators with special marks to make them easy to recognize. It is very important that the general translation memory system only searches the source language from its database. Text segments that have no match at all will have to be translated manually by the translator. These newly translated text segments will be stored in the database, and future translations may be adopted immediately because the source text appears repeatedly. Translation memory will work well when the repetition of articles is quite high, such as some technical documents or manuals. Translation memory is also very helpful for translating a situation where existing documents are gradually added and revised from the past. Generally speaking, translation memory will not be considered in literature or creative documents, mainly because these types of articles have low repeatability. However, some people think that these words with extremely low repeatability are still worth collecting, for example, they can be used in the search of concordance. Other help collected from translation memory can also be helpful in quality verification and proofreading. When the translation memory is continuously used on appropriate words for a period of time, it will save a lot of workload for translators.(Wang Jinquan, 2004, 14)<br /> <br /> '''4.2 Application of Translation Memory in Interpreting'''<br /> <br /> '''4.2.1 Current Situation '''<br /> <br /> Although most translation memory is used in the work of translation, it is also used in interpreting widely in recent years. Translation memory is also used in three stages of a interpreting(Li Jun, 2020, 127). <br /> <br /> The first stage is pre-interpreting period when interpreters make preparation for the interpreting. If there is script or some new terms and expressions, interpreters can first resort to machine translation to learn how to translate these content and then store these results in translation memory for future use(Li Jun, 2020, 128).<br /> <br /> The second stage is when the interpreters are doing the interpreting. There is a very important technology called voice recognition. The technology can recognize what the speakers said and transcribe it into words. One the one hand, these words can show as subtitles on the screen. Listeners can choose to watch the subtitles or listen to interpreters by themselves. Ont the other hand, these recognized words can also show to interpreters for them to refer to. Thus, it can reduce their stress and burden to some extend. And if the speakers said the terms or words that have been stored in translation memory, they can soon be translated into target languages. The voice recognition technology can transfer speech into words. And then translation plays its role to help interpreters do their interpreting as it saves interpreters a lot of time to remember these words(Li Jun, 2020, 128).<br /> <br /> The third stage is after the interpreting. Interpreters can have a review on their on interpreting by voice recognizing their record. If there is any new words that could appear again in the future, interpreters can store them in their own translation memory. If there are words that have benn stored in translation memory but needs modifying, interpreters can also upgrade them(Li Jun, 2020, 128).<br /> <br /> '''4.2.2 Limitations'''<br /> <br /> Although translation memory has been adapted in interpreting, its has still some limitations. There are mainly two aspects of limitation. They are translation memory and voice recognition.<br /> <br /> As for translation memory, the limitation is that what stored in translation memory are words and phrases. In most cases, people needs to translate a whole paragraph or text, so the cohesion is very important. Common translation memory uses a sentence as a Translation Unit or a Translation Segment, which makes it easy to translate multiple sentences separately and then combine them. And this makes the translation not as coherent as it’s required. Besides, translation memory is not compatible to all file formats such as words, the one most frequently used(Su Mingyang, 2007, 73).<br /> <br /> As for voice recognition, when there are more than one language in the speech, the effectiveness of the technology could be affected. Besides, it sometimes fails to recognize conditional adverbials and adverbial clause induced by words such as If, every and although is not good. The reason is that the clauses caused by these words can be placed before or after the main sentence, which makes it difficult to recognize and automatically add punctuation marks. Moreover, the results of recognition is greatly affected by the pronunciation and intonation of the speaker and the environment(Li Jun, 2020, 129).<br /> <br /> ===5 Conclusion===<br /> <br /> A good interpreter is required to have a good memory. It doesn’t only mean the ability to memorize many things but also knowing how to use different memory systems and modes of coding to optimize their memory. Moreover, with the development of technology, interpreters should also learn how to use these technology such as translation memory to help them do the interpreting. However, although translation memory is used in interpreting now, it is still not mature and needs to be improved. Interpreters can use these technology but not rely on it. They must rely on their own memory.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Baddeley, A. D. Working Memory : an Overview[A]. 2006.<br /> <br /> [2]Hitch, G.J. Working Memory[A]. 2012.<br /> <br /> [3]Miller, A. George. The Magic Number Seven Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information[J]. 1956. The Psychological Review, 63(2).<br /> <br /> [4]Seleskovitch, D. &amp; Lederer, M. Pédagogie Raisonnée de l , Interprétation (3 e édition) [M]. Paris: Didier Erudition, 2003.<br /> <br /> [5]Tulving, Organism of Memory[C], New York: Academic Press, 1972.<br /> <br /> [6]鲍刚, 翻译理论概述[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,2005.<br /> <br /> [7]车文博, 心理学原理[M]. 黑龙江：黑龙江人民出版社, 1986.<br /> <br /> [8]陈卫红. 论心理认知和口译记忆[J]. 外语教学理论与实践, 2014: 85-95.<br /> <br /> [9]韩小明. 从记忆机制看口译教学中记忆能力的培养[J]. 重庆工学院学报, 2004: 156-15.<br /> <br /> [10]李俊. 计算机翻译辅助技术在同传中的应用及对同传生态系统的影响[J]. 中国翻译, 2020(4): 127-132.<br /> <br /> [11]刘桂英. 口译的记忆心理学基础[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2006: 116-118.<br /> <br /> [12]刘颖, 苏巧玲. 医学心理学[M]. 北京：中国华侨出版社, 1997.<br /> <br /> [13]吕立松, 穆雷. 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[J]. 外语世界, 2007: 35-43.<br /> <br /> [14]马英迈, 孙长彦, 口译中的记忆与理解[J]. 宁夏大学学报, 2004: 78-79.<br /> <br /> [15]施韵涛. 全新翻译解决方案 ——翻译记忆[J]. 中国科技翻译, 2000.<br /> <br /> [16]苏明阳. 翻译记忆系统的现状及其启示[J]. 外语研究, 2007: 70-74.<br /> <br /> [17]王建华. 口译过程认知研究[M]. 北京：中国人民大学出版社, 2019.<br /> <br /> [18]王金铨. 翻译记忆 ( TM)—— 计算机翻译技术的新发展[J]. 现代图书情报技术, 2004: 13-16.<br /> <br /> [19]徐翰. 口译记忆认知与记忆策略探索[J]. 南昌大学学报(人文社会科学版), 2007: 124-126.<br /> <br /> [20]许明. 口译认知过程中“deverbalization”的认知诠释[J]. 译论研究, 2010: 5-11<br /> <br /> [21]张威. 口译认知研究：同声传译和工作记忆的关系[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 2011.<br /> <br /> == The Subtile Translation of Movie from the Perspective of Multimodal Discourse Analysis 王轩 Wang Xuan==<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> Mankind has entered the era of multimedia, so the language as a mono-modal form has been unable to fully express the meaning of communication. Thus we need some other modals to enhance, in order to fully express the meaning and reach the aim of communication, such as sound, visual image, color and so on. Thus the term Multimodality aroused linguist’s interest and attention. <br /> <br /> The thesis is based on the Multimodal Discourse Analysis theory as the foundation, aims to analyze the following three areas under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis: 1. The embodiment of Multimodality in the film “Benjamin Button”, then aims to analyze how does the subtitle and Multimodality combining to constructed the whole meaning under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis.2. The second goal is to discuss the relationship between the movie’s subtitles and other modals, and the relationship between different modals. 3. By discussing the analysis of the movie subtitle expression function in the process of overall significance, this thesis attempts to put forward some suggestions on the movie subtitle translation. <br /> <br /> === Keywords ===<br /> <br /> Multimodal Discourse Analysis；Audio-visual Product；Subtitle Translation<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 人类已经进入多媒体时代，语言作为一种单一的模态形式已经无法充分表达交际的意义。因此，我们还需要一些其他的情态手段加以加强，以充分表达意义，达到交际的目的，如声音、视觉形象、色彩等。因此，多模态一词引起了语言学家的兴趣和关注。<br /> 本文以多模态话语分析理论为基础，旨在在多模态话语分析理论框架下分析以下三个方面：1。多模态在电影《本杰明·巴顿》中的体现，则旨在分析在多模态话语分析的理论框架下，字幕和多模态如何结合起来构建整体意义。第二个目标是讨论电影字幕与其他情态动词的关系，以及不同情态动词之间的关系。三。通过对电影字幕在翻译过程中的整体意义的分析，本文试图对电影字幕翻译提出一些建议。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> <br /> 多模态语篇分析；视听产品；字幕翻译<br /> <br /> === Chapter One Multimodal Discourse Analysis Theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 1.1 The Emergence And Development Of Multimodality '''<br /> <br /> At present, experts and scholars have entered the stage of multimodal discourse analysis. This is not an accidental phenomenon, but inevitable, because they think that discourse or discourse is a unit of meaning, but the expression of meaning is not only through a single language, on the contrary, it can be constructed by many other symbol systems besides language. <br /> <br /> Therefore, it is not comprehensive and specific to analyze discourse or discourse from the linguistic level, so multimodal discourse analysis comes into being. Multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in foreign countries, and has been widely studied and explored. However, it is still in its infancy in China, and has attracted much attention in recent years. <br /> <br /> In the early 1950s, American linguist Harris put forward the theory of discourse analysis for the first time. Since then, discourse analysts all over the world have been working hard to analyze and study, and have put forward many theories and methods of discourse analysis, and analyzed them through a large number of examples. <br /> <br /> However, almost all the theories and methods of discourse analysis focus on language and ignore other forms of meaning expression, such as image, music, color and so on. Therefore, the research on discourse analysis at that time was not comprehensive and had great limitations. In the 1990s, multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in western countries, which overcomes the limitations of discourse analysis to a certain extent. Therefore, once multimodal discourse analysis was proposed, it immediately attracted the attention of linguists and once became a hot topic. Especially in recent years, linguists at home and abroad have carried out extensive research and Exploration on multimodal discourse analysis. <br /> <br /> In foreign countries, R. Barthes is the first French scholar to systematically analyze multimodality. As a famous semiotician, R. Barthes adopts the semiotic perspective to study multimodality. Therefore, multimodal discourse has been analyzed with semiotics from the very beginning. Multimodal discourse analysis breaks through the shackles of traditional single language information, and integrates more research in other fields, such as psychology, cognitive science and sociology. R. Barthes discussed the interaction and relationship between image and language in the expression of meaning. Based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed a relatively perfect grammatical framework for the analysis of visual images, thus providing theoretical basis and analytical methods for multimodal discourse analysis. They believe that multimodality is a major feature of various discourses in modern society. In the digital age, these different modes play the same role in meaning reproduction. In addition, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed an image analysis framework based on three pure functions in image reading, namely reproduction, interaction and composition.. In a word, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen's multimodal communication theory mainly focuses on the symbolic resources and their use. <br /> <br /> In China, there are also in-depth and extensive research on multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Li Zhanzi analyzes multimodal discourse from the perspective of social semiotics, while Hu Zhuanglin, a professor of Peking University, studies multimodal semiotics in theory and practice, and proposes multimodal language teaching and research in social semiotics. Zhu Yongsheng has made an in-depth study on multimodality and summarized the theoretical basis and research methods of multimodal discourse analysis. Zhang Delu made a preliminary exploration on the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Zhang Delu pointed out that multimodal discourse refers to the use of hearing, vision, touch and other senses, through language, images, sounds, movements and other means and symbol resources for communication. This phenomenon is very common, which is mainly reflected in the following aspects. For example, in order to better understand poetry, people find that it can be attached with pictures, that is, it is attractive People's interest has reached the purpose of helping people understand. In addition, people can often add some auxiliary gestures or actions, and use different tone and tone when speaking, which is also a form of multimodality. However, multimodal discourse analysis has not been paid enough attention. Only in the study of modern linguistics, some linguists have paid attention to multimodality and started to study it from the perspective of non-verbal features and linguistic features. However, it is only studied as an auxiliary expression system of language, but not as a mode of meaning expression. Although multimedia discourse analysis came into being, it was not until recent years that scholars gradually realized the importance of multimedia discourse analysis. It can be seen that multimodality has attracted a large number of linguists in China and achieved fruitful results.<br /> <br /> ''' 1.2 The Theoretical Framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis '''<br /> <br /> Linguists have found that systemic functional linguistics can be used as the basic theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. The five levels are: (1) cultural level, including ideology as the main form of culture and genre as the potential choice of discourse mode. (2) The context level includes the context configuration composed of discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. (3) The meaning level includes discourse meaning and conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning. (4) At the formal level, there are different formal systems to realize meaning, including lexical grammar system of language, visual ideographic form and visual grammar system, auditory ideographic form and auditory grammar system, tactile ideographic form and tactile grammar system, etc., as well as the relationship between the grammar of various modes. (5) Media level is the material form of discourse in the material world, including linguistic and non-verbal. Systemic functional linguistics provides a relatively ready-made theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis. On this basis, Professor Zhang Delu proposed a comprehensive theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis: (1) cultural level, (2) context level, (3) content level, (4) expression level<br /> <br /> ''' 1.3 The Forms and Relations of Multimodal Discourse '''<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse forms include: language, picture sense, sound sense and feeling. The typical multimodal discourse mode is a kind of modal discourse, which can not fully express its meaning, or can not express its full meaning. It needs to be supplemented by another one. The relationship between these modes is called &quot;complementary relationship&quot;, while the other is called non complementary relationship. <br /> <br /> Complementary relationship can be divided into strengthening relationship and non strengthening relationship. Reinforcement relationship means that one mode is the main form of communication, while another or more forms strengthen it. For example, when expressing meaning, if language is the main form of communication, then other body movements such as gestures will strengthen the language. On the contrary, language may also be a reinforcement to other ways of communication. Strengthening relationship includes three kinds of relations: prominent, primary and secondary, and expanding. Non reinforcement refers to the relationship between two modes which are indispensable and complementary to each other. For example, in the process of watching a movie, the visual and auditory modes are combined with each other. There are also three forms of non strengthening relations: coordination, union and intersection. In the coordination relationship, different modes construct the whole meaning together, and the lack of any mode will be incomplete. Play the video at the same time, for example. The two modes of image and sound are both necessary and difficult to understand without one communication. In this case, the relationship between image and sound is harmonious. The joint relationship refers to the combination of different types of media in the same mode to express the meaning. For example, in the typical multimodal discourse form of film, the sound matched with the scene animation and the voice of interpretation are combined to reflect the meaning of auditory construction. The last one is the phenomenon of cross embodiment of meaning. For example, teachers do experiments while they are in the experimental class. At this time, the text is still unimodal. However, if you are talking with your friends about whether the weather is snowing, the size and shape of snow, and so on, the scene of snow, including the process and mode of snow, will directly participate in the overall meaning you want to express. At this time, your discourse has a strong situational dependence. A large part of the meaning of your speech is reflected by the situation, although the scene does not actively participate in it In your verbal communication. Therefore, context dependent discourse communication is multimodal.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Two Film subtitle translation theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 2.1 Film Works and Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> With the advent of the multimedia digital era, foreign film and television works continue to flow into China, so subtitle translation is becoming more and more important. More and more people use subtitles to obtain foreign related information, understand foreign cultures and even learn foreign languages. Subtitling affects people's cognition of things, and subtitle translation has become a professional auxiliary form to facilitate the audience to understand multimedia works. Gottlieb defines subtitle translation as &quot;a kind of written, additional and synchronous translation type for instantaneous and multi symbolic texts&quot;. (Gottlieb, 1997:309) in China, film and television translation started relatively late, and large-scale film and television translation began after the 1980s. <br /> <br /> Although the number of mass media translation has greatly increased, subtitle translation has not attracted enough attention of the academic community, and the research results on subtitle translation are few. In recent years, subtitle translation, as a field of translation, has attracted more and more attention from experts and scholars all over the world. Subtitles have two major functions: first, to deepen the audience's impression of some film content; second, to assist the lack of listening. There are two kinds of subtitles: the first is intralingual subtitle, the second is interlingual subtitle. Intralingual subtitle translation does not need to translate one language into another, but only converts the discourse into text. &quot;Interlingual subtitle refers to the translation of the source language into the target language and superimposed on the bottom of the screen while retaining the original sound of the film and television, which is commonly referred to as subtitle translation.&quot; (Li Yunxing, 2001:38)<br /> <br /> ''' 2.2 The Characteristics Of Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> Film subtitles are an important part of the film, and together with the visual image to construct the meaning, film subtitles can help the audience to understand the characteristics of the characters in the film, to master the character's character and to be familiar with the plot of the film. Film subtitle translation has the following characteristics: <br /> <br /> Firstly, colloquialism. Subtitle translation in movies is mainly the translation of dialogues between the characters in the film. Therefore, subtitle translation should be as colloquial as possible and conform to the expression characteristics of the characters. On the premise of ensuring the coherence and smoothness of the context, the subtitle translation should be as close to life as possible so as to achieve natural and realistic effect. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the characters in the film have their own unique personalities, which are often reflected by different language styles. Therefore, the second feature of film subtitle translation is to conform to the characters' personalities. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, emotional, emotional help the audience better understand the plot, so the film subtitle translation should reflect the true feelings, the translation should be able to put oneself in the position and into the role, to achieve the artistic effect of sincere.<br /> <br /> Fourthly, oral form is a typical feature of film subtitle translation, which is also the most obvious difference between film subtitle translation and literature translation. The basic task of translation is to provide a blueprint for dubbing. Therefore, the translation of subtitles should be consistent with the mouth shape of the characters as much as possible, and the accuracy and vividness of the translation should be guaranteed. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, popularization means popularization. Popularization means that the translation can be understood by the audience on the premise of smoothness, so as to achieve the purpose of clear understanding and appreciation of both refined and popular tastes. The ultimate goal of popularization is to serve the audience and make the translation a bridge for effective communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3 Strategies Of Film Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.1 Pay Attention To The Artistry Of Language '''<br /> <br /> It is said that film is the seventh art after literature, music, dance, drama, painting and sculpture. As a young art, the only one who knows his birthday, film appeared as a popular art from the very beginning. Film is an art form with unique means of expression, and the artistry of its language is the basic element of film. Although Goethe once said: art should never be the same as reality, and it is impossible to embody art. But it turns out that film is not only a popular art, and it is the most popular art, which is called a kind of popular culture. From the point of view of the film itself, most of the films are for people to watch, and the audience of the film comes from different social strata, so their education level is also different. Therefore, the language in the subtitle of film translation must be in line with the audience's acceptance ability and actual level, so as to make the translation understood by the audience, more clearly, and achieve both refined and popular tastes. However, the vulgarization and popularization of the target language does not mean the vulgarization and generalization of the language. The language of film is rich in expressive force, and the language of subtitle translation must be accurate, natural and vivid. Therefore, in the film subtitle translation, we should not only retain the language characteristics of the source language and absorb the characteristics of foreign language expression, but also abide by the language tradition of our own culture, and use words with cultural color of the target language to translate the original text, so as to truly achieve the purpose of translation.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.2 Literal Translation And Free Translation Should Be Audience-Centered '''<br /> <br /> The characteristics of film subtitle translation, i.e. instantaneity and popularity, determine its translation strategies. Subtitle translation must refer to the picture and sound of the film and television. Usually, the subtitle appears in front of the audience together with the original picture, so that the audience can not only enjoy the picture, but also have time to read the subtitle. This is the duality of subtitle translation. When the audience accepts the sound, picture and subtitle information of the original text, they are integrated, complementary and contradictory. Therefore, subtitle translation must consider that subtitle is not an independent mode, it includes the creation process and the reception process. In a word, both literal translation and free translation should focus on the audience. Literal translation can absorb new foreign factors and information, and can reflect foreign culture and sentiment. Free translation is easier to be accepted by the target language audience. Film subtitle translation must take into account the audience's language level and education, and take the audience of the target language as the center and adopt correct translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.3 Processing Of Cultural Information '''<br /> <br /> As an intermediary of cultural exchange, the translator's main purpose is to promote the exchange of different cultures and reduce the cultural gap. Because the film subtitle in the process of translation is subject to many restrictions, for example, there are a large number of words with strong cultural color and some special language forms, and there are many gaps in the culture of different languages and nations and can not be replaced, so it increases the difficulty of film translation. For example, when translating puns, word games and proverbs, translators usually have to give up, which is actually a treason to the original film. <br /> <br /> There are three strategies to deal with cultural information in Subtitle Translation: first, the principle of cultural compensation. The principle of cultural compensation aims to preserve and introduce the cultural characteristics of foreign countries, so that the audience can understand the films of different languages and cultures. Second, adopt the principle of cultural transplantation. This principle can make subtitles more vivid, authentic and vivid. Translators need to discard the cultural characteristics of the source language and abide by the native language, so that subtitles can be easily understood and accepted by the target language audience. When neither of the two strategies is desirable, we can only use the third strategy, namely the principle of cultural coordination, which inevitably leads to the loss of cultural information in the source language and the target language. When dealing with the cultural information in subtitle translation, translators should pay attention to the combination of these three strategies with the film picture, and give full play to the illustrative and explanatory nature of the pictures, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Three Subtitle Translation Of &quot;Benjamin Button&quot; From The Perspective Of Multimodal Discourse Analysis ===<br /> <br /> ''' 3.1 A Brief Introduction of 'Benjamin Button' '''<br /> <br /> 'Benjamin Button', directed by the famous director David Finch is adapted from Fitzgerald's novel of the same name; the film tells the story of a strange Benjamin Barton who violates the laws of nature and is born in the image of an ancient and rare old man. As time goes by, he even lives more and more young. It is a story about the reversal of life.<br /> <br /> The following part will analyze the characteristics of subtitles and the translation strategies that should be adopted in the expression of the film from the cultural level, context level, content level and expression level of the multimodal theoretical framework.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2 Multimodal Translation in Movie Subtiles '''<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.1 On Cultural Level '''<br /> <br /> Under the influence of thinking patterns and habits, people have gradually formed a specific form of expression in which language can understand each other in communication. Therefore, it is particularly important whether the cultural factors in films are properly translated. Zhang Delu believes that &quot;the cultural level is the key level to make communication possible&quot;. In some cases, the source language and the target language can not be translated literally. Therefore, in the process of translating movie subtitles, we should not only keep the original features, that is, faithfulness, but also take into account the habitual language awareness of the target audience, that is, free translation strategies should be adopted to make the translation smooth and consistent Cultural characteristics of the target language.<br /> <br /> The English title of the film is ‘The Curious Case of Benjamin Button’, and a version is ‘本杰明·巴顿奇事’, but the translation of ‘返老还童’ has a larger audience. First of all, there is an English name in the title of Benjamin Button, which makes people feel the obscurity of the literal translation of foreign words. In Chinese, four character idioms or five or seven character quatrains or metrical poems are more catchy and easy to be accepted; Secondly, the title of &quot;rejuvenate&quot; is very suitable for the protagonist's inverted and retrograde life trajectory. In a word, it is very brilliant; Finally, the idiom ‘返老还童’ comes from ancient legends, which expresses people's desire for immortality and rejuvenation. Although it is a legend, modern people also want to be young and energetic, so the title of ‘返老还童’ can attract more audiences.<br /> In this film, there are many translation notes added to the translation, which will explain the cross-cultural ambiguity clearly. Although there are many translations, it is the best way to make the audience accept accurate information.<br /> <br /> When Daisy, the heroine, is old, she lies on the hospital bed and introduces the name of the Watchmaker: “they had the best clock maker in all of the south to build that glorious clock. His name was Mr. gateau Mr. Cake.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “还请来整个南方最好的钟表匠建了那座雄伟的大钟。那人叫盖图先生……蛋糕先生” (盖图/Gateau 在法语中是蛋糕之意)<br /> <br /> There is such a narration at the foundation laying ceremony of clocks and clocks: “Papa said there were people everywhere. Even Teddy · Roosevelt came.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “爸爸说，那天人山人海。连泰迪·罗斯福也来了( 西奥多·罗斯福，昵称泰迪美国第26 任总统)”<br /> <br /> In the above two examples, the comments added to the translation itself are in brackets. In the former example, &quot;Mr. cake&quot; suddenly appears. In the latter example, how President Roosevelt called &quot;Teddy Roosevelt&quot; will make the target language audience very puzzled. Although the use of annotations makes translation numerous, it is the best way for the audience to quickly obtain accurate information. The audience knows that gateau means &quot;cake&quot; in French, and Roosevelt has a nickname of &quot;Teddy&quot;.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.2 On Context Level '''<br /> <br /> In a specific context, communication is constrained by contextual factors (Zhang Delu, 2009). The context level elaborated by Zhang Delu includes discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. In order to express meaning or transmit information, subtitle and context jointly promote the development of film plot. Subtitle translation should be subject to context. In order to make subtitle translation not appear fault phenomenon, the film plot will advance naturally, and subtitle translation should also play a role of connecting the preceding and the following. In this way, in the process of translation, the translator should consider the contextual factors and pay attention to the smoothness and coherence of the translation within the sentence itself and between the sentences in the text.<br /> <br /> When describing Queenie's fertility problem, Queenie sees Benjamin's heart full of love. Her husband, Mr. Weathers, said: I know you ain't got all the parts it takes to make one of your own, but this ain't your to keep. At first it was certainly hard to understand the meaning of this sentence, but as the plot developed, Queenie prayed to the pastor for a son. After her pregnancy, she announced happily: “I had a miracle happen. The Lord saw fit to answer my prayer.” <br /> <br /> Little Daisy explained here: “ ‘I had a miracle happen’ means pregnancy.” （她有孩子了） In this way, the words said by Mr. Weathers was interpreted as: “我知道你没法有自己的孩子，可你也不能抚养这个。” Using free translation strategy, it is clear and faithful to the meaning of the source language, which makes the target language audience quickly know that Queenie likes children's characteristics and cares for Benjamin, an ugly ‘monster’.<br /> <br /> When Benjamin and Daisy are reunited in New York, Benjamin said: “I thought I'd come here and sweet you off your feet or something.” The phrase &quot;sweep you off your feet&quot; means &quot;to make you fall suddenly and deeply in love with you&quot;（让你倾倒）. Benjamin and Daisy were separated from each other for many years at that time. Daisy, who was living in the dance circle, was popular and desirable there. Benjamin went to New York to find daisy after burying his father. He was in a mixed mood. In fact, he wanted to find a friend to express his melancholy. Therefore, Benjamin did not go to find Daisy to &quot;fall in love&quot; with her but &quot;I thought I'd give you a big surprise when I came suddenly&quot;(我本以为我突然过来找你会给你一个大惊喜), which is very brilliant. This sentence is more suitable for the protagonist's situation by using free translation strategy.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.3 On Content Level '''<br /> <br /> The content level of Zhang Delu's expression includes discourse meaning level and form level. Discourse meaning is the conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning conveyed in language expression. In the film, subtitle is the narrator's narration and dialogue content. Film discourse requires the translator to accurately express the subtitle meaning to the audience. In the process of subtitle translation, some gas words, names and address terms can be omitted, which still does not affect the expression of discourse meaning.<br /> <br /> “Well, I know I don't have much to show for myself.”（我知道自己没有什么才能。） The omission of &quot;well&quot; does not affect the translation, but is more concise and can be understood more quickly.<br /> <br /> “You know, you may've got a few more years out of it, but you choose to do something so special and unique that there were only a short window of time you could do it.” Daisy was in the dance business, but she had an accident later. Some expressions here such as “a few more years out of it” ( 跳几年舞), “something so special and unique”( 事业太与众不同), “a short window of time” （几年黄金时间) have been dealt more concrete, so the whole sentence is translated as: “也许，你能多跳几年舞，可你的事业太与众不同了，只有几年的黄金时间可以发展。” <br /> <br /> As for its form, the formal features of different modes are interrelated and reflect the discourse meaning together (Zhang Fulu, 2009). The film system includes animation, pictures, music, language and other auditory and visual modes. Therefore, subtitles, together with listening and visual modes, work together to promote the expression of film meaning.<br /> <br /> For example, Benjamin and Daisy finally met and got together. They whispered in the yellow-glowed room:<br /> Daisy: “Will you still love me when my skin grows old and saggy?” ( 我要是成了黄脸婆你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> Benjamin: “Will you still love me when I have acne? When I wet the bed? When I'm afraid of what's under the stairs?” ( 等我老到脸上长满青春痘，老到尿床，老到连楼梯下有什么都怕，你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> The pictures, music and language all revealed the happy and loving life of the two people. In general, the film is based on the narration of a diary. In the film, the dialogue between the present and the narration in the diary is carried out alternately. In addition, the old pictures, the statement of time and the voice change of the narrator are used to make the past and the present change clearly and naturally, and they are applied in the formal level.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.4 On Expression Level '''<br /> <br /> Zhang Fulu believes that the expression level can be divided into language media and non-verbal media. In the language media level, he thinks that the main forms of meaning communication are sound symbols and writing symbols. For films, subtitles and subtitle translation belong to writing symbols. In the process of translating subtitles, translators should fully consider the media characteristics such as voice size, intonation strength, tone, font size and layout, which play a very important role in the expression of films. The subtitles of the film are at the bottom of the screen. Except for the notes, the translation takes up a little bit more space, and most of the subtitles in the source language and the target language occupy one line, which ensures that the audience has enough time to read the information. Non verbal media include communicators' body and nonverbal means (mainly tools and environment). Nowadays, with the progress of science and technology, movies can be played in cinemas, networks and various electronic media, and the media for appreciation is rich.<br /> <br /> Throughout the film, the dying old Daisy's tone is slow and strenuous on the bed. With the development of the story, light or heavy, a TV beside the bed broadcast the change of Hurricane weather activity, and the weather change also reflects Daisy's condition at that time.<br /> Finally, Daisy hugged Benjamin, a baby in her arms, and watched him invert the end of her life. The dying Daisy dictated in a low voice and intermittent tone: &quot;he looked at me and Iknow that he knew who I was.&quot;. (他看着我，那一刻，我知道他认出来了) The sound of the hurricane alarm suddenly sounded, sharp and obvious, and the picture of the staff of the hospital of traditional Chinese medicine was flustered, symbolizing that Benjamin's reversal clock was also washed away, and Daisy finally passed away. The sound, picture and words of the whole film are closely linked. It tells the story of eternal love, though limited in time, which is extremely shocking and thought-provoking.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Four Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> The translator of the film tries his best to translate various modes such as discourse, picture, sound and music. The translation strategy is mainly free translation, and the subtitle processing is simple and appropriate, so that the audience can have a good understanding of the limited time in the film, only the eternal knowledge of love. Taking the film subtitle of &quot;rejuvenation&quot; as an example, this paper analyzes the characteristics of subtitle translation from the aspects of culture, context, content and expression, hoping to better understand multimodal discourse analysis and free translation strategies in film subtitle translation.<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> [1] Barthes, R. Image-Music-Text [M]. London: Fontana, 1977. <br /> <br /> [2] Baldry, A. &amp; P. J. Thibault. Multimodal Transcription and Text Analysis[M]. London: Equinox Publishing, 2006. <br /> <br /> [3] Forceville. Multimodal Transcription and Text Analysis: A Multimedia Toolkit and Coursebook [J]. Journal of Pragmatics, 2007, 1235-1238. <br /> <br /> [4] Edgar Bernad-Mechó. Multimodal Discourse Analysis of Link⁃ ing Metadiscursive Elements in Two Opencourseware Lectures (MOOCs)[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences.2015, 61-66. <br /> <br /> [5] Aylanda Dwi Nugroho. The Generic Structure of Print Adver⁃ tisement of Elizabeth Arden’s INTERVENE: A Multimodal Discourse Analysis [J]. DOAJ.2009, 70-85.<br /> <br /> [6] 封霞.文化翻译视角下的电影字幕翻译——以《哈利·波特》 系列电影为例[J]. 才智.2016. [7] 刘金菁. 多模态话语分析对高中英语词汇教学的启示[J]. 教 育教学论坛.2014. <br /> <br /> [8] 刘秀丽; 张德禄; 张宜波.外语教师多模态话语与学生学习 积极性的关系研究[J]. 外语电化教学.2013. <br /> <br /> [9] 阚凤.模态话语分析视角下的电影字幕翻译——以电影《哈 利·波特与混血王子》为例[J].理论观察,2014.<br /> <br /> [10] 沈国荣.论《哈利·波特》电影字幕翻译[J].电影文学,2013.<br /> <br /> [11] 孙毅.多模态话语意义建构——以2011西安世界园艺博览 会会徽为基点[J]. 外语与外语教学.2012.<br /> <br /> [12] 徐协.中国元素广告的多模态话语分析[J]. 当代传播.2013. <br /> <br /> [13] 姚群. 基于态度系统的《哈利·波特》字幕与配音翻译研究 [A]. 北京交通大学.2017.<br /> <br /> [14] 张德禄.多模态话语分析综合理论框架探索[J].中国外语, 2009. <br /> <br /> [15] 周姗.多模态视角下的俄语公益广告话语分析[A]. 北京外 国语大学.2014.<br /> <br /> =Machine Translation=<br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory - A Case Study of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company Chen Yongxiang 陈永相 英语笔译 202070080582==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;Chen Yongxiang 陈永相 英语笔译 202070080582&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine (hereinafter referred to as TCM), the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, boasts the favorable curative effect and a good reputation across the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative” and national economy, TCM has been playing an increasingly significant role in international trade, attracting more attention of foreign medical experts and consumers. As the essential attachment of a medicine, medicine instructions belong to the genre of practical writing, characterized by the unique language structure and stylistic features, guiding doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicines, such as usage and dosage, actions and indications, contraindication, etc. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. Due to the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, however, plenty of problems appear on the C-E translation of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> According to Adaptation Theory proposed by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. Translation is a cross-cultural communication activity, which involves language usage and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so on between source language and target language, and to adapt with different contexts, mentalities, cultures, etc. so as to achieve the ideal goal, from which the Adaptation Theory can be applied exactly into the study of translation. This paper will apply Adaptation Theory, therefore, as the theoretical framework, to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. Employing the core concepts and investigating aspects of Adaptation Theory, the author tries to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine instruction translation, Adaptation Theory, Yulin Pharmaceutical Company <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 中药是我国医药文化的瑰宝，有着良好的疗效和口碑。随着“一带一路倡议”的稳步推进和中国经济的平稳发展，中药药品在国际贸易中所占比重日益增加，得到了国外许多医疗专家和消费者的关注。药品说明书作为药品的重要附件，是一种实用文体，有其自身的语言结构和文体特点，能够指导医生与患者了解和熟悉药品作用、用法用量、适应症和禁忌等。而中医药品说明书英译作为中医英译的一个重要组成部分，其英译质量决定了药品能否被医生和患者正确理解和使用，以及中医药产品的国际贸易繁荣。然而，由于英语和汉语之间存在着不可避免的语言和文化差异，中医药品说明书英译依然存在着较大问题。<br /> <br /> 比利时语用学家维索尔伦提出的语言顺应论认为，语言的使用是一个不断作出选择和顺应的动态过程。翻译作为一项跨文化交际活动，需要在源语与目的语之间，就用词、翻译策略等方面进行选择，对不同语境、心理、文化等层面作出顺应。可见顺应论适用于翻译研究。因此本文以顺应论作为理论依据，通过对广西玉林制药公司中医药品说明书英译进行分析研究，运用顺应论的核心概念和研究视角，进一步探讨如何更好地翻译中医药品说明书。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 中医药品说明书翻译，顺应论，玉林制药公司<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Research Background of the Study====<br /> <br /> As the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, TCM has been through a profound history in China. Since “The Belt and Road Initiative” proposed for the first time, as an indispensable part in medical industry, TCM has tapped the potential of development opportunity to boost its reform so as to better make inroads into the international market. Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a renowned TCM pharmacy enterprise mainly engaged in R&amp;D, production and sales of Chinese medicines, one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties. In 2015, Consun Pharmaceutical Group Lt. has successfully brought partial share of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, which, in return, brought opportunities for the IPO and industrialization of the company. As the essential attachment of TCM medicine, the instructions guide doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicine correctly, which closely relates to consumer safety and are of great significance. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. The high quality translation versions of TCM instructions will accelerate TCM to enter into the international market, to occupy more competitive market share, and to better popularize the excellent TCM culture. <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Significance and Purpose of the Study==== <br /> <br /> It is noticed that studies and researches on TCM at home and abroad have boomed since the ancient Silk Road period. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from experts. Because of the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, a lot of problems appear on the translation of TCM instructions. And against such a backdrop, there are still no settled rules or translation standards to be applied and favored in the translation of TCM instructions, hence it’s quite essential to touch upon the area of C-E translation of TCM instructions in a more comprehensive and systematic way so as to find out more effective methods and strategies for the instruction translation. Adaptation Theory is proposed by Jef Verschueren, he thinks that language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation is a type of language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so forth between source language and target language. A good translation version of TCM instructions can appropriately guide both doctors and patients to understand the pharmacological functions, usage and dosage, actions and indications and contraindications of medicines. Therefore, the quality of instruction translation has a direct impact on whether TCM can be favored and obtained a good reputation among overseas medical industry and consumers. This paper studies the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, trying to take the Company as a case study to further discuss how to translate TCM instructions in a better way. <br /> <br /> ===2.Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Features of TCM Instructions====<br /> <br /> Being the essential attachment of a medicine, the instruction contains important information that explains what the medicine is, how to take it and the effects after taking it, guiding doctors and patients to understand and use medicines properly. It closely relates to consumers’ safety. Thus, TCM instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. However, the information covered in most TCM instructions is drug name, ingredients, actions and indications, usage and dosage, while adverse effects, precautions, pharmacological effects, drug interaction, contraindications etc. are quite simple, even without any description of these items, failing to meet the requirement of international standards. <br /> <br /> Besides, due to the profound history of TCM developed in China, most of the unique TCM languages derived from the abstract philosophical concepts of ancient times remain being used until now, say, classical style and semi-classical style, which are accepted and favored by the TCM community, causing difficulties in translating them into English. And hence four-character structure, vagueness and ambiguity of the language, and no equivalence between Chinese and English are the main features of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> The four-character structure is concise but comprehensive in meaning, implying the extensive and abstract medical concepts of TCM. The tradition of using it to describe the symptoms and ways of treatment in TCM hasn’t been changed over time but continued to be applied and advocated in modern society. The TCM instructions are difficult to understand and translate, for the peculiar traits of TCM language, as well as the technical terms coming, directly or indirectly, from the abstract medical concepts of TCM, characterized by the unique treatment method as a whole in human body, and seeking to find answers and balance principles in nature to explain the causes and treatments of diseases, which is usually not the literal one but beyond cognition. In addition, there are gaps and non-equivalence between TCM and Western Medicine. Most TCM instruction translations apply technical terms from Latin in terms of ingredients, but adopt simple words and phrases for describing actions and indications, since the TCM language with Chinese characteristics finds no match in English. Ordinary people, as well as translators, who do not have the professional knowledge may have great difficulty in understanding and translating them. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies of TCM Instruction Translation====<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine wasn’t legal once in the United States until 1975, as many scholars and experts were skeptical about its medical theory and way of treatment. Since the establishment of China, the government has been devoting great efforts to the recognition and popularization of TCM across the world. And from then on, a lot of studies and researches based on the translation of TCM have been published at home and abroad. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from the experts. In view of the special wording and the abstract theory of TCM, the translation of TCM instructions is of great difficulty and complexity. <br /> <br /> Currently, the translation of TCM instructions on the market, to a large extent, lacks readability and translation standards. Against such a backdrop, some scholars have striven to make some breakthroughs yet. Nigel Wiseman (2000) systematically elaborates the concept of “oriented by the source” in his dissertation, Translation of Chinese Medicine Terms: A Source Oriented Approach, in terms of the translation of TCM language, believing that the translation of TCM, as well as the instructions, should respect the original style and keep it in the target text as much as possible. In 2002, Translation of TCM Directions (《中医药说明书的英译》) written by Ouyang Lifeng (2002) put forward some practical methods for the translation of TCM instructions. He advocates “naturalization” and “readjustment”, namely, adaptation strategy, should be applied in translation, and if necessary, some additions and deletions are acceptable on the basis of faithfulness to the original text. Guided by Professor Ouyang, his student, Xiaoqiong, applies Peter Newmark’s Communicative Approach in her master’s thesis, On the Translation of TCM Booklets of Direction-The Communicative Approach (2008) to study the features of TCM instructions, suggesting that different approaches should be adopted regarding to different parts of the instructions. On translation Strategies of Chinese Medicine Instruction from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches written by Luo Haiyan (2009) conducts a relatively profound research under the guidance of Functionalist Approach in terms of each part of TCM instructions. She finds out the translation of TCM instructions is not very identical and comprehensible. Cao Qing’s thesis, A Study on Translation of Chinese Pharmaceutical Instruction (2011) states the common problems of translation instructions and advises three translation methods, namely literal translation, conversion and free translation under the Skopos Theory. There are still other scholars aiming at one aspect or another to further study the translation of TCM instructions, all of which exert a significant impact for references in translating TCM instructions. From the perspectives of Zhang Mengjing (1995), Ning Zhishou and Liu Cuiwei (1997), and Fu Wei (2006), the current TCM instruction translation lacks faithfulness, readability and incompatibility with conventional norms, suggesting that more attention should be paid in this field. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn from the above literature that studies on TCM instruction translation can be conducted from a wide scope. For the great distinction between western and Chinese culture, and the abstract medical principles of TCM, much has to be done to make the translation of TCM instructions more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> ===3.Adaptation Theory Applied in Traditional Chinese Medicine Instruction Translation of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company===<br /> <br /> From what has been mentioned above, as the important attachment of TCM, the instructions provide the correct and detailed medical information to doctors and consumers, guiding them to take medicine scientifically and properly, and hence the medicine instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. As one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a famous brand in the whole country, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties, and the buyout also boosts the process of IPO and reform. Through observation of the C-E translation instructions of TCM for foreigners and export, hence there are some certain instructive significance for the translation of TCM instructions. Because of the special characteristics of TCM instructions and the limited information included in the instructions of the company, this part tries to analyze the C-E translation instructions from the perspective of Adaptation Theory, mainly employing the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Contextual Correlates of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation====<br /> <br /> As introduced earlier, according to Verschueren, the ingredients of contextual correlates of adaptability largely include the physical world, social world, and mental world. However, the author will mainly concentrates on the adaptation to the mental world and social world due to the limited materials collected. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Adaptation to the Mental World=====<br /> <br /> Regarding the mental world, it involves the personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations, intentions and so on of both sides of language users. In the translation process, translators should take target readers’ mind into account, not just concentrating on personal mental world or literally translating the original text from one language to another language without any adaptation. <br /> <br /> Basically, consumers of drugs tend to rely on more renowned brands when facing a bunch of medicines displayed on the shelves. The key to attract their attention not only counts on the high quality of TCM, but also on the instructions with rigorous standards, concise specification and overall comprehensibility, delivering a sense of authority and credibility. <br /> <br /> To begin with, the name of drugs is the most direct information delivered to the consumers. Thus, a good name of the TCM can catch the eyes of buyers in the very beginning. “正骨水” is the most famous and important product of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, however, the translation of its name in the instruction simply applies transliteration and Chinese Pinyin, namely, “Zheng Gu Shui” , which fails to adapt with the mental world of target readers. Apparently, Pinyin isn’t the way of expression that they are familiar with. Translators should consider their mental expectation and make adaptation with their familiar ways of expression. In that point, “Bone-setting Liquor” would be a better name for the medicine. “Bone-setting” means the medicine is effective for the symptoms of bone problems, and “liquor” implies the ingredients involved alcohol and other irritating ingredients so that consumers can be aware of the precautions and avoid using it on fragile mucous membranes and anabrotic wounds. Also, the same type of medicine can apply the same way of translation, such as, “金装正骨水” can be translated to “Golden Bone-setting Liquor”, and “极品正骨水” is rendered as “Superb Bone-setting Liquor”. Such a name conveys the correct medical information to consumers and better adapt to their thinking patterns. <br /> <br /> Another example is “睡安胶囊”, the translation version is “Shui’an Jiaonang” . Obviously, it will confuse foreigners since they don’t recognize Chinese Pinyin in their cognitive levels. Translators should at least use “capsule” to indicate the medicine is some type of capsules effective for the sleeping problems. A well-recognized name will arouse attention and interest among consumers, attracting them to purchase the medicine. In order to adapt with their mental expectation and intention, as Ouyang (2002) advocates, naturalization or domesticating translation can be applied in translation. “Sleep Mate” or “Insomnia Killer” can better attract their attention and adapt with their beliefs and cognitive levels. In English, “mate” is a common word, which will be more acceptable and natural in such combination, and “killer” combined with “insomnia” implies the meaning of solving the insomnia problems, which is also more suitable and adaptable with their emotions and motivations. <br /> <br /> A good name of the medicine can not only imply the function of the medicine, conveying the essential information to customers, but also can draw their attention and arouse their desires to purchase the medicine. Meeting the demand and preference with the mental world of target people is also one of the requirements of medicine instructions. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, if transliteration or simply adopting Chinese Pinyin to translate the names of medicines will confuse customers and cause misunderstanding, adaptation is required, and not just words, but also translation strategies should be taken consideration when making adaptation. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Adaptation to the Social World=====<br /> <br /> Verschueren (2000:91) states that there is no principled limit to the range of social factors that linguistic choices are inter-adaptable with. Basically, social settings and culture play a significant role in the process of translation. What distinguishes TCM from Western Medicine mainly lies on the cultural differences. Language is the carrier of culture, and the cultural differences can be embodied in different languages, and then shown and reflected in society. Instruction translation, as the cross-cultural communication activity, is influenced largely by cultural differences in different social worlds. Followings are the very typical translation examples to illustrate the point:<br /> <br /> Example 1(感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> Source Text (ST): 用于感冒或流感发热，头痛鼻塞, 伤风咳嗽，咽痛，肢痛<br /> <br /> Target Text (TT): Used for the treatment of cold, flu and fever, headache and nasal congestion, wind damage cough, angina and melalgia<br /> <br /> Revised Text (RT): Used for cold, flu, fever, headache, snuffle, cough, sore throat and pain in muscles<br /> <br /> Traditionally, “伤风” in Chinese means getting cold because of the invasion of “风” into the human body. “风” is actually one of the six exogenous pathogenic factors according to the medical theory of TCM, which cannot be explained from the perspective of Western Medicine. In western society, people have no concept that the natural phenomenon, say, “风” or “火”, will cause diseases in the human body. So the revised text deletes this term with TCM characteristics to avoid ambiguity and makes it more natural and understandable in English. In addition, most common patients who seek to buy medicines in pharmacies might not have the specific knowledge of medical field due to different social settings and backgrounds, thus, “angina” and “melalgia” might be beyond recognition and acceptance. Western world highlights the importance of brevity and conciseness in their society, and they place emphasis on simplification and efficiency, seldom using the very technical terms in their lives. Such social settings and cultural differences must be considered so as to make adaptation when translating. Besides, “nasal congestion” is the word-for-word translation and may cause misunderstanding among foreigners. So the revised text adopts “snuffle” and “sore throat” to indicate the meaning of “鼻塞” and “咽痛”, applying these simple words to make adaptation with cultural differences in different social worlds, and renders “melalgia” into “pain in muscles” to better deliver the meaning of “肢痛”. <br /> <br /> Example 2 (治咳枇杷露)<br /> <br /> ST: 治疗儿童伤风呃逆，咳嗽痰盛<br /> <br /> TT: Used for children’s wind-damage hiccup, cough and exuberant phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Used for cold, hiccup, cough and sputum in children<br /> <br /> Similarly, example 2 also translates “ 伤风” into “ wind damage”, which is not appropriate in such description. As mentioned above, additions and deletions, if necessary, can be applied to make adaptation in translation. So the revised text deletes “wind damage” and “exuberant phlegm”, adopting noun coordination and making it more readable and adaptable to the social world of target readers. <br /> <br /> Literal translation of instructions is not always the first option in the C-E translation of instructions. For translators, the first thing they should consider is to be faithful to the original meaning of the text, not the text itself. They need to make adaptation to the target readers’ social world, for instance, social status, social settings, social background, cultural differences, etc., striving to make the translation concise and easy to understand in their society. Amid such different social worlds, translators must bear in mind to render localization of different cultures to make adaptation without causing ambiguity and misunderstanding while successfully keeping and delivering the implied meanings as much as possible.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:26, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Structural Objects of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translationn====<br /> <br /> According to Verschueren, linguistic choice-making takes place at all levels of structure that shows variability of any kind (2000:15). As indicated in Part two, for the reason of limited information covered in the TCM instructions, the materials collected from the company would be more meaningful if concentrating on the lexical level of the actions and indications of the instructions, which exactly features the typical four-character structure and language traits of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Adaptation to the Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> Differences in lexical level between TCM and Western Medicine largely reflect on terminologies and descriptions of diseases. The four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning. Currently, most translation versions of instructions are literally word-for-word translation and transliteration, failing to deliver the correct meanings implied in those TCM terminologies and words and lacking readability and authenticity. Here are some typical translation examples of the actions and indications of the medicines in Yulin Pharmaceutical Company:<br /> <br /> Example 3(蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 小便频数<br /> <br /> TT: Frequent urination<br /> <br /> Example 4 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 祛风除湿 <br /> <br /> TT: Dispel wind and eliminated dampness<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve rheumatic pain<br /> <br /> Example 5 (珍黄丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 消肿止痛<br /> <br /> TT: Ease a swelling and relieve pain<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve swelling pain<br /> <br /> Chinese four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning, and most of them are the causal relationship. &quot;祛风除湿&quot; is a typical example. “风湿” is a disease caused by the invasion of “风” into the human body, if &quot;风邪&quot; cannot be removed from the body soon, &quot;湿&quot; will appear and gather together near the joints, causing diseases and pains in joints according to the medical theory of TCM. So, &quot;祛风&quot; is actually the result of &quot;除湿&quot;, and vice versa. And the example of “消肿止痛”, it is usually can be explained that pain is caused by swelling as the result of illness or injury. Once the swelling disappears, so does the pain. According to the example 3, &quot;小便频数&quot; is translated into “Frequent urination”, using the structure of &quot;adjective+noun&quot; in English, which is concise in form and easy to understand. So the revised text of example 4 and 5 can also adopt such structure and translate into &quot;Relieve rheumatic pain&quot; and &quot;Relieve swelling pain&quot;, not only implying the causal relationship between the lines, concise and simple, but also avoiding translating repetitive meaning. <br /> <br /> Example 6 (感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> ST: 止咳化痰<br /> <br /> TT: Suppress cough and transform phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve cough and sputum<br /> <br /> Example 7 (乌军治胆片)<br /> <br /> ST: 疏肝解郁 <br /> <br /> TT: To course the liver and resolve depression<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve Qi stagnation in liver<br /> <br /> From the above two examples, &quot;止咳化痰&quot; is translated into &quot;Suppress cough and transform phlegm&quot;, and &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is “To course the liver and resolve depression”. It is noticed that simply employing the literal meaning of words to translate TCM instructions doesn’t work, especially in such medical context. Translators cannot ignore the relationship between the words and the context then make translation of words in isolation. &quot;化痰' means the symptom of sputum would be relieved and cured soon after taking the medicine, and hence here, the key words are &quot;咳&quot; and &quot;痰&quot;, not the verbs. So the translation of &quot;Relieve cough and sputum&quot; would be more comprehensible and readable. And the example of &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is actually another one that can be evidenced the casual relationship in TCM language. &quot;疏&quot; and &quot;解&quot; deliver the same meaning in such context, and &quot;肝郁&quot; is not the meaning of &quot;depression of liver&quot; but the irregular circulation and stagnation of the abstract &quot;Qi&quot; in liver from the perspective of TCM. So translating into &quot;Relieve Qi stagnation in liver&quot; retains the original meaning of Chinese and makes it more acceptable. <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Summary=====<br /> <br /> Despite of the characteristics of four-character structure in TCM language, the phenomenon of repetitive meaning implied between the lines is quite common. For translators, they should fully understand what meanings indicated between those words and phrases prior to translating them into another language. According to Adaptation Theory, language has the properties of variability, negotiability and adaptability. Facing abundant choices of words in English, translators should choose the most appropriate words and expressions after negotiation to make adaptation to the lexical level, the structure, the context, etc. preferred in English.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, translators should make linguistic choices not just at the lexical level, but also the syntactic level, textual level, rhetorical level etc. literally all levels of linguistic structures. Due to the limited information contained in TCM instructions of the company, this part mainly develops from the adaptation of lexical level, finding out that most translations apply literal translation with abusive usage of words, failing to deliver the correct meaning implied in TCM language and lacking readability and authenticity.<br /> <br /> With the great progresses of TCM over years, Yin(阴) and Yang(阳), Wuxing(五行) and Qi(气), these basic concepts in TCM have been accepted and recognized among foreigners. It can be adopted directly when translating the TCM instructions. With regard to the verbs in TCM language, literal translation sometimes might arouse skepticism and confusion of target readers and fail to deliver the correct meaning and the effectiveness of medicines. Translators should adapt the wording preference in target language and try to naturalize the translation but avoid abusive usage of words. Thus translators in this field should be equipped with excellent bilingual ability, sufficient background knowledge of TCM and Western Medicine, and the understanding of linguistics.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Dynamics of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation====<br /> <br /> As stated above, translation is a process of dynamic adaptation and involves the process of structural reconstruction and meaning regeneration. According to Verschueren (2000:157) “...strategies are always involved in any type of communication.” It means not just linguistic choices, but also translation strategies are dynamic because of different time, context and structure of both sides of language usage and each of them varies in line with relative factors when language users make choices. <br /> <br /> The dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation can be embodied from different words, phrases and translation strategies, even different languages applied in the medicine instructions. As for the part of ingredients, the instructions of the company employ Latin to indicate each TCM, for instance: Radix Notoginseng (三七), Herba Artemisiae Scopariae (茵陈), Fructus Lycii (枸杞), Poria (茯苓), Radix Codonopsis (党参), Rhizoma Dioscoreae (山药). It is usually the part where doctors and experts who have the specific knowledge of this field would be interested in, and using Latin to translate the TCM is the international standard of naming medicines, hence it is a way of adaptation. While next to the part of actions and indications, it resorts to different words and phrases in English to describe the indications of each medicine. English is apparently a better option for its universality and compatibility that common people can easily understand what the medicine is, and how to take it. Such adaptation to each part of the instruction in language shows the dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation. Following are some examples to show the dynamics of adaptability in translation: <br /> <br /> Example 8 (正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To remove obstruction from collateralls and channels and relieve muscular contracture<br /> <br /> Example 9 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To relax and activate tendons<br /> <br /> As for the translation of “舒筋活络”, example 8 and example 9 employ different words to deliver the meaning. The former is detailed and elaborated, delivering the original meaning implied in the lines while the latter is relatively simple, only using “tendons” to express the meaning of “筋络”. Besides the different specifications of “正骨水” and “金装正骨水”, the ingredients of these two medicines also show a wide difference, contributing to the different words and methods adopted in the same description of indications. From the above examples, it can be noticed, to some extent, that translators go through negotiation and then make dynamic adaptation with regard to different medicines. <br /> <br /> Example 10 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 旺盛局部血液循环, 增强细胞活力<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen partial blood circulation and improve vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 11 (筋骨王)<br /> <br /> ST: 改善局部血液循环，增强细胞活力。<br /> <br /> TT: To accelerate local blood circulation, increase vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 10 and example 11 are actually delivering the same meaning, but they change the words and phrases to adapt with two different medicines. With the variability and adaptability of language, the meaning of “增强” can be expressed by “improve” and “increase”, and translators employs “partial” and “local” to express the meaning of “局部”. As for the similar actions and indications, the translations of which vary in different medicines, demonstrating that translation is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. <br /> <br /> Example 12 (睡安胶囊)<br /> <br /> ST: 清心除烦<br /> <br /> TT: To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation<br /> <br /> Example 13 (蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 壮阳益肾<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney<br /> <br /> Example 12 and example 13 apply free translation to deliver the meaning of actions and indications of these two medicines. “清心除烦” is rendered into “To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation”, and “To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney” is more like the paraphrase of “壮阳益肾”. Both the translations are much easier to understand and adapt to consumers’ mind in a better way. Unlike the others, the above translations avoid literal translation, which will be too demanding and abstract for both sides of translators and target people, and they resort to free translation to convey the correct pharmacological actions, simplifying the instructions and making adaptation with the translation strategies to better resolve the cultural differences. <br /> <br /> Translating a TCM instruction can never be a mechanical activity of making translation from one language to another; rather, it entails dynamic adaptation to the differences between source language and target language. According to the Adaptation Theory, language use is a dynamic process of linguistic choice-making, which should adapt to contextual correlates and structural objects of language. As a type of more complex language use related to different languages, C-E translation of TCM instructions is a dynamic process of adaptation to different contexts and linguistic structures. However, the dynamic linguistic choices require language users to go through negotiation with themselves when facing abundant choices to eventually choose the most appropriate forms and strategies in accordance with different contexts and linguistic structures so as to fulfill the communicative intention. In other words, translators should avoid abusive usage of variability and adaptability of language, being faithful to the original meaning of texts to meet the standard of translation as much as possible.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Being a significant carrier of TCM information, the instruction is a bridge that links the excellent TCM theories and effectiveness to the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative”, TCM will be learned and used across the world at a much larger scale. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, this paper employs the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, mainly concentrating on the adaptation to the mental world, social world, and the adaptation to the lexical level to study the C-E translation of the TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn that the C-E translation of TCM instructions of the Company is not that satisfactory after research. It doesn’t deal with the cultural differences between TCM and Western Medicine properly. Literal translation and abusive usage of words frequently appear in the C-E translation of instructions, failing to deliver the correct meaning and lacking readability and credibility, having a bad impact on the brand image. While at same time, there are some places worthy to be praised from the perspective of Adaptation Theory. It shows the dynamics of adaptability in the C-E translation of TCM instructions, which can be demonstrated through the various words, phrases, strategies applied in the process of translation. Still, much work has to be done to improve the quality of translation and make it more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, as a way of language use, translation involves the continuous making of linguistic choices. Not only words, language forms and structures, but also strategies should be taken into consideration when translating. Translators should adapt with the differences between English and Chinese, and meanwhile, pay attention to the features of TCM instructions, avoiding some obvious mistakes to achieve the ultimate goal of keeping the original meaning of TCM while delivering the accurate and rigorous medical information to foreigners. So the author advocates that adaptation is required during the process of translation, combined with transliteration and literal translation for some simple and basic concepts in TCM that have been well-recognized by foreigners, free translation and domesticating translation should be adopted with regard to the cultural differences in translation, if necessary, additions and deletions are also appreciated on the basis of being faithful to the original meaning of texts. <br /> <br /> Unfortunately, due to the limited materials collected and the incompetence of the author, the analysis of this paper only applies the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability of Adaptation Theory, failing to study in a more comprehensive way. In addition, this paper only conducts the research in studying the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, failing to reach at a larger scale. Last but not least, there are still some drawbacks and imperfections in Adaptation Theory, which the author fails to touch upon for lacking of knowledge and experience. Still, the author is willing to take all comment and advice.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> As Homby. (2014). ''Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary''. ''The Commercial Press, Oxford University, extended eighth edition''. <br /> <br /> Bhatia, V. K. (1993). Analyzing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings. ''Longman''. <br /> <br /> Carl James. (2003). Error in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> Fischbach, Henry. (1998). Translation and Medicine. American Translators Association Scholarly ''Monograph Series''. <br /> <br /> Nigel Wiseman. (2000). Translation of Chinese medicine terms: A source oriented approach. University of Exeter. <br /> <br /> Verschueren J. (1987). Pragmatic as a Theory of Linguistic Adaptation. ''International Pragmatic Association''. <br /> <br /> Verschueren J. (2000). ''Understanding Pragmatics''. ''Edward Arnold Ltd.'', Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. <br /> <br /> Cao Qing 曹情. (2011). 中文药品说明书的翻译[Translation of Chinese Drug Instructions]. 南华大学. <br /> <br /> Fu Wei 傅微. (2006). 语篇视点理论在中药说明书翻译中的运用[Application of Discourse Perspective Theory in Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions]. 广西大学外国语学院. <br /> <br /> Luo Haiyan 罗海燕. (2009). 功能主义翻译理论关照下的中药说明书的翻译[Translation of Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Functionalist Translation Theory]. 南京中医药大学. <br /> <br /> Li Zhaoguo 李照国. ( 2008). 中医基本名词术语英译国际标准化研究[Research on International Standardization of English Translation of Basic Terminology of Traditional Chinese Medicine]. 上海科学技术出版社. <br /> <br /> Ma Bangxin 马邦新. (1998). 英文药品说明书的翻译[Translation of English Medicine Instructions]. ''中国科技翻译'' (1998), (3)16-18. <br /> <br /> Ni Zhishou, Liu Cuiwei 宁之寿, 刘翠微. (1997). 也谈药品说明书的翻译[On the Translation of Medicine Instructions]. ''上海科技翻译'' (1997), (2)31-33. <br /> <br /> Ouyang Lifeng 欧阳利锋. (2002). 中医药说明书的英译[English Translation of TCM instructions]. ''中国科技翻译'' (2002), 15(2)17-20. <br /> <br /> Xiao Qiong 肖琼. (2008). 中医药说明书的翻译[Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions]. 广东外语外贸大学.<br /> <br /> Yuan Binye 袁斌业. (2009). 语言顺应论对翻译的启示[Enlightenment of Linguistic Adaptation Theory on Translation]. ''四川外国语学院院报'' (2009), (9)111-113. <br /> <br /> Zhang Mengjing 张梦井. (1995). 药品说明书的英译问题[Problems of English Translation on Medicine Instructions]. ''中国科技翻译'' (1995), (2)6-9. <br /> <br /> Zhou Shumei 周书梅. (2013). 顺应论视角下的翻译研究[Translation Studies from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory]. ''山东省农业管理干部学院学报'' (2013), 30(5)138-140. <br /> <br /> --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;莫玲 Mo Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Science and technology constitutes a primary productive force. In the contemporary era, with the continuous development of science and technology, artificial intelligence has shown more and more mighty strength, and machine translation has also been derived in the field of translation. In this regard, many people are beginning to worry that machine translation will one day replace human translation. When it comes to me, science and technology is people-oriented, and the continuous development of it aims at servimg mankind in a better standard. Therefore, it is not realistic to separate science and technology from humanities. The appropriate way to solve this dilemma is to integrate the two to achieve the perfectly qualitative change of &quot;1 + 1 &gt; 2&quot;. This paper will first analyze the cons and pros of human translation and machine translation, and then explore the development of computer-aided translation based on the combination of the two types above and the progress should be made in different sectors among our society.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Human Translation, Machine Translation, CAT, Compatibility<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 机器翻译会取代人工翻译吗？<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 科技是第一生产力。在当代，随着科学技术的不断发展，人工智能展现出越来越强大的实力，在翻译领域也相应地衍生出了机器翻译。对此许多人都开始担心机器翻译终有一天会取代人工翻译。在笔者看来，科技以人为本，科学技术的不断发展是为了更好的为人类服务。因而将科技与人文割裂开来的观点是并不现实的，最好的解决办法应是将二者结合起来，实现1+1＞2的完美质变。本文将分析人工翻译与机器翻译各自的优势和劣势，进而探讨二者相结合的后的计算机辅助翻译的发展和社会各个层面应该做出的改进。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 人工翻译，机器翻译，计算机辅助翻译，融合<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> In these years, artificial intelligence has experienced a skipping development and more and more advanced technologies have been applied in our daily life. For example, many factories have introduced some robots to replace the repetitive works done by ordinary workers before. In addition, some restaurants have adopted robots to send the dishes to guests, etc. More and more cases in our life demonstrate the gigantic strength of science and technology.(He Liutao 2018,17)<br /> <br /> Panicked by this reality, a constantly growing number of people are worrying that they will lose their job one day when the artificial intelligence are more practical than them. This anxiety is also quite common in translation industry. In this field , human translation and machine translation are the two main kinds of translation methods. The former merely relies on the single person to do tranlation, while the latter is based on the vast corpus and developed technique.(Liang Jie 2020,18)<br /> <br /> Since this enormous contrast, some people put forward a question that “Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation?” The answer is absolutely “no”. Actually, these two approaches are not incompatible. Instead, they both have their own advantages and disadvantages and through analysis,we can find that they can remedy their shortbacks by learning the valuable aspects from the other so as to form a “perfect pitch”. In other words,they are complementary to each other.(Pang yingyu 2019,164)<br /> <br /> Based on these viewpoints, first of all , the pros and cons of human translation and machine translation will be displayed one by one and then the new type of translation---computer-aided translation will be analyzed in detail. At last,confronted with the constantly changing world there are somes personal suggestions for those who work in the translation industry or those who are preparing to march into this field as well as government, colleges and universities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Pros and Cons of Human Translation and Machine Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Human Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 The Advantages =====<br /> <br /> As the traditional main force of translation, mankind own some irreplaceable edges.Firstly, they master a sordid foundation about the translation work, including extensive vocabularies, complex grammars, the construction of sentences and so on and so forth. Therefore, it’s hardly for them to make such mistakes.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)<br /> <br /> Secondly, due to the advanced education they have received, a great number of them has an encyclopedic knowledge about many fields. Furthmore, during the years of learning foreign languages, they have acquired not only the language knowledge but also the histories and cultures of these countries so that they are able to handle with the problems of cultural differences in translation very well.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, people have an capacity of rich emotion and thoughtful mind. When facing with some obscure translation materials, at the beginning they will make a transformation about it and then translate it with their understanding yet maintaining the main idea of the original texts.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Disadvantages=====<br /> <br /> However, the volume of brain is limited and it is impossible for mankind to memorize all the things in the world. Sometimes, they may forget what they have translated and in result cause a repetition of the same work they have done before.It is showed from some data that the output of human translation is 2000 words per person in eight hours. Actually that speed is a little bit slow especially when there are strenuous tasks waiting for them. Besides, editors have to check and revise their translations which is quite time-wasting.(Chen Yi 2018,30)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most translators work for governments, institutions, companies or some rich indivuduals. And right now in the translation market ,the standard price are several hundred Yuan per thousand characters. And the wage of intepreting is even more expensive. As a result, ordinary people won’t bother to hire a private translator. Under some circumstances, human translation can’t give a hand to the needed immediately. For instance, when Chinese people are travelling in the foreign countries, they can’t understand the words of those foreigners. At that time, an opportune and cheap translation tool is more desirable.(Pang yingyu 2019,164)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Machine Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Superiorities=====<br /> <br /> In the condition mentioned above, machine translation can meet tourists' needs perfectly. There are many translation applications in the app store, just like Baidu Translation, Google Translation, Youdao Translation, Hujiang Translation and so on. All of them are free for using and able to translate the language you input in just 1 second. And these applications have covered dozens of foreign languages so as to be the optimizing choice for many people.（Zhu Chaowei 2018,102）<br /> <br /> Besides the adoptation in daily life, machine translation has also been utilized in some important conferences. &quot;Translation headset&quot; is one of the most popular translation tools. It is usually combined with a smartphone application to translate the foreign language it heard to users. &quot;After decades of research, we have created an algorithmic framework to recognize language patterns in the same way as the human brain (neural network),&quot; said Andrew Ochoa, CEO of Waverly labs. By combining it with speech recognition technology, we have greatly improved the accuracy of translation. &quot; Therefore, Wearable translation machines made by companies like Waverly labs are really popular at conferences(Global Collections 2020,17).<br /> <br /> With the development of science and technology as well as the artificial intelligence, the system of machine translation has been polished step by step. Nowadays, it has built a huge corpus which contains tens of millions of storations, and translation with high accuracy can be available in some non-literary texts.(Luo Huazhen,Fan Zhengqin,Yi Yongzhong 2017,21)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 The Inferiorities=====<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, a lot of noticeable defects still remain in machine translation. When it comes to the literary genres just like proses, poems and ancient essays, machine translation is not familiar with the language habits of these genres so as to incline to a failure in comprehending the latent meaning of the words thus nor it can work out an outstanding translation.(Liang Jie 2020,17)In most cases it will adopt the method of literal translation, which is a confusing version, which can not express the idea of source language and the images in it can be missed. Take the following poem for example:<br /> <br /> 江雪<br /> <br /> 唐 柳宗元<br /> <br /> 千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br /> <br /> 孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。<br /> <br /> '''Version of Baidu Translation'''<br /> <br /> River Snow<br /> <br /> Birds flying away,<br /> <br /> The trail of thousands of people;<br /> <br /> A lone boat with a straw hat,<br /> <br /> Fishing alone in cold river snow.<br /> <br /> '''Version of Xu Yuanchong'''<br /> <br /> Fishing in snow(Xu Yuanchong,2000)<br /> <br /> From hill to hill no bird in flight,<br /> <br /> From path to path no man in sight;<br /> <br /> A lonely fisherman afloat<br /> <br /> Is fishing snow in lonely boat.<br /> <br /> Between these two versions, we can easily identify which one is better. In Xu’s translation, he translates “鸟飞绝” &amp;“人踪灭”into “no bird in flight” and “no man in sight”, which get rid of the form of the original text, not only expressing the deep meaning, but also conforming to the English expression habit. In addition, due to the repetition of two sentences in the same pattern, readers can feel a strong sense of monotony. And The most splendid point is the rhyme of first two sentences and last two sentences, which makes the whole poem cathy and add the musical beauty of the translation. On the contrast, the first version by machine is inferior in that it fails to express the artistic conception of the poem. People can’t feel the beauty descriped in the poem. What’s worse, some readers may puzzle about its imcomplete images and incoherent sentences!(Dong Wugang &amp; Xue Jiabao 1996, 56)<br /> <br /> Nor is this all, machines can’t grasp the rich emotions of mankind. Thus they incline to misundersand of tone and deep meaning of the words(Liang Jie 2020,18). Nay, China has a broad and profound civilization and there are numerous of polysemous words in Chinese.Just like “意思”and “方便”.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> <br /> When Zhang San send money to his leader, an interesting dialogue occurs between them. Please explain the different meanings of “意思”in the following sentences.(xuwww1234,2011.12.28,Baidu)<br /> <br /> 领导(leader)：“你这是什么意思？”(Why do you send me money?)<br /> <br /> 张三(Zhang San)：“没什么意思，意思意思。”(No special purpose, just a small gift.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这就不够意思了。” (Why don’t you tell me your true purpose?)<br /> <br /> 张三：“小意思，小意思。”(Not a big deal.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这人真有意思。” (It’s so interesting of you.)<br /> <br /> 张三：“其实也没有别的意思。”(I don’t have other special intentions on you.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“那我就不好意思了。”(Well, since that, I will accept your money.)<br /> <br /> Apparently, it may even be difficult for some people to get the deep meaning behind this dialogue let alone the senseless machine. Machine translation derived from science and technology are always under the control of human beings, they are always working under the manipulation of humanbeings. Mankind possess an intelligible brain and they can cteate new things according to their needs and imaginations. While machine can not achieve the rich creativity as human brain.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)<br /> <br /> From all the analysis above, it can be easily seen that human translation and machine translation are strongly complementary. Thus, the best way is to combine them together to learn from the other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)<br /> <br /> ====3. Computer-Aided Translation====<br /> <br /> To meet the constantly-increasing demand of the market, a new type of translation method named Computer-aided translation (CAT) emerges at the right moment. It is the combination of the two translation methods mentioned above and can help translators complete the translation work with high quality, efficiency and ease. Different from the previous machine translation software, it does not rely on the automatic translation of the computer, but accomplishes the whole translation process with the participation of human beings. Besides, its translation speed can be twice of the human translation, with the quality being the same standard or better. CAT makes a change from the arduous human translation to an automatic process, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of translation.(Pang yingyu 2019,165)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Preponderance of This Method====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Translation Memory=====<br /> <br /> Translation memory system, the main tool of computer-aided translation, is a &quot;language database storing the original text and its translation&quot;. During the time when people are working out a translation, CAT are also constructing a translation memory corpus in the backstage. The corpus can automatically store all the translated content. What contributes to our great convenience is that the translation memory system will automatically search the contents in the translation memory database in the later translation. The system will automatically output the translation results if the contents are the same as the sentences and language fragments in the memory corpus; and if the structures or vocabularies of the materials are similar to the sentences in the translation memory database, it will also show corresponding translation references and suggestions. In a word, translation memory system can benifit translators to utilize the contents of previous translation effectively and avoid repeated work, thus greatly improving the speed and quality of translation and saving translation time. According to the statistics, the application of translation memory system can increase the average productivity by 30%, and reduce the translation cost by 15-30%(Chen Yi 2018,31).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Terminology Database=====<br /> <br /> When stepping into the translation industry and becoming a professional translator. It is inevitable that people will be confronted with materials from various fields, just like iatrology, law and science. All of these industries have a great number of terminologies. While human’s brain are limited that they can’t remember all the terms. Under this condition, a ready-made terminology database can be extremely helpful.<br /> <br /> Terminology management system provides a shortcut for translators to automatically search for terms appearing in the translation materials by displaying terms in the interface window of translation memory database or using hotkeys to search the entries in terminology database. Some programs have other hotkey combinations that enable translators to add new terms to the terminology database at the same time during translation. Some more advanced systems allow translators to check interactively or in batch if the correct source / target word combination is used within and between translation memory fragments of a given project. There is also an independent term management system, which can provide workflow functions, visual taxonomy, and be used as a term Checker (similar to a spelling checker to mark terms that are not used correctly), and can also support other types of multilingual term categories, such as pictures, videos or sounds(Global Encyclopedia).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Revise and Automatic Alignment=====<br /> <br /> After translators finish their task on CAT system, it will scan the translation and figure out the numbers of mistakes including spelling, punctuation and so on. This proofeading can make one’s translation more accurate. In addition, the aligner can divide the source text and the target text into multiple fragments and make sure the right match of them so as to build a translation memory database or other reference resources. Many aligners also enable translators to manually realign mismatched fragments (Global Encyclopedia).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Current Situation====<br /> <br /> Right now, due to the tremendous market demand, CAT steps into the golden era of development. There are several popular CAT softwares such as Trados、Déjà V、TransStar、IBM Translation Manager、WordFisher、Wordfast，OmegaT, among which the most famous is the first one. Theses softwares have experienced a long period of development and are relatively mature. They make the translation progress much more convenient than before. However, CAT is not yet a consummate system right now. It has a few drawbacks to be solved. To begin with, CAT is insufficient in the construction of the corpus. Right now, most domestic CAT softwares only restore hundreds of thousands of entries in the database, which is far from enough to meet the needs of translators. In a result, many people gradually emerge the idea that CAT is not workable. People still have to rely on themselves to search the complicated documents and their work are not able to decrease as they want. Nor is this all, sometimes it can be hard for people to extract the terms they need becauese of the failure of identification and although some easy mistakes can be found out, it may be difficult for the system to check out the sophisticated errors, thus people have to spend more time to tackle with the problems in person. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Prospect====<br /> <br /> Despite of the insufficiency of CAT right now, the defects can’t obscure the virtues. CAT has greatly emancipated the productivity of translation industry. Not only that, it has played an important role in reducing translation time, cutting down labor costs, standardizing translation documents, maintaining terminology consistency and ensuring translation quality, etc. In the near future, it is bound to become the main trend of translation development with its wide application all over the world and the functional improvement of various translation software. And the problems mentioned above can be effectively polished with the advancement of science and technology.(Chen Yi 2018,32)<br /> <br /> ===4. Suggestions===<br /> <br /> Facing with the unstoppable trend of artificial intelligence and CAT, should mankind repulse it or accept it? Apparently, the second attitude is more reasonable. For one thing, we can’t hinder the inexorable trend. For another thing, this is a good opportunity for people to utilize the tool to improve themselves.<br /> <br /> So, first and foremost, people should set up an open attitude, accepting CAT with an embracing mentality. It is no need to be afraid that machine will surpass human. Instead mankind is always the master of science and technology. Putting oneself on a pedestal is not a good way to make progress. And holding fast to one’s established ideas will eventually be sifted out by the era. In Qing Dynasty(1636-1912), the emperor and even the whole country praised the nation as the great kingdom. Since ancient time, China was abundant in natural resources and they were self-sufficient and self-contained. Thus the government constantly puesued a policy of “cutting off the country from the outside world”. At that time, the Western countries were going on an unprececedentedly industrial revolution. Through the renovation, the westerners immensely improved their productive forces and their countries got a rapid development. When the trend were heard by the Chinese emperor, they disdained to learn from the technology and regarded it as a diabolic trick. In this way, the gap between the East and the West was larger and larger. It was not until the breaking of the Opium War that Chinese people realized they have lagged behind a lot. Once a country was backward, it would be insulted by anyone else. After that, the Qing government was constantly forced to sign treaties of humiliating the country and forfeiting its sovereignty. The citizens were plunged into dire suffering. Under this circumstance, social conflicts intensified. Finally, the revolution of 1911 broke out and overthrew the Qing Dynasty. A feudal dynasty of more than 200 years fell down. Since the principle that lagging behind leaves one vulnerable to attacks is even applicable to a country, let alone the ordinary people. There is an old saying that “He who goes with the tide prospers, and he who goes against it dies”. The power of science and technology should never be looked down upon. The original purpose of this is to benifit the mankind rather than overthrow us. It is a powerful tool to help us scale new heights. If tranlators refuse to acquire the new skill, they will one day be weeded out by the industry.<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of market, the quality of translation talents should be improved accordingly. The span for talent training of translation majors in China is relatively short that it has only been 10 years since the establishment of Bachelor of Translation and Interpreting(BTI) and Master of Translation and Interpreting(MTI) in Colleges and universities across the country. The current situation of translation technology education in the cultivation of translation professionals is not optimistic either. First of all, compared with foreign universities and domestic universities in Hongkong, Macao and Taiwan, there is still a long way to open translation technology courses in domestic universities. According to the research by Lv Lisong and Mu Lei(2007,37), universities in Hong Kong and Taiwan of China work closely with translation companies to provide translation technology teaching for students. However, Manchester, London University, Ottawa University of Canada and other foreign universities have established a developed system in terms of machine translation, terminology management, translation technology training curriculum, personnel training mode and translation testing, and formed an effective model. On the contrary, many domestic colleges and universities still do not pay enough attention to translation technology education, which leads to the failure of translation technology education courses in some colleges and universities. A survey of 12 universities in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Chongqing, Liaoning, Jilin, Henan, Hebei, Hubei, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Sichuan and other provinces and universities found that 11 of the 43 universities (a large part of which are &quot;985&quot; universities and &quot;211&quot; universities) with MTI have not yet opened translation technology courses, accounting for 25%. If the scope of the survey is extended to the secondary and tertiary institutions, the situation may be even worse(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106).<br /> <br /> In this regard, the education of Chinese mainland is a little bit backward. There are several reasons for this phenomenon. To begin with, the perception of the educators and education system are rather outdated. The existing education system pay much attention to the translation and interpreting ability of students. This is a common pattern in many middle schools, high schools and even colleges and universities. As an English major student, the writer has the personal experience. During the university period. The most courses still focus on the cultivation of the basic skills of students. Although there are translation and interpreting classes every week, the normal model is that at first teachers will teach some translation theories or techniques, and then there will be some exercises for students to practice. Students are almost inaccessible to computing courses. This may resulted from the short of appropriate funds for education. China is a nation with a great number of population, and its population growth rate is also fast. As a result, the pressure on education has been relatively high. The commonly used index to measure whether a country's financial education funds are sufficient or not is the proportion of financial education funds in Gross Domestic Product(GDP). In China, this proportion has been at a low level for a long time. Although the education funds have been increasing with the continuous development of China's economy after the Reform and Opening up, yet the fact is that “There are too many monks and too little gruel.”---the funds allocated to each school are still far from enough. Take Hunan province as an example. In the year of 2000, China's financial education funds accounted for 2.87% of GDP, which failed to reach the target of 4% of GDP in 2000 as proposed in the outline of China's education reform and development. In 2003, the GDP of Hunan Province was 463.4 billion yuan, and the national financial expenditure on education was 11.179 billion yuan, accounting for 2.44% of GDP, an increase of 0.01 percentage points over the previous year. However, in 2004, the proportion of national financial education expenditure in GDP decreased to 2.34%, which is still far from the target of 4%.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15).<br /> <br /> Besides the deficiency of educational funds, the allocation of it is also a cause. Usually, colleges and universities tend to use the fund to ameliorate the living condition and the construction of infrastructures, and then stuents’ scholarship and subsideies are indispensible. What is more, the salaries of teachers and all the staffs are also a big expenditure. Besides these, many colleges and universities attaches great importance to the scientific research items so that more money will be involved in these projects. Opposely, the development of the liberal arts may be less highlighted. In response to this problem, the writer deems that government and universities should both make some changes. As for government, they should carry out a policy that encourage the cultivation of computer skills; when it comes to the colleges and universities, they are supposed to enlarge the investment in the multimedia intelligent classrooms, and more techers who are sufficient in the operation of CAT should be enrolled. So far, Peking University has open a major named CAT, which is aimed to cultivate the professional talents to meet the needs of market.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Will machine translation replace human translation or not? Toward this question, the answer is an absolute “No”. As far as I am concerned, both the human tranlation and machine translation have their pros and cons. Human are able to comprehend the complex emotions in the texts and handle it with flexible expressions. In this aspect, machine can’t reach the human standard just like examples of “《江雪》”and “意思”mentioned above. Besides, mankind are familiar with the differences between various of countries so as to minimize the rate of committing a blunder, while the machine doesn’t have a brain like human’s. Their work is to translate the materials according to the superficial meanings. However, machine owns a huge volume (much more larger than human brain)which can store numerous materials and its working speed is hundreds of times of human’s(Pang Yingyu 2019,165). In the contemporary era, translators should first of all polish their translation skills and improve their ability to flexibly use various translation strategies and skills(Yao Li 2020,201-202). The old saying goes that “It takes a good blacksmith to make steel.” By the time, people are still the main force in the translation industry and machine translation stays in an auxiliary position. Human should not rely on machine to do all the works. The translators should improve their competitiveness through sordid multi-lingual knowledge, translation practice as well as stronger learning capacity and so on and so forth. At the same time, translators are also supposed to adopt an embracing attitude to acquire the comouter-aided translation skills. After all, with the further advancement of science and technology, the trend is inevitable. Actually, human translation and machine translation are highly compatible, which can greatly improve the translation efficiency and reduce people’s workload. Thus, the combination of the two methods is highly appreciated and the new type of CAT is bound to become the tide of the future.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Yi,Fan Jiaolian. 陈谊,范姣莲.(2018). 计算机辅助翻译——新世纪翻译的趋势[Computer-Aided Translation-the Trend of Translation in the New Era] 中国现代教育装备[China mordern educational equipment] 30-32.<br /> <br /> Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao. 董务刚,薛家宝.(1996). 评许渊冲诗《江雪》[Appreciation of Xu Yuanchong's Translation &quot;Fishing in Snow&quot;] 盐城师专学报[Journal of Yancheng Normal School] 56.<br /> <br /> He Liutao. 何刘涛.(2018) 人工智能背景下计算机辅助翻译在中国发展的思考[On the Development of Computer-aided Translation in China Under the Background of Artificial Intelligence] 英语广场[English Square], 17.<br /> <br /> 计算机翻译会取代人工翻译吗？[Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not?] (2020) 环球采风[Globe Collections] 17.<br /> <br /> Liang Jie. 梁洁.(2020). 人工智能对翻译行业的影响[The Influence of Artificial Intelligence on Translation Industry] 家庭科技[Family Science and Technology] 17-18.<br /> <br /> Luo Huazhen,Fan Zhengqin,Yi Yongzhong. 罗华珍,潘正芹,易永忠. (2017) 人工智能翻译的发展现状与前景分析[Analysis of the Development and Prospect of Artificial Intelligence Translation] 电子世界[Electronics World], 21.<br /> <br /> Lv Lisong,Mu Lei. 吕立松,穆雷.(2007) 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[Technique of Translation-Aided Translation and Translation Education] 外语界[The Field of Foreign Language] 37.<br /> <br /> Pang Yingyu. 庞盈羽. (2019) 谈机器翻译与人工翻译的关系—从机器翻译与计算机辅助翻译的发展角度[Analysis of the Relationship Between Machine Translation and Human Translation--From the Perspective of the Development of Machine Translation and Computer-Aided Translation]. 科学大众·科学教育[Scientific Masses·Scientific Education] 164-165.<br /> <br /> 计算机辅助翻译[Computer-aided translation].(2020). 全球百科[Global Encyclopedia] https://vibaike.com/.<br /> <br /> Wu Sheng. 吴晟.(2016) 湖南省省属普通高校财政拨款体制研究[Research on the Financial Allocation System of Provincial Colleges and Universities in Hunan Province] 湖南师范大学[Hunnu Normal University] 14-16.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong. 许渊冲. (2000) 唐诗三百首[Translation of Three Hundred Tang Poems].<br /> <br /> Yaoli. 姚莉.(2020) 机器翻译时代,译者应该坚持技能与技术的融合[Translators Should Keep the Compatibility Between Skills and Technique in the Era of Machine Translation]. 科技经济导刊[Technology and Economic Guide] 201-202.<br /> <br /> Zhu Chaowei. 祝朝伟.（2018）机器翻译要取代作为人的译者了吗？—兼谈翻译人才培养中科技与人文的关系[Is Machine Translation Going to Replace Human Translators? -On the relationship between science and technology and Humanities in the cultivation of translation talents]. 外国语文[Foreign Literature] 106-108.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation 袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi==<br /> <br /> '''浅析汉语公示语的英译'''<br /> <br /> 英语笔译 袁天翼<br /> <br /> 摘 要：在这个经济全球化、政治多极化、文化全球化、科技现代化、信息共享化的时代，全球经济纵深发展，人类命运共同体日趋形成，人与人、国家与国家间的联系日益密切，这时，汉语公示语的英译问题便被提上了议程。尽管中国汉语公示语的英译翻译员越来越多，但是汉语公示语的英译问题层出不穷。本文简析了汉语公示语定义，例举了生活中常见的一些汉语公示语的英译典型问题，并针对此给出了一些翻译方法与策略，并进行了未来展望。<br /> <br /> 关键词：汉英翻译；公示语；翻译策略<br /> <br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': In this economic globalization, political polarization, cultural globalization, technological modernization and informative sharing age, the global economy is deeply developing, and the human community with a shared future is coming into shape day by day. The relations among people and among countries are increasing day by day. At this time, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation become the topic of us. Though the number of Chinese-English public sign translators in China grows daily, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation emerge endlessly. This passage offers a brief analysis of the definition of Chinese-English public sign, points out some typical problems in Chinese-English public sign translation we see in daily life, analyzes some methods and strategies of Chinese-English public sign translation, and gives some outlooks on the future of Chinese-English public sign translation. <br /> <br /> '''Key Words''': Chinese-English translation; public sign; translation strategies<br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> '''I. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> &quot;The public sign is a specially applied literary form that was formed in modern times, which has a long history. It is used in public places and seen by the masses thus realizing unique communicative purposes. The public sign has become a crucial link in the communication between China and other countries in the international community. In the meantime, there are increasingly more experts and scholars paying attention to the translation of Chinese public signs into English.&quot; (Reiss 2004,12). <br /> <br /> &quot;As an important tool for international communication, Chinese-English public sign translation plays an extremely important role in foreign friends’ understanding of Chinese culture&quot;.（Wang Huili 2019,31） Its applied range is so wide that nearly covers every aspect of our daily life, including: Introductions of tourism trips, propaganda languages, warning languages, road signs, shop signs and advertising boards. It is mostly used on public infrastructure: Subway, airport, taxi, pier, tourist spot, park, street, community, shop, supermarket, restaurant, bank, hotel, cinema, hospital and etc. It uses simple words or sentences, or pictures only, or combines words and pictures to pass useful information to the masses, which not only serves Chinese people, but also is shown to the foreigners, which can help foreigners in China study, work and live. <br /> <br /> '''II. The Current Situation of Chinese-English Public Sign'''<br /> <br /> Public signs are an art of convincing others through effective verbal means, which are also components of language activities. They, in essence, belong to a special kind of communication. However, it is not a kind of face-to-face communication that takes place in a specific period of time, and none of the participants will appear as individuals. The object is for all the people with social behaviors in the place, regardless of gender, age, class or education level. Public signs belong to “one-way communication”, and its binding force or influence will not be as big as direct communication, but it is also used to act with words and deeds, and affects the behavior of the audience with a clear purpose. &quot;Public signs have become a natural window for Chinese and other languages in various economic, trade and cultural activities.&quot;（Yang Yang 2020, 34）<br /> <br /> Public signs are everywhere, so what are their functions? &quot;Their functions can be divided into showing, warning, profiting, encouraging and eulogizing such five functions. (Zhou Shuxia 2017,239)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the public sign that has showing function offers all-round information about service, order, or informing service. Such as “Car Rental” and “Children and Senior Citizens Free”.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the public sign that has warning function comes up with restrictive or obligatory demands to typical people, which is often used through order, ban, information or persuasion tones. Such as: “Stand in Line” , and “Thieves Beware”. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the public sign that has profiting function promotes consumption, thus realizing enterprises’ economic profits. Such as: “Daily Special”, “Daily Service”. <br /> <br /> Fourthly, the public sign that has encouraging function calls for or encourages people to take actions for certain goals or tasks. Such as: “One Family, One Child”, and “Working together, we can make a world of difference”. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, the public sign that has eulogizing function gives wishes and chants to certain events or people to reach the goals of propaganda or education. Such as: “One World, One Dream”. &quot;<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (Eugene Nida 2004, 15) said, &quot;Chinese-English translation of public signs embraces the conversion of two different languages and two different cultures, which is not only to achieve the language equivalence, cultural equivalence, but also to enhance the possibility of understanding and the reading of Chinese-English translation of public signs.&quot;<br /> <br /> However, there are many problems in Chinese-English public sign translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In 2003, Clive W. J. Granger, a Nobel Economics Prize Winner talked of the settings and problems of public signs in Beijing when he was interviewed by a program of Beijing TV Station. He said: “Foreigners will feel a little bit nervous when they come to China, because they can not understand public signs in China. ” Clive’s comment extremely shows current problems in Chinese-English public sign translation .&quot;(Lv Hefa 2005,38)<br /> <br /> On June 20th, 2017, a national standard conference of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service was held in Beijing. The Vice Minister of the Education Ministry and Director of the National Language Commission stressed in the meeting: “The language and character industry of China is expanding from ‘striving to promote and normally use the national common language, scientifically protecting every nation’s language and character’ to ‘managing social foreign language use and improving foreign language service quality’. ” The national standard of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service is the standard of English translation and writing quality in public service fields, which stipulates the English translation principles, methods and requirements of transportation, tourism, culture, entertainment, physical exercise, education, medical health, postal service, telecommunication, catering, accommodation, commerce and finance these thirteen service fields. &quot;Nowadays, public signs are often bilingual to meet the needs of international communication.&quot;(Wang Xunian 2020,69)<br /> <br /> To sum up, there are still many major problems in China’s public sign translation, common and ubiquitous, which make foreign experts comment like that and the government use national force to normalize translation standards. &quot;Whether the translation of public signs in scenic spots into English is harmonious and unified has a great influence on cross-cultural communication &quot;.(Pinkham John 2000, 156)<br /> <br /> '''III. The Causes of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> '''3. 1 The Basic Linguistic Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> To be a proficient Chinese-English public sign translator, one must, fundamentally, grasp basic linguistic rules of English and Chinese, otherwise he or she must make stupid mistakes, and some even primary learners will not make. &quot;There are many problems in the translation of public signs from English to Chinese, which should not be limited to the translation of the original text, but should pay attention to the context of public signs.&quot;(Chen Daobin 2020, 9)<br /> <br /> [[File:No.1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.1<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3684466622,1422277554&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.1 is a public sign put on a glass wall in a mall, the Chinese reads“全年无休(QUAN NIAN WU XIU)”, and it tries to use English to express that “This business runs the whole year”, so the precise translation should be “NO REST DAY ALL YEAR”. But there, we can see it was translated as“365DAY SA TEAR”, which does not belong to the grammatical law of English. So this is a big mistake. Only one who understands Chinese can understand. But for ordinary foreigners, they can not. So, when translating Chinese-English public sign, the translator must be clear about the target language, and know the basic grammatical venation, then begin to translate, instead of randomly putting some letters together and finishing. Otherwise, the translator will make a big mistake like this picture.<br /> <br /> A public sign in Haichang Ocean Park of Chengdu City, Sichuan Province reads &quot;Jellyfish Museum, the 2th floor&quot;. More specifically, it is a floor direction sign. Here, the correct English for the second floor should be “2nd”, not “2th”. Apparently that the translator has poor knowledge of English vocabulary, which led he or she to make such a ridiculous mistake. Actually, in English language, if there is a number contains “11”, “12”or “13”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “11th”, “12th” or “13th” respectively; And if there is a number contains“1”, “2”or “3”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “1st”, “2nd” or “3rd” respectively. For example, “101st”, “111th”, “201st”, “211th” and etc. <br /> <br /> No.3 is a warning sign of a tourist spot, reads &quot;The rockery danger, pleases no climb&quot;, whose Chinese meaning is “There stands a rockery, it is dangerous to climb, every one is forbidden from climbing it. ” The Chinese meaning is alright. But, when it was translated into English, a big mistake occurred: “The rockery danger Pleases no climb.”<br /> <br /> First, there should be “climbing” after “no”, not “climb”, this is just English grammar knowledge that can be learned in primary school; And the “Please” is followed by a “s”, why does the translator use third person singular at the top of a imperative sentence? Second, if the translator wants to tell the tourists that the rockery is dangerous and mustn’t be climbed, he or she should write: “The rockery is dangerous. Please don’t climb” or “Dangerous rockery. No climbing” or just “No climbing”. Unless the foreigners who see this sign have supreme understanding ability, they will not easily make sense of it. <br /> <br /> 3. 2 The Tendency Towards Chinglish and Mechanical Translation<br /> <br /> Knowing a little about English, then begin to translate public sign. This is ridiculous, which is definitely going to cause obvious mistakes. Especially when translating, there is a high probability that the translator will make Chinglish errors, or tend to seek for mechanical translation, which are the most common public sign translation problems in mainland China. With regard to the tendency towards Chinglish, it only proves that the translator’s basic skills of English are not so proficient, and he or she does not fit for translation work. For the tendency towards mechanical translation, on the one hand, it demonstrates that the translator is lazy, who is not willing to think about how to translate. On the other hand, it reveals his or her lack of basic English language knowledge. In fact, these two both can be easily avoided, only if the translator pays a little more attention to it or is earnest and dedicated to their work. All those mistakes should not have been made. &quot;To understand the language style of Public signs in English, it is imperative to carry out idiomatic and standardized translation of public signs in Chinese.&quot;(Pang Yan 2020, 34)<br /> <br /> No.4, this is a sign that is hung in an Internet celebrity milk tea shop: Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province. It reads &quot;out of the cup area&quot;. It originally means that the customers should queue here to get their milk tea after finishing paying. The translator should have easily translated “出杯区（CHU BEI QU）”into “FETCH AREA”, but it was translated as “OUT OF THE CUP AREA”, what a joke! Purely it was translated word-for-word. The translator did not understand its true meaning. Probably it was translated by a machine. As an Internet celebrity milk tea shop runner, when dealing with such kind of cultural issues, he or she should be extremely careful, earnest and cautious, instead of casually simply copying the contents given by a machine or hiring a third-rate translator and asking him or her to randomly translate. Large scale milk tea shops must shoulder their required obligations, and undertake necessary responsibilities and duties on public sign translation. Imagine that a foreigner, who can not understand it, stand there and think: What? Standing here is standing outside the cup? Maybe something interesting would happen. Let me try!<br /> All those will bring big and standing jokes. <br /> <br /> No.5 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province. It reads&quot; tourists get off area&quot;. Its Chinese meaning is: This is the place that tourists get off from a bus. But, it was translated as “Tourists get off area”, which fully shows the ignorance and lack of English language knowledge of the translators. People may can not help doubting whether it is copied from the translation given by a machine. Famous tourist spots like this, especially this kind of 5A tourist spot, can not even shoulder the cultural obligations, let alone developing in the long run. They should make big mistakes in such a little public sign translation! Do they only want to serve Chinese well while ignoring foreigners?<br /> <br /> Similarly, No.6 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province, and it reads &quot;up the mountain&quot;. The Chinese meaning is “This is the passage that leads tourists to climb the mountain”. The translation should have been a very easy and fun job, but when the sign is showed to tourists, a big big joke was born: “Up the mountain”. We can say “uphill way” or “uphill passage”, but, the translator obviously did not realize it. What’s more, when “up” is used as a verb, it is completely another meaning. It is also the symbol of such irresponsible spot management. <br /> <br /> No.7, it is a napkin given by an Internet celebrity milk tea shop (Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province ) for free after buying its milk tea. It reads &quot;more China, more fashion&quot;. At first glance, everything seems okay. But more carefully, we can find the mistake. The Chinese meaning is “If there are more elements with Chinese characteristics, it will be more fashionable.” But when translating, maybe with the aid of machine, or lack of a solid English knowledge foundation, it becomes “More China, more fashion”. If the customer is a Chinese, it does not matter, for he or she can understand it, and just shows a smile. But if foreigners see, they will be pretty shocked by the sight: What the hell is this? They will think that this shop lacks money to hire a good translator, and the managers are stupid. Furthermore, the Chinese national image will be badly affected. In fact, this sentence can be translated as “The more sinicization there is, the more fashion there will be” or “With greater Chinese characteristics come more fashion”. Easier? It can be “More sinicization breeds more fashion”. Translated like these, won’t it be much more correct and intelligible?<br /> <br /> '''3. 3 The Misunderstanding of the Public Sign Translators'''<br /> <br /> It is the little knowledge of English of the translators that makes them can not even spell a basic word correctly; Or due to carelessness, they make mistakes on public sign translation, thus causing mistakes on the meaning of the sign. All these are significant reasons why there are so many mistakes in Chinese-English public signs. &quot;Errors and ambiguities in public signs are not allowed, as they can lead to disorientation, confusion, and lessening of the force of the warning.&quot;(Pan Xutong 2020, 251)<br /> <br /> [[File:No.8.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.8<br /> [https://www.sinaimg.cn/edu/cr/2015/0316/3124267229.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.8. The Chinese meaning of it is “The door or passage that leads you to the outside”, in short, “EXIT”. But the public sign was translated as“EXPORT”, so, what is “EXPORT”? In a word, it means trade among different countries. The commercial goods pass through the customs, being transported from one country to another country. Distinctly, the maker was careless, who has mixed the meaning of “出口（Chu Kou）”in Chinese, thus resulting in an obvious translation error. As for public sign translation, translators must weigh every word, and think over and over and over again, not just search online, and grab all the words you “discover”, which is a highly irresponsible behavior, an extremely irresponsible behavior to the society and the country . <br /> <br /> [[File:No.9.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.9<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4069547043,45136776&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.9 is from a hospital department. Its Chinese meaning is: Here is neurology emergency department. It uses a special logogram in Chinese. But, the maker was misled, so, he or she translated it as “God Medical”. If a person has a little common sense, he or she will be made to laugh wildly. It is completely the “Understanding of a sentence simply by a word”! That should be translated as “ Department of Emergency Neurology”. Such a casual translation will make Christians think that they can see God for real. Whether can he see death here or a way to heaven with a passionate God serving you? To some extent, this is disrespect for Christians, which can even cause disputes. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.10.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.10<br /> [https://ss0.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4055489075,1169617432&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.10 is photographed in a company building. Here, the Chinese means: this is the place where you can get boiled water. However, the translator of this public <br /> sign made a huge mistake, because he or she disintegrated the three Chinese words one by one, and thus translating them one by one, which can not be understood as a whole, let alone enable foreigners to understand the meaning of this public sign, and as a result, foreigners may not receive the service that they deserve. What’s worse, many people, including intelligent Chinese, when seeing this disqualified translation, will definitely be amused, and feel funny: What is this guy’s literate level?<br /> <br /> As a matter of fact, this public sign can be translated as “Boiled Water Room”. “开水”means “boiled water” in English. Certainly, the translator treated the “开”as a verb “open”, which is absolutely wrong. <br /> <br /> Further, this is a single room, not two or more, so we must use “room”, which is the plural form, instead of the singular form “rooms”. <br /> <br /> 3. 4 The Falsification and Loss of Information<br /> <br /> Originally, the managers want to use signs to warn people, but due to mistranslation, the information is tampered and missed, resulting in an opposite consequence, and producing big jokes.&quot;Standardized translation of public signs can improve the international language environment of cities, on the other hand, it is responsible for improving the level of urban opening to the outside world.&quot;(Liu Peiyu 2020, 67)<br /> <br /> No.11 is a public warning sign in Liuxiang Barbecue Restaurant. It reads &quot; carefully hot&quot;. Is it a true warning? In the foreigners’ opinion, it is not. People who speak Chinese can realize that this sign was designed to warn customers not to be burned by the hot oven. However, the English translation is far from what it originally means. The correct translation can be “Careful! Hot!” or “Be Careful of the Hot Oven!” But according to the translation on the sign, it means “Carefully burn yourself”. Luckily, this is a small scale restaurant, if it were a large one, its reputation would be badly affected. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.12.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.12<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3765137851,1011242048&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.12 is a public sign in a large shopping center. As we all know, modern shopping centers now always use smooth and shiny tile floor as the ground, which makes the shopping centers look beautiful and attractive. However, smooth though it is, one big safety problem then comes into shape: The ground is too smooth to make shoppers slide and fall. Later, the managers made public signs like No.12 to warn people not to fall. The Chinese warning is okay, Chinese shoppers can understand, but when foreigners see this, he or she will burst out laughing: What? You order me to slide on the floor with care? What on earth do you mean? I have even seen an Internet celebrity girl posting an video clip that tells us a story that satirizes this mistranslation: The girl and her father slide joyfully on the ground in a shopping center while murmuring “Carefully slide! Carefully slide!” As a matter of fact, The correct Chinese-English translation should be “Caution! Slippery!” or “Beware of Wet Floor” or “Caution! Wet Floor”. Each one of the three is okay. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.13.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.13<br /> [https://ss2.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=461657809,3986868053&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.13 is a public sign that is put on the ceiling of a restaurant’s stair. Here, the translator wanted to pass such information by Chinese and English: Watch <br /> your head, do not hit the low ceiling of the stair. Be careful. Though the Chinese information is okay, the English, however, can not by understood by others, especially foreigners. <br /> <br /> Here, the makers wanted to warn the danger of the low ceiling, not to ask people to purposely hit the ceiling. So we can correct it as: “Watch Your Head”, or “Be Careful”. Both are okay. <br /> <br /> Here, the translator made a mistranslation, which reversed the original meaning when translating, thus producing a huge laughingstock. First, “碰”is not “meet”, but “hit”, according to this specific environment. It does not mean “meet someone”. Second, “小心碰头” means not to hit the ceiling, not to “meet carefully”. <br /> <br /> Throughout so many examples, every one can see that the mistakes of public sign translation are ubiquitous and common in daily life, which you can even randomly pick up one from any store you meet. Pervasive errors like these in public signs will negatively affect China’s reform and opening-up and the integration into international community, which will not only make foreigners misunderstand the meaning, but also seriously damage China’s national image. Therefore, the study of the public sign translation is extremely urgent and imperative. At present, translators must start from basic demand of Chinese-English public sign translation, endeavor to learn English well, cultivate a good sense of utilizing English and a great mindset of English utilization, proactively take part in English translation practice, and be highly alert and form a sense of “Using English language in a proper, correct, suitable and decent way”. Only then will the situation of Chinese-English public sign translation turn better. &quot;Due to the specific role of public signs, their translation is different from literary translation and has powerful functional characteristics.&quot;(Liu Hui 2020, 43)<br /> <br /> IV. Public Sign Translation Methods<br /> <br /> There is a saying goes: “Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards. ” So is the Chinese-English public sign translation. Zhang Yan (Zhang Yan 2015,44) maintains in her paper that, &quot;the public sign translation methods can be summarized as four kinds. <br /> <br /> '''4. 1 Amplification'''<br /> <br /> Many new words that are with Chinese characteristics, especially combined with numbers, need using amplification to introduce to foreign readers. For example, in the past, “五讲四美三热爱(Wu Jiang Si Mei San Re Ai）”was translated as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves”. Many foreigners said that they could not understand it. Later, it was revised as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves” with the notation “ stress on decorum, manners, hygiene, discipline and morals; beauty of the mind, language, behavior and the environment; love of the motherland, socialism and the Communist Party”. Hence, foreigners can easily understand its connotation. Public signs are information-type and calling-type texts, which should focus on the information transmission of the original text in translation. Therefore, communicative translation can be regarded as a good theoretical basis.(Shen Jianwen 2020, 69)<br /> <br /> '''4. 2 Ellipsis'''<br /> <br /> To make sure that the translation is concise and intelligible, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators must properly delete unnecessary words according to English expressing habits to achieve overall generalization. Such as: “Food Paradise”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 3 Re-translation'''<br /> <br /> Due to cultural differences, many folk adages with Chinese characteristics will not be understood by readers once simply read literally. So translators can moderately reorganize those sentences that can not be translated or understood. Such as: “Drinking and Driving Costs Your Life”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 4 Backward Translation'''<br /> <br /> There are two cases: Translating the cultural expressions that are borrowed from translation back into their original forms in the target language; Translating the expressions with obvious cultural characteristics into the idiomatic expressions in the target language. Such as: “Venus Florist”. <br /> The English public sign has its own cultural and pragmatic meanings. When doing the Chinese-English public sign translation, translators should consider about the cultural differences and avoid any form of ambiguity, misunderstanding or mistranslation, and offer high quality information service, thus making public sign translation advance with the times. &quot;<br /> <br /> '''V. Public Sign Translation Strategies'''<br /> <br /> He Xueyun (He Xueyun, 2006) holds in her thesis that, &quot;theoretically, semantic translation and communicative translation differ much. Semantic translation strives to keep the language specialty and unique express method of the original work, in order to express the original work’s thinking process; However, communicative translation’s key point lies in spreading information and enabling people to think, feel and act, giving play to the function of information that language conveys and the consequences it causes. &quot;Public sign translation must focus on results, and put readers first, only by this can we improve the current situation of public sign translation, thus achieving the purposes of public sign translation. <br /> <br /> Before beginning to do anything, we all need a world view and methodology to guide us to behave well. Likewise, when doing Chinese-English public sign translation, we also need guiding ideology to direct us. Here, I will show you four Chinese-English public sign translation strategies, which act as guiding ideology, which are definitely going to be a powerful weapon for you. Just remember them and practice them, you will gain a lot. &quot;To strengthen the research on the Translation of public signs into English, improve the translation quality of bilingual public signs and improve the translation of bilingual public signs are the urgent tasks to promote the cross-cultural communication of city image.&quot;(Niu Haihua 2020, 118)<br /> <br /> '''5.1 No Grammatical, Semantic and Logical Error'''<br /> <br /> The most basic prerequisite of public sign translation is that there is no language error: No grammatical error, no vocabulary spelling error, no language context error, no Chinglish or machine-aided translation error. <br /> <br /> “This is office area, tourists mustn’t enter” can be translated as “Staff Only”, not “OFFICE AREA PLEASE DON’T COMING”, or you will make a grammatical and redundant error. “Be careful, don’t slip into water” can be translated as “Caution! Deep Water!” instead of “TAKE CARE! FALL INTO WATER CAREFULLY!” Otherwise, people will can not help laughing. <br /> <br /> One translator was not able to translate “The grass is so beautiful, are you sure you wan to walk on it?” into English public sign, so here comes <br /> “Fangcaoqiqi riding the Heren”. What a laughingstock! This is a combination between Chinese and English, without any grammar structure. Not to translate it will be a much better choice. We can concisely translate it as “Don’t Walk on the Beautiful Grass!”<br /> <br /> '''5. 2 Concise and Intelligible Translation'''<br /> <br /> One prominent character of public sign is conciseness. It asks people to ensure the translation is crystal clear and precise, without any compound or obscure sentence. Only by achieving this can the signs become popularized, instead of making people think over and over and over again to discover their cryptic meaning. <br /> <br /> The public sign translation must be concise and intelligible, which means that you not only need to precisely convey what the maker means to people, but also must be concise. People can understand it immediately without comprehension deviation or ambiguity. <br /> <br /> '''5. 3 Understanding of Cultural Background Differences'''<br /> <br /> When translating, every translator must thoroughly understand the culture of the targeted language. Translators must comprehensively understand each specific use of the targeted language under different cultural backgrounds. If not doing so, it may cause severe disputes, and even cause irresistible outcomes. Here are several examples. <br /> <br /> “Dragon” is a legendary animal in traditional Chinese culture. Chinese people often view themselves as “dragon”, and even say that they are “Descendants of the Dragon”. Thus, “Dragon” means holy and sacred thing in Chinese culture. But in English speaking countries, the meaning of “dragon” is not so. In these countries, “dragon” means something evil like Satan, sometimes it is even used to describe thugs, scoundrels or other bad behaviorists. Therefore, invariably coping the icon of “dragon” and using it in other cultures is a definite mistake. In a word, a public sign language translator must totally comprehend the cultural background differences. <br /> <br /> '''5. 4 Obedience to Certain Norms and Standards'''<br /> <br /> As long as someone is translating, he or she must obey certain rules, norms and standards. He mustn’t translate according to his will. This is a truth. <br /> For example, according to China’s first set of standards on how to regulate the use of foreign languages in China, which was jointly issued by the State Standards Commission and the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine on November 20, 2017 and officially implemented on December 1, 2017, some of the standards have been specified in detail. <br /> <br /> Names of tourist spots: Names of mountains, rivers and lakes should be written in Chinese pinyin. Translations of names of temples should vary according to different situations, so are the towers’ names. In line with external service needs, English explanations can be added. <br /> <br /> '''VI. The Future of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> China is a major powerful country, and is the country with the second highest Gross Domestic Product in the world, which is why China should keep close economic and cultural relationships with other countries. &quot;In order to integrate China with international community in a better way, there must be high quality public sign translation. To optimize the translation quality of public signs, the most important way is to realize the standardization of the translation of public signs.&quot;(Ding Ying 2020,78)<br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation must improve the China’s influence power in international community. High quality public sign translation represents that China is rich in translators and intellects, and shows that China can fulfill obligations and shoulder responsibilities as a major country. Achieving this means China not only takes responsibilities for Chinese people, but also for all human beings. Good quality public sign translation is definitely going to significantly synergize the course of reform and opening-up. High quality public sign translation is obliged to facilitate foreigners to travel in China, boost domestic consumption demand, form a new growth point for economy, promote the rise of Gross Domestic Product, and accelerate the comprehensive, coordinated and sustainable development. High quality public sign translation is also an integral part of the New Development Philosophy: Innovation, coordination, green, open and share. High quality public sign translation corresponds to the New Normal of Chinese economy. At present, the economy of China has been changing from developing at a high speed to develop at high quality, and is at the stage of changing economic development mode, transforming driving forces of economic development and optimizing the economic structure, so high quality public sign translation is badly needed. Thus, considering the big change of Chinese economy, achieving high quality public sign translation is an urgent affair. &quot;Public signs have a strong linguistic function and social value. Pragmatic or social pragmatic failures caused by cultural differences often occur in the translation of public signs. Therefore, it is necessary to fully understand the cultural connotation of the original text in translation.&quot;(Li Jing 2020, 229)<br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation has the duty to embody a city’s humanism spirit, cultural speciality and charm, which is the inevitable requirement of core socialist values and system. It also promotes the spreading of Chinese culture, and improves the influence power of Chinese culture. High quality public sign translation also levels up Chinese people and overseas Chinese’s sense of identity and belonging. What’s more, it can narrow the gap between Chinese and foreigners, and acquire more recognition from them towards China. Domestically, high quality public sign translation can strengthen national cohesion; Externally, it will strengthen China’s soft power, and increase China’s international speaking right while creating national radiation power. <br /> &quot;It is an important measure to improve China’s public service and governance capability by establishing an evaluation mechanism and promoting the standardization of English translation. It is of great benefit to further improve China’s service level of opening to the outside world, demonstrate its cultural soft power and enhance its international image&quot; .(Guo Jinghong 2019, 154)<br /> <br /> In short, looking forward to the future of Chinese-English public sign translation from a strategic perspective, translators must remain true to their original aspiration and keep their mission firmly in mind, which is: To be devoted to the future of socialism with Chinese characteristics, to be dedicated to the landscape of translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and to be committed to the sustainable development of Chinese-English public sign translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics. &quot;The translation of public signs from Chinese to English needs to consider the actual situation of English speakers and abide by international uniform rules, so that foreign friends can directly understand the contents of public signs.&quot;(Song Yanbei 2020,64)<br /> <br /> The English translation of public signs of tourist attractions belongs to the category of cross-cultural communication, and the translator should have certain cross-cultural knowledge and awareness, so that the English translation can be more understood and accepted by the audience and truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication&quot;. (Yang Hongyu, 2019) Since reform and opening-up, China has been integrating into the international community day by day. To fully achieve this, as regards of Chinese-English public sign translation, we still have a long way to go. There is no time for us to delay the work of strengthening, proceeding, and improving public sign translation. The rising level of quality of Chinese-English public sign translation will improve both city image and urbanization level. He Xueyun contends in her article that, many people take it for granted that if one knows a foreign language, he then can translate. As a matter of fact, basic skills of public sign translation not only includes foreign language level, but also the knowledge of foreign cultures. <br /> <br /> '''VII. Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> So, how to facilitate the overall development of Chinese-English public sign translation？Firstly, we need to keep pace with the times. Language is constantly changing, so are many words and idioms, and so are public signs. In order to accurately convey information to the audience, it is essential to integrate the latest, most reliable and most accepted language into public signs. Secondly, it is necessary to fully understand the idiomatic usage of public signs, because public signs are mainly aimed at English speakers, so it is necessary to strengthen the accumulation of words, phrases and idioms, which is also the basis of translation. Thirdly, the translators of Chinese-English public signs should use accurate words and phrases in combination with specific environment and objects, and should not fail to convey the meaning or deviate from the original meaning, which otherwise will result in misunderstanding. Of course, only achieving the above is not enough. In order to do a good job in the translation of Chinese-English public signs, we need to keep improving our translation attitude and spirit of study, and constantly improve and summarize and innovate on the basis of the original, so as to make the translation of Chinese-English public signs more perfect and recognized by the international audience. &quot;It is very important for the academic community and people from all walks of life to analyze the problems in the application of public signs and put forward corresponding improvement countermeasures&quot;. (Liu Xiaoping, 2019) A Chinese-English public sign translator must fully realize and shoulder the responsibilities that translators must carry, form a sense of community of a shared future, fully acknowledge the current situation of Chinese-English public sign translation, completely learn lessons from the predecessors who have made mistakes in Chinese-English public sign translation, totally implement the four public sign translation strategies I mentioned before, to make Chinese-English public sign translation serve the construction of a moderately prosperous society in all respect, the construction of modern powerful socialist country, the construction of building China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and the realization of the great Chinese dream, that is: the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> [1]Eugene Nida &amp; Charles Taber.（2004） [The Theory and Practice of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [2]Gutt &amp; Ernst, Agust. （1991）[Translation and Relevance: Cognition and Context] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> [3]Newmark, Peter. （2001）[Textbook of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [4]Pinkham, John.（2000） [The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br /> <br /> [5]Reiss. （2004）[Translation Criticism: the Potentials and Limitations] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [6]陈道彬.（2020） 规范公示语双语标识 营造高品质横琴国际休闲旅游岛环境 珠海特区报,2020-11-09(009).<br /> <br /> [7]国家标准委.（2017） 公共服务领域英文译写规范<br /> <br /> [8]郭京红.（2019）公示语英译中的错误观点与评价方式 海外英语(23)154-155. <br /> <br /> [9]贺学耘. （2006）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略外语与外语教学,(03)57-59. <br /> <br /> [10]刘小平. （2019）公示语翻译中存在的问题及对策. 凯里学院学报, (04)72-74.<br /> <br /> [11]刘慧.（2020）公示语的汉译英翻译研究 海外英语,(16):43-44.<br /> <br /> [12]刘培钰,殷嘉媛,翟晓琳,张美琪,谢慧英.（2020）公示语英文译写与城市国际形象构建 百科知识 (27):26-27.<br /> <br /> [13]吕和发. （2005）公示语汉英翻译研究——以2012年奥运会主办城市伦敦为例 北京:中国翻译,(06)38. <br /> <br /> [14]牛海花.（2020）公示语翻译质量的提高对促进齐齐哈尔市旅游城市形象的跨文化传播的意义 理论观察 (07):118-120.<br /> <br /> [15]潘栩童,郭亚卿.（2020）交通公示语英译现状分析及策略研究 农家参谋,(21):251-252+262<br /> <br /> [16]庞燕.（2020）从语言风格谈公示语规范化翻译 海外英语,(20):34-35+41.<br /> <br /> [17]田国民. （2019）谈汉语公示语的英译英语教师(22)110-113. <br /> <br /> [18]王回力. （2019）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略 延边教育学院学报(05)31-33. <br /> <br /> [19]王旭年.（2020）社会符号学翻译法视域下西安高校公示语英译研究 渭南师范学院学报35(11):69-76.<br /> <br /> [20]杨洪玉.（2019） 旅游景点公共标识语的英文翻译 北京工业职业技术学院学报(04)122-126. <br /> <br /> [21]杨阳.（2020）“一带一路”战略视域下公示语翻译现状及策略研究 公关世界(22):34-35.<br /> <br /> [22]张焱. （2015）汉英翻译过程中的难译现象处理 北京:中国社会科学出版社(16)44-46<br /> <br /> [23]周树霞. （2017）浅析公示语的汉英翻译 校园英语(42)239-239.<br /> <br /> == A Study of Translation of Movie Titles in the Light of Venuti's Theory 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan==</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=113049 2020-12-16T12:06:06Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 专业 is missing--Mo Ling (talk) 08:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language, under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> <br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> <br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾:<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> <br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> <br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory.Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br /> <br /> Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles.（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). <br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation.<br /> <br /> In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory(Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br /> <br /> According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> <br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64). <br /> <br /> On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68). <br /> <br /> Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br /> <br /> In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br /> <br /> There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br /> <br /> At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br /> <br /> The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89). <br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation Version=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of Vanity Fair====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br /> <br /> (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br /> (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br /> (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br /> (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br /> (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br /> (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br /> (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). <br /> <br /> From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br /> <br /> Exampe 1 <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22).<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. <br /> <br /> From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br /> <br /> What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1964).''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''《翻译理论与实践》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Jan de Waard.(1986) ''From One Language to Another''《从一种语言到另一种语言》. Nashville: Thomas Nelson托马斯·纳尔逊出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''《语言、文化与翻译》.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Thackeray,William萨克雷.（2006）. ''Vanity Fair''《名利场》.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie陈岷婕.(2013).浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[On Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Nida’s “functional Equivalence”].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju郭丁菊.(2013).功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance from the Translation of Vanity Fair].Harbin:Northeast Forestry University东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong李建中.(2009)中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Beijing:Peking University Press北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai谭凯.(2011)严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance” and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence].青年作家Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi王运熙,Gu Yisheng顾易生.(2007).中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Shanghai:Shanghai Classics Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复(2009).《天演论》译例言[Preface to Evolution and Ethics].Beijing:The Commercial Press商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi杨必.(2013)《名利场》[Vanity Fair].Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei张妍梅.(2019).功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of Vanity Fair from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory].Lanzhou:Lanzhou Jiaotong University兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi张曦.(2014).翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on :Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House中国学术期刊电子出版社(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤.(2006).奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考[Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s Functional Equivalence]. Journal of Fujiann Medical University福建医科大学学报(3)62-65.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;专业 is missing&lt;/span&gt;--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;perspectives&lt;/span&gt;). Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;pointed out&lt;/span&gt;) the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;incorrect structure and obscure sentence meaning&lt;/span&gt;) By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;that&lt;/span&gt;)the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;originated from&lt;/span&gt;)his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;linguistics&lt;/span&gt;) was exerted in both of their equivalence theory(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;theories&lt;/span&gt;). Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;meanings&lt;/span&gt;) into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;wanted&lt;/span&gt;) to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;factor&lt;/span&gt;) to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;in front of&lt;/span&gt;) its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language&lt;/span&gt;). In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language&lt;/span&gt;). Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Approaches&lt;/span&gt;)=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;defined&lt;/span&gt;) by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;perspectives&lt;/span&gt;). The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;have offered guidances&lt;/span&gt;) to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;distinguish linguistic from cultural untranslatability &lt;/span&gt;)for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;possessing&lt;/span&gt;) many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian，2009：413）, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei(whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang, 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: ）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.(Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to see the world, meanwhile, more and more foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Cultural Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of public signs in tourist attractions is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of various natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br /> <br /> This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br /> <br /> After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br /> <br /> In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br /> <br /> <br /> ====1.1Translation Purpose====<br /> As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990) <br /> <br /> ====1.2Translation Methods and Strategies=======<br /> As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Content and Form of Translation =====<br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990) <br /> <br /> ====1.4 “Intelligibility” of Translation =====<br /> Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====1.5 Evaluation Criteria of Translation =====<br /> As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）<br /> <br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies on C-E translation. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces the background and development of translation strategies. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis combines the characteristics of the two kinds of texts to explore the translation strategies that suits for the two types, including domestication, foreignization, omission and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of C-E translation.<br /> <br /> ===KEY WORDS===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对中文英译的翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍翻译策略的背景和发展，然后描述新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的特点和翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，遗漏等的翻译策略。本文有望为中文英译翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process, especially for Chinese to English translation. Towards texts in different styl</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_2&diff=113021 2020-12-16T10:54:42Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac */</p> <hr /> <div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br /> *Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br /> <br /> '''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br /> *You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like &quot;Longevity Noodles&quot;) or Text B (&quot;Mooncakes&quot;), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title (&quot;Festival Meals&quot;) and arrange it accordingly.<br /> *In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br /> *For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br /> *Add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Please also add a list &quot;Terms and Expressions&quot;.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Questions&quot; section.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Answers&quot; section.<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Red Culture - Kang Haoyu 康浩宇, 202070080638==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康浩宇 Kang Haoyu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Red Culture===<br /> Chinese red culture is unique in the world. As a very important cultural resource, it has both tangible culture and intangible culture. Red culture in China refers to the advance culture with Chinese characteristics created by party and people in revolutionary years.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)<br /> <br /> ====1. Development====<br /> <br /> China has brilliant history and splendid civilization in ancient times. However, with the Opium War of 1840, China was plunged into the darkness of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression. Despite of all efforts that countless dedicated patriots had made, they still failed to change the plight. The October Revolution in Russia brought Marxism-Leninism. With Communism as the the highest ideal and ultimate goal, the Communist Party of China shouldered the historic mission of national rejuvenation. With the firm leadership of the party, Chinese people embraced national independence, people's liberation, national reunification and social stability, and stepped into a new era of prosperity and happiness.(Xi Jinpin 2017)<br /> <br /> Red culture is condensed by the Communist Party of China in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. It is an advanced Marxism culture that was inherited and developed in the new period of socialist construction. It's a collectivism culture of bravery, sacrifice and devotion that seeks happiness for the Chinese people and rejuvenation for the Chinese nation.Red culture is embodied in the aspects of ideal belief, value pursuit and spiritual outlook, and is integrated into material remains, mechanism behaviors and cultural and artistic forms.(Luo Liling, Pu Qingpin 2018, 45)<br /> <br /> First of all, red culture is a revolutionary culture, which was formed by the Chinese Communist Party in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. After the founding of People's Republic of China, the Communist Party of China led the Chinese people to inherit and carry forward the revolutionary culture. In the new period of socialist construction and reform and opening up, a vigorous and advanced socialist culture was formed, which enriched and developed the connotation of red culture. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture, and are the core value and spiritual subject of contemporary Chinese culture. As for Chinese red culture, Among them, Marxism is the soul, the common ideal of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the theme, the national spirit and the spirit of the times are the essence, and the socialist concept of honor and disgrace is the foundation. These four aspects influence, infiltrate and interact with each other, revealing the essential characteristics of red culture scientifically and completely.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)<br /> <br /> ====2. Symbols====<br /> <br /> The word “red” in “red culture” has many symbols. Chinese people have “red” complex since ancient time. Red represents authority. For, example, official documents are also called red heading documents. Red represents courage. Red is the color of Chinese national flag. Chinese military strategists and generals have a deep understanding of the role of red in war, so they use red flags to unite their morale, inspire their fighting and their courage, and summon the spirit of going forward bravely and not fearing sacrifice. Red represents honor and auspiciousness. For instance, the places are always adorned with red for conference and ceremony. People are awarded with red flower and red certificates. Red represents revolution. When Marx was asked about &quot;favorite color&quot; in his early years, he clearly answered &quot;red&quot;. In 1864, First International was founded, and its logo was red. The first army of Communist Party of China was named Red Army, and Ruijin, the first revolutionary base area, was called Red Capital. There were also red boats in South Lake and red flags in Jinggangshan.(Chen dongwang, Huang Weiliang 2006, 19)<br /> <br /> ====3. Values====<br /> <br /> Red culture has many values. Red culture has the value of history. It witnesses the early development history of the Communist Party of China. It shows the inevitability of the socialist road in China. And it is an important weapon to guide the success of Chinese revolution. Besides, red culture has the value of civilization. Carrying forward the red culture is an urgent need to cultivate a new national spirit. Red culture is important for the construction of socialism culture and ideology. Moreover, red culture has the value of economy. Red culture is a powerful driving force for the development of socialist market economy. It is an important medium of economic development under the new historical conditions. The red cultural industry has become a new economic growth point.(Wang Yidi 2007, 149)<br /> <br /> ====4. Red Culture in Nanchang====<br /> <br /> Nanchang is the capital city of Jiangxi Province and it is where August 1st uprising took place. Nanchang is renowned as the cradle of Chinese revolution and the place where the military flag rose. Because in August 1st uprising, communist party of china formed its first army in Nanchang. There are lots of red culture resources in Nanchang. <br /> <br /> Bayi Square is at the center of Nanchang city. It was built to memorize August 1st uprising. Bayi Square highlights the theme of &quot;Bayi History and Culture&quot; in all directions. The memorial area, cultural area, reminiscence area and leisure area of Bayi Square show Bayi Uprising in different forms. The landmark in the square is Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower. Besides, Nangchang August 1st Memorial Hall is a special memorial hall established to commemorate Nanchang Uprising.（Peng Bo, Zhang Li, Li Jiangyuan 2006, 58）<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] 程东旺, 黄伟良. “红色文化”的价值形态与德育功能探析[J]. 现代教育科学, 2006: 19-21.<br /> <br /> [2] 罗丽琳,蒲清平. 红色文化的思想政治教育基因及其时代价值[J].新疆师范大学学报, 2018: 45-52<br /> <br /> [3] 彭波, 张丽, 李江源. 整合红色资源,提升江西文化力[J]. 江西崛起策论, 2006:58-60.<br /> <br /> [4] 王以第. “红色文化”的价值内涵[J]. 文化论苑, 2007:149-150.<br /> <br /> [5] 习近平, 决胜全面建成小康社会 夺取新时代中国特色社会主义伟大胜利——在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告,人民日报,2017.<br /> <br /> [6] 朱桂莲,李晶. 德育视角下的中国红色文化研究综述[J]. 研究综述, 2010:87-89.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> red culture 红色文化<br /> <br /> Opium War 鸦片战争<br /> <br /> red heading documents 红头文件<br /> <br /> red army 红军<br /> <br /> August 1st uprising 八一起义<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1. What is the historical background of the birth of red culture?<br /> <br /> 2. What are two major components of red culture?<br /> <br /> 3. How many symbols dose the word &quot;red&quot; in red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 4. How many values dose red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 5. What is the landmark in Bayi Square?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1. In modern China, Communist Party of China led the Chinese revolution and led people to fight against suppression.<br /> <br /> 2. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture<br /> <br /> 3. Four. Authority, courage, honor and revolution.<br /> <br /> 4. Three. History value, civilization value and economic value.<br /> <br /> 5. Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower<br /> <br /> ==Landscape, The Ancient Tea Horse Road - Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> <br /> ===The Ancient Tea Horse Road===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. The ancient tea horse road is divided into two routes: the Sichuan-Tibet line and the Yunnan-Tibet line. The ancient tea horse road originated from the ancient southwest frontier of the tea horse mutual market, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and most prosperous in the middle and late World War II. The ancient Tea Horse Road divided into Shanxi-Gan, Shanxi-Kangtang (folk called wade ancient road, Sichuan-Tibet line is part of it), Yunnan-Tibet and other three main routes, connecting Sichuan, Yunnan-Tibet, extending into the territory of Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal, India, until reaching West Asia, West Africa, the Red Sea coast. 5 March 2013, the Tea Horse Road was listed by the State Council as the seventh batch of national key cultural relics conservation units.(Zou Jingyi 2018,131)<br /> <br /> ====Historical Routes====<br /> China’s ancient tea horse road is divided into:<br /> 1. The Shanxi-Gansu tea horse road is the main route for tea to travel westward in mainland China and exchange for horses. It is one of the main routes of the ancient Silk Road.<br /> 2. Shanxi and Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road), began in the Han Dynasty, formed by the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse each other. Due to the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government control of tea trafficking, tea trafficking sub-regional, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road.<br /> 3. The ancient Yunnan-Tibet Tea Horse Road. Formed around the late sixth century AD, it is south of Yunnan's main tea producing areas in Xishuangbanna Yiwu, Pu'er City, intermediate through today's Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture and Lijiang City, Shangri-La into Tibet, directly to Lhasa. Some also re-exported from Tibet to India and Nepal, is an important trade channel between ancient China and South Asia.<br /> 4.Sichuan-Tibet Tea Horse Road is a part of the Shan-Kang-Tibet Tea Horse Road, east of Yazhou edge tea production Ya'an, after playing arrow furnace (now Kangding), west to Lhasa, Tibet, and finally through to Bhutan, Nepal and India, a total length of nearly four thousand kilometers, is an essential bridge and link between ancient Tibet and the interior.<br /> There are three main routes of the ancient tea-horse road: The Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line. <br /> Among the three ancient tea-horse roads, the Qinghai-Tibet line was established in the Tang Dynasty and developed earlier, while the Sichuan-Tibet line was the most influential and well-known later. These three routes are closely related to Chengdu, among them, the Yunnan-Tibet route and the Sichuan-Tibet route must pass through Chengdu, and their development is closely related to the tea-horse trade.(Kang Yuming2020,281-283)<br /> <br /> Shanxi- Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road), was formed in the Han dynasty through the efforts of the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government controlled tea traffickin along the tea trafficking sub-region, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:02, 7 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> ====Historical Value====<br /> The Silk Road in the north and the ancient Tea Horse Road in the south. The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization. However, its history and value will always shine brightly.(Li Gang 2011,113-117)<br /> <br /> 1.The Golden Road of Tourism<br /> The ancient tea-horse road tour has unique scenery, profound cultural connotation, exclusive resources and is unparalleled in the world.<br /> 2. Ancient Roads for the Propagation of Civilization<br /> The ancient Tea Horse Road was not only an important migration corridor for the ancient ancestors between Wei-Tibet and present Sichuan and Yunnan, but also an important aperture for the spread and exchange of ancient civilizations between present Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet.<br /> 3.Migration Corridor of National Cultures<br /> On this ancient road, which stretches for more than 10,000 miles, Chinese, Tibetan, Yi, Naxi, Lisu, Hani, Kino, Qiang, Pumi, Bai, Nu, Jingpo, Achang and other ethnic groups have flourished here for thousands of years, highlighting the diversity and original form of ethnic culture in southwest China.<br /> 4.Religious Propagation Road<br /> With the development of the tea-horse trade and the extension of the ancient tea-horse route, Tibetan Buddhism spread widely along this route on the Tibetan Plateau and surrounding areas. The development and spread of Tibetan stupas can be roughly divided into two routes: one is Tibet - Qinghai - Gansu - Inner Mongolia - the other is Tibet - Qinghai - Gansu - Inner Mongolia. -Liaoning--Jilin--Heilongjiang--Beijing--Hebei --Henan--Jiangsu; second, Tibet--Yunnan--Sichuan. --Guangxi--Hubei.<br /> 5. The Path of National Spirituality<br /> You can't talk about the ancient tea-horse road without mentioning the horse gangs. The horse gangs have formed a unique cultural carrier in the course of thousands of years. Their spirit is attached to this ancient road, and become part of the Chinese national spirit.<br /> 6.The Road of National Unity and Integration<br /> The ancient tea-horse road is like a huge net in southwest China, through which people of all nationalities strengthen their ties and communication, promote political, economic and cultural interaction, development and integration among all nationalities, and enhance the emotional ties between them.<br /> 7.The Road of Securing the Borders<br /> The expansion of the ancient tea-horse road and the flourishing of the tea-horse trade contributed to the stability and consolidation of China's southwest frontier.<br /> 8.The road to economic development<br /> The Thousand-Year Tea Horse Trail contributed to the formation of many towns in the region through the tea and horse trade, which greatly contributed to the economic development of the region.(Ji Jing2016,354-355)<br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road(茶马古道)<br /> <br /> 2.Sichuan-Tibet Line（川藏线）<br /> <br /> 3.Yunnan-Tibet line（滇藏线）<br /> <br /> 4.wade ancient road（蹚古道）<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What is the ancient tea horse road ?<br /> <br /> 2.How many main routes does the ancient tea-horse road conclude?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the historical value?<br /> --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 04:15, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. <br /> <br /> 2.There are three main routes, including the Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line.<br /> <br /> 3.The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]邹怡情,张依玫.作为文化线路的茶马古道遗产保护研究[J].北京规划建设,2018(04):131-140.<br /> <br /> [2]康昱明,李金峰.甘肃茶马古道文化线路遗产探究[J].农村经济与科技,2020,31(11):281-283.<br /> <br /> [3]李刚,李薇.论历史上三条茶马古道的联系及历史地位[J].西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2011,41(04):113-117.<br /> <br /> [4]纪静.茶马古道的兴起及其价值研究[J].福建茶叶,2016,38(07):354-355.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:06, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Literature, Novels - Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> <br /> ===Four satirical novels in ancient China===<br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.<br /> <br /> ==== Nie Hai Hua====<br /> Nie Hai Hua was written by Zen Pu (1872-1935).A total of 35 chapters.it is a novel of condemnation, historical fiction and political fiction. In the novel, Jin yun (wen qing) is the main character.After won the scholarship, he took a famous courtesan, Fu Caiyun, as his concubine in Suzhou.He was then ordered to travel to Russia, Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands. After returning to China, Jin Wenqing died of illness in Beijing, and Fu Caiyun left the Jin family to resume her old profession in Shanghai, changing her name to Cao Menglan then went to Tianjin to work as a prostitute, calling herself Sai Jinhua.<br /> The novel takes the story of Jin Wenqing and Fu Caiyun as the main line, vividly describes the historical and cultural changes as well as political and social changes from Tongzhi to Guangxu more than 30 years, exposing the decay and decline of the rulers, criticizing the feudal system of imperial examination, satirizing the officials, truly reflecting their spiritual life and cultural mentality. at the same time also enthusiastically glorifies Feng Zicai, Liu Yongfu and other war heroes and Sun Yat-sen and so on. The revolutionary activities of the Democratic Revolutionaries express the author's patriotic thoughts against the feudal dictatorship and advocate national democratic revolution. In specific writing, the author adopts the modern popular block novel structure combined with the traditional mesh novel structure to unfold the plot, with ups and downs, twists and turns, touching and orderly, always around the main line.<br /> As a historical novel, Nie Hai Hua draws on the spirit of the ancient &quot;good history&quot; of China to portray its characters. At the same time, it draws on the satirical approach of &quot;The History of Confucianism&quot; in which &quot;the fair-minded accuse the evils of the times&quot;, commenting on events and weighing characters in a realistic manner. In terms of art, Nie Hai Hua also has many shortcomings.However, it is a skillful structure and outstanding novel at that time.<br /> <br /> ==== the Travels of an Old Man====<br /> The Travels of an Old Man was written by Liu E (1857-1909) and a total of 20 chapters. Liu E was an entrepreneur and scholar, not a professional writer, but his reputation as a literary figure was far greater than that of an entrepreneur and scholar. This novel is an unfinished work of his that was written in his later years with an autobiographical nature.<br /> The novel takes a bell-ringing mountebank, Lao can (Tie Ying), as its main character, and narrates his experiences and activities during his travels in northern China, exposing the decadence and darkness of the Qing government, the brutality and lethargy of the officials, and the poverty and oppression of the people, especially attacking the abusive behavior of those &quot;Qing officials&quot; who are actually cruel officials, and expressing the author's strong views on the perilous reality of society and the country. <br /> The artistic achievement of the novel is very high. The first is the superb descriptive skills, whether it is a description, a landscape, or a narrative, can be vividly depicted, such as the scenery of Thousand Buddha Mountain, Daming Lake etc., which makes people have a sense of being in the real world. Secondly, its psychological description and psychological analysis, with appropriate language, can brilliantly show the inner world of the characters. Thirdly, the exquisite structural art. The novel is in the form of a Travel Journal, with travel as a clue,and organic combined of what he see, hear, think and do along the way forms a unique structural feature of the novel.<br /> <br /> ==== The Records of Officialdom Exposure====<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure by Li Baojia (1867-1906), five editions and a total of 60 chapters. This is the first long chapter novel in China's modern era that was published serially in newspapers and magazines and achieved a social sensation, creating a culture of critical reality in modern fiction.<br /> The novel consists of more than 30 relatively independent bureaucratic stories linked together,involving the Qing government from the emperor, down to the minor officials and so on,and these various bureaucrats of all kinds of evil behavior were exposed:They embezzled public funds, corrupt and pervert the law or the named &quot;expedition bandits&quot;, but is harmful to the people. The work is like a scroll of the officialdom at the end of the feudal society, touching on the main contradictions of that time.<br /> The novel's writing method is modelled on &quot;The Scholars&quot; and has been developed, making full use of exaggeration, comic style and satirical techniques. only a few strokes will outline the character's voice and physical appearance. And the author also good at describing the details, so that the characters are vivid and evocative, with a strong artistic impact. Therefore, the subsequent imitation of the work is quite a lot, it become a great view.<br /> <br /> ==== 20 years witness strange present situation====<br /> The Strange Situation Witnessed in Twenty Years was written by Wu Woyao(1866-1910), A total of 60 chapters. This is a long novel with autobiographical flavor.it through nearly 200 short stories that the protagonist hears and witnesses from the death of his father to his failure in business. it outlines the strange realities of late Qing society during the 20 years from the Sino-French War to the beginning of the 20th century.<br /> The scope of social life is much broader than The Records of Officialdom Exposure. In addition to describing the officialdom, there are also involving the shopping malls, foreign markets, science fields, medical and astrological practices. It exposes the political situation, moral outlook, social customs, and human conditions of the increasingly colonized Chinese feudal society, and is of high cognitive value in helping readers to see the irreparable historical destiny of the late Qing society and feudal system.<br /> The novel adopts the first-person narrative story, structured in a way that makes the reader feel intimate and trustworthy, setting a precedent in the history of Chinese fiction. The structure is also very clever: &quot;nine deaths and a lifetime&quot; is not only the narrator of the book story, but also the backbone of the structure of the book, and at the same time uses flashbacks, interpolations and other methods, combining it organically together, making the whole book complex and simple appropriate, muddle together.<br /> <br /> ==== Conclution====<br /> As a result of the bourgeois reformists and democratic revolutionaries strongly advocated, the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty got unprecedented development, and a large number of influential novels emerged, forming a prosperous situation of the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty.The emergence of the &quot;Four satirical novels&quot; in the late Qing Dynasty is an important sign that The creation of Chinese novels has entered another prosperous period.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> *[1]https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E6%99%9A%E6%B8%85%E5%9B%9B%E5%A4%A7%E8%B0%B4%E8%B4%A3%E5%B0%8F%E8%AF%B4/702907?fr=aladdin<br /> *[2]二十年目睹之怪现状[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 吴趼人, 2012<br /> *[3]老残游记[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 刘鹗, 2012<br /> *[4]官场现形记[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 李宝嘉, 2012<br /> *[5]孽海花[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 曾朴, 2012<br /> *[6]四大谴责小说政治批判手法研究[J].李辉东,2017<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure 《官场现形记》<br /> <br /> The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years 《二十年之目睹怪现象》<br /> <br /> the Travels of an Old Man 《老残游记》<br /> <br /> Nai Hai Hua 《孽海花》<br /> <br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty 晚清四大谴责小说<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1、what are The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty ?<br /> <br /> 2、which novel is modeled the &quot;The Scholars&quot;?<br /> <br /> 3、what’s the common characteristic of these four novels? <br /> <br /> 4、what other satirical novels do you know?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1、They are Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua.<br /> <br /> 2、The Records of Officialdom Exposure<br /> <br /> 3、The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time.<br /> <br /> 4、E.g.The Scholars<br /> <br /> ==Shadow Puppets - Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> ===Shadow Puppets Li Lili No.202070080594 专业：英语笔译===<br /> ====The Origin of Shadow Play====<br /> Shadow play has a long history from the written records. Legend has it that Madame Li, the wife of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, died of illness. Emperor Wu's yearning for her was so intense that he was in a trance and ignored the government's affairs all day. Minister Li Shaoweng went out one day when he came across a child playing with a doll in his hand, with its shadow being vivid. So he came up with an idea that he could cut the image of Mrs. Li from cotton and silk, painted it with color, and installed wooden poles on her hands and feet. After seeing it, Emperor Wu was glued to it and couldn't put it down. This love story is considered to be the earliest origin of shadow play. There are also some views that shadow play originated in Xi'an of Tang Dynasty, however, it is worth discussing that although there were an variety of operas in the Tang Dynasty, yet there were no any records of shadow play mentioned in the Tang Dynasty. Up to now, the earliest shadow play we can see is recorded in Song Dynasty. Its rise and development is closely related to Bianjing’s (the capital of Northern Song Dynasty)superior geographical environment, the development of commodity trade and good commercial transportation at that time.(Wei Liqun 2018,13-14)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> [[File:shadow play.jpg]]<br /> In Chinese ancient socitey, Chinese began to give performances using puppets against an illuminated screen. This is “shadow puppets”, also known as “lamp and shadow play”. It is considered as “precursor of movie” because it was the earliest moving part of form dubbed with human voice in the world. During a play, puppeteers hide behind the white screen and move puppets, while narrating the story, usually through singing. Performances are accompanied by musicians playing percussion and stringed instruments. A shadow puppet can perform actions such as “serving drinks” , “waving a sword and a spear, ” or even “smoking ”by puppeteer holding and moving manipulating rods on its body. Typically, a shadow puppet has three rods, some may have five or seven rods. It can create rich designs such as shadow puppets, animals and stage props, for example, buildings, imperial palaces, chariots, tables and chairs as well as weapons. It is so rich that it includes almost everything under the sun.It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools. The well-known ones include Tangshan Shadow Play in Hebei Province, Beijing Shadow Play as well as Shaanxi, Shanxi and Hunan Shadow Play. etc.(Wang Yexia 2012,1-3)<br /> <br /> So how to make a puppet? First. Draw pictures of the various parts of the shadow puppets; second, finish carving with a knife and a hard board underneath the design; third, color the puppet with watercolor pens; forth, paint the body parts with a brush dipped in oil. This can make the puppet transparent and better reflect colors under the light.; fifth, connect joint sections with the cotton thread; sixth, make the manipulating rods; finally, attach the manipulating rods to the shadow puppet with cotton thread. The “head” is the most important part of a shadow puppet and its total component number is about four times that of the “body”. A shadow puppet’s “head”and the “body” can be mixed and matched with each other. (Wang Yexia 2012,29-33)<br /> <br /> The eyes and the eyebrows of a shadow puppet’s five facial features represent different personalities. The good and positive people are typical of a benevolent and kind countenance, with nice-looking eyebrows and eyes, while the villain or the general are ferocious look, with sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes. And the former are often concealed teeth and the latter are revealed teeth. The middle-aged person are short beard, but the elderly man are long beard. The decorative designs on the shadow puppets are so important that they must match the character’s social status. In a shadow play, female characters are usually decorated with patters such as flowers, grass, clouds and phoenix, while male characters are often decorated with dragons, tigers, water and clouds. Shadows puppets look colorful under the light. To achieve a better visual effect, the translucent puppets need to be painted on both sides. The head of color can also represent different characters’ personalities. The red is symbol of a heroic and upstanding character. The black is a sign of a just, honest and selfless personality. The yellow shows a brave and irascible character, and are often used in fantasy plays to represent people with magic power. (Wang Yexia 2012,9-16)<br /> <br /> ====The Present Situation of Contemporary Shadow Play====<br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, shadow play, as an art form, has undergone a series of reforms under the guidance of the Party's principles, including the organization of theatrical troupes, the compilation and creation of plays, the drawing and performing forms of shadow play. With the advent of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, the prosperity of shadow play came to an abrupt end. The troupe was disbanded, the repertoire was banned, and the artists were transferred to other fields. A large number of precious shadow puppet props and documents were damaged. This situation, except for some places, lasted until 1976. After the end of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, shadow puppet art recovered rapidly, However, with the economic development being put in the first place of social activities and the popularity of television and the richness of artistic forms, shadow play is declining day by day with an irresistible trend, because shadow play arts are unable to keep pace with the times and get the appreciation of the audience. As a result, the prospect of shadow play art is becoming increasingly bleak. （Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）<br /> <br /> In order to inherit Chinese excellent culture and protect the ancient art forms such as shadow play. On May 20, 2006, it was approved by the State Council to be included in the first part of national intangible cultural heritage list. On November 27, 2011, UNESCO put Chinese shadow play on the &quot;list of representative works of human intangible cultural heritage&quot;.（Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）<br /> <br /> ===References：===<br /> Wang Yexia 王业霞.(2012). 《皮影戏》 [Shadow Play] 北京：高等教育出版社 Beijing: [Higher Education Publishing House] <br /> <br /> Wei Liqun 魏力群.(2018). 《小书大传承-皮影》[&quot;Small Book, Big Heritage - Shadow Play&quot;] 重庆：重庆出版社 Chongqing: [Chongqing Publishing House]<br /> <br /> Zhu Hengfu 朱恒夫.(2020) 中国皮影戏的历史，现状与剧目特征[The History, Current Situation and Repertoire Characteristics of Chinese Shadow Theatre] 浙江艺术职业学院学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Arts Vocational College]<br /> <br /> ===Words and Expressions===<br /> shadow puppet皮影戏 <br /> paper cutting 剪纸<br /> ventriloquism 口技<br /> manipulating rod 操纵杆<br /> five facial features 五官<br /> sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes 尖眉杏眼<br /> Cultural Revolution 文化大革命<br /> intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1.When is the earliest shadow puppet’s record?<br /> <br /> 2.What art of forms do shadow play use?<br /> <br /> 3. What does a red head stand for in a play?<br /> <br /> 4.When is it put on the list of intangible cultural heritage&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.Song dynasty.<br /> <br /> 2.It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools.<br /> <br /> 3.The red is symbol of a heroic and upstanding character.<br /> <br /> 4. On November 27, 2011.<br /> <br /> ==Confucian Culture - Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Confucian Culture ===<br /> <br /> <br /> ==== Introduction ====<br /> <br /> Confucian school is an academic school founded by Confucius, developed by Mencius, and composed by Xunzi. Today, it still retains a certain vitality. Confucian school takes Confucianism as its guiding ideology whose central ideas are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 31)<br /> <br /> Confucian school was on an equal footing with the other hundred schools in the pre-Qin period. After the First Emperor of Qin, also called Qin Shihuang, burned books and buried scholars alive, the development of the Confucian school suffered a serious defeat. Then, in order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's advice of &quot;banishing other schools of thought and worshiping Confucianism only&quot; and imposed restrictions on thought, which led to the revival of Confucian school. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 20) The concepts of &quot;Confucian school&quot;, &quot;Confucianism&quot;, and &quot;Confucian Religion&quot; should be distinguished since Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism a social stratification, and Confucian religion belief. (Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 2017, 60-61)<br /> <br /> Laozi founded Chinese Taoist school; Confucius started Chinese Confucian school; Sun Tzu initiated Chinese military strategist school; Mozi was the founder of Mohism in the early Warring States. Confucianism contributes to guiding the code of conduct and constructing social order; Taoism focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalism serves the system construction of national political management.; the concepts of Universal Love and utilitarianism are two cornerstones for the Mohism. The General Unity idea of Confucianism has played an important role in the unification of a nation, the enhancement of national cohesion and the integration of cultural values. (Tan Su 2012, 68) After more than two thousand years of development and evolution, Confucian culture has built up a complete ideological system, involving politics, education, morality, ethics, code of conduct, life skills and other aspects. It has cultivated the wisdom and soul of the Chinese people throughout the history, and formed deep-rooted set patterns of thinking, psychology and survival. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42-43)<br /> <br /> ==== Analysis of Confucian Culture ====<br /> <br /> ===== Intelligence Development =====<br /> <br /> Confucius is a great educator, as well as a pioneer and practitioner of mass education. After Confucianism was established as a dominant culture, both the rulers and the public respected the teachings of the sage and attached great importance to education. In this context, a basic requirement is to stay highly cultured and steeped in propriety. After the Emperor Wen initiated the imperial examination system in the Sui Dynasty, those who are good scholars could make an official, which inspired students of poor families to change their lives by studying hard and diligent. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 19) For generations, the Chinese people have attached great importance to the education of their children, which is conducive to the improvement of the thinking ability of the whole nation. <br /> <br /> However, the corrupt of bureaucracy and the darkness of officialdom in metaphase and anaphase made many literati feel despairing about official career and discredit about the concept. In addition, the Four Books and Five Classics were the main learning content of Confucianism. Apart from government-run schools, private schools and self-study can hardly meet the requirements of the Six Classical Arts. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 21) Therefore, the Four Books and Five Classics were the focus of students, while the Six Classical Arts were not highly valued. <br /> <br /> =====Spiritual Guidance =====<br /> <br /> In terms of spirit, Confucianism contends that &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.&quot; (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 86) Benevolent people love each other, which reflects the essence of “Unity of Man and Nature” and also the most brilliant connotation of Confucianism. This philosophy calls for people’s active contributions to the society. It is still alive in modern times, and is the fundamental requirement of people's spiritual orientation in the future. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32)<br /> <br /> =====Order Construction =====<br /> <br /> In the age of barbarism and backwardness, a common feature was that a small number of people used power and force to suppress and enslave the majority, thus resulting in labor division and unfair distribution of wealth and generating corresponding social hierarchy and concepts. Given the fact that Confucianism developed in the transitional period of feudal society, the thoughts of Confucius and Mencius were rooted in the idealist view of destiny and did not break the shackles of social hierarchy. In addition, they even advocated the distinguish between the noble and the humble and highlighted the importance of hierarchy division. In this context, the benevolence they advocated had great limitations in political management. The public could not be treated equally in terms of political status. Instead, the so-called benevolence calls for improvement of the living conditions of the public and more benefits from the ruling class. However, its purpose was to maintain social order and reconcile social contradictions. This is also the root cause of feudal rulers’ favoring of Confucianism. In essence, Confucianism did not promote social equality, instead, it worked to maintain the unequal feudal hierarchy that aggravated servitude. In fact, after a long history of feudal rule, the sense of hierarchy would be part of the national psyche. With the progress of times and civilization, the view of destiny and the thought of social order have become psychological shackles of the Chinese people. (Li Fangping 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> After eliminating the ideology of feudal hierarchy and formalism, some philosophies of Confucianism still generate positive effects on modern society. Specifically, the spirit of benevolence and universal love is conducive to cultivate people’s spirits; (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 33) the concept of “the country belongs to the public” reflects a sense of social responsibility to make contributions for society, which can be expanded into a sharing social and political philosophy for different countries. Filial piety and brotherhood increase the harmony and stability of family; Loyalty, faithfulness, propriety and forgiveness are conducive to the relationship between different countries, societies and people. &quot;Loyalty&quot; means that people should stay loyal to the country and people; &quot;Friendliness&quot; and &quot;forgiveness&quot; play an important role in resolving various contradictions and animosities; when it comes to &quot;filial piety&quot; and &quot;propriety&quot;, many redundant forms inherited from feudal society should be eradicated and be more practical. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-41)<br /> <br /> ====The Contemporary Value of Confucian Culture ====<br /> <br /> Today, Confucian culture is still of great significance. We must explore the value of Confucian culture on the basis of the excellent tradition of the Chinese nation and by combining the characteristics of the times with and the actual situation. The Confucian culture has affected Chinese more than two thousand years and gone deep into each aspect of Chinese society. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39)<br /> <br /> =====Ideological and Political Education =====<br /> <br /> Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy, and it places a high priority on human value and dignity. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 51-57) Over the years, the Chinese nation has been influenced by this excellent philosophy. On this occasion, its behavioral pattern and psychological structure are endowed with uniqueness, which is mainly manifested in two aspects. One is to respect yourself, learn how to love and care yourself. Moreover, gain dignity and achieve the development of human value through the continuous improvement of moral cultivation. Second, respect others and show respect for others' personality by respecting, understanding and caring for others. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-40)<br /> <br /> ===== Modern Economic Construction=====<br /> <br /> Under today’s circumstance, some ideological contents are still alive and produce positive effects on promoting the economic construction of modernization and fostering modern patriotism emotion of the Chinese people. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65)<br /> <br /> First of all, Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of &quot;benevolence&quot; and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65) Since Confucian culture reflects a collectivist view on life, individuals are full of sense of duty and responsibility towards others and groups. In this context, their self-cultivation targets at regulating the family, country and the world. Thus, the value of individual is closely linked with the rise and fall of the country, so they have a strong sense of responsibility. (Tan Su 2012, 68) &quot;Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country&quot; has been a common belief for thousands of years. Such a social responsibility will give rise to a huge driving force for the development of the country and society.<br /> <br /> Second, the consciousness of &quot;self-improvement&quot; and the proposition of &quot;seeking truth&quot; in the Confucian culture strengthen the national spirit and provide a source power for China’s economic modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 66) Yi Zhuan put forward: &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection.’’ It means that continuous development is the law of nature and that a gentleman should pursue progress and be strong, unyielding resilient and positive. For thousands of years, the Chinese nation has formed a fine tradition of working hard and striving for strength under the influence of these thoughts. Today, we carry forward the spirits of “self-improvement” and &quot;seeking truth&quot; in ways that further enhance national spirits and provide a strong driving force for the socialist modernization.<br /> <br /> Third, the &quot;reform and innovation&quot; concept in Confucian culture is conducive to the expansion of the reform and opening up and the acceleration of China's socialist modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 67) On the basis of admitting the fact that the continuous development is the universal law of nature, Confucian culture puts forward the &quot;innovation idea&quot;. The Book of Rites said, &quot;If you can in one day renovate yourself; do so from day to day and let there be daily renovation.&quot; The Book of Changes said, &quot;Reform refers to destroy the old, while innovation means to establish the new.” The concept is not only serves as the theoretical basis for reform and innovation throughout the history, but also provides valuable lessons for the reform in socialist economic and political systems today. Domestically, promoting the innovative spirits can greatly enhance the reform consciousness of the Chinese people. Externally, it is conducive to advancing the opening up by leveraging the global influence of Confucian culture.<br /> <br /> ===== Legal Construction =====<br /> <br /> Confucian culture places a high priority on personal cultivation, while a highly civilized society under the rule of law must be composed of highly educated citizens. Confucian school, a school with thousands of years of history in China, has become an integral part of the Chinese culture. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32-33) Nowadays, since China has called for the policy of combining the rule of virtue with the rule of law, it is the time for Confucian culture to find its historical position and fully play its role. Exploring the influence of Confucian culture on the construction of contemporary Chinese rule by law, not only can we help us more deeply understand the traditional culture, but also can promote the process of building the rule of law in contemporary China. <br /> <br /> The rule by virtue thought is an important part of Confucian culture and it emphasizes the importance of moral education. It is a national strategy pursued by ancient Chinese rulers and a method of national governance embodying reference significance in today’s China. (Wei Na 2014, 1-2) In terms of national governance, Confucianism emphasizes the importance of morality, believing that national governance should not mainly rely on harsh punishment, instead, moral education should be applied to reform people. Confucius said, &quot;By governing with virtue, rulers will be loved by the public, just like stars surround the North Star.&quot; By comparing rulers to the North Star and people to the stars, Confucius emphasized the importance of moral governance. (Wang Jie 2004, 77)<br /> <br /> How to rule by virtue? First of all, rulers should pay attention to their personal cultivation and develop good moral characters, so that they can set a good example for the public. Only when officials and common people obey the ruler sincerely, can a good social atmosphere be formed. Secondly, since Confucianism takes &quot;benevolence&quot; as its core and calls for the rule of virtue, many people subconsciously believe that Confucianism denies the role of criminal law and that Confucian culture does not call for the rule of law. In fact, this is not the case. While Confucianism advocates the rule of virtue, it also emphasizes the supplementary role of rule of law. (Wang Jie 2004, 82-83) Confucius said, &quot;Sages believe that national governance must combine the rule of virtue and law.&quot; That is to say, if people are governed by systems and laws, they seek for impunity but lack of conscience; however, if they are guided by morality and etiquette, they will have a sense of right and wrong and will impose strict requirements on themselves.<br /> <br /> In a word, we should clearly realize that, although Confucian culture is an excellent traditional culture in China, it was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. Under this circumstance, we must analyse Confucian culture dialectically and explore the value of Confucian culture. At the same time, we should discard the bad habits and unfavorable factors left by it, so as to better carry forward our traditional culture and accelerate the construction of the rule of law in contemporary China. (Wang Jie 2004, 83) <br /> <br /> ====The Confucius Institute ====<br /> <br /> With the improvement of China's international status and the increasingly extensive international exchanges, Chinese culture has won wider foreign attention and the world is more eager to learn and understand the Chinese culture. The Confucius Institute project, founded in 2004, emerges in response to the call of the times. Today, Confucius Institutes have spread throughout Asia, Africa, The Americas, Europe and Oceania. (Wang Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 30) Fundamentally speaking, its is conducive to the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture since language is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is of positive significance to the construction of China's national image, the promotion of China's international influence, the realization of wider international communication.<br /> <br /> The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Today, countries are committed to spreading their own language and culture, so there is a fierce competition in international cultural promotion. In addition, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. At present, Confucius Institutes are prevalent all over the world, but the promotion strategy seeking for quantity and speed results in a serious shortage of teachers capable of teaching Chinese as a foreign language. According to statistics, there is a global shortage of at least five million TCSL teachers. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 31) Secondly, the lack of high-quality and localized teaching materials for Chinese has also become a bottleneck for the development of Confucius Institutes. The shortage of Chinese textbooks affects the depth of cultural communication of Confucius Institutes directly. Thirdly, Confucius Institutes are not capable of spreading the ideological depth of the Chinese culture. Although the textbooks are rich in content, they mainly focus on promoting folk culture by introducing Chinese food, tea and wine, traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts. Meanwhile, they rarely involve the ideological essence of traditional Chinese culture and the modern value of Chinese culture. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 32)<br /> <br /> The Confucius Institutes should fully explore the modern significance of Confucianism and cast the quintessence of Chinese culture, and strengthen the spread of the core idea of Chinese culture and its modern cultural value. The connotation of Chinese culture is very rich. What Confucius Institutes should spread is not all the contents of Chinese culture, but the contents with universal value that are different from other countries and represent the essence of Chinese culture. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions ====<br /> <br /> 儒家 Confucian school<br /> <br /> 儒学 Confucianism<br /> <br /> 儒教 Confucian religion <br /> <br /> 兼爱 Universal love<br /> <br /> 恕、忠、孝、悌、勇 forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage<br /> <br /> 仁、义、礼、智、信 benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith<br /> <br /> 学而优则仕 A good scholar will make an official<br /> <br /> 四书五经 the Four Books and Five Classics<br /> <br /> 天行健，君子当自强不息；地势坤，君子以厚德载物。As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.<br /> <br /> 天下兴亡，匹夫有责 Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country<br /> <br /> ====Questions ====<br /> <br /> 1. What’s the central ideas of Confucian culture?<br /> <br /> 2. What’s the difference among Confucian school, Confucianism and Confucian religion?<br /> <br /> 3. What do you think of the relationship between Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school, Legalist school?<br /> <br /> 4. What’s the Six Classical Arts?<br /> <br /> 5. What you think of the ancient influence of Confucianism?<br /> <br /> 6. Do you think Confucian culture still has its contemporary values in China? And why?<br /> <br /> 7. What do you think of the current situation of the development of the Confucian institute?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1. The central ideas of Confucian culture are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith.<br /> <br /> 2. Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism is a social stratification, and Confucian is a religion belief.<br /> <br /> 3. Confucian school emphasizes the code of conduct and the social order construction; Taoist school focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalist school serves the system construction of national political management; Mohist school emphasizes Universal Love and utilitarianism. Although Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school and Legalist school are different schools with different theories, they are not completely antagonistic. <br /> <br /> 4. The Six Classical Arts refers to propriety(礼), music（乐）, archery（射）, riding（御）, writing（书） and arithematic（数）. <br /> <br /> 5. The ancient influence of Confucianism should be analysed from a historical perspective. It was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. While contributing to intelligence development, spiritual guidance and order construction to some extent, it has also led to some negative effects in the long run. For example, it called for rigid feudal hierarchy and resulted in spiritual constraints. <br /> <br /> 6. Yes. Although Confucian culture has a history of thousands of years, it still has contemporary values in today's society. For instance, Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy and places a high priority on human value and dignity, which is still of profound significance; Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of &quot;benevolence&quot; and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy.<br /> <br /> 7. The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Nowadays, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. Joint efforts of all social sectors should be made to achieve the sustainable development of it. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 陈智斌, 杜艾红. (2017). 儒学、儒家、儒教之异同 [The Differences and Similarities of Confucian School, Confucianism and Confucian Religion]. ''审计月刊'' Audit Monthly. <br /> <br /> Li Chenzong 李承宗. (2002). 论儒家文化对培养现代爱国主义情感的积极作用 [On the Positive Effects of Confucian Culture on Cultivating Patriotism]. ''廊坊师范学院学报'' Journal of Langfang Teachers College. <br /> <br /> Li Fangping 李芳萍. (2013). 儒家思想对中国文化的影响研究 [A Study on the Influence of Confucianism on Chinese Culture]. ''前沿'' Forward Position.<br /> <br /> Li Xiaoyu 李晓愚. (2010). 儒家仁爱思想的当代诠释 [Contemporary Interpretation of Benevolence]. ''郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Zhengzhou University. <br /> <br /> Tan Su 谭苏. (2012). 论春秋战国时期的百家争鸣 [On the Competition of Ideas in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period]. ''兰台世界'' Lantai World. <br /> <br /> Wang Jie 王杰. (2004). 为政以德: 孔子的德治主义治国模式 [Rule of Virtue: Confucian’s Model of Governance]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C．<br /> <br /> Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 吴瑛, 提文静. (2009). 孔子学院的发展现状与问题分析 [The Development Status and Problems of Confucius Institute]. ''云南师范大学学报 (对外汉语教学与研究版)'' Journal of Yunnan Normal University. <br /> <br /> Xiang Chunling 向春玲. (2008). 儒家文化的现代意义 [On Modern Significance of Confucian Culture]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C．<br /> <br /> Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (1990). ''中国儒学思想史'' [The History of Chinese Confucianism]. 陕西：陕西人民出版社 Shaanxi: Shaanxi People’s Publishing House.<br /> <br /> ==Ch'ien Chung-shu - Liu Liu刘柳， 202070080596 MTI==<br /> <br /> ====Ch'ien Chung-shu====<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu (1910-1998), a well-known scholar, writer, translator and literary researcher, was born into an education family in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province. In Chinese academic circles, Qian was ranked with Rao Zongyi, a master in academic circles, and both were called &quot;South Rao and North Qian&quot;. He was admitted to Tsinghua University in 1929 and got to know Yang Jiang in 1932. Qian became famous soon after the enrolment, not only for the 15 mark of his mathematics, but for his excellent Chinese and English, especially full marks in English. Qian had an engagement with Yang the year after their acquaintance and went to study at Oxford University in England along with her. In 1937, he obtained the bachelor's degree from Oxford with the treatise ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries'', and his daughter Qian Yuan was born the same year. He wrote a great many profound literary works in his lifetime. When it comes to Ch'ien Chung-shu, people would think of his representative work ''Fortress Besieged'', which was published in 1947.<br /> <br /> As a realistic satirical novel, ''Fortress Besieged'' is known as &quot;The New Scholars&quot; in the 1940s. The novel is centralized on Fang Hongjian,who returned from studying abroad at the beginning of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression. It depicts the struggles in love, marriage,career and life of a group of intellectuals who were far away from the times and the people during the War of Resistance against Japanese Agression. It reveals their inner poverty, emptiness and lowliness, criticizes the dark reality of the Kuomintang-controlled areas, and reveals the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life. In the preface of the book, Qian said that, &quot;In this book I intended to write about a certain segment of society and a certain kind of people in modern China. In writing about these people, I didn’t forget they are human beings, still human beings with the basic nature of hairless, two-legged animals. &quot;The novel is like an X-ray mirror that reveals the deformed characters and ugly souls of those &quot;hairless and two-legged animals&quot; and analyzes the cultural matrix which is responsible for the deformed characters and ugly souls of these &quot;latest style&quot; literati. Yang Jiang said, &quot;The main connotation of ''Fortress Besieged'' is that those who are besieged by the city want to escape, while those outside want to rush in. This is what most people wish for in life, whether in marriage or career. &quot;The meaning of &quot;fortress besieged&quot; is also stated several times in the novel. It tells people that life is a besieged city everywhere, people have marriage and divorce, divorce and marriage in endless succession,with everlasting confusion and dilemma. The questions that Qian raised in the novel refer to a question of universal significance, which is the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life as a whole. In December 1990, the television series ''Fortress Besieged'' was broadcast on China Central Television(CCTV) and enjoyed great popularity.<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu has made significant achievements in literary research and literary creation. In particular, it is of great significance to carry forward and deny traditional Chinese culture scientifically and learn from foreign culture selectively. He has wrote the collection of essays ''Written in the Margins of Life''(1941), the collection of short stories ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts''(1946), and the novel ''Fortress Besieged''(1947). Both his essays and novels are wise and meaningful. Qian has read Chinese history, philosophy and literary classics in depth and has studied western old and new literature, philosophy and psychology. Many of his works, such as ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideaas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', have enjoyed high reputation in academic circles both at home and abroad.<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu viewd China and the world with a cultural criticism spirit. Based on his profound knowledge of Chinese and world culture, Qian has always shown a clear mind and a deep insight when observing Chinese and Western culture. He didn't reject any theories or doctrines, nor did he blindly follow any authorities. He devoted his life to promoting Chinese literature and art to the world. To this end, he not only explicated the profound meaning and unique value of Chinese culture in depth, but also pointed out its historical and regional limitations. He not only criticized the Chinese for their arrogance towards the local culture due to certain illusions, but also mercilessly eliminated the Westerners' prejudice centered on European and American culture due to ignorance. It is Ch'ien Chung-shu who has promoted cultural communication between China and other countries.<br /> <br /> November 21st,2020 is the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu. People often call him a well-informed scholar, but he is more of a down-to-earth writer and scholar. He was indifferent to fame and wealth and alaways took a rigorous and serious attitude towards academic research. We feel ourselves in an entirely new world when we read the subtle metaphors in ''Fortress Besieged'', while we read ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', we are amazed at Qian's erudition. People all over the world admire his talent, but in fact,it is his meticulous and diligent reading spirit that makes him a well-informed scholar. Many of his life experiences and the question of whether his scholarship was systematic or not have attracted much attention. Wang Shuizhao, professor of Chinese Department of Fudan University, who has studied and worked with Ch'ien Chung-shu for a long time, has recently published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'', in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements based on the first-hand historical data, his personal experiences and his own understanding of academia, and gives answers to the questions discueesed widely, such as Qian's experience of being falsely accused, whether there exists system in his scholarship and the collision of viewpoints between Qian and Chen Yinke.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries'' 《十七十八世纪英国文学中的中国》<br /> <br /> ''Fortress Besieged'' 《围城》<br /> <br /> Kuomintang-controlled areas 国统区<br /> <br /> ''Written in the Margins of Life'' 《写在人生边上》<br /> <br /> ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts'' 《人·兽·鬼》<br /> <br /> ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' 《管锥编》<br /> <br /> ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'' 《谈艺录》<br /> <br /> the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu 钱钟书诞辰110周年纪念日<br /> <br /> ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu '' 《钱钟书的学术人生》<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.What is Ch'ien Chung-shu's representative work? When was it published?<br /> <br /> 2.When was the TV series ''Fortress Besieged'' broadcast?<br /> <br /> 3.Do you know other works about Ch'ien Chung-shu? Can you list some of them?<br /> <br /> 4.Which book did Wang Shuizhao publish in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu? What does he talk about in this book?<br /> <br /> 5.Which sentence is your favoriate in ''Fortress Besieged''? <br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Ch'ien Chung-shu's representive work is ''Fortress Besieged''. It was published in 1947.<br /> <br /> 2.It was broadcast in December 1990.<br /> <br /> 3.''Patchwork:Seven Essays on Art and Literature''（《七缀集》） and ''Poetic Remains of an Ephemeral Life''（《槐聚诗存》）.<br /> <br /> 4.Wang Shuizhao published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'' in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu, in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements.<br /> <br /> 5.&quot;I want to be able to occupy the whole life of the man I love. Before meeting me, he would have had no past and would be waiting for me with a clean slate.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧， 202070080597，MTI==<br /> <br /> '''相声 Crosstalk'''<br /> <br /> ===The Development of Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> Crosstalk, in the ancient time was known as onomatopoeia, originally refers to imitate others’ voices. It was evolved and further developed from the folk opera in North China, and integrated with imitating oral skills and other folk art forms. It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty. It’s a folk vocal art that uses jokes or funny questioning and answering to make the audience laugh. In the early years of the Republic of China (1912-1949), crosstalk gradually developed from one-person ventriloquism to one person stand-up talk, and the name changed to cross talk. Later, it developed into stand-up crosstalk, dual crosstalk, and group crosstalk. And become a veritable form of art. After years of development, dual crosstalk has finally become the most popular form of crosstalk among audiences.In the late Qing Dynasty, crosstalk formed its modern features and styles. The language uses in crosstalk is mainly Beijing dialect, however, there are also “dialect crosstalk” in other regions of China. (360 Encyclopedia)<br /> <br /> <br /> Crosstalk is a original folk art in China, with a long historical tradition, deeply loved by the majority of the people. The once-dead crosstalk art has been reborn and developed very rapidly especially since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. It is no longer confined to several cities in the north, nor spread only within the citizens, but also spread from the north to the whole country, from the city to the countryside, and from the citizens to all strata. (Hou Baolin, 1982:01)<br /> <br /> ===Four Basic Skills in Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> Speaking, imitating, teasing and singing are the four basic artistic skills of crosstalk. “Speaking” means to tell jokes, stories, lantern riddles, drinking games, etc; “imitating” is to imitate all kinds of birds and animals, hawking, singing and the sound of different languages, etc; “teasing” is to gag and tease; “sing” means to sing Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity, so they are called Taiping) (1982:194), opera lyrics and songs. Crosstalk artists regard “speaking, imitating, teasing and singing” as their “four compulsory lessons”. For example, by saying “tongue twisters” or “reciting classical repertoires” to grasp the rhythm in language and correct the pronunciation. By learning all kinds of sounds to gain the ability to imitate. To practice singing skills by singing “Taiping lyrics” , opera lyrics and songs. (Hou Baolin, 1982:11)<br /> <br /> ===Characteristics of Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> First of all, crosstalk is the art of “speaking”, which belongs to the art of “performing with words”, it is different from drama that “performing with body movements”. This kind of performance has a close relationship between the actors and the audience and shortened the distance between the stage and the audience. The actors directly communicate with the audience and perform with the audience's cooperation and tacit understanding to obtain artistic effect. In this sense, crosstalk is a collective performance of actors and audiences. From the perspective of the audience, they are not standing on the opposite side of the actors and appreciating the stage performance passively and objectively, but creating artistic images with the actors. (Hou Baolin. 1982:02)<br /> <br /> Secondly, crosstalk is the art of laughter. Crosstalk uses laughter as a weapon to expose contradictions, shape characters and evaluate life. Without laughter, it can constitute any other arts, but not crosstalk and comedy. In other words, crosstalk has the characteristics of humor and satire. It reflects that life is not flat, but exaggerated and even deformed. China has a long tradition of satirizing emperors or high rank officials, its written record could be traced back to the Zhou (1046BC-256BC) and Qin (221BC-207BC) Dynasties. Satire is the product of class oppression. China has been in a feudalistic society for a long time, without political democracy and freedom of speech, the people often take circuitous methods to fight against the ruling class. Satirical art is like a weed under a boulder. Only through deformation and roundabout can this kind of art maintain to exist. (Hou Baolin. 1982:03)<br /> <br /> <br /> “Speaking” and “laughing” constitute the basic outline of cross talk art, which is a language performance art with comedy style. “Speaking”, as a kind of rap art, establishes the mode of crosstalk art, which is distinguished from drama art. “Laughing” is the artistic characteristics of crosstalk, which distinguishes it from other rap art forms. These two characteristics are interdependent and complementary. (Hou Baolin. 1982:04)<br /> <br /> Crosstalk belongs to the art of drama, but it is different from comedy. In comedy, the laughter of audience mainly comes from plot and comic characters, while in crosstalk it mainly comes from “baofu” (jokes). Sometimes it relies on the plot, sometimes it is not needed, but win the applaud of audience by the charm of language. “Baofu” must be expressed in the way of “dialogue” and “chatting” between the actors . (Hou Baolin. 1982:04)<br /> <br /> ===Famous Artists of CrossTalk===<br /> <br /> In Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) and Emperor Guangxu (1875—1908) periods, Zhu Shaowen (stage name “Qiong Bupa, which means not afraid of poverty”) was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art. Other famous crosstalk artists including Hou Baolin(1917-1993), a pioneering master of crosstalk. In his 60 years of art career, he has devoted himself to the research and development of crosstalk art and brought laughter to the audience. Under his leadership and promotion, crosstalk art has really entered thousands of households and reached a remarkable artistic peak. His crosstalk works including Drama Talks, Drunkenness and etc. Ma Sanli (1914-2003) is the son of the crosstalk actor Ma Delu. Ma Sanli devoted himself to the exploration of long-term artistic practice, and created the unique “Ma’s Style of Crosstalk”. He was the oldest, most experienced and most accomplished crosstalk leader in the cross-talk circle at that time. So was deeply loved and respected by all walks of life and the audience. Ma's cross talk enjoys wide popularity among the people. In Tianjin, it was a saying that “no branches of crosstalk did not learn from Ma”. His representative works including “Eating Yuanxiao(dumpling)”, “Selling Tickets” and “the Yellow Crane Tower” . Other famous crosstalk artists include Zhang Yongxi, Liu Baorui, Hou Yaowen, Jiang Kun, Feng Gong, Niu Qun and Guo Degang. (Baijiahao, 2018 )<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> speaking, imitating, teasing and singing 说学逗唱<br /> <br /> Taiping lyrics 太平歌词<br /> <br /> Baofu 包袱<br /> <br /> Drama Talks 《戏剧杂谈》<br /> <br /> Drunkenness 《醉酒》<br /> <br /> Selling Tickets 《卖挂票》<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.When did crosstalk form its format?<br /> <br /> 2.What is Taiping lyrics?<br /> <br /> 3.Who was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art ?<br /> <br /> 4.What are the four basic skills of crosstalk?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty.<br /> <br /> 2.Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity) is the content to be sang in the crosstalk.<br /> <br /> 3.Zhu Shaowen.<br /> <br /> 4.They are speaking, imitating, teasing and singing.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> 1.Hou Baolin，Xue Baokun，1982，《相声溯源》，People's Education Press<br /> 2.https://cul.sohu.com/20090619/n264630449.shtml<br /> 3.https://baike.so.com/doc/1925383-2037001.html<br /> 4.https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1590742532351773378<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> Go 围棋--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:04, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===GO - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI===<br /> Go is an adversarial game with the objective of surrounding a larger total area of the board with one's stones than the opponent[1]. As the game progresses, the players position stones on the board to map out formations and potential territories. Contests between opposing formations are often extremely complex and may result in the expansion, reduction, or wholesale capture and loss of formation stones.[2]<br /> <br /> A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board. One or more liberties enclosed within a group is called an eye, and a group with two or more eyes cannot be captured, even if surrounded.[3] Such groups are said to be unconditionally alive.<br /> <br /> The general strategy is to expand one's territory, attack the opponent's weak groups (groups that can be killed), and always stay mindful of the &quot;life status&quot; of one's own groups. The liberties of groups are countable. Situations where mutually opposing groups must capture each other or die are called capturing races, or semeai. In a capturing race, the group with more liberties (and/or better &quot;shape&quot;) will ultimately be able to capture the opponent's stones. Capturing races and the elements of life or death are the primary challenges of Go.<br /> <br /> Players may pass rather than place a stone if they think there are no further opportunities for profitable play. The game ends when both players pass or when one player resigns. In general, to score the game, each player counts the number of unoccupied points surrounded by their stones and then subtracts the number of stones that were captured by the opponent. The player with the greater score (after adjusting for komi) wins the game.<br /> <br /> In the opening stages of the game, players typically establish positions (or &quot;bases&quot;) in the corners and around the sides of the board. These bases help to quickly develop strong shapes which have many options for life (self-viability for a group of stones that prevents capture) and establish formations for potential territory. Players usually start in the corners because establishing territory is easier with the aid of two edges of the board. Established corner opening sequences are called &quot;joseki&quot; and are often studied independently.<br /> <br /> &quot;Dame&quot; are points that lie in between the boundary walls of black and white, and as such are considered to be of no value to either side. &quot;Seki&quot; are mutually alive pairs of white and black groups where neither has two eyes. A &quot;ko&quot; (Chinese and Japanese: 劫) is a repeated-position shape that may be contested by making forcing moves elsewhere. After the forcing move is played, the ko may be &quot;taken back&quot; and returned to its original position.[30] Some &quot;ko fights&quot; may be important and decide the life of a large group, while others may be worth just one or two points. Some ko fights are referred to as &quot;picnic kos&quot; when only one side has a lot to lose. The Japanese call it a hanami (flower-viewing) ko. <br /> <br /> Playing with others usually requires a knowledge of each player's strength, indicated by the player's rank (increasing from 30 kyu to 1 kyu, then 1 dan to 7 dan, then 1 dan pro to 9 dan pro). A difference in rank may be compensated by a handicap—Black is allowed to place two or more stones on the board to compensate for White's greater strength. There are different rule-sets (Korean, Japanese, Chinese, AGA, etc.), which are almost entirely equivalent, except for certain special-case positions.<br /> <br /> Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, there are essentially only two rules in Go:<br /> • Rule 1 (the rule of liberty) states that every stone remaining on the board must have at least one open &quot;point&quot; (an intersection, called a &quot;liberty&quot;) directly orthogonally adjacent (up, down, left, or right), or must be part of a connected group that has at least one such open point (&quot;liberty&quot;) next to it. Stones or groups of stones which lose their last liberty are removed from the board.<br /> • Rule 2 (the &quot;ko rule&quot;) states that the stones on the board must never repeat a previous position of stones. Moves which would do so are forbidden, and thus only moves elsewhere on the board are permitted that turn.<br /> Almost all other information about how the game is played is a heuristic, meaning it is learned information about how the game is played, rather than a rule. Other rules are specialized, as they come about through different rule-sets, but the above two rules cover almost all of any played game.[4]<br /> Although there are some minor differences between rule-sets used in different countries, most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules, these differences do not greatly affect the tactics and strategy of the game.<br /> <br /> Except where noted, the basic rules presented here are valid independent of the scoring rules used. The scoring rules are explained separately. Go terms for which there is no ready English equivalent are commonly called by their Japanese names.<br /> <br /> The two players, Black and White, take turns placing stones of their colour on the intersections of the board, one stone at a time. The usual board size is a 19×19 grid but for beginners, or for playing quick games, the smaller board sizes of 13×13 and 9×9 are also popular.[5] The board is empty to begin with. Black plays first, unless black is given a handicap of two stones or more (in which case, white plays first). The players may choose any unoccupied intersection to play on, except for those forbidden by the ko and suicide rules (see below). Once played, a stone can never be moved and can be taken off the board only if it is captured. A player may also pass, declining to place a stone, though this is usually only done at the end of the game when both players believe nothing more can be accomplished with further play. When both players pass consecutively, the game ends and is then scored.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Go 围棋 heuristic 启发式的<br /> adversarial game 对抗性游戏 intersection 交叉点<br /> board 棋盘 black 黑棋<br /> formation 阵型 white 白棋<br /> move 走棋 scoring rule 计分规则<br /> liberty 自由度 player 棋手<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1, What’s the basic principle of Go?<br /> <br /> <br /> 2,Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, What are other two essential rules in Go？<br /> <br /> <br /> 3, What countries have the most notable scoring rules differences?--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1, A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board.<br /> <br /> 2,The rule of liberty and the &quot;ko rule&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3, Most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Matthews, Charles (2004). Teach Yourself Go. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-142977-1.<br /> <br /> [2]NRICH Team, Going First, University of Cambridge, retrieved 2007-06-16<br /> <br /> [3]Iwamoto, Kaoru (1977). Go for Beginners. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 978-0-394-73331-9.<br /> <br /> [4]British Go Association, Comparison of some go rules, retrieved 2007-12-20<br /> <br /> [5]Kim, Janice; Jeong, Soo-hyun (1997). Learn to Play Go. Five volumes (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Good Move Press. ISBN 978-0-9644796-1-6.<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜 专业 is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:21, 14 December 2020 (UTC)==<br /> <br /> ===The Four Most Handsome men in Ancient China===<br /> It is said that there were four most beautiful women in ancient times, and corresponding to that, it is worth mentioning that there were four most attractive men at that time.Despite that we consider these four men as attractive, this refers to more than just their appearance. They have a common feature: it proves that while their appearance is marvelous, they are also outstanding in literature. Namely, as a Chinese saying goes, they are endowed with both beauty and talent.<br /> These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> The allusion of “throwing fruit to fill a carriage” originates from Pan An, which resembles movie fans nowadays to see their idols. There is a comment on Pan An’s appearance: &quot;No more and no less.&quot; The history books also describe Pan An with three words “good-looking, well-mannered, and graceful”. Although these did not describe Pan An’s appearance in details, such as eyebrows and eyes or lips, from these side descriptions, we can know that Pan An’s appearance is far above ordinary people, and even his styles draw imitation from others. At the same time, Pan An is known as “the flower of a county in Heyang”, and he is also one of the few men who are compared with flowers to be praised for excellent appearance. The beauty of exterior only fails to last long in this world. Pan An's talent and temperament and the devotion to his wife are also often eulogized. Pan Yue showed his unusual talent since he was a child, and he was called a child prodigy by the villagers. In his early years, he was appreciated by an official and recommended as a scholar. Later, served as the magistrate of Heyang (now Meng County, Henan), he was diligent in political affairs, and advocated the people to plant more fruits and trees. The county was full of trees and peaches and plums everywhere, known as “Flower County”. During his administration, his political achievements were remarkable. Besides, Pan An holds a special place in the history of literature. He was good at composing verse and orders, expatiation, and skilled in the choice of words and building of sentences, which fully reflects the characteristics of Taikang literature that pays attention to the beauty of form. He was expert in composing Ci lyric of sorrow and admonishment, and his current works such as Widow's Fu, Mourning Poem and other famous works are all known for their narration and empathy. Pan An can be described as both internally and externally blessed.（Liu Xixue 2003,63-64）<br /> <br /> Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. There is a very popular legend about King Lanling. It's believed that King Lanling was a brave and supremely skilled general. However, because he looked very sweet and it seemed hard to frighten the enemy, he often wore a half-mask when fighting, which sounds very fairytale. Nevertheless, the beauty of King Lanling is beyond doubt and otherworldly. Book of Northern Qi Dynasty described that he was friendly looking and mentally strong, with beautiful voice and appearance. King Lanling spent half his life in military affairs, and made great achievements. While this gave him glory, it also brought bad luck. There is an old Chinese saying that the glow of a inferior from massive achievements will overshadow his superior. Although the King Lanling did not have the idea of usurping the throne, but the incumbent felt threatened because of his existence itself. In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> Song Yu (about 322 BC-298 BC), as it is widely rumored, a student of Qu Yuan, was born in the capital city of Song Dynasty during the Warring States Period (now Shangqiu, Henan). Song Yu was a writer of Ci lyric of State Chu in the late Warring States period, adept in Ci lyric and even acclaimed as a great poet after Qu Yuan' reputation. Later generations often referred to them as “Qu Song”. Rumors circulate that there are many Ci lyrics from him, and Book of Han records about 16 works, but many of them are lost today. His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on. He was the first to write about sadness from Autumn and to write about women. His description of women's nature exerts a great influence on later generations such as Cao Zhi. The goddess in Song Yu's The Fu poetry of Goddess embodies the essence of pre-Qin female beauty, recounting the beauty of the goddess of Wushan Mountain in details so much so that later generations have coveted for it for thousands of years. 16 works survived, among which Nine Discriminations is believed to be truly composed by him. It is equivalent to Qu Yuan's Li Sao or A lament in the history of Chinese literature. Both poets can be called the two shining pearls in Ci lyric at their times.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> <br /> Wei Jie (286-June 20, 312), a metaphysician and an official of the Jin Dynasty. Wei Jie was a noted talker and metaphysicist during the Wei and Jin Dynasties. He was appointed as an assistant of the prince in the matter of politics. In the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Yongjia(AD310), Wei Jie died at the age of 27. Both ancient books and ancients commented on Wei Jie's appearance. Wang Ji reckoned that, “A jade is on my side, and I feel like I am nobody”; “Wandering with Jiu is like sauntering with a pearl on the side, with him shining brightly.” History Retold as a Mirror for rulers authored by Sima Guang goes into detail: &quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot; Wei Jie not only have a mere marvelous exterior, but also he can discern metaphysics from his perspective. Wei Jie’s views always amaze the concerned parties. It is said that even three sons of the Wang family, are not as good as the first son of the Wei family, and the three sons of the Wang family were all well-known scholars at that time, and the Wei Jie could be regarded as unmatchable compared with the three in family background, appearance, and talents.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Pan An 潘安<br /> <br /> King Lanling 兰陵王<br /> <br /> Ji Kang 嵇康 <br /> <br /> Wei Jie 卫玠 <br /> <br /> throwing fruit to fill a carriage 掷果盈车<br /> <br /> scholar 秀才<br /> <br /> expatiation 铺陈<br /> <br /> Book of Northern Qi Dynasty 《北齐书》<br /> <br /> the Warring States Period 战国时期<br /> <br /> Book of Han 《汉书》<br /> <br /> Nine Discriminations 《九辨》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Wind 《风赋》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Goddess 《神女赋》<br /> <br /> the goddess of Wushan Mountain 巫山神女<br /> <br /> metaphysician 玄学家<br /> <br /> a noted talker 清谈名士<br /> <br /> History Retold as a Mirror for rulers 《资治通鉴》<br /> <br /> Widow's Fu 《寡妇赋》<br /> <br /> Mourning Poem 《悼亡诗》<br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1.Who are the four most handsome men at ancient time in China?<br /> <br /> 2.Who is Gao Changgong?<br /> <br /> 3.How did Lanlin King die?<br /> <br /> 4.What works did Song Yu compose?<br /> <br /> 5.Who are the two shining pearls in Ci lyric according to the passage?<br /> <br /> 6.What History Retold as a Mirror for rulers comment on Wei Jie?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.<br /> <br /> 2.Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. <br /> <br /> 3.In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King. <br /> <br /> 4.His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on.<br /> <br /> 5.Qu Yuan and Song Yu<br /> <br /> 6.&quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]刘细学.古代四大美男[J].文史天地,2003(06):63-64.<br /> <br /> [2]王真波.四大美男都是怎么死的[J].青年文学家,2008(11):59-60.<br /> <br /> ==Lo, Minh Thao==<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Mogao Grottoes--Lou Cancan 娄灿灿 student no.202070080599 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Mogao Grottoes===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The Mogao Grottoes, known as the Thousand Buddhas Caves, were built on the eastern cliff of Mingsha Mountain, 25 kilometers to the southeast of Dunhuang city. There are 492 caves (well preserved) today, containing over 2,400 painted clay statues and 45,000 square meters of murals and 5 timber structures on the cliff of the southern district. There are also more than 300 caves used as both living room and burying place for monks and painters on the cliff of the northern district. Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes,so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes. From the 4th until the 14th century, caves were constructed by monks to serve as shrines with funds from donors. (Fan Jinshi 2010，170)The major caves were sponsored by patrons such as important asclergies, local ruling elites, foreign dignitaries, as well as Chinese emperors. Other caves may have been funded by merchants and other local people such as women's groups. (Sha Wutian 2020, 122)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes]]====<br /> <br /> ===History===<br /> <br /> Mogao Grottoes were not built in one day. According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff. Later, monk Faliang（法良）came here and joined him cultivating in caves. Since then more and more caves have been excavated over a thousand year. (Whitfield 1990, 8) <br /> <br /> By the time of Northern Liang, small community of monks had formed at this site. The caves initially served only as a place of meditation for hermit monks. Later, they were developed to serve the monasteries that sprang up nearby. Members of the ruling families of Northern Wei and Northern Zhou constructed many caves here, and it flourished in the short-lived Sui Dynasty. By the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Mogao Caves had become a place of worship and pilgrimage for the public. In the Sui Dynasty, Hexi Corridor was controlled by central authority. The emperors were pious followers of Buddhism and they ordered to build stupas across the country. Therefore, more than 100 caves were excavated in Mogao Grottoes within 37 years. By the Tang Dynasty, the number of caves had reached over a thousand. During this period, Dunhuang became the main hub of commerce of the Silk Road and a major religious center. A large number of the caves were constructed during this era, including the two large statues of Buddha at the site, the largest one constructed in 695 following an edict a year earlier by Tang Empress Wu Zitian to build giant statues across the country. The site escaped the persecution of Buddhists ordered by Emperor Wuzong in 845 as it was then under Tibetan control. As a frontier town, Dunhuang had been occupied at various times by other non-Han Chinese people. After the Tang Dynasty, the site went into a gradual decline, and construction of new caves ceased entirely after the Yuan Dynasty. In the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, Mogao Grottoes were preserved and kept by Cao Yijin（曹议金). (MA Shichang 2010, 303) After that, his later generations governed Dunhuang Prefecture and constructed multiple family caves such as Cave 55. (Gao Xiujun 2016, 9) During the Ming Dynasty, the Silk Road was finally abandoned and Dunhuang slowly became depolulated and was forgotten by the outside world. Most of the Mogao caves were abandoned. The site, however, went back to a place of pilgrimage and worship by local people at the beginning of the twentieth century. On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings. Since then, Dunhuang has become well known throughout the world. Both Chinese and foreign scholars have made extensive studies on the findings.(Stein 1912, volume 2)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Taoist Wang Yuanlu.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Taoist Wang Yuanlu]]====<br /> <br /> ===Art===<br /> <br /> The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture and they vary from dynasty to dynasty. There are mainly three types of structural forms of Mogao Grottoes: Vihara, Chaitya and Hall with inverted funnel shaped ceiling. A Chaitya with a central pillar is the main form of the caves in the early period of the Sixteen States, with Northern Wei, Western Wei and Northern Zhou Dynasties included. The murals may be divided into seven sorts:Buddhist figures, Sutra illustration, Buddhist stories, Buddhist historical pictures, Chinese mythologies, donors and decorative designs. Buddhist stories in the murals can be divided into three types: Jataka（佛本生), Buddha’s life and fate story. A Jataka is a narrative which tells of the good deeds performed by Sakyamuni during his perious existence such as prince Sudanda giving up his body to feed the hungry tigers. As to sculptures, they were constructed on a wooden frame, padded with reed, then modelled in clay stucco and finished with paint.（Duan Wenjie 1994, 163) <br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Chaitya with a Central Pillar.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Chaitya with a Central Pillar]]==== <br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body]]====<br /> <br /> The artistic styles in the Sixteen States, which gradually turned away from being primitive and simple to an easy and graceful styles in the Northern Wei, manifested in figures with well-chiseled builds and emaciated looks. In Northern Zhou, the styles of figures show that Chinese art combining the influence of foreign and native styles gradually became more nationalized. The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs. The caves become spacious and more suited for large paintings, such as the Sutra illustrations and huge pictures of Buddha expounding sermons. Bold and vigorous, brush work was painted with intricate and flowing lines. For example, Lotus Sutra on the ceiling of Cave 420 displays a lot of episodes of mountains, forests, rivers, buildings and so on in a limitated space. The theme and art in the Sui Dynasty show an important devdelopment in traditional art and indicate a comimg glorious new era. In Tang Dynasty, the caves are large with an inverted funnel shaped ceiling. The murals consist mostly of huge paintings of stories from Buddhist Sutras with well-regulated scenes and well-balanced composition. The figures at that time have round and plump faces and curved eyebrows which expresses the aesthetical taste of the people living in Tang. The mural in Cave 220 contains vivid portraits of the Emperor and his ministers listening to a sermon. The ministers attending to Emperor are each bestowed with differrent appearances and expressions. Some are natural and graceful and some cautious. The well-proportioned painted statues were made with more consummate care and attention to the detail, showing us the solemn Buddha. In addition, very tall and colossal statues of Buddha began to be made. The outstanding one is an early Tang Dynasty statue 34 metres high in Cave 96. In 781-848A.D, Hexi region fell into the Tibetan. Hence, there was an interesting changes: the king of the Tibetan took the place of central-plain emperors in the wall-painting.( Fan Jinshi 2010, 175) <br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 251 in Northern Wei.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 251 in Northern Wei]]====<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty]]====<br /> <br /> <br /> By the time of the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, the grottoes carved in this period are very large and different in form and layout. The subject and style of the statues and murals remain the influence from Tang Dynasty, but the use of colours and the drawing techniques show a simple folk style. From the 9th century to 12th, the Uygur had been in Dunhuang. The artistic styles bear the imprint of both Han and Uygur. The Uygur murals are generally characterized by the simplicity of the subject, the looseness of the arrangement, the direct and rough brush strokes. The human figures have features of certain minority groups. In the Western Xia Dynasty(1036-1227), most of caves were repaired and renovated, and only 10 caves were built because of the limited cliffs. Compared to the Yulin Grottoes at the same time, painting of Dunhuang display the Pure-land Sutra, containing simpler content. Only 27 caves are extant in Yuan times(1227-1372). The murals in Cave 3, however, still remain the Tang and Song techniques, namely using different types of drawing to depict different parts of human figures such as iron-wire lines, orchid-leaf strokes and broken-reef strokes, etc. Since the 15th century, the Mogao Grottoes had gradually fallen into neglect in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. (Rong Xinjiang 1999, 248)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty]]====<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> hermit 隐士<br /> <br /> stupas 舍利塔<br /> <br /> Emperor Wuzong ofTang Dynasty 唐武宗<br /> <br /> Vihara 精舍<br /> <br /> Chaitya 支提窟<br /> <br /> stucco 灰泥<br /> <br /> Sakyamuni 释迦牟尼<br /> <br /> Sutras 佛经<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What do Dunhuang Grottoes refer to?<br /> <br /> 2.Who built the first cave and when?<br /> <br /> 3.In 1900, who found the treasure-house in Mogao Grottoes and what were stored in it?<br /> <br /> 4.How many aspects does the art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of and what are they respectively?<br /> <br /> 5.What are the characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes, so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes.<br /> <br /> 2.According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff.<br /> <br /> 3.On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings.<br /> <br /> 4.The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture.<br /> <br /> 5.The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Fan Jinshi 樊锦诗.(2010). ''敦煌石窟'' [The Caves of Dunhuang]. Gansu: The Dunhuang Academy 敦煌研究院. <br /> <br /> Gao Xiujun 高秀军.(2016). ''敦煌莫高窟第55窟研究'' [Research on the 55th Grotto of Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang].Lanzhou University 兰州大学.<br /> <br /> MA Shichang.(2010). Buddhist Cave-temples and the Cao Family at Mogao Ku, Dunhuang. MA Shichang,27(2),303-317.<br /> <br /> Rong Xinjiang 荣新江. (2010).'' 敦煌藏经洞的性质及其封闭原因'' [The Nature of the Dunhuang Library Cave and the Reasons for Its Sealing]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Sha Wutian 沙武田. (2020). 佛教供养与政治宣传——敦煌莫高窟第156窟供养人画像研究 [Buddhist offerings and Political Propaganda -- A Study on the Portrait of the Patron of the 156th Grottoes in Dunhuang].''中原文物'' Cultural Relics in Central Plain, No.215,118-128.<br /> <br /> Stein, M. Aurel. Ruins of Desert Cathay.(1912). Personal Narrative of Explorations in Central Asia and Westernmost China, volume 2. London: Macmillan.<br /> <br /> Suemori Kaoru. (2020).&quot;Thousand-Buddha images in Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes: Religious spaces created by polychromatic patterns&quot;. Kyoto: Hozokan. <br /> <br /> DuanWenjie. (1994). Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie. Abhinav Publications. p. 163.<br /> <br /> Whitfield, Roderick and Farrer, Anne, Caves of the Thousand Buddhas. (1990). Chinese Art from the Silk Route, British Museum Publications. P . 5-20.<br /> <br /> https://books.google.ru/books?hl=zh-CN&amp;lr=&amp;id=vYPNqlAMZWAC&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PP7&amp;dq=info:9v6pr21oST8J:scholar.google.com/&amp;ots=s-uXhnyDBp&amp;sig=u3H7MAh_OpGRS6Iwxoqx0rC5_fo&amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false<br /> <br /> https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogao_Caves<br /> <br /> https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=zh-CN&amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;q=mogao+grottoes&amp;oq=<br /> <br /> ==Four State-level Cultural Relics Luo Weijia罗维嘉 Student No.202070080600==<br /> <br /> ===Four State-level Cultural Relics===<br /> <br /> China, home to one of the world’s most ancient civilizations, abounds in cultural relics, from ancient tombs, architecture, instruments to handicrafts, historical books and so on. They embody rich information about history and culture and vividly display the process of Chinese cultural development. The astounding artistic and technological levels shown in those relics continue to impress people today.<br /> <br /> ====Houmuwu Ding====<br /> <br /> In ancient China, ding was a symbol of imperial power. Therefore, ding is often used in phrases and expressions in the Chinese language to imply authority. For instance, wending, literally “enquiring about ding”, means plotting to usurp political power, yiyan juiding, literally “One word of promise is equal to nine dings”, means a decisive comment.<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding,or Houmuwu Ding, was a very precious cultural relic, found in 1937 in Anyang of Henan Province (Zhang Peng:86-89).It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago. This square-shaped ding is the largest existing bronzeware in the ancient world. It is now housed in the National Museum of China in Beijing. <br /> <br /> Ding was a cooking vessel probably used to boil or cook food in the primitive society. At that time, dings were made of clay. During the Shang and Zhou (11th century-771 BC) dynasties, bronze cast technology reached a very high level in China. Therefore, people used bronze to cast ding. However, dings were no longer cooking utensils in ordinary people’s life but an object for important ceremonies to offer sacrifices. <br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding was cast by Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty as a ritual object for a ceremony to offer sacrifices to his mother. The three characters simuwu form an inscription on the inside of the sidewall. According to archeologists, si means sacrificial ceremony and muwu is the name of the emperor’s mother. Later on, Simuwu became the name of this huge ding (Zhang Peng:86-89).<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding is 1.33m high, 1.10m long and 0.78m wide, weighing 832.84kg. At that time, it needed 1000kg of metal and two to three hundred workers to produce it. This ding is solid in build, magnificent in appearance and was made with fine craftsmanship. The four pillar legs are thick and powerful. Each side has a blank space in the middle, surrounded by a band of decoration featuring taotie (animal faced creatures) and kuilong (one-legged dragons), symbolic of harvest and auspiciousness. Simuwu Ding represents the highest level of bronze cast technology in the Shang and Zhou dynasties.<br /> <br /> ==== The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi ====<br /> <br /> The chime bells, or bianzhong, are a kind of percussion musical instrument made of bronze. China is the earliest country to manufacture and use such instrument. Chime bells were divided into groups according to their size, temperament, pitch and were hang on a rack. A small hammer or wooden club is used to hit the bell to make a resonant and agreeable sound.<br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are the largest and the most complete ancient chimes existing today in China. They were unearthed from the tomb of Yi, the Marquis of Zeng, a small state of the Warring States Period (475 BC- 221 BC), in 1978. When they were found, all bells were still hanging on their rack. They are now preserved in Hubei Museum(Gao Nan:29). <br /> <br /> There are altogether 65 bells hung in eight groups on wooden or bronze bars. The rack, 10.79m long, 2.67m high, is made of three bars, namely, the upper, middle and lower bars, held up by six bronze warriors and a few round, wooden posts. The 65 bells weigh over 2500kg. The largest bell is 1.52m in height and weighs more than 203.6kg. The smallest bell is about 20cm in height and weighs 2.4kg (Gao Nan:29). It is extremely rare tosee a set with so many bells of such weight and size. <br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are exquisitely cast and look very elegant. To help artists to perform music, there are instructions on each bell with 3700 characters in all (Wan Quanwen:1-2). There are also words about the hanging indication and musical temperament that are called the “valuable music theory work”. The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi show that, as early as the Warring States Period, China already had a very rich musical culture. The chime bells still could produce a pure and accurate note after unearthed. The tone is excellent and the timbre is pure. <br /> <br /> After excavation of the chime, Chinese musicians created a melody entitled Bianzhong Yuewu (music and dance accompanied by chime bells), to once again demonstrate the charm of ancient Chinese music. <br /> <br /> ==== Jade Suit with Gold Thread ====<br /> <br /> Ordinarily, the texture of clothes is cotton, flax or silk. However, there were suits made of gold and jade, that is “Jade Suit with Gold Thread”.<br /> <br /> The emperors of the Han Dynasty believed that jade could prevent their corpses from decaying, and they regarded jade as full of dignity and nobility. Therefore, they used jade suits as their grave clothes. Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade separately that are called Jade Suit Sewn with Gold Thread, Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread and Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread.<br /> <br /> The two sets of jade suits of the Han Dynasty tomb unearthed in Mancheng of Hebei Province in 1968 revealed to the world the real features of such grave clothes (Li Yawen:38-39). Their owners were Liu Sheng, Prince Jing of Zhongshan, and his wife, Dou Wan, of the Western Han Dynasty(206 BC-25 AD). <br /> <br /> In appearance, a jade suit follows the shape of a human body. It consists of five parts, i.e., head mask, coat, trousers, gloves and shoes. Each part is made of pieces of jade. The size and shape of each jade piece was designed according to its position. Most jade pieces are shaped in square or rectangular form, but there are a few in trapezoid, triangle or multi sided shapes. Each jade piece is perforated at its corners, through which a gold thread goes through to sew the pieces together. Liu Sheng’s jade suit is rather large, 1.88m long and made up of 2498 pieces. The gold thread used for this suit is about 700g in weight (Li Yawen:38-39). <br /> <br /> Such refined suits made some 2000 years ago in the Han Dynasty indicate the high design level and excellent craftsmanship of that time. In fact, of course, the rulers’ dream of preventing their corpses from decaying could never be realized. The practice of wearing jade suits was banned during the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280).<br /> <br /> ==== Bronze Galloping Horse ====<br /> <br /> In 1969, a galloping horse in bronze was unearthed in an Eastern Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) tomb in Wuwei, Gansu Province in western China. The bronze statue is a famous representative sculpture of the Han Dynasty. Wuwei County leapt to fame with the discovery of this national treasure.<br /> <br /> The 34.5 cm-high bronze horse, covered with spots of verdigris, has a full and robust body. The prancing legs, flying tail, slightly dilated nostrils portray a galloping horse. What is ingenious about it is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow. That means the galloping horse is faster than a flying swallow (Wang Qian:10-11). The positioning of its four legs strictly conforms to that of a living horse and is highly praised by many local and foreign archeologists and artists. <br /> <br /> In this work, Chinese ancient artists combined realism and romanticism, and ingeniously integrated galloping horse and flying swallow through rich imagination, original conception and skillful craftsmanship (Wang Qian:10-11). The swift flying swallow sets off the amazingly fast speed of the galloping horse. According to analysis of its mechanics, Bronze Galloping Horse finds a center of gravity in the swallow to give the statue its stability. The romantic image of the swallow sets off the power and strength of the horse, providing a rich imaginative experience for viewers. <br /> <br /> Bronze Galloping Horse is believed to be a portrayal of the &quot;heavenly steed&quot; of Chinese legend. It is of high craftsmanship, fully expressive of the horse-breeding culture of China's western regions. It has become a symbol of Chinese tourism and a representative work that brings forth the time-honored cultural tradition of the Chinese nation and the oriental aesthetics to the world. The cultural relic is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> Houmuwu Ding 后母戊鼎<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding 司母戊鼎<br /> <br /> Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty 商王武丁<br /> <br /> taotie 饕餮<br /> <br /> National Museum of China 中国国家博物馆<br /> <br /> chime bells/bian zhong 编钟<br /> <br /> Marquis Yi 曾侯乙<br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi 曾侯乙编钟<br /> <br /> Bianzhong Yuewu 《编钟乐舞》<br /> <br /> Hubei Museum 湖北省博物馆<br /> <br /> Jade Suit with Gold Thread 金缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread 银缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread 铜缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Bronze Galloping Horse 铜奔马/ 马踏飞燕<br /> <br /> Gansu Provincial Museum 甘肃省博物馆<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1. What does ding symbolize?<br /> <br /> 2. When was Houmuwu Ding produced?<br /> <br /> 3.How many bells do the chime bells of Marquis Yi contain?<br /> <br /> 4.What is the size of the largest bell?<br /> <br /> 5.What kind of thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade?<br /> <br /> 6.When did the Jade Suit with Gold Thread unearth?<br /> <br /> 7.What is ingenious about the Galloping Horse?<br /> <br /> 8.Where is Bronze Galloping Horse preserved now?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Ding was a symbol of imperial power. <br /> <br /> 2.It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago. <br /> <br /> 3.They contain 65 bells.<br /> <br /> 4.The largest bell exceeds 1.5m in height and weighs more than 200kg.<br /> <br /> 5.Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade.<br /> <br /> 6.It unearthed in 1968.<br /> <br /> 7.It is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow. <br /> <br /> 8.It is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Zhang Peng 张鹏.(2020).青铜大师杜廼松:“司母戊鼎”名称不容置疑[No Doubt about the Name of Simuwu Ding].中国民族博览 (09):86-89.<br /> <br /> [2]Wan Quanwen 万全文.(2020).曾侯乙编钟[The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi].文史知识 (11):1-2.<br /> <br /> [3]Gao Nan 高楠.(2020).音乐中的国家宝藏——曾侯乙编钟[National Treasure in Music].琴童 (01):29.<br /> <br /> [4]Li Yawen 李雅雯.(2019)浅说满城汉墓中的金缕玉衣 [The Study of Jade Suit with Gold Thread Unearthed in Mancheng].文物鉴定与鉴赏 (03):38-39.<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Qian 王倩.(2020).青铜雕塑“马踏飞燕”的研究[The Study of the Bronze Sculpture ——the Galloping Horse].艺术品鉴, (26):10-11.<br /> <br /> == Architecture and Gardens, The Forbidden City Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴 Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> ===The Forbidden City===--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 08:30, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====I.Introduction==== <br /> The Forbidden City (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng) is a palace complex in Dongcheng District, Beijing, China, and with a total area of 720,000 square meters (180 acres). It lies in the center of Beijing's central axis. Today, the Forbidden City houses the Palace Museum, and was the former Chinese imperial palace and residence of the Emperor of China from the Ming dynasty (since the Yong Le Emperor) to the end of the Qing dynasty, between 1420 and 1924. The Forbidden City served as the home of Chinese emperors and their households and was the ceremonial and political center of the Chinese government.(Barmé, Geremie R 2018,26)<br /> The Forbidden City is a national AAAAA tourist attraction and was listed as the first batch of key cultural relics under national protection in 1961. What’s more, it was declared a world cultural heritage in 1987, and listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.(UNESCO,2007)<br /> ====[[File:A Panaroma view of the Forbidden City.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A Panaroma view of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====II.The Name of the Forbidden City====<br /> The common English name &quot;Forbidden City&quot; is a translation of the Chinese name Zijin Cheng (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng; English: Purple Forbidden City). The name Zijin Cheng first formally appeared in the period of Jia Jing. (Li Xieping1997, (04)29-31) In ancient China, the planning concept of &quot;harmony between man and nature&quot; was emphasized. The stars in the sky were used to correspond with the capital planning to highlight the legitimacy of the regime and the supremacy of imperial power. “ Zi ”, or &quot;Purple&quot;, refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star, The emperor of heaven lived in Ziwei palace, while the human emperor claimed to be the &quot;son of heaven&quot; who was ordered by heaven. His residence should be a symbol of Ziwei palace to correspond to the heaven emperor. “Jin” means that this splendid palace symbolizes supreme power and status of the royal family. In that case, this palace was forbidden, no one could enter and leave the palace without the emperor’s permission. Cheng means a city. Today, the site is most commonly known in Chinese as Gùgōng (故宫), which means the &quot;Former Palace&quot;. The museum which is based in these buildings is known as the &quot;Palace Museum&quot; (Chinese: 故宫博物院; pinyin: Gùgōng Bówùyùan).<br /> <br /> ====III.The History of the Forbidden City====<br /> <br /> When Hongwu’s son Zhu Di became the Yong Le Emperor, he moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, and construction began in 1406 on what would become the Forbidden City. Construction lasted 14 years and required more than a million workers. From 1420 to 1644, the Forbidden City was the seat of the Ming dynasty. (Yu Zhuoyun1984,18)In April 1644, it was captured by rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. He set fire to parts of the Forbidden City in the process of retreating to Shannxi. By October, the Manchus had achieved supremacy in northern China, and a ceremony was held at the Forbidden City to proclaim the Emperor Shunzhi as ruler of all China under the Qing dynasty. (Guo Moruo 1944,3.14) In the 22nd year of Kangxi's reign (1683), the reconstruction of the rest of the destroyed buildings of the Forbidden City was started, and it was basically completed in 1695.After being the home of 24 emperors – 14 of the Ming dynasty and 10 of the Qing dynasty – the Forbidden City ceased being the political centre of China in 1912 with the abdication of Puyi, the last Emperor of China. In 1933, the Japanese invasion of China forced the evacuation of the national treasures in the Forbidden City. Part of the collection was returned at the end of World War II, but the other part was evacuated to Taiwan in 1948 under orders of Chiang Kai-shek.After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, some damage was done to the Forbidden City as the country was swept up in revolutionary zeal. During the Cultural Revolution, however, further destruction was prevented when Premier Zhou Enlai sent an army battalion to guard the city.( Xie Mengyin&amp;Qu Wanlin2006, 11.7)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====IV.The Structure of the Forbidden City==== <br /> Firstly, The Forbidden City is a rectangle and symmetric in its layout. Its palaces are arranged along a north-south axis, on which the three main halls, the rear three palaces and the imperial garden are all located. This central axis not only runs through the Forbidden City, but also reaches Yongding Gate in the south, Drum Tower and bell tower in the north, and runs through the whole city.(Xie Li 2005,(03)100-102)<br /> Secondly, the Forbidden City is divided into two parts, the Outer Court and Inner Court. The Outer Court is the place where the emperor deals with political affairs. There are mainly three halls: the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony, and the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The Inner Court or Back Palace includes the northern sections, and was the residence of the Emperor and his family, and was used for day-to-day affairs of state. The inner court takes Palace of Heavenly Purity, Hall of Union and Palace of Earthly Tranquility as its center with six palaces in the east and six palaces in the west.<br /> <br /> ====[[File:The layout of the Forbidden City.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The layout of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====VI The Collections of the Forbidden City==== <br /> The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925, whose extensive collection of artwork and artifacts were built upon the imperial collections of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Part of the museum's former collection is now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. Both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.(Li Wei &amp; Wang Shuo 2005,6-22) <br /> The collections of the Palace Museum are based on the Qing imperial collection, including paintings, ceramics, seals, steles, sculptures, inscribed wares, bronze wares, enamel objects, etc. According to latest audit, it has 1,863,404 pieces of art. They are numbered by &quot;Gu&quot;, &quot;Xin&quot; and &quot;Shu&quot;. Except for the ancient books and documents, all the other collections are labeled with &quot;Gu&quot; and &quot;Xin&quot;. The number of ordinary cultural relics begins with the word &quot;Zi&quot;, and the ceramic specimens begin with the word &quot;Biao&quot;. The general catalogue is divided into 25 categories, and the numbers in each category are sorted from small to large. Many collections once lost and was brought to the Palace Museum, For example, Han Banquet map. And there are some exquisite collections like Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer, Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems and Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.(Website:The Collection of the Palace Museum )In addition, The Palace Museum has one of the largest collections of mechanical timepieces of the 18th and 19th centuries in the world, with more than 1,000 pieces. (Meng Fuxia 2012, (21) 73-74)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Han Banquet map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Han Banquet map]]====<br /> ====[[File:Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance]]====<br /> ====[[File:Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems]]====<br /> ====[[File:Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women]]====<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions==== <br /> palace complex 宫殿群<br /> <br /> central axis 中心轴<br /> <br /> the Palace Museum故宫博物院<br /> <br /> the Yong Le Emperor 永乐皇帝<br /> <br /> key cultural relics under national protection 国家重点文物保护单位<br /> <br /> world cultural heritage 世界文化遗产<br /> <br /> harmony between man and nature 天人合一<br /> <br /> the imperial garden 御花园<br /> <br /> the Hall of Supreme Harmony 太和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Central Harmony 中和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Preserving Harmony 保和殿<br /> <br /> Palace of Heavenly Purity (乾清宮)<br /> <br /> Hall of Union 交泰宫<br /> <br /> Palace of Earthly Tranquility 坤宁宫<br /> <br /> Han Banquet map 韩熙载夜宴图<br /> <br /> Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer陶彩绘女舞俑<br /> <br /> Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems十二生肖镜<br /> <br /> Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women画珐琅西洋人物鼻烟壶<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> 1. What’ s the meaning of “Zi” in the Chinese name Zijin Cheng?<br /> <br /> 2. When was the Forbidden City listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.<br /> <br /> 3.How many emperors have been lived in the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 4.How long did it take to build the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 5.Why some parts of national treasures are in the National Palace Museum in Taipei now.<br /> <br /> 6. What two parts can the Forbidden City be divided into?<br /> <br /> 7.When was the Palace Museum established?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.“Zi” refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star<br /> <br /> 2.In 1897.<br /> <br /> 3.24 emperors.<br /> <br /> 4.14 years.<br /> <br /> 5.Because both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.<br /> <br /> 6.They are the Outer Court and Inner Court.<br /> <br /> 7.The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Barmé, Geremie R(2008). The Forbidden City. Harvard University Press.26.<br /> <br /> UNESCO(2007). &quot;UNESCO World Heritage List: Imperial Palaces of the Ming and Qing Dynasties in Beijing and Shenyang&quot;.<br /> <br /> Li Xieping 李燮平. (1997) &quot;紫禁城&quot;名称始于何时[When did the name of the Forbidden City come into being?]. 紫禁城Forbidden City, (04) 29-31.<br /> <br /> Yu Zhuoyun(1984), Palaces of the Forbidden City, New York: Viking Press,p18.<br /> <br /> Guo Moruo 郭沫若.(1994) 甲申三百年祭[Commemorating 300th Anniversary of the Jia-Sheng Year]. 新华日报 New China Daily, 3.19.<br /> <br /> Xie Li 谢丽.(2005) 北京中轴线上的十七座门[Seventeen doors on the central axis of Beijing].紫禁城 Forbidden City, (03)100-102.<br /> <br /> Meng Fuxia 孟福霞. (2012)北京故宫空间布局构思探源——论中国古代宫殿建筑的美学精神[On the Origin of the Space Layout of the Palace Museum in Beijing--On the Aesthetic Spirit of Ancient Chinese Palace Architecture]大众文艺Popular Literature and Art, (21) 73-74. <br /> <br /> Li Wei&amp;Wang Shuo 刘薇,王硕.2005故宫文物南迁路线图揭秘[Unveiling the Route Map of the Cultural Relics of the Imperial Palace to the South] 华夏经纬网Jinwei Network, 6.22 http://www.huaxia.com/wh/gjzt/2005/00333230.html <br /> <br /> The Collection of the Palace Museum 故宫博物院馆藏https://www. dpm.org.cn /Home.html<br /> <br /> Xie Mengyin &amp; Qu Wanlin 谢荫明,瞿宛林. (2006) “文化大革命” 中谁保护了故宫 [Who protected the Forbidden City in the Cultural Revolution? ].人民网People’s Daily Online,11,7. http://history.people.com.cn/n/2014/0811/c372327-25441615.html<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Marriage Customs Mo Ling 莫玲 202070080602 &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;专业 is missing&lt;/span&gt;==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 莫玲 Mo Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Marriage Customs===<br /> <br /> China is an ancient country of rites. When it comes to the most important thing in one’s life---marriage, Chinese people have developed a set of unique and grand ceremonies. Generally speaking, weddings in ancient China needed to be approved by parents and arranged by parents. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;quotation is missing&lt;/span&gt;--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:15, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Six Procedures===<br /> <br /> There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying. Na Cai is the begining of all the marriage procedures. It refers that if a boy intends to marry a girl, firstly his family must invite a matchmaker to the girl's home to propose marriage. After obtaining the consent of the girl's family , the boy's family should entrust the matchmaker to make a proposal formally with some gifts. Usually, the most common gift is wild goose,which represents fidelity. Besides, mandarin ducks, phoenix and sheep are also frequently-used gifts. Wen Ming means that the boy's family ask the matchmaker to fetch the girl's name and date of birth. There are two purposes of this step: the one is to prevent the marriage of close relatives with the same surname; the other is to assure the compatibility of the potential bride and bridegroom through their “eight characters” of the birth moment. Naji happens after the matchmaker takes back the woman's name and eight characters. If divining an auspicious omen, the boy's family will inform it to the girl’s parents and decide to engage the marriage. What is more, Na Zheng is an important step when the boy sends betrothal presents to the girl and for courtesy the girl will send back part of the presents such as food and some clothes. Qing Qi means that the boy's family choose an auspicious day to hold the wedding ceremony and then dispatch the matchmaker to tell the girl’s family. Qin Ying is the last procedure of the six etiquettes, that is, the groom goes to the bride's home to take the bride to his home.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ===Customs===<br /> <br /> In addition to the six steps mentioned above, there are many other customs in the traditional Chinese wedding ceremony. Generally speaking, ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker, many young people could not master their own marriage. Before wedding ceremony, men and women were not allowed to meet each other in that ancient people were very conservative and most girls were kept in boudoirs. If they met in private before marriage, it would be regarded as a kind of female infidelity and parents would also think it quite unlucky. Under this circumstance, newlyweds could only see each other until the day of marriage.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47-48)<br /> <br /> On the wedding day, the boy’s family will hold a big banquet at home. Before setting out to pick up bride, the bridegroom should first worship his ancestors for the sake of safety and auspice during the process of picking up the bride. After that, the following step is the most grand one among the whole ceremony --- at the dusk moment, the groom and the bride, his parents as well as all the guests will gather together at the central room to witness the kneeling etiquettes of the couple, which consists of 4 steps: The first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber : the bride will be sent into the bridal chamber and the groom will drink with guests until night.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> After wedding ceremony, the couple must return to the girl’s home together at the third day, which is called “Huimen” or “Guiling”. This etiquette is indispensable. The groom should take some gifts for respect and change the way that he calls the bride’s parents, and the latter will also prepare a good meal for the couple’s coming.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ===Development===<br /> <br /> As time goes by, there are many reforms about marriage right now. Adults own the freedom to choose their spouse and they can meet each other every day if possible. Parents can’t master their “life event” any more.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47) In addition, many couples skip the cumbersome rites in the wedding ceremony. Some of them choose to hold the ceremony in the church with some close relatives and friends and some even finish it through travel.(Zhou Dandi &amp; Yue Shufa 2012,15)Nevertheless, most young people still adopt the main procedures of the traditional Chinese customs, some of which are handed down until right now. There still exist betrothal gifts and dowry, and many couples choose to wear red costumes. The groom should go to the bride’s home to escort her to the wedding and so on. Thus it can be seen that most traditional Chinese marriage customs are deep rooted in the hearts of Chinese people and shows a unique Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Gao Xiaoqian. 高筱倩.(2017) 中国传统婚嫁习俗研究［The Research on Traditional Chinese Marriage Customs］戏剧之家[Drama House] 235.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yueyong. 张月莹.(2013) 中国近代婚嫁礼俗及婚姻观念转变的探索[A Study on the Change of Marriage customs and Marriage Concepts in Modern China] 松州学刊［Songzhou Academic Journal］ 47-48.<br /> <br /> Zhou Dandi, Yue Shufa. 周丹迪, 岳书法.(2012) 浅析近代以来中国婚嫁民俗的演变[On the evolution of Chinese marriage customs since modern times] 文化学刊[Cultural Academic Journal] 15.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> Na Cai 纳彩 <br /> <br /> Wen Ming 问名<br /> <br /> Na Ji 纳吉 <br /> <br /> Na Zheng 纳征<br /> <br /> Qing Qi 纳征 <br /> <br /> Qin Ying 亲迎<br /> <br /> Huimen 回门 <br /> <br /> Guiling 归宁 <br /> <br /> betrothal presents 彩礼<br /> <br /> the central room 堂屋<br /> <br /> bridal chamber 婚房<br /> <br /> “eight characters” of the birth moment 生辰八字<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.How many procedures are needed from the negotiation to the completion of marriage?<br /> <br /> 2.Did the ancient young people have the rights to decide their own marriage or not and why?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the kneeling etiquettes?<br /> <br /> 4.When the couple have to return to the girl’s home?<br /> <br /> 5.What changes have been made nowadays?<br /> <br /> 6.Please list some new wedding customs.<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying.<br /> <br /> 2.No, they didn’t have the right to decide their own marriage because ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker.<br /> <br /> 3.It consists of 4 steps: the first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber.<br /> <br /> 4.At the third day of the wedding ceremony.<br /> <br /> 5.Adults can choose their spouse by themselves and they can meet each other whenever they want; Some couples choose to hold the ceremony in the church some even finish it through travel, etc.<br /> <br /> 6.Examples:couple can choose to live in the either part of the two families; wedding ceremony can be hold in hotel; the bride can wear white wedding dress rather than the single red in the ancient time.<br /> <br /> ==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br /> <br /> ====Topic: Chinese cinema (dramas and movies) and its popularity and affection in Vietnam====<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac - Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 202070080603专业 is missing--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:16, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br /> <br /> ===Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac===<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:oyltacz.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]2020 is the year of rat according to the Chinese zodiac which consists of twelve animals used by people to name years. The traditional Chinese zodiac has been passed down for more than 2000 years since its origin(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). The twelve zodiac signs are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig, which are assigned in a repeating 12-year cycle(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). This traditional Chinese scheme was originated from China and then has enjoyed a popularity in many other Asian countries(The Editorial Board, 2010: 12-13). With its cultural connotation and time-honored impact, the Chinese zodiac have(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;) been engraved in every Chinese people. <br /> <br /> ====Origin====<br /> <br /> Regarding the origin of the Chinese zodiac, there are various opinions but many of them are presented with no sufficient evidence.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;there are various opinions,however,many of them are presented without sufficient evidences&lt;/span&gt;) There are many myths explaining these animal signs and their arrangement. Among them the most enduring(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;time-honored&lt;/span&gt;) one is the Great Race. In this story, the Jade Emperor, Ruler of the Heavens, wanted to devise a way to measure time, so he organized a race. At the end, the first twelve animals who (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;that&lt;/span&gt;)made it across the river were the winners and so they earned themselves a spot on the zodiac calender in the order they arrived(The Editorial Board, 2010: 6). Besides this folk story, some scholars claim the zodiac scheme was indeed derived from the Twelve Earthly Branches but did not occur at the same time while the Earthly Branches appeared. Since the Han Dynasty, the Earthly Branches have been used to record the time of day. Therefore some hold until that time, the 12 zodiac came into being as a supplementary to refer to the 12 periods of 24 hours. Since the original meaning of the Earthly Branches at that time was obliterated due to the passage of time, the ancient Chinese attached the Earthly Branches and the Ten Heavenly Stems to the zodiac(The Editorial Board, 2010: 5-7). There also stands an opinion that the zodiac signs were originated from the totem worship in the primitive society. According to some research(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;researches&lt;/span&gt;) on the origin of Chinese zodiac, there were only twelve earliest surnames in ancient China, which were derived from the names of the twelve animals in the Chinese zodiac scheme. Here the twelve animals refer to the totems at ancient times and different surname tribes use different animals as their totems. Therefore, the twelve animals of Chinese zodiac was developed from the totems of ancient tribes(The Editorial Board, 2010: 4-5).<br /> <br /> ====Folk Culture and Belief ====<br /> <br /> The zodiac sign not only can (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;can not only&lt;/span&gt;)reveal one’s age, but also represents his or her personality, career prospects and way of life according to Chinese superstition. (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;quotation is missing&lt;/span&gt;) <br /> <br /> The Chinese seem to believe that they have some affinity with the animals of the years in which they were born and that their personal traits and fortunes come under their mysterious influence. According to superstitious belief in China, Zodiac animals are combined with the Five Elements that consist of Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth, to tell one's destiny. Since people have their zodic(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;zodiac&lt;/span&gt;) sign's fixed elment, there are many folk beliefs based on this. For example, people born in the years of Metal Rat are believed to have a promising future; people born in the years of Fire Rat are deemed to be clever and intelligent and Wood Rat independent and self-respected(The Editorial Board, 2010: 40). <br /> <br /> Besides, since the zodiac is determined by the year of birth, there are many implications of one’s birth year. For example, some zodiacal preferences prevail in Chinese population. Chinese have always had a strong affection for the Dragon, so married couples prefer to give births in the year of Dragon. Since dragon is regarded as the auspicious and divine creatures(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;creature&lt;/span&gt;) , the children born in these years of dragon are believed to have fortune. These cultural preferences and folk beliefs have influenced prospective parents’ reproductive behavior in the Chinese society(Yip et al., 2002: 1804).<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese people believe certain animals get on better than the others, so the zodiac has had a great impact on marriage as well. Specifically, people who is(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;are&lt;/span&gt;) born in the Year of Tiger would have perfect romance with Pigs, Rabbit with Dogs and Dragon with Roosters. On the contrary, some zodiac signs are believed to have misfortune if they are married with people of certain zodiac. As the Chinese idiom goes, if a dragon and a tiger fight(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;fight against&lt;/span&gt;) each other, there will be one injured. This old says reflects that dragon and tiger are natural enemies according to the belief(The Editorial Board, 2010: 34-35). And this is the reason why men and women would like to evaluate their Bazi, the Eight Characters, before they get married. However, in reality, personality is related to one’s experience through the life journey rather than the pre-written zodiac signs. People born in the same year would have very distinctive personalities. Similarly, the destiny is also a result of people’s character and most decisions they’ll be making along the way. Of course the marriage is a more complex thing that cannot be deemed to have a pre-given outcome brought by the zodiac.<br /> <br /> ====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Chinese zodiac is a complex scheme which combines the traditional Chinese astrology in it. Based on the Five Elements theory, Yin and Yang system and Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches system, the traditional scheme have(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;) developed a profound connotation and implications through generation(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;generations&lt;/span&gt;). Over thousands of years, this popular culture has affected people’s major decisions in naming, marriage, giving birth and attitude towards each other. But people have to consider zodiac in a rational and scientific way. Perhaps the zodiac may help us to understand what we’re given, but it cannot determine our destiny. We should treat it as the precious cultural heritage and explore the profound culture and historical traces embodied in it(The Editorial Board, 2010: 1-2).<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> 《大中国上下五千年》丛书编委会(2010) The Editorial Board of the ''Five Thousand Years of Great China''（''Dazhongguo Shangxia Wuqiannian''） ''Series'',《中国生肖文化》''The Culture of Chinese Zodiac'', 北京：外文出版社 Beijing: Foreign Languages Press.<br /> <br /> Yip, Paul S.F.伊普, Lee, Joseph 李 and Cheung, Y.B.张 (2002).The Influence of the Chinese Zodiac on Fertility in Hong Kong SAR 论生肖对香港生育率的影响. ''Social Science &amp; Medicine''《社会科学与医学》, Volume 55, Issue 10 第55卷第10期, 1803-1812.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions=== <br /> <br /> Jade Emperor 玉皇大帝<br /> <br /> Ten Heavenly Stems 十天干<br /> <br /> Twelve Earthly Branches 十二地支<br /> <br /> Five Elements 五行<br /> <br /> Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth 金木水火土<br /> <br /> Eight Characters 八字<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.How long is the history of Chinese zodiac?<br /> <br /> 2.What are the twelve zodiac signs in order? <br /> <br /> 3.From what time the Earthly Branches was used to record time?<br /> <br /> 4.According to Chinese folk belief, what kind of characteristics do people born in year of rat have?<br /> <br /> 5.Which zodiac animal is mostly praised in China?<br /> <br /> 6.Can you name some pairs of zodiac animal that get along well with each other according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> 7.Which pair of animals that are natural enemies according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.More than 2200 years.<br /> <br /> 2.Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig.<br /> <br /> 3.Han Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 4.They are smart, adaptable, and have the will to fight, but, on the other hand, they are so over-ambitious and easy to fail.<br /> <br /> 5.Dragon.<br /> <br /> 6.Tiger and pig, rabbit and dog and dragon and rooster. <br /> <br /> 7.Dragon and tiger.<br /> <br /> ==Lisu People and Daogan Festival of Lisu Ethnic Minority Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏 202070080641==<br /> --[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 08:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Lisu people and Daogan festival====<br /> <br /> The Lisu ethnic group are the Tibeto-Burman ethnic group living in mountainous areas such as Burma, southwest China, Thailand, and Arunachal Pradesh in India.<br /> <br /> [[File:Example1.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> There are about 730,000 Lisu people living in Lijiang, Baoshan, Nujiang, Diqing, Dehong and other counties in Yunnan and Sichuan provinces in China. The Lisu nationality is one of the 56 nationalities officially recognized by China. In Myanmar, the Lisu ethnic group is recognized as one of 135 ethnic groups with an estimated population of 600,000. Approximately 55,000 live in Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. They mainly inhabit remote mountainous areas. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans. Each clan has its own name or surname. The most famous family clans in the tribal clans are Laemae pha, Bya pha, Thorne pha, Ngwa Pha (Ngwazah), Naw pha, Seu pha, Khaw pha. Most of the surnames come from their own hunter work in primitive times. But later, they adopted many Chinese surnames. Their culture has the same characteristics as the Yi nationality or Nuosu (Lolo) culture. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> Daogan Festival (刀杆节) is a traditional festival of Lisu ethnic groups living in Lushui County(泸水县), Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture(怒江傈僳族自治州).Due to the death of the old artists, they were once lost in Nujiang Prefecture and recovered in recent years. They are mainly distributed in Luzhang Village(鲁掌镇), Luzu Village(鲁祖村) and Loma Village(洛玛村) of Lushui County(泸水县).(Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> [[File:Example2.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> ====Legend====<br /> <br /> During the Ming Dynasty, when people not belonging to the same clan of feudal China invaded the borders of Yunnan, the king sent Wang Ji (王骥), the war department of the Chinese feudal ministry, to resist the enemy with troops. Wang Ji united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders. Later, Wang Ji was killed by traitors. To commemorate Wang Ji's great achievement and to pray for the souls of the brave soldiers who died bravely defending the border, the Li tribe held the &quot;Up and down the mountain&quot; event. (上刀山，下火海), and designated the 15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year as the Knife Gan Festival.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Going up to the knife mountain and going down to the sea of ​​fire are the main custom performances of the Taozhen Festival, which reproduce the life experience of people living in mountainous areas as they climb the mountains and the hard spirit and skills of climbing.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> ====Performing====<br /> <br /> [[File:Example3.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> Pine trees were used as tool poles, iron knives as tool ladders, crinkled paper as flowers, and bamboo as flower sticks. When we go up the rice mountain and down the fire, we play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments under the knife pole. There are strict procedures and rituals from pointing flowers, pointing knives, playing knives, tying knives, tying flowers, welcoming flowers, and altars. Setting , knife pole , vertical pole , sacrificial dragon , knife stand and dismantling knife (in the sea of fire). Knife poles are usually called gold pillar, silver pillar or male pillar and female pillar respectively, representing the dead and the living. Thirty-six long sharp knives representing 365 days a year are tied to the sides of the ladder with paper flowers made of five-color paper.<br /> After the knife poles are tied, Heung Tong/Heung Tong (巫师) recites the words in his mouth and performs the knife dance with drum music. After the knife dance, to the sound of Suo na, gongs and drums, the knife bearer grasps the blade with both hands, steps on the blade with bare feet and then climbs up. When the knife-bearer reaches the top through the three scissors, the knife-bearer opens the lock of heaven, takes out the grains and flowers, spreads them out into the boiling crowd, and then places the red ribbon on the colored door, over which he sings the old prayer song, and then he comes down from the pole of the knife again. After that, he stepped barefoot into the burning charcoal fire, licking the burning plow with his tongue and biting the burning chains with his teeth, which showed the national spirit of the Li people and their superb performance skills.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> ====Development====<br /> <br /> According to legend, it commemorates an ancient Han Chinese hero who showed great kindness to the Lisu people. The Lisu people made the anniversary of the hero's death a traditional holiday for their own people, and used symbolic rituals such as going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire to express their feelings of willingness to go through fire in return. On the day of the Knife Festival, several able-bodied men first perform the &quot;firewalking&quot; ceremony. They jump into the red-hot coals with bare feet and perform various stunts. On the second day, they sharpen 36 long knives and tie them to two 20-meter-high wooden racks with rattan strips, forming a knife ladder. With bare hands and feet, the performers climb to the top from the edge of the knives and perform various difficult moves at the top of the pole. Today, this thrilling traditional sacrificial ritual has evolved into a sporting event for the good people of the Lisu people to perform their stunts.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> 1.Lisu people 傈僳族<br /> <br /> 2.&quot;Up and down the mountain&quot; event 上刀山，下火海<br /> <br /> 3.The Lisu tribe 傈僳族<br /> <br /> 4.clan 氏族<br /> <br /> 5.primitive times 原始时期<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.How many Lisu people live in Yunnan and Sichuan？<br /> <br /> 2.How many clans make up the Lisu people？<br /> <br /> 3.Who united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders？<br /> <br /> 4.Which day is the Daogan Festival？<br /> <br /> 5.What musical instruments do they play under the knife pole?<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.About 730,000 Lisu people. <br /> <br /> 2.The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans.<br /> <br /> 3.Wang Ji.<br /> <br /> 4.15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year.<br /> <br /> 5.They play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments.<br /> <br /> ====References====<br /> <br /> *Ernst, Gabriel (21 October 2019). &quot;'We try to not be Thai': the everyday resistance of ethnic minorities&quot;<br /> *&quot;Yunnan Province of China Government Web&quot;. Eng.yn.gov.cn.<br /> *李智环．Li Zhihuan. 傈僳族人口分布及形成原因分析 [Analysis of the Distribution and Causes of the Formation of the Lisu People] 《保山学院学报》， 2010 [Journal of Baoshan College], 2010<br /> <br /> ==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br /> Chinese Clothing== Phyo, Su Kyi, Student No-20191108000<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> <br /> Chinese Clothing has many ethnic groups with a long history while Han people dominate most periods in history. For thousands of years, generations of clothing designers have devoted themselves to building the Kingdom of Clothes, making the garments that cover the human body into an important component of Chinese culture. The progress of nation can be seen through its changes in clothing styles.Clothing manufacture in China dates back to prehistoric times, at least 7,000years ago. Archaeological findings of 18,000 years-old artifacts such as bone sewing needles and stone beads and shells with holes bored in them attest to the existence of ornamentation and of sewing extremely early in Chinese civilization. (www.topchinatravel. com, 2004)<br /> <br /> Chinese clothing has undergone continuous transformations throughout history,providing a reflection of the culture in place at any given time. A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry, and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive Chinese fashions through the ages. This illustrated introductory survey takes the reader through traditional Chinese clothing,ornamentation,and ceremonial wear, and discusses the importance of silk and the diverse costumes of China's ethnic groups before considering modern trends and China's place in the fashion world today.(Mei Hua-2010-page-1)<br /> <br /> A-Chinese traditional clothing<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional clothing contains rich cultural connotations.Today, after the reform and opening up, the clothing industry has developed vigorously. People gradually start pay attention to the local clothing culture, and pursue cultural connotation contained in clothing. For modern designers, the traditional clothing and its cultural background are their creation inspirations during creation phases,and they are also one of the expressive elements preferred by designers at home and abroad. Inheriting traditional clothing culture not only means that it needs us to turn the traditional clothing elements into a symbol, but also needs us to further understand the background and connotations of traditional clothing culture. The work of design without culture is like a gorgeous shell that can't stand the test of history. Only by grasping the inner spirit of traditional clothing culture, abandoning simple piled up work and patch-up work without connotation and learning the modern expressive methods of traditional clothing elements, one can design out the works which can touch people's heartstrings. (Jiangsu,2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Traditional clothing is the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics. Traditional clothing mutually integrates its unique style, comfortable fabric, bright colors,rich designs and exquisite craft elements to bring people impulsive feelings with visual communication. Traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics enjoys its unique artistic features in the style, color,fabrics,decoration and craft, ect. They are profoundly influenced by Chinese traditional culture ideas in the process of their formation and development and finally condensed into the national culture bearing Chinese culture features. These elements are the source of our inspiration in contemporary clothing design, and the use of these Chinese elements can help people to design out the clothing Chinese style.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional culture is an indispensable source of inspiration in fashion design. Putting the traditional elements into fashion design not only helps the native culture to extend itself, but also greatly promotes the culture exchanges in nationalities. Therefore, we should advocate the national advanced culture,make the Chinese traditional culture achieve the development in the clothing design, use the common language to express Chinese traditional culture essence, and integrate Chinese traditional element symbol into the spiritual elements of fashion design to make the national culture spirit and the language of the world integrate into the mainstream of modern clothing design.(Jiangsu,2016, page -3)<br /> <br /> ==Traditional Han Chinese Clothing (Han Fu):It refers to the attire worn byvthe Han people from the enthronement of the Yellow Emperor(about 2698BC) till the late Ming Dynasty (1368-1644AD).It became known as the Han Fu(fu means 'clothes&quot; in Chinese)because the fashion was improved and popularized during the Han Dynasty. It is usually in the from of long gown,cross collar, wrapping the right lapel over the left, loose wide sleeves and no buttons but a sash. Although simple in design, it gives different feelings to different wearers.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019-Aug-2)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Suit(Tang Zhuang):It is a combination of the Manchu male jacket ofvthe Qing Dynasty and the western style suit. It is usually straight collared,with coiled buttons down the front. Its color and design are in traditional Chinese style but tailoring is western.(www.topchinatravel. com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> ==Cheongsam(Qi Pao):Originated from the Manchu female clothes, it evolved by merging with western patterns that show off the beauty of a female body. Its features are straight collar, strain on the waist,coiled buttons and slits on both sides ofvthe dress. Materials used are usually silk, cotton and linen.Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire in the world today.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Tunic Suit(Zhongshan Zhuang) :Also called the Yat-sen Suit , it is designed by Dr.Sun Yat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire. It has a turn-down collar and four pockets with flaps. As Chairman Mao Zedong worn it quite frequently, it is also called the Mao Suit by westerners. It is the main attire from the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 till 1980,s. The country's leaders still wear it today when attending important occasions, such as military parades.(www.topchinatravel. com,2016,Auge-2.)<br /> <br /> B-Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements<br /> <br /> There are many old stories in ancient Chinese civilization, and Chinese traditional elements come up with the tenacity of the Chinese nations long history. Different times has their unique cultural connotations and form elements,which include Chinese architecture, costumes, traditional Chinese painting and folk art etc., and those cultural connotations and form elements are precious heritage that the ancestors leave to their off-springs. The change of dynasties in the history of our country lead to changes of cultural centers, which finally lead to the appearance Chinese traditional elements with different representative features in each historical periods, nations and regions. These elements include: Chinese silk ,cloth of brocade, hemp,blue printed fabric; chirpaur, Chinese -style chest covering, Chinese tunic suit, collar,surplice, mandarin and split etc.; colorful ethnic colors: such as bright red,green,yellow and blueetc.;Neolithic patterns, bronze patterns in Shang and Chou dynasties, ancient lacquer were pattern in Qin and Han dynasties, Buddhism patterns in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties and traditional decorative patterns in Tang,Sing and Qing dynasties. The essence of Chinese traditional culture which bear the role of inheriting national culture, and is the unique and external characteristic of Chinese nation.(Jiangsu,2016, page-3)<br /> <br /> ==The Aesthetic Performance of Design. Chinese traditional clothing of each dynasty has its own unique clothing style and design, but no matter how the style changes,the mainstream concept of traditional Chinese clothing always emphasizes symmetry and balance, and the clothing symmetry can be seen in sleeve, placket, hem,pattern ect.Chinese traditional clothing design is particular about proportion,such as the ancient Chinese woman dresses, short jacket unlined uper garment (named Ru)marching long dress , and it emphasizes the perfect proportion which hold that&quot;the upper part should be short, the below part should be long&quot;; in Song and Ming dynasties people the collocation of long BeiZi(a kind of dress that girls dress in ancient times) and short skirt, the &quot;long upper part,short below part&quot;ratio perfectly reflects the proportions beauty of the clothing.(Jiangsu,2016, page-5.)<br /> <br /> ==The Aesthetic Performance of colors. Green, white, yellow, red, black ,the five colors, form the Chinese traditional color system. They have obvious implied meaning and identification.Black stands for that the dark heaven, and yellow stands for the earth at dusj, and black and yellow stand for the heaven and the earth ,and they are mostly used in the Kings' clothing, About the colorific choice of Chinese traditional clothing the yellow and red which the historical role is prominent perform particularly well. In the late period of the Warring States as a royal color yellow appeared and became the supreme ruler's senior clothing color .People advocate yellow but don't prohibit yellow.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-6)<br /> <br /> In Chinese traditional clothing colors red has evoluted from the original noble characteristic tovthe civilians characteristic. It evolution has experienced a certain period of time. The original red uses magenta, red ,cinnabar to represent. It is the noble officials' clothing color.<br /> Many designers combine Chinese red and modern clothing design to embody the application of Chinese traditional clothing elements in modern clothing design.(Jaingsu,2016-page-7)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Chinese traditional culture is an indispensable source of inspiration in fashion design.Therefore, we should advocate the national advanced culture, make the Chinese traditional culture achieve the development in the clothing design.<br /> <br /> Trems and Expressions<br /> <br /> 历史-history, <br /> <br /> 期-period, <br /> <br /> 世代-generations, <br /> <br /> 服装-clothing, <br /> <br /> 设计师-designers , <br /> <br /> 装饰-ornamentation<br /> <br /> 中国服饰- Chinese clothing<br /> <br /> 服饰-Costumes <br /> <br /> 传统服装-Traditional clothing<br /> <br /> 服装设计-Clothing design<br /> <br /> 时尚设计-Fashion design <br /> <br /> 几代服装设计师-Generations of clothing designers <br /> <br /> 中国西装-Chinese Suit<br /> <br /> 旗袍-Cheongsam<br /> <br /> 中山装-Chinese Tunic Suit <br /> <br /> 中国传统元素-Chinese traditional elements <br /> <br /> ===Questions ===<br /> <br /> 1-What’s archaeological findings in Chinese fashions through the ages?<br /> <br /> 2-What's Traditional Clothing?<br /> <br /> 3-What's Traditional culture indispensable?<br /> <br /> 4-How is means Han Fu?<br /> <br /> 5-What's the popular Chinese attire?<br /> <br /> 6-How called was Chinese Tunic Suit?<br /> <br /> 7-What'are include Chinese traditional elements? <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 04:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Answers===<br /> 1- A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry,<br /> and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive chinese fanshions through the ages.<br /> <br /> 2-Traditional clothingis the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing<br /> culture with Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> 3-Chineset traditional culture is an indispensablevsource of inspirationin fashion<br /> design.<br /> <br /> 4-Han Fu is fu means clothes in Chinese. <br /> <br /> 5-Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire inthe world today.<br /> <br /> 6-It is also called the Yat-sen Suit,it is designed byDr.SunYat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire.<br /> <br /> 7-Chinese traditional elements include: Chinese silk,cloth of brocade, hemp, blue printed fabric.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 11:56, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> 1.Jiangsu.,(2016), “Influences of Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements on Modern Clothing Design”,<br /> <br /> Nanjing University of Finance and Economics,Soochow University,Published by Atlantic Press.<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.Mei Hua,(2010), `Chinese Clothing´, Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building,Cambridge CB28RU,UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press,NewYork<br /> www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title:www.cambridge.org/9780521186896<br /> Originally published byChina Intercontinental Press as Cinese Clothing(9787508516615)in2010©ChinaIntercontinentalPress.<br /> <br /> 3.https://www.topchinatravel.com/china-guide/history-of-chinese-clothing.htm<br /> <br /> 4.https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/clothing/--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 10:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br /> <br /> ===Chinese traditional dance===<br /> <br /> ==The Liquor Culture of China 瞿淼 Student No.202070080604==<br /> --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 08:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.The Origin of liquor in China====<br /> <br /> With a long history of liquor-making, China boasts a variety of vintage liquor, which is renowned at home and abroad. Penetrating in China’s entire history of civilization, the liquor culture plays a significant role in many aspects, such as cuisine, literature, and health care, of Chinese people’s daily life.<br /> As to the origin of Chinese liquor, opinions vary and no unanimous conclusion can be drawn, and the most widely accepted version is that Du Kang is the person who invented liquor. There are divergent views on Du Kang’s identity, so far, documents have been found which recorded his deeds in the Yellow Emperor era and Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties. And even his address is disputable. Some people think he lived in Baishui, Shaanxi province and was buried here, while others hold the opinion that he lived in Ruyang, Henan province. However, Du Kang is generally believed to be the Chinese Dionysus. According to the legend, one day it rained suddenly while Du Kang was herding the sheep. Hastily driving the sheep back to the sheepfold, he forgot some husked sorghum rice in a hollowed trunk by accident, and when he came back after a few days, the rice he left there became so fragrant that he couldn’t help tasting some. Surprisingly, it was palatable. This unexpected finding made Du Kang start to develop the liquor-brewing technique. Nowadays, Du kang has become the synonym of liquor in many places. Moreover, ancestral halls of Du Kang have been built in Baishui in Shaanxi province and Ruyang in Henan province to enshrine him. And the liquor produced in these places are called “Du Kang Liquor.”(Huang yixi, 2008, 12) <br /> <br /> ====2.The Types of liquor in Ancient China====<br /> With constant reform and innovation of the techniques of brewing liquor, thousands types of vintage liquor have been created in China. According to the different production techniques, Chinese liquor can be divided into fermented wine and distilled liquor.<br /> <br /> Yellow rice wine is the oldest fermented wine around the world. Shaoxing Wine, a famous specialty of Shaoxing, Zhejiang province, is the representative of yellow rice wine. It has a very long history, and the wine industry in Shaoxing was prosperous early in the Warring States period. Shaoxing wine looks yellow and clear, hence sugar is added in its raw material. The most prominent of Shaoxing Wine is that it’s fragrance improves with age. In addition to Shaoxing Wine, there are other famous yellow rice wine like Jiujiang Old Seal Wine, Mellow Wine and Dongwu Rice Wine and so on.<br /> <br /> Liquor and Spirits(Baijiu), a kind of distilled liquor, is divided into the following flavor types: sauce-flavor type, light flavor type, strong flavor type and other flavour types. Kweichow Moutai is a traditional Chinese specialty liquor. It is one of the world's three major distilled liquors on par with Scotch whiskey and French cognac. It is also the originator of Daqu sauce-flavored liquor with a history of more than 800 years. The style and quality of Kweichow Moutai is characterized by &quot;prominent sauce, elegant and delicate flavour, full-bodied, long aftertaste, and lasting fragrance in an empty cup&quot;. Its special style comes from the unique traditional brewing techniques formed over the years and the brewing methods are combined with the agricultural production in the Chishui River Basin, which is affected by the environment and seasonal production, retaining some of the original traces of local life. In 1996, Moutai's craftsmanship was identified as a state secret to be protected. In 2001, the traditional craft of Moutai was included in the first batch of national material cultural heritage. In 2006, the State Council approved the inclusion of the &quot;Moutai traditional brewing process&quot; in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage lists, and declared the world intangible cultural heritage.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Types of Drinking Vessel in Ancient China====<br /> Chinese people always pay attention to the beauty and delicacy of tableware, and we stress the exquisiteness and suitability of wine vessels when drinking. Therefore, drinking vessels as part of the liquor culture also have a long history and varied appearances.<br /> <br /> In different historical periods, due to the continuous development of society and economy, the production technology, materials, and appearance of wine vessels will naturally undergo corresponding changes; therefore, a wide variety of wine vessels have been produced. As early as the Neolithic culture period, pottery with shapes similar to later wine-ware, such as the pottery of the Peiligang culture period, appeared. The development of the liquor industry and the noble identity of the drinker have made it possible for liquor utensils to be differentiated from ordinary eating utensils. The quality of wine-ware often becomes one of the symbols of the status of drinkers. Bronze ware originated in Xia Dynasty, and the earliest bronze wine ware that has been discovered is from the Xia Erlitou culture period. Bronze ware reached its heyday in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and declined in the Spring and Autumn Period. The purpose of the Shang and Zhou drinking vessels was basically specific. In the Shang Dynasty, due to the development of the liquor industry and the improvement of bronze production technology, China's wine ware reached unprecedented prosperity. The bronze wine vessels of Shang and Zhou Dynasties were divided into liquor boiling vessels, liquor serving vessels, drinking vessels and liquor storaging vessels according to their purposes. Each vessel has many styles, some are in common styles, and some take animal shapes. Take Zun as an example, there are Elephant Zun, Rhino Zun, Niu Zun, Yang Zun, Tiger Zun, etc. During the Qin and Han Dynasties, lacquered wine utensils became popular in southern China. It became the main type in the Han Dynasty, Wei and Jin Dynasties, and its shape basically inherited the shape of bronze liquor vessels. Porcelain roughly appeared around the Eastern Han Dynasty. Compared with pottery, the performance of porcelain surpassed that of pottery. The shape of liquor glasses in the Tang Dynasty was much smaller than in the past, so some people think that distilled spirits appeared in the Tang Dynasty. The Song Dynasty was the heyday of ceramic production, and there were many exquisite wine vessels. People in Song Dynasty like to warm rice wine and drink it. So the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl were invented. People placed the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and poured hot water into the bowl to warm the wine. The representative porcelain wine-ware of the Ming and Qing Dynasty is the blue-and-white porcelain wine-ware.<br /> <br /> ====4.Drinking Order====<br /> As early as the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, drinking orders appeared at banquets in the Yellow River Basin. There are many ways to make wine orders. The way the literati and the ordinary people make drinking orders are naturally very different. Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc., while ordinary people use simple ways to act without any preparation. It requires a quick, witty, artistic and talented person to do liquor orders. The drinking order is of great significance to the transformation, enrichment and development of drinking rituals. It is not only an important means to add wine to the fun and to invigorate the banquet, but also to make Chinese culture enter the wine and become the Liquor Culture&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> 1.Du Kang 杜康<br /> <br /> 2.Chinese Dionysus 中国酒神<br /> <br /> 3.husked sorghum rice 秫米饭<br /> <br /> 4.Baishui 白水县（陕西渭南市辖县）<br /> <br /> 5.Ruyang 汝阳县（河南省洛阳市下辖县）<br /> <br /> 6.fermented wine 发酵酒<br /> <br /> 7.Distilled liquor 蒸馏酒<br /> <br /> 8.Yellow rice wine 黄酒<br /> <br /> 9.Shaoxing Wine 绍兴酒 <br /> <br /> 10.Jiujiang Old Seal Wine 九江成年封缸酒<br /> <br /> 11.Mellow Wine 醇香酒 <br /> <br /> 12.Dongwu Rice Wine 东吴老酒<br /> <br /> 13.Liquor and Spirits 白酒 <br /> <br /> 14.Kweichow Moutai 贵州茅台<br /> <br /> 15.sauce-flavor type 酱香型 <br /> <br /> 16.light flavor type 清香型 <br /> <br /> 17.strong flavor type 浓香型 <br /> <br /> 18.Daqu sauce-flavored liquor 大曲酱香型白酒<br /> <br /> 19.the Peiligang culture period裴李岗文化时期 <br /> <br /> 20.the Xia Erlitou culture period 夏二里头文化时期<br /> <br /> 21.Zun 樽 <br /> <br /> 22.injection vessel and bowl 注子和注碗<br /> <br /> 23.drinking order 行酒令<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.Who is generally believed to invent liquor in China? <br /> <br /> 2.What is the most prominent of Shaoxing Wine?<br /> <br /> 3.How to use the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl in the Song dynasty?<br /> <br /> 4.How do literati often make drinking orders in China?<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.Du Kang<br /> <br /> 2.It’s fragrance improves with age.<br /> <br /> 3.Place the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and pour hot water into the bowl to warm the wine.<br /> <br /> 4.Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc.<br /> <br /> ====Bibliography====<br /> *Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br /> <br /> *Li Fangzhou 李方舟. (1998) 酒令——酒文化的珍品[Liquor-a treasure of wine culture]. 质量天地Production Room.<br /> <br /> *Du Jinpeng 杜金鹏. (1995) 中国古代酒具[Ancient Chinese Wine Set]. 上海文化出版社 Shanghai Culture Publishing House.<br /> <br /> *Yang Li 杨 利. (2005) 酒文化及酒的精神文化价值探微[A Probe into Wine Culture and Spiritual Cultural Value of Wine]. 邵阳学院学报Academic Journal of Shaoyang University, 2005(02):82-83.<br /> <br /> *Xu Shaohua 徐少华. (1999) 中国酒文化研究50年[Research on 50 years of Chinese wine culture]. 酿酒科技Brewing Technology, 1999(06):15-18.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Fengqi 赵凤琦. (2014) 我国白酒产业可持续发展研究[Research on Sustainable Development of Chinese Liquor Industry]. 中国社会科学院研究生院CASS Graduate School.<br /> <br /> *Wng Jianguo&amp;Xu Liang 汪建国,徐亮.(2005)我国黄酒的特征及展望[Characteristics and Prospects of Chinese Rice Wine] 江苏调味副食品Journal of Jiangsu Seasoning Food, 2005(06):8-12.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jihua 丁季华. (1991) 中国酒文化的结构与功能[The structure and function of Chinese wine culture]. 历史教学问题History Research and Teaching, 1991(2).<br /> <br /> == China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH) - Rajabov, Anushervon student NO. 201921080005==<br /> <br /> ===China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH)===<br /> <br /> Introduction <br /> <br /> High-speed railway (HSR) in China is the longest network of high-speed railways in the world and is used most widely. The network of UNCC includes the recently built railway at the estimated speed of 200-350 km / h (120-220 miles per hour). The Chinese VSM accounts for two thirds of world high-speed railways. Almost all trains, the path and services of the HSR belong to the Chinese railway corporation under the CHINA Railway High Speed brand (CRH). The high-speed railway has developed rapidly in China over the past 15 years. CRH was put into operation in April 2007, the Intercity Line Beijing-Tianjin, which opened in August 2008, became the first HSR allocated passenger line. HSR applies to all administrative provincial levels, except Macau and Tibet. The total length of the HSR network reached 36,000 km (22,000 miles) in August 2020. The HSR construction boom continues, and the HSR network should reach 70,000 km (43,000 miles) in 2035. China's first high-speed trains were imported or built in accordance with the Technology Transfer Agreement with foreign trains manufacturers, including Alstom, Siemens, Bombardier and Kawasaki Heavy Industry Since the initial technical support, Chinese engineers have overpower the internal components of the train and built local trains produced by the CRRC State Corporation. The appearance of a rapidly accelerated railway in China has decreased in the way and changed Chinese society and the economy. The World Bank study has shown that &quot;a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality.&quot; where the sources are coming from?<br /> <br /> Definition and terminology <br /> <br /> High-speed trains in China are usually belonging to passenger trades of classes G, D and C. in class G trains (高 铁; Gāotiě; &quot;High-speed rail&quot;) are commonly used trains E In class D trains (动 车; Dòngchē; &quot;Electrical multiple unit&quot;) are presented by EMU trains operating at lower speeds, whether in high-speed or low-speed ways. The actual movement speed of class D trains can vary greatly. D211 Creament train from Guyang-east to Guangzhou-South along the High Speed Railway Guang-Guangzhou, a line with an estimated speed of 250 km / h, on average, 207 km / h per trip. The sleeping train D312 EMU between South Beijing and Shanghai at a low speed Beijing - Shanghai on average passing 121 km / h. Class C (c héngjì; “intercity”) trains that run on high-speed tracks at speeds above 250 km / h are also considered high-speed trains. where the sources are coming from ?<br /> <br /> Influence on airlines<br /> <br /> The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights. The effect of high-speed railway on airfare is most acute when traveling for less than 500 km (310 miles). By the spring of 2011, commercial airlines were fully stopped at previously popular routes such as Wuhan Nanjing, Wuhan Nanchang, Xi'an-Zhengzhou and Chengdu Chongqing. Flights along the routes with a length of more than 1500 km (930 miles) usually do not suffer. As of October 2013, half a speed of passengers were transported monthly on high-speed rail than in the country's airlines. where the source a<br /> Technologies <br /> Chinese High Speed Railway Controls Various Electric Forms of Trains, Hexie HAO Title (Simplified Chinese: 和谐 号; Traditional Chinese: 和 諧 號; Pinyin: Héxié Hào; Harmony) is for designs which are imported from other nations and designated CRH-1 to CRH-5 and CRH380A (L), CRH380B (L) and CRH380C (L). CRH compositions are designed for fast and convenient movement between cities. The weakness of intellectual property Hexie HAO creates obstacles to China in the export of its products related to high-speed railways, which leads to the development of a fully recycled railway franchise called Fuxing Hao (Rejuvenation) that based on local technologies. where are coming from?<br /> <br /> 4 + 4 HSR network <br /> <br /> The network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km. Most of the lines follow existing routes and are for passenger traffic only. These are known as Passenger Lines (PDL). Several sections of the national network, especially along the southeastern coastal corridor, have been built to connect cities that previously had no rail links. These sections will carry both passenger and cargo. High-speed trains on HSR corridors can usually reach speeds of 300-350 km / h (190-220 mph). On mixed HSR lines, passenger trains can reach a maximum speed of 200–250 km / h (120–160 mph). This ambitious national grid project was slated to be built by 2020, but government incentives have significantly shortened the construction timeframe for many lines. where the sources are coming from ?<br /> <br /> Advantages <br /> <br /> HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances that: Increases economic productivity and long-term competitiveness by increasing rail capacity and unifying labor markets. Moving passengers onto high-speed lines frees up older railways to carry more cargo, which is more beneficial for railways than for passengers whose fares are subsidized. Boosts the economy in the short term as high-speed rail construction creates jobs and stimulates demand in the construction, steel and cement industries during the economic downturn. 110,000 workers were mobilized for the construction of the Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway. Facilitates economic integration between cities and promotes the growth of second-tier cities. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains. where the sources are coming from ?<br /> <br /> Wenzhou accident <br /> <br /> On July 23, 2011, two high-speed trains collided on the Ningbo-Taizhou-Wenzhou railway in the Lucheng district of Wenzhou city, Zhejiang province. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped. Signals failed, causing another train to stop a stopped train. Several carriages derailed. State Chinese media confirmed 40 deaths and at least 192 people were hospitalized, including 12 seriously injured. The train accident in Wenzhou and the lack of accountability by rail officials have generated public outcry and heightened concerns about the safety and management of China's high-speed rail system. Concerns about quality and safety have also influenced plans to export cheaper high-speed train technology to other countries. In the aftermath of the deadly disaster, the Chinese government has suspended approval of new rail projects and began security checks on existing equipment. where the source are coming from?<br /> <br /> Terms and expressions<br /> <br /> 高 铁 - High-speed rail<br /> 动 车 - Electrical multiple unit<br /> 和 諧 號 – Harmony<br /> 復興號 - Rejuvenation<br /> <br /> Questions <br /> <br /> 1. What does the World Bank research say?<br /> 2. What forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights?<br /> 3. How many high speed rail corridors are there in the 4 + 4 HSR network? What is their total length?<br /> 4. What caused the accident?<br /> 5. What are the benefits of HSR?<br /> <br /> Answers<br /> <br /> 1. The World Bank study has shown that &quot;a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality.&quot; <br /> 2. The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights.<br /> 3. The 4 + 4 HSR network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km. <br /> 4. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped.<br /> 5. HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains.<br /> <br /> References misssing<br /> <br /> ==Language, The Chinese Language - Seydou, Sagara, Student No:201911080004,Major:Translation Studies===<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> China is a very big country with a large population, multi-ethnic,and multi-lingual. Each etthnic groups may have its own lingo, or dialects. There are great differences between these dialects because of pronunciation. For example, if people in different places use their dialects to talk, they may not be able to understand each other, and the situation may lead to embarrassment and understanding. Therefore, the Chinese people communicate with each other in a common language, Putonghua, also known as Mandarin in Western countries. Cheng Aimin (2019, 124)<br /> <br /> ==Putonghua and Dialects==<br /> <br /> Putonghua is the national language of China, and Chinese is the most widely spoken language in the world. More than one billion of the world's populations are Chinese speakers. The Chinese population is already one fifth of the population of the world and is rapidly expanding its presence everywhere and influence many people around the world. Cheng Aimin (2019, 25) <br /> It is the modern standard Chinese language with the Beijing pronunciation as its standard pronunciation, the northern dialect (also known as Mandarin, the official language in the past) as its basic dialect, and the modern vernacular as its grammatical norm. Therefore, the northern dialect sounds more like Putonghua than other dialects. Putonghua is a standardized language, which is legally used all over the country. In 2000, the law of the People’s Republic of China on common languages and characters established the legal status of Putonghua and standardized Chinese Characters as the national language and writing system. Putonghua is also one of the six working language of the United Nation and an important means of communication between China and foreign countries. According to statistics from ethnologist, in 2015, 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, but there were still about 400 million people who spoke dialects or minority languages. Article 19 of the constitution of the People’s Republic of China stipulates that ‘’ Putonghua is widely used by the state ‘’, and the third week of September is the national Putonghua Publicity week. We often hear some sayings like this: ‘’ Learn Putonghua well and you will have friend all over the world.’’ Chinese dialects are usually divided into seven groups: northern dialect Wu dialect, Hunan dialect, Jiangxi dialect, Hakka dialect, and Cantonese dialect and Fujian dialect. Most northern are close to Putonghua and easy to understand a non-native speaker. Cheng Aimin (2019, 126) <br /> <br /> The dialects in China differ greatly. Speaking Putonghua allows the Chinese people to communicate better with each other and promote the development of economy and culture everywhere. However, the promotion of Putonghua cannot be achieved in a short time. The Chinese government plans to enable more than 80% of Chinese people to speak Putonghua by 2020. (C.Gov art 10. 2017)<br /> Only by learning Putonghua can you communicate with people from all parts of China and event with Chinese –speaking people all over the world. While striving to promote Putonghua among the people of the whole country, China also pays special attention to the protection of dialects, which should not be lost after learning Putonghua. . Cheng Aimin (2019, 126)<br /> <br /> ==Ancient Chinese and Modern Chinese ==<br /> Over the past three thousand years, Chinese has undergone a long period of development and changes, and has been constantly interacting with the languages of other nations. Ancient Chinese and written Chinese characters are not exactly the same as they are now. When we visit Chinese historical sites, we often see couplets, poems, and inscriptions. Most of them are written in classical Chinese and traditional Chinese characters. Classical Chinese is a written language formed on the basis of the spoken language in the pre-Qin period. Cheng Aimin (2019, 127) <br /> <br /> By the time of the Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties (the 7th century to the 10th century), the spoken Chinese had changed greatly and had significant differences with the classical style of written Chinese. The pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar had changed greatly. But all the time, some people still insisted on writing in classical Chinese, while others wrote in the commonly used vernacular (spoken Chinese). The Four Classical Novels created in the Ming and Qing dynasties, The Dreams of the red Chambers, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, The Outlaws of the Marsh and the journey to the west, are all representative works of the ancient vernacular. After the May 4th movement in 1919, China launched a vernacular movement advocating ‘’my hand writes my speech’’. Since then, the vernacular has gradually been more widely used in the whole society, and modern Chinese has gradually developed and formed. Compared with ancient Chinese, modern Chinese absorbs a lot Western grammar and has added many disyllabic words. Cheng Aimin (2019 ,128)<br /> <br /> ==Idiomatic Phrases- Idioms, Proverbs, Common Sayings, and Allegorical Sayings.==<br /> Many phrases with fixed meanings in Chinese have been handed down from the ancient times. Mastering these phrases will make your language more authentic and vivid. For example, ‘’Lofty mountains and flowing rivers ‘’. Playing the lute to the cow’’ ‘’prescribing medicine according to symptoms’’, and ‘’ pleading guilty by carrying a rod on one’s back’ ’these phrases, often contain four Chinese characters each, are called idioms. They are quite formal and often originate from ancient historical stories, fables, myths and legends, or literary works. Sometimes we cannot guess the meaning of an idiom simply according to the meaning of the words. For example, 崇山峻岭，流淌的河流 ‘’lofty mountains and flowing rivers’’ means meeting someone who can really understand and appreciate them, while吹牛的长笛 ‘’ Playing the lute to the cow’’ means the casting pearls before swine. Wendy Abraham: (2018 ,115)<br /> There are also proverbs, common sayings, and allegorical sayings created and passed down by the common people in spoken language, which are quite colloquial and emotional, reflecting the unique culture of China.<br /> Proverbs are common and easy -to understand fixed phrases used orally, often explaining a truth. For example, ‘’ if you are not in charge of a home, you don’t know how expensive the firewood and rice, if you don’t have children, you don’t know kinds your parents are.’’ ‘’Seeing is better than hearing 100 times, and doing is better than seeing 100 times’’ Cheng Aimin (2019, 129)<br /> Common sayings mostly come in a three –character format, but there are also other formats. In addition to the literal meaning, there are deep metaphorical extensions. For example, 吹牛皮 ‘’blow cow skin’’ (meaning bragging or boating) ‘给某人. 穿紧身鞋 ‘’give SB . Tight shoes to wear ‘’ ( meaning making things hard for SB), ‘为外国人工作时的消磨时间‘’kill time when working for foreigners ‘’ ( loafing on the job) , 提一个黑锅 ‘’ carry a black pot’’ ( taking the blame for the fault of others ) , 钉在眼睛里 ‘’ nail in the eyes’’ ( thorn in the flesh ), 狗腿 ‘’ dog leg’’ ( hired thug) , 不管3x7 = 21 ‘’regardless of 3x7= 21’’( regardless of consequences, in the spite of anything ), 打不了八极 ‘’ can’t hit with eight poles’’ ( extremely distant or unrelated ). (Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002,232)<br /> An allegorical saying is divided into two parts. It is like a riddle: The first part is a metaphor, and the second part is an explanation. There are two types of allegorical sayings: homophonic and figurative. Example of the homophonic type ‘’ the nephew carries a lantern – to light up the uncle’’ (pronounced the same ‘’ as before ‘’ in Chinese); ‘’the monk opens an umbrella – no hair and no sky ‘’ (‘’ no hair ‘’ is pronounced similar to ‘’ lawless ‘’ in Chinese). Examples of the figurative type: ‘’ A mute person takes a dose of bitter medicine- they can’t say it is bitter ‘’; ‘’ Mice go to the street – everybody shouts and beats them.’’ Cheng Aimin (2019.130)<br /> <br /> ==Language policy==<br /> While vigorously promoting Putonghua, the Chinese government has also promulgated many policies to protect dialect and minority languages. In order to promote Putonghua, China promulgated the Chinese Pinyin Program in 1958. Pinyin (the standard Chinese sound- spelling system) is widely used in Putonghua promotion, international Chinese teaching, foreign exchange and other fields. It has become an important tool for reading Chinese characters, learning Putonghua, training and improving reading and writing ability. With the popularization of modern information technology, pinyin is widely used to input the Chinese characters on computers and mobile phones. Pinyin affects all aspects of social life. In translation, Chinese names of people, places, food, and even some cultural concept with Chinese characteristics (Such as Beijing, pingpang, Shaoling, Gongful) are directly spelled with Pinyin, which is therefore an important standard for translation and a bridge for international exchange. Minglang Zhou: (pp.71-95).<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion.== <br /> Today, an increasing number of people from other countries now want to learn Chinese language and culture and also many universities from different countries throughout the world offer Chinese language courses because Putonghua is also an open door to a huge job market in all of the countries where Putonghua is the language of commerce like Mainland China, Taiwan and Singapore. Learning Chinese can help to make a better future for everyone. Abundant opportunities for governments and business careers as well as scientific and cultural exchanges await the student of Chinese. The China market is blossoming after decades of global isolation. As China is rapidly becoming a world economic power as it opens its doors to foreign investment expands its infrastructure, those who know Chinese will be valuable to business.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> Cheng Aimin.(2019), ''中国概况'' [Understanding China]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> Minglang Zhou: Language Policy in the People’s Republic of China (p.71-95), Wendy Abraham: let’s talk Mandarin Chinese: 1,001 real-life phrases and Idioms. Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37) Article 10 Putonghua and the standardized Chinese characters shall be used as the basic language in education and teaching in schools and other institutions of education, except where otherwise provided for in laws.<br /> The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002)<br /> ===Terms and expressions===<br /> Lingo: 林戈<br /> Putonghua: 普通话<br /> Await student:等待学生<br /> Pinyin: 等待学生<br /> Lofty: 崇高：<br /> Vernacular: 白话：<br /> Swine: 猪：<br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1. Why Putonghua is spoken in United Nations Organization?<br /> 2. How many people speak Putonghua in China and around the world?<br /> 3 .Why Chinese government is promoted Putonghua among many others languages?<br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1. Because it is an important means of communication between China and foreign countries.<br /> 2. According to ethnologist 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, and according to the10 most spoken languages in the world Chinese (and all of its varieties such as Mandarin) is by far the most spoken language across the world with 1.31 billion speakers.<br /> 3. Because Putonghua is become an international language and it also facilitate understanding between different ethnic groups in China.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_2&diff=113015 2020-12-16T10:26:37Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac */</p> <hr /> <div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br /> *Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br /> <br /> '''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br /> *You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like &quot;Longevity Noodles&quot;) or Text B (&quot;Mooncakes&quot;), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title (&quot;Festival Meals&quot;) and arrange it accordingly.<br /> *In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br /> *For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br /> *Add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Please also add a list &quot;Terms and Expressions&quot;.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Questions&quot; section.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Answers&quot; section.<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Red Culture - Kang Haoyu 康浩宇, 202070080638==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康浩宇 Kang Haoyu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Red Culture===<br /> Chinese red culture is unique in the world. As a very important cultural resource, it has both tangible culture and intangible culture. Red culture in China refers to the advance culture with Chinese characteristics created by party and people in revolutionary years.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)<br /> <br /> ====1. Development====<br /> <br /> China has brilliant history and splendid civilization in ancient times. However, with the Opium War of 1840, China was plunged into the darkness of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression. Despite of all efforts that countless dedicated patriots had made, they still failed to change the plight. The October Revolution in Russia brought Marxism-Leninism. With Communism as the the highest ideal and ultimate goal, the Communist Party of China shouldered the historic mission of national rejuvenation. With the firm leadership of the party, Chinese people embraced national independence, people's liberation, national reunification and social stability, and stepped into a new era of prosperity and happiness.(Xi Jinpin 2017)<br /> <br /> Red culture is condensed by the Communist Party of China in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. It is an advanced Marxism culture that was inherited and developed in the new period of socialist construction. It's a collectivism culture of bravery, sacrifice and devotion that seeks happiness for the Chinese people and rejuvenation for the Chinese nation.Red culture is embodied in the aspects of ideal belief, value pursuit and spiritual outlook, and is integrated into material remains, mechanism behaviors and cultural and artistic forms.(Luo Liling, Pu Qingpin 2018, 45)<br /> <br /> First of all, red culture is a revolutionary culture, which was formed by the Chinese Communist Party in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. After the founding of People's Republic of China, the Communist Party of China led the Chinese people to inherit and carry forward the revolutionary culture. In the new period of socialist construction and reform and opening up, a vigorous and advanced socialist culture was formed, which enriched and developed the connotation of red culture. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture, and are the core value and spiritual subject of contemporary Chinese culture. As for Chinese red culture, Among them, Marxism is the soul, the common ideal of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the theme, the national spirit and the spirit of the times are the essence, and the socialist concept of honor and disgrace is the foundation. These four aspects influence, infiltrate and interact with each other, revealing the essential characteristics of red culture scientifically and completely.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)<br /> <br /> ====2. Symbols====<br /> <br /> The word “red” in “red culture” has many symbols. Chinese people have “red” complex since ancient time. Red represents authority. For, example, official documents are also called red heading documents. Red represents courage. Red is the color of Chinese national flag. Chinese military strategists and generals have a deep understanding of the role of red in war, so they use red flags to unite their morale, inspire their fighting and their courage, and summon the spirit of going forward bravely and not fearing sacrifice. Red represents honor and auspiciousness. For instance, the places are always adorned with red for conference and ceremony. People are awarded with red flower and red certificates. Red represents revolution. When Marx was asked about &quot;favorite color&quot; in his early years, he clearly answered &quot;red&quot;. In 1864, First International was founded, and its logo was red. The first army of Communist Party of China was named Red Army, and Ruijin, the first revolutionary base area, was called Red Capital. There were also red boats in South Lake and red flags in Jinggangshan.(Chen dongwang, Huang Weiliang 2006, 19)<br /> <br /> ====3. Values====<br /> <br /> Red culture has many values. Red culture has the value of history. It witnesses the early development history of the Communist Party of China. It shows the inevitability of the socialist road in China. And it is an important weapon to guide the success of Chinese revolution. Besides, red culture has the value of civilization. Carrying forward the red culture is an urgent need to cultivate a new national spirit. Red culture is important for the construction of socialism culture and ideology. Moreover, red culture has the value of economy. Red culture is a powerful driving force for the development of socialist market economy. It is an important medium of economic development under the new historical conditions. The red cultural industry has become a new economic growth point.(Wang Yidi 2007, 149)<br /> <br /> ====4. Red Culture in Nanchang====<br /> <br /> Nanchang is the capital city of Jiangxi Province and it is where August 1st uprising took place. Nanchang is renowned as the cradle of Chinese revolution and the place where the military flag rose. Because in August 1st uprising, communist party of china formed its first army in Nanchang. There are lots of red culture resources in Nanchang. <br /> <br /> Bayi Square is at the center of Nanchang city. It was built to memorize August 1st uprising. Bayi Square highlights the theme of &quot;Bayi History and Culture&quot; in all directions. The memorial area, cultural area, reminiscence area and leisure area of Bayi Square show Bayi Uprising in different forms. The landmark in the square is Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower. Besides, Nangchang August 1st Memorial Hall is a special memorial hall established to commemorate Nanchang Uprising.（Peng Bo, Zhang Li, Li Jiangyuan 2006, 58）<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] 程东旺, 黄伟良. “红色文化”的价值形态与德育功能探析[J]. 现代教育科学, 2006: 19-21.<br /> <br /> [2] 罗丽琳,蒲清平. 红色文化的思想政治教育基因及其时代价值[J].新疆师范大学学报, 2018: 45-52<br /> <br /> [3] 彭波, 张丽, 李江源. 整合红色资源,提升江西文化力[J]. 江西崛起策论, 2006:58-60.<br /> <br /> [4] 王以第. “红色文化”的价值内涵[J]. 文化论苑, 2007:149-150.<br /> <br /> [5] 习近平, 决胜全面建成小康社会 夺取新时代中国特色社会主义伟大胜利——在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告,人民日报,2017.<br /> <br /> [6] 朱桂莲,李晶. 德育视角下的中国红色文化研究综述[J]. 研究综述, 2010:87-89.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> red culture 红色文化<br /> <br /> Opium War 鸦片战争<br /> <br /> red heading documents 红头文件<br /> <br /> red army 红军<br /> <br /> August 1st uprising 八一起义<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1. What is the historical background of the birth of red culture?<br /> <br /> 2. What are two major components of red culture?<br /> <br /> 3. How many symbols dose the word &quot;red&quot; in red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 4. How many values dose red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 5. What is the landmark in Bayi Square?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1. In modern China, Communist Party of China led the Chinese revolution and led people to fight against suppression.<br /> <br /> 2. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture<br /> <br /> 3. Four. Authority, courage, honor and revolution.<br /> <br /> 4. Three. History value, civilization value and economic value.<br /> <br /> 5. Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower<br /> <br /> ==Landscape, The Ancient Tea Horse Road - Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> <br /> ===The Ancient Tea Horse Road===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. The ancient tea horse road is divided into two routes: the Sichuan-Tibet line and the Yunnan-Tibet line. The ancient tea horse road originated from the ancient southwest frontier of the tea horse mutual market, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and most prosperous in the middle and late World War II. The ancient Tea Horse Road divided into Shanxi-Gan, Shanxi-Kangtang (folk called wade ancient road, Sichuan-Tibet line is part of it), Yunnan-Tibet and other three main routes, connecting Sichuan, Yunnan-Tibet, extending into the territory of Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal, India, until reaching West Asia, West Africa, the Red Sea coast. 5 March 2013, the Tea Horse Road was listed by the State Council as the seventh batch of national key cultural relics conservation units.(Zou Jingyi 2018,131)<br /> <br /> ====Historical Routes====<br /> China’s ancient tea horse road is divided into:<br /> 1. The Shanxi-Gansu tea horse road is the main route for tea to travel westward in mainland China and exchange for horses. It is one of the main routes of the ancient Silk Road.<br /> 2. Shanxi and Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road), began in the Han Dynasty, formed by the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse each other. Due to the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government control of tea trafficking, tea trafficking sub-regional, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road.<br /> 3. The ancient Yunnan-Tibet Tea Horse Road. Formed around the late sixth century AD, it is south of Yunnan's main tea producing areas in Xishuangbanna Yiwu, Pu'er City, intermediate through today's Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture and Lijiang City, Shangri-La into Tibet, directly to Lhasa. Some also re-exported from Tibet to India and Nepal, is an important trade channel between ancient China and South Asia.<br /> 4.Sichuan-Tibet Tea Horse Road is a part of the Shan-Kang-Tibet Tea Horse Road, east of Yazhou edge tea production Ya'an, after playing arrow furnace (now Kangding), west to Lhasa, Tibet, and finally through to Bhutan, Nepal and India, a total length of nearly four thousand kilometers, is an essential bridge and link between ancient Tibet and the interior.<br /> There are three main routes of the ancient tea-horse road: The Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line. <br /> Among the three ancient tea-horse roads, the Qinghai-Tibet line was established in the Tang Dynasty and developed earlier, while the Sichuan-Tibet line was the most influential and well-known later. These three routes are closely related to Chengdu, among them, the Yunnan-Tibet route and the Sichuan-Tibet route must pass through Chengdu, and their development is closely related to the tea-horse trade.(Kang Yuming2020,281-283)<br /> <br /> Shanxi- Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road), was formed in the Han dynasty through the efforts of the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government controlled tea traffickin along the tea trafficking sub-region, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:02, 7 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> ====Historical Value====<br /> The Silk Road in the north and the ancient Tea Horse Road in the south. The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization. However, its history and value will always shine brightly.(Li Gang 2011,113-117)<br /> <br /> 1.The Golden Road of Tourism<br /> The ancient tea-horse road tour has unique scenery, profound cultural connotation, exclusive resources and is unparalleled in the world.<br /> 2. Ancient Roads for the Propagation of Civilization<br /> The ancient Tea Horse Road was not only an important migration corridor for the ancient ancestors between Wei-Tibet and present Sichuan and Yunnan, but also an important aperture for the spread and exchange of ancient civilizations between present Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet.<br /> 3.Migration Corridor of National Cultures<br /> On this ancient road, which stretches for more than 10,000 miles, Chinese, Tibetan, Yi, Naxi, Lisu, Hani, Kino, Qiang, Pumi, Bai, Nu, Jingpo, Achang and other ethnic groups have flourished here for thousands of years, highlighting the diversity and original form of ethnic culture in southwest China.<br /> 4.Religious Propagation Road<br /> With the development of the tea-horse trade and the extension of the ancient tea-horse route, Tibetan Buddhism spread widely along this route on the Tibetan Plateau and surrounding areas. The development and spread of Tibetan stupas can be roughly divided into two routes: one is Tibet - Qinghai - Gansu - Inner Mongolia - the other is Tibet - Qinghai - Gansu - Inner Mongolia. -Liaoning--Jilin--Heilongjiang--Beijing--Hebei --Henan--Jiangsu; second, Tibet--Yunnan--Sichuan. --Guangxi--Hubei.<br /> 5. The Path of National Spirituality<br /> You can't talk about the ancient tea-horse road without mentioning the horse gangs. The horse gangs have formed a unique cultural carrier in the course of thousands of years. Their spirit is attached to this ancient road, and become part of the Chinese national spirit.<br /> 6.The Road of National Unity and Integration<br /> The ancient tea-horse road is like a huge net in southwest China, through which people of all nationalities strengthen their ties and communication, promote political, economic and cultural interaction, development and integration among all nationalities, and enhance the emotional ties between them.<br /> 7.The Road of Securing the Borders<br /> The expansion of the ancient tea-horse road and the flourishing of the tea-horse trade contributed to the stability and consolidation of China's southwest frontier.<br /> 8.The road to economic development<br /> The Thousand-Year Tea Horse Trail contributed to the formation of many towns in the region through the tea and horse trade, which greatly contributed to the economic development of the region.(Ji Jing2016,354-355)<br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road(茶马古道)<br /> <br /> 2.Sichuan-Tibet Line（川藏线）<br /> <br /> 3.Yunnan-Tibet line（滇藏线）<br /> <br /> 4.wade ancient road（蹚古道）<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What is the ancient tea horse road ?<br /> <br /> 2.How many main routes does the ancient tea-horse road conclude?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the historical value?<br /> --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 04:15, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. <br /> <br /> 2.There are three main routes, including the Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line.<br /> <br /> 3.The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]邹怡情,张依玫.作为文化线路的茶马古道遗产保护研究[J].北京规划建设,2018(04):131-140.<br /> <br /> [2]康昱明,李金峰.甘肃茶马古道文化线路遗产探究[J].农村经济与科技,2020,31(11):281-283.<br /> <br /> [3]李刚,李薇.论历史上三条茶马古道的联系及历史地位[J].西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2011,41(04):113-117.<br /> <br /> [4]纪静.茶马古道的兴起及其价值研究[J].福建茶叶,2016,38(07):354-355.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:06, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Literature, Novels - Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> <br /> ===Four satirical novels in ancient China===<br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.<br /> <br /> ==== Nie Hai Hua====<br /> Nie Hai Hua was written by Zen Pu (1872-1935).A total of 35 chapters.it is a novel of condemnation, historical fiction and political fiction. In the novel, Jin yun (wen qing) is the main character.After won the scholarship, he took a famous courtesan, Fu Caiyun, as his concubine in Suzhou.He was then ordered to travel to Russia, Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands. After returning to China, Jin Wenqing died of illness in Beijing, and Fu Caiyun left the Jin family to resume her old profession in Shanghai, changing her name to Cao Menglan then went to Tianjin to work as a prostitute, calling herself Sai Jinhua.<br /> The novel takes the story of Jin Wenqing and Fu Caiyun as the main line, vividly describes the historical and cultural changes as well as political and social changes from Tongzhi to Guangxu more than 30 years, exposing the decay and decline of the rulers, criticizing the feudal system of imperial examination, satirizing the officials, truly reflecting their spiritual life and cultural mentality. at the same time also enthusiastically glorifies Feng Zicai, Liu Yongfu and other war heroes and Sun Yat-sen and so on. The revolutionary activities of the Democratic Revolutionaries express the author's patriotic thoughts against the feudal dictatorship and advocate national democratic revolution. In specific writing, the author adopts the modern popular block novel structure combined with the traditional mesh novel structure to unfold the plot, with ups and downs, twists and turns, touching and orderly, always around the main line.<br /> As a historical novel, Nie Hai Hua draws on the spirit of the ancient &quot;good history&quot; of China to portray its characters. At the same time, it draws on the satirical approach of &quot;The History of Confucianism&quot; in which &quot;the fair-minded accuse the evils of the times&quot;, commenting on events and weighing characters in a realistic manner. In terms of art, Nie Hai Hua also has many shortcomings.However, it is a skillful structure and outstanding novel at that time.<br /> <br /> ==== the Travels of an Old Man====<br /> The Travels of an Old Man was written by Liu E (1857-1909) and a total of 20 chapters. Liu E was an entrepreneur and scholar, not a professional writer, but his reputation as a literary figure was far greater than that of an entrepreneur and scholar. This novel is an unfinished work of his that was written in his later years with an autobiographical nature.<br /> The novel takes a bell-ringing mountebank, Lao can (Tie Ying), as its main character, and narrates his experiences and activities during his travels in northern China, exposing the decadence and darkness of the Qing government, the brutality and lethargy of the officials, and the poverty and oppression of the people, especially attacking the abusive behavior of those &quot;Qing officials&quot; who are actually cruel officials, and expressing the author's strong views on the perilous reality of society and the country. <br /> The artistic achievement of the novel is very high. The first is the superb descriptive skills, whether it is a description, a landscape, or a narrative, can be vividly depicted, such as the scenery of Thousand Buddha Mountain, Daming Lake etc., which makes people have a sense of being in the real world. Secondly, its psychological description and psychological analysis, with appropriate language, can brilliantly show the inner world of the characters. Thirdly, the exquisite structural art. The novel is in the form of a Travel Journal, with travel as a clue,and organic combined of what he see, hear, think and do along the way forms a unique structural feature of the novel.<br /> <br /> ==== The Records of Officialdom Exposure====<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure by Li Baojia (1867-1906), five editions and a total of 60 chapters. This is the first long chapter novel in China's modern era that was published serially in newspapers and magazines and achieved a social sensation, creating a culture of critical reality in modern fiction.<br /> The novel consists of more than 30 relatively independent bureaucratic stories linked together,involving the Qing government from the emperor, down to the minor officials and so on,and these various bureaucrats of all kinds of evil behavior were exposed:They embezzled public funds, corrupt and pervert the law or the named &quot;expedition bandits&quot;, but is harmful to the people. The work is like a scroll of the officialdom at the end of the feudal society, touching on the main contradictions of that time.<br /> The novel's writing method is modelled on &quot;The Scholars&quot; and has been developed, making full use of exaggeration, comic style and satirical techniques. only a few strokes will outline the character's voice and physical appearance. And the author also good at describing the details, so that the characters are vivid and evocative, with a strong artistic impact. Therefore, the subsequent imitation of the work is quite a lot, it become a great view.<br /> <br /> ==== 20 years witness strange present situation====<br /> The Strange Situation Witnessed in Twenty Years was written by Wu Woyao(1866-1910), A total of 60 chapters. This is a long novel with autobiographical flavor.it through nearly 200 short stories that the protagonist hears and witnesses from the death of his father to his failure in business. it outlines the strange realities of late Qing society during the 20 years from the Sino-French War to the beginning of the 20th century.<br /> The scope of social life is much broader than The Records of Officialdom Exposure. In addition to describing the officialdom, there are also involving the shopping malls, foreign markets, science fields, medical and astrological practices. It exposes the political situation, moral outlook, social customs, and human conditions of the increasingly colonized Chinese feudal society, and is of high cognitive value in helping readers to see the irreparable historical destiny of the late Qing society and feudal system.<br /> The novel adopts the first-person narrative story, structured in a way that makes the reader feel intimate and trustworthy, setting a precedent in the history of Chinese fiction. The structure is also very clever: &quot;nine deaths and a lifetime&quot; is not only the narrator of the book story, but also the backbone of the structure of the book, and at the same time uses flashbacks, interpolations and other methods, combining it organically together, making the whole book complex and simple appropriate, muddle together.<br /> <br /> ==== Conclution====<br /> As a result of the bourgeois reformists and democratic revolutionaries strongly advocated, the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty got unprecedented development, and a large number of influential novels emerged, forming a prosperous situation of the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty.The emergence of the &quot;Four satirical novels&quot; in the late Qing Dynasty is an important sign that The creation of Chinese novels has entered another prosperous period.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> *[1]https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E6%99%9A%E6%B8%85%E5%9B%9B%E5%A4%A7%E8%B0%B4%E8%B4%A3%E5%B0%8F%E8%AF%B4/702907?fr=aladdin<br /> *[2]二十年目睹之怪现状[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 吴趼人, 2012<br /> *[3]老残游记[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 刘鹗, 2012<br /> *[4]官场现形记[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 李宝嘉, 2012<br /> *[5]孽海花[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 曾朴, 2012<br /> *[6]四大谴责小说政治批判手法研究[J].李辉东,2017<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure 《官场现形记》<br /> <br /> The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years 《二十年之目睹怪现象》<br /> <br /> the Travels of an Old Man 《老残游记》<br /> <br /> Nai Hai Hua 《孽海花》<br /> <br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty 晚清四大谴责小说<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1、what are The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty ?<br /> <br /> 2、which novel is modeled the &quot;The Scholars&quot;?<br /> <br /> 3、what’s the common characteristic of these four novels? <br /> <br /> 4、what other satirical novels do you know?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1、They are Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua.<br /> <br /> 2、The Records of Officialdom Exposure<br /> <br /> 3、The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time.<br /> <br /> 4、E.g.The Scholars<br /> <br /> ==Shadow Puppets - Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> ===Shadow Puppets Li Lili No.202070080594 专业：英语笔译===<br /> ====The Origin of Shadow Play====<br /> Shadow play has a long history from the written records. Legend has it that Madame Li, the wife of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, died of illness. Emperor Wu's yearning for her was so intense that he was in a trance and ignored the government's affairs all day. Minister Li Shaoweng went out one day when he came across a child playing with a doll in his hand, with its shadow being vivid. So he came up with an idea that he could cut the image of Mrs. Li from cotton and silk, painted it with color, and installed wooden poles on her hands and feet. After seeing it, Emperor Wu was glued to it and couldn't put it down. This love story is considered to be the earliest origin of shadow play. There are also some views that shadow play originated in Xi'an of Tang Dynasty, however, it is worth discussing that although there were an variety of operas in the Tang Dynasty, yet there were no any records of shadow play mentioned in the Tang Dynasty. Up to now, the earliest shadow play we can see is recorded in Song Dynasty. Its rise and development is closely related to Bianjing’s (the capital of Northern Song Dynasty)superior geographical environment, the development of commodity trade and good commercial transportation at that time.(Wei Liqun 2018,13-14)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> [[File:shadow play.jpg]]<br /> In Chinese ancient socitey, Chinese began to give performances using puppets against an illuminated screen. This is “shadow puppets”, also known as “lamp and shadow play”. It is considered as “precursor of movie” because it was the earliest moving part of form dubbed with human voice in the world. During a play, puppeteers hide behind the white screen and move puppets, while narrating the story, usually through singing. Performances are accompanied by musicians playing percussion and stringed instruments. A shadow puppet can perform actions such as “serving drinks” , “waving a sword and a spear, ” or even “smoking ”by puppeteer holding and moving manipulating rods on its body. Typically, a shadow puppet has three rods, some may have five or seven rods. It can create rich designs such as shadow puppets, animals and stage props, for example, buildings, imperial palaces, chariots, tables and chairs as well as weapons. It is so rich that it includes almost everything under the sun.It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools. The well-known ones include Tangshan Shadow Play in Hebei Province, Beijing Shadow Play as well as Shaanxi, Shanxi and Hunan Shadow Play. etc.(Wang Yexia 2012,1-3)<br /> <br /> So how to make a puppet? First. Draw pictures of the various parts of the shadow puppets; second, finish carving with a knife and a hard board underneath the design; third, color the puppet with watercolor pens; forth, paint the body parts with a brush dipped in oil. This can make the puppet transparent and better reflect colors under the light.; fifth, connect joint sections with the cotton thread; sixth, make the manipulating rods; finally, attach the manipulating rods to the shadow puppet with cotton thread. The “head” is the most important part of a shadow puppet and its total component number is about four times that of the “body”. A shadow puppet’s “head”and the “body” can be mixed and matched with each other. (Wang Yexia 2012,29-33)<br /> <br /> The eyes and the eyebrows of a shadow puppet’s five facial features represent different personalities. The good and positive people are typical of a benevolent and kind countenance, with nice-looking eyebrows and eyes, while the villain or the general are ferocious look, with sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes. And the former are often concealed teeth and the latter are revealed teeth. The middle-aged person are short beard, but the elderly man are long beard. The decorative designs on the shadow puppets are so important that they must match the character’s social status. In a shadow play, female characters are usually decorated with patters such as flowers, grass, clouds and phoenix, while male characters are often decorated with dragons, tigers, water and clouds. Shadows puppets look colorful under the light. To achieve a better visual effect, the translucent puppets need to be painted on both sides. The head of color can also represent different characters’ personalities. The red is symbol of a heroic and upstanding character. The black is a sign of a just, honest and selfless personality. The yellow shows a brave and irascible character, and are often used in fantasy plays to represent people with magic power. (Wang Yexia 2012,9-16)<br /> <br /> ====The Present Situation of Contemporary Shadow Play====<br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, shadow play, as an art form, has undergone a series of reforms under the guidance of the Party's principles, including the organization of theatrical troupes, the compilation and creation of plays, the drawing and performing forms of shadow play. With the advent of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, the prosperity of shadow play came to an abrupt end. The troupe was disbanded, the repertoire was banned, and the artists were transferred to other fields. A large number of precious shadow puppet props and documents were damaged. This situation, except for some places, lasted until 1976. After the end of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, shadow puppet art recovered rapidly, However, with the economic development being put in the first place of social activities and the popularity of television and the richness of artistic forms, shadow play is declining day by day with an irresistible trend, because shadow play arts are unable to keep pace with the times and get the appreciation of the audience. As a result, the prospect of shadow play art is becoming increasingly bleak. （Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）<br /> <br /> In order to inherit Chinese excellent culture and protect the ancient art forms such as shadow play. On May 20, 2006, it was approved by the State Council to be included in the first part of national intangible cultural heritage list. On November 27, 2011, UNESCO put Chinese shadow play on the &quot;list of representative works of human intangible cultural heritage&quot;.（Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）<br /> <br /> ===References：===<br /> Wang Yexia 王业霞.(2012). 《皮影戏》 [Shadow Play] 北京：高等教育出版社 Beijing: [Higher Education Publishing House] <br /> <br /> Wei Liqun 魏力群.(2018). 《小书大传承-皮影》[&quot;Small Book, Big Heritage - Shadow Play&quot;] 重庆：重庆出版社 Chongqing: [Chongqing Publishing House]<br /> <br /> Zhu Hengfu 朱恒夫.(2020) 中国皮影戏的历史，现状与剧目特征[The History, Current Situation and Repertoire Characteristics of Chinese Shadow Theatre] 浙江艺术职业学院学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Arts Vocational College]<br /> <br /> ===Words and Expressions===<br /> shadow puppet皮影戏 <br /> paper cutting 剪纸<br /> ventriloquism 口技<br /> manipulating rod 操纵杆<br /> five facial features 五官<br /> sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes 尖眉杏眼<br /> Cultural Revolution 文化大革命<br /> intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1.When is the earliest shadow puppet’s record?<br /> <br /> 2.What art of forms do shadow play use?<br /> <br /> 3. What does a red head stand for in a play?<br /> <br /> 4.When is it put on the list of intangible cultural heritage&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.Song dynasty.<br /> <br /> 2.It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools.<br /> <br /> 3.The red is symbol of a heroic and upstanding character.<br /> <br /> 4. On November 27, 2011.<br /> <br /> ==Confucian Culture - Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Confucian Culture ===<br /> <br /> <br /> ==== Introduction ====<br /> <br /> Confucian school is an academic school founded by Confucius, developed by Mencius, and composed by Xunzi. Today, it still retains a certain vitality. Confucian school takes Confucianism as its guiding ideology whose central ideas are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 31)<br /> <br /> Confucian school was on an equal footing with the other hundred schools in the pre-Qin period. After the First Emperor of Qin, also called Qin Shihuang, burned books and buried scholars alive, the development of the Confucian school suffered a serious defeat. Then, in order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's advice of &quot;banishing other schools of thought and worshiping Confucianism only&quot; and imposed restrictions on thought, which led to the revival of Confucian school. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 20) The concepts of &quot;Confucian school&quot;, &quot;Confucianism&quot;, and &quot;Confucian Religion&quot; should be distinguished since Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism a social stratification, and Confucian religion belief. (Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 2017, 60-61)<br /> <br /> Laozi founded Chinese Taoist school; Confucius started Chinese Confucian school; Sun Tzu initiated Chinese military strategist school; Mozi was the founder of Mohism in the early Warring States. Confucianism contributes to guiding the code of conduct and constructing social order; Taoism focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalism serves the system construction of national political management.; the concepts of Universal Love and utilitarianism are two cornerstones for the Mohism. The General Unity idea of Confucianism has played an important role in the unification of a nation, the enhancement of national cohesion and the integration of cultural values. (Tan Su 2012, 68) After more than two thousand years of development and evolution, Confucian culture has built up a complete ideological system, involving politics, education, morality, ethics, code of conduct, life skills and other aspects. It has cultivated the wisdom and soul of the Chinese people throughout the history, and formed deep-rooted set patterns of thinking, psychology and survival. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42-43)<br /> <br /> ==== Analysis of Confucian Culture ====<br /> <br /> ===== Intelligence Development =====<br /> <br /> Confucius is a great educator, as well as a pioneer and practitioner of mass education. After Confucianism was established as a dominant culture, both the rulers and the public respected the teachings of the sage and attached great importance to education. In this context, a basic requirement is to stay highly cultured and steeped in propriety. After the Emperor Wen initiated the imperial examination system in the Sui Dynasty, those who are good scholars could make an official, which inspired students of poor families to change their lives by studying hard and diligent. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 19) For generations, the Chinese people have attached great importance to the education of their children, which is conducive to the improvement of the thinking ability of the whole nation. <br /> <br /> However, the corrupt of bureaucracy and the darkness of officialdom in metaphase and anaphase made many literati feel despairing about official career and discredit about the concept. In addition, the Four Books and Five Classics were the main learning content of Confucianism. Apart from government-run schools, private schools and self-study can hardly meet the requirements of the Six Classical Arts. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 21) Therefore, the Four Books and Five Classics were the focus of students, while the Six Classical Arts were not highly valued. <br /> <br /> =====Spiritual Guidance =====<br /> <br /> In terms of spirit, Confucianism contends that &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.&quot; (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 86) Benevolent people love each other, which reflects the essence of “Unity of Man and Nature” and also the most brilliant connotation of Confucianism. This philosophy calls for people’s active contributions to the society. It is still alive in modern times, and is the fundamental requirement of people's spiritual orientation in the future. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32)<br /> <br /> =====Order Construction =====<br /> <br /> In the age of barbarism and backwardness, a common feature was that a small number of people used power and force to suppress and enslave the majority, thus resulting in labor division and unfair distribution of wealth and generating corresponding social hierarchy and concepts. Given the fact that Confucianism developed in the transitional period of feudal society, the thoughts of Confucius and Mencius were rooted in the idealist view of destiny and did not break the shackles of social hierarchy. In addition, they even advocated the distinguish between the noble and the humble and highlighted the importance of hierarchy division. In this context, the benevolence they advocated had great limitations in political management. The public could not be treated equally in terms of political status. Instead, the so-called benevolence calls for improvement of the living conditions of the public and more benefits from the ruling class. However, its purpose was to maintain social order and reconcile social contradictions. This is also the root cause of feudal rulers’ favoring of Confucianism. In essence, Confucianism did not promote social equality, instead, it worked to maintain the unequal feudal hierarchy that aggravated servitude. In fact, after a long history of feudal rule, the sense of hierarchy would be part of the national psyche. With the progress of times and civilization, the view of destiny and the thought of social order have become psychological shackles of the Chinese people. (Li Fangping 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> After eliminating the ideology of feudal hierarchy and formalism, some philosophies of Confucianism still generate positive effects on modern society. Specifically, the spirit of benevolence and universal love is conducive to cultivate people’s spirits; (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 33) the concept of “the country belongs to the public” reflects a sense of social responsibility to make contributions for society, which can be expanded into a sharing social and political philosophy for different countries. Filial piety and brotherhood increase the harmony and stability of family; Loyalty, faithfulness, propriety and forgiveness are conducive to the relationship between different countries, societies and people. &quot;Loyalty&quot; means that people should stay loyal to the country and people; &quot;Friendliness&quot; and &quot;forgiveness&quot; play an important role in resolving various contradictions and animosities; when it comes to &quot;filial piety&quot; and &quot;propriety&quot;, many redundant forms inherited from feudal society should be eradicated and be more practical. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-41)<br /> <br /> ====The Contemporary Value of Confucian Culture ====<br /> <br /> Today, Confucian culture is still of great significance. We must explore the value of Confucian culture on the basis of the excellent tradition of the Chinese nation and by combining the characteristics of the times with and the actual situation. The Confucian culture has affected Chinese more than two thousand years and gone deep into each aspect of Chinese society. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39)<br /> <br /> =====Ideological and Political Education =====<br /> <br /> Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy, and it places a high priority on human value and dignity. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 51-57) Over the years, the Chinese nation has been influenced by this excellent philosophy. On this occasion, its behavioral pattern and psychological structure are endowed with uniqueness, which is mainly manifested in two aspects. One is to respect yourself, learn how to love and care yourself. Moreover, gain dignity and achieve the development of human value through the continuous improvement of moral cultivation. Second, respect others and show respect for others' personality by respecting, understanding and caring for others. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-40)<br /> <br /> ===== Modern Economic Construction=====<br /> <br /> Under today’s circumstance, some ideological contents are still alive and produce positive effects on promoting the economic construction of modernization and fostering modern patriotism emotion of the Chinese people. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65)<br /> <br /> First of all, Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of &quot;benevolence&quot; and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65) Since Confucian culture reflects a collectivist view on life, individuals are full of sense of duty and responsibility towards others and groups. In this context, their self-cultivation targets at regulating the family, country and the world. Thus, the value of individual is closely linked with the rise and fall of the country, so they have a strong sense of responsibility. (Tan Su 2012, 68) &quot;Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country&quot; has been a common belief for thousands of years. Such a social responsibility will give rise to a huge driving force for the development of the country and society.<br /> <br /> Second, the consciousness of &quot;self-improvement&quot; and the proposition of &quot;seeking truth&quot; in the Confucian culture strengthen the national spirit and provide a source power for China’s economic modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 66) Yi Zhuan put forward: &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection.’’ It means that continuous development is the law of nature and that a gentleman should pursue progress and be strong, unyielding resilient and positive. For thousands of years, the Chinese nation has formed a fine tradition of working hard and striving for strength under the influence of these thoughts. Today, we carry forward the spirits of “self-improvement” and &quot;seeking truth&quot; in ways that further enhance national spirits and provide a strong driving force for the socialist modernization.<br /> <br /> Third, the &quot;reform and innovation&quot; concept in Confucian culture is conducive to the expansion of the reform and opening up and the acceleration of China's socialist modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 67) On the basis of admitting the fact that the continuous development is the universal law of nature, Confucian culture puts forward the &quot;innovation idea&quot;. The Book of Rites said, &quot;If you can in one day renovate yourself; do so from day to day and let there be daily renovation.&quot; The Book of Changes said, &quot;Reform refers to destroy the old, while innovation means to establish the new.” The concept is not only serves as the theoretical basis for reform and innovation throughout the history, but also provides valuable lessons for the reform in socialist economic and political systems today. Domestically, promoting the innovative spirits can greatly enhance the reform consciousness of the Chinese people. Externally, it is conducive to advancing the opening up by leveraging the global influence of Confucian culture.<br /> <br /> ===== Legal Construction =====<br /> <br /> Confucian culture places a high priority on personal cultivation, while a highly civilized society under the rule of law must be composed of highly educated citizens. Confucian school, a school with thousands of years of history in China, has become an integral part of the Chinese culture. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32-33) Nowadays, since China has called for the policy of combining the rule of virtue with the rule of law, it is the time for Confucian culture to find its historical position and fully play its role. Exploring the influence of Confucian culture on the construction of contemporary Chinese rule by law, not only can we help us more deeply understand the traditional culture, but also can promote the process of building the rule of law in contemporary China. <br /> <br /> The rule by virtue thought is an important part of Confucian culture and it emphasizes the importance of moral education. It is a national strategy pursued by ancient Chinese rulers and a method of national governance embodying reference significance in today’s China. (Wei Na 2014, 1-2) In terms of national governance, Confucianism emphasizes the importance of morality, believing that national governance should not mainly rely on harsh punishment, instead, moral education should be applied to reform people. Confucius said, &quot;By governing with virtue, rulers will be loved by the public, just like stars surround the North Star.&quot; By comparing rulers to the North Star and people to the stars, Confucius emphasized the importance of moral governance. (Wang Jie 2004, 77)<br /> <br /> How to rule by virtue? First of all, rulers should pay attention to their personal cultivation and develop good moral characters, so that they can set a good example for the public. Only when officials and common people obey the ruler sincerely, can a good social atmosphere be formed. Secondly, since Confucianism takes &quot;benevolence&quot; as its core and calls for the rule of virtue, many people subconsciously believe that Confucianism denies the role of criminal law and that Confucian culture does not call for the rule of law. In fact, this is not the case. While Confucianism advocates the rule of virtue, it also emphasizes the supplementary role of rule of law. (Wang Jie 2004, 82-83) Confucius said, &quot;Sages believe that national governance must combine the rule of virtue and law.&quot; That is to say, if people are governed by systems and laws, they seek for impunity but lack of conscience; however, if they are guided by morality and etiquette, they will have a sense of right and wrong and will impose strict requirements on themselves.<br /> <br /> In a word, we should clearly realize that, although Confucian culture is an excellent traditional culture in China, it was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. Under this circumstance, we must analyse Confucian culture dialectically and explore the value of Confucian culture. At the same time, we should discard the bad habits and unfavorable factors left by it, so as to better carry forward our traditional culture and accelerate the construction of the rule of law in contemporary China. (Wang Jie 2004, 83) <br /> <br /> ====The Confucius Institute ====<br /> <br /> With the improvement of China's international status and the increasingly extensive international exchanges, Chinese culture has won wider foreign attention and the world is more eager to learn and understand the Chinese culture. The Confucius Institute project, founded in 2004, emerges in response to the call of the times. Today, Confucius Institutes have spread throughout Asia, Africa, The Americas, Europe and Oceania. (Wang Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 30) Fundamentally speaking, its is conducive to the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture since language is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is of positive significance to the construction of China's national image, the promotion of China's international influence, the realization of wider international communication.<br /> <br /> The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Today, countries are committed to spreading their own language and culture, so there is a fierce competition in international cultural promotion. In addition, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. At present, Confucius Institutes are prevalent all over the world, but the promotion strategy seeking for quantity and speed results in a serious shortage of teachers capable of teaching Chinese as a foreign language. According to statistics, there is a global shortage of at least five million TCSL teachers. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 31) Secondly, the lack of high-quality and localized teaching materials for Chinese has also become a bottleneck for the development of Confucius Institutes. The shortage of Chinese textbooks affects the depth of cultural communication of Confucius Institutes directly. Thirdly, Confucius Institutes are not capable of spreading the ideological depth of the Chinese culture. Although the textbooks are rich in content, they mainly focus on promoting folk culture by introducing Chinese food, tea and wine, traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts. Meanwhile, they rarely involve the ideological essence of traditional Chinese culture and the modern value of Chinese culture. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 32)<br /> <br /> The Confucius Institutes should fully explore the modern significance of Confucianism and cast the quintessence of Chinese culture, and strengthen the spread of the core idea of Chinese culture and its modern cultural value. The connotation of Chinese culture is very rich. What Confucius Institutes should spread is not all the contents of Chinese culture, but the contents with universal value that are different from other countries and represent the essence of Chinese culture. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions ====<br /> <br /> 儒家 Confucian school<br /> <br /> 儒学 Confucianism<br /> <br /> 儒教 Confucian religion <br /> <br /> 兼爱 Universal love<br /> <br /> 恕、忠、孝、悌、勇 forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage<br /> <br /> 仁、义、礼、智、信 benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith<br /> <br /> 学而优则仕 A good scholar will make an official<br /> <br /> 四书五经 the Four Books and Five Classics<br /> <br /> 天行健，君子当自强不息；地势坤，君子以厚德载物。As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.<br /> <br /> 天下兴亡，匹夫有责 Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country<br /> <br /> ====Questions ====<br /> <br /> 1. What’s the central ideas of Confucian culture?<br /> <br /> 2. What’s the difference among Confucian school, Confucianism and Confucian religion?<br /> <br /> 3. What do you think of the relationship between Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school, Legalist school?<br /> <br /> 4. What’s the Six Classical Arts?<br /> <br /> 5. What you think of the ancient influence of Confucianism?<br /> <br /> 6. Do you think Confucian culture still has its contemporary values in China? And why?<br /> <br /> 7. What do you think of the current situation of the development of the Confucian institute?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1. The central ideas of Confucian culture are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith.<br /> <br /> 2. Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism is a social stratification, and Confucian is a religion belief.<br /> <br /> 3. Confucian school emphasizes the code of conduct and the social order construction; Taoist school focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalist school serves the system construction of national political management; Mohist school emphasizes Universal Love and utilitarianism. Although Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school and Legalist school are different schools with different theories, they are not completely antagonistic. <br /> <br /> 4. The Six Classical Arts refers to propriety(礼), music（乐）, archery（射）, riding（御）, writing（书） and arithematic（数）. <br /> <br /> 5. The ancient influence of Confucianism should be analysed from a historical perspective. It was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. While contributing to intelligence development, spiritual guidance and order construction to some extent, it has also led to some negative effects in the long run. For example, it called for rigid feudal hierarchy and resulted in spiritual constraints. <br /> <br /> 6. Yes. Although Confucian culture has a history of thousands of years, it still has contemporary values in today's society. For instance, Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy and places a high priority on human value and dignity, which is still of profound significance; Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of &quot;benevolence&quot; and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy.<br /> <br /> 7. The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Nowadays, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. Joint efforts of all social sectors should be made to achieve the sustainable development of it. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 陈智斌, 杜艾红. (2017). 儒学、儒家、儒教之异同 [The Differences and Similarities of Confucian School, Confucianism and Confucian Religion]. ''审计月刊'' Audit Monthly. <br /> <br /> Li Chenzong 李承宗. (2002). 论儒家文化对培养现代爱国主义情感的积极作用 [On the Positive Effects of Confucian Culture on Cultivating Patriotism]. ''廊坊师范学院学报'' Journal of Langfang Teachers College. <br /> <br /> Li Fangping 李芳萍. (2013). 儒家思想对中国文化的影响研究 [A Study on the Influence of Confucianism on Chinese Culture]. ''前沿'' Forward Position.<br /> <br /> Li Xiaoyu 李晓愚. (2010). 儒家仁爱思想的当代诠释 [Contemporary Interpretation of Benevolence]. ''郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Zhengzhou University. <br /> <br /> Tan Su 谭苏. (2012). 论春秋战国时期的百家争鸣 [On the Competition of Ideas in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period]. ''兰台世界'' Lantai World. <br /> <br /> Wang Jie 王杰. (2004). 为政以德: 孔子的德治主义治国模式 [Rule of Virtue: Confucian’s Model of Governance]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C．<br /> <br /> Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 吴瑛, 提文静. (2009). 孔子学院的发展现状与问题分析 [The Development Status and Problems of Confucius Institute]. ''云南师范大学学报 (对外汉语教学与研究版)'' Journal of Yunnan Normal University. <br /> <br /> Xiang Chunling 向春玲. (2008). 儒家文化的现代意义 [On Modern Significance of Confucian Culture]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C．<br /> <br /> Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (1990). ''中国儒学思想史'' [The History of Chinese Confucianism]. 陕西：陕西人民出版社 Shaanxi: Shaanxi People’s Publishing House.<br /> <br /> ==Ch'ien Chung-shu - Liu Liu刘柳， 202070080596 MTI==<br /> <br /> ====Ch'ien Chung-shu====<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu (1910-1998), a well-known scholar, writer, translator and literary researcher, was born into an education family in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province. In Chinese academic circles, Qian was ranked with Rao Zongyi, a master in academic circles, and both were called &quot;South Rao and North Qian&quot;. He was admitted to Tsinghua University in 1929 and got to know Yang Jiang in 1932. Qian became famous soon after the enrolment, not only for the 15 mark of his mathematics, but for his excellent Chinese and English, especially full marks in English. Qian had an engagement with Yang the year after their acquaintance and went to study at Oxford University in England along with her. In 1937, he obtained the bachelor's degree from Oxford with the treatise ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries'', and his daughter Qian Yuan was born the same year. He wrote a great many profound literary works in his lifetime. When it comes to Ch'ien Chung-shu, people would think of his representative work ''Fortress Besieged'', which was published in 1947.<br /> <br /> As a realistic satirical novel, ''Fortress Besieged'' is known as &quot;The New Scholars&quot; in the 1940s. The novel is centralized on Fang Hongjian,who returned from studying abroad at the beginning of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression. It depicts the struggles in love, marriage,career and life of a group of intellectuals who were far away from the times and the people during the War of Resistance against Japanese Agression. It reveals their inner poverty, emptiness and lowliness, criticizes the dark reality of the Kuomintang-controlled areas, and reveals the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life. In the preface of the book, Qian said that, &quot;In this book I intended to write about a certain segment of society and a certain kind of people in modern China. In writing about these people, I didn’t forget they are human beings, still human beings with the basic nature of hairless, two-legged animals. &quot;The novel is like an X-ray mirror that reveals the deformed characters and ugly souls of those &quot;hairless and two-legged animals&quot; and analyzes the cultural matrix which is responsible for the deformed characters and ugly souls of these &quot;latest style&quot; literati. Yang Jiang said, &quot;The main connotation of ''Fortress Besieged'' is that those who are besieged by the city want to escape, while those outside want to rush in. This is what most people wish for in life, whether in marriage or career. &quot;The meaning of &quot;fortress besieged&quot; is also stated several times in the novel. It tells people that life is a besieged city everywhere, people have marriage and divorce, divorce and marriage in endless succession,with everlasting confusion and dilemma. The questions that Qian raised in the novel refer to a question of universal significance, which is the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life as a whole. In December 1990, the television series ''Fortress Besieged'' was broadcast on China Central Television(CCTV) and enjoyed great popularity.<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu has made significant achievements in literary research and literary creation. In particular, it is of great significance to carry forward and deny traditional Chinese culture scientifically and learn from foreign culture selectively. He has wrote the collection of essays ''Written in the Margins of Life''(1941), the collection of short stories ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts''(1946), and the novel ''Fortress Besieged''(1947). Both his essays and novels are wise and meaningful. Qian has read Chinese history, philosophy and literary classics in depth and has studied western old and new literature, philosophy and psychology. Many of his works, such as ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideaas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', have enjoyed high reputation in academic circles both at home and abroad.<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu viewd China and the world with a cultural criticism spirit. Based on his profound knowledge of Chinese and world culture, Qian has always shown a clear mind and a deep insight when observing Chinese and Western culture. He didn't reject any theories or doctrines, nor did he blindly follow any authorities. He devoted his life to promoting Chinese literature and art to the world. To this end, he not only explicated the profound meaning and unique value of Chinese culture in depth, but also pointed out its historical and regional limitations. He not only criticized the Chinese for their arrogance towards the local culture due to certain illusions, but also mercilessly eliminated the Westerners' prejudice centered on European and American culture due to ignorance. It is Ch'ien Chung-shu who has promoted cultural communication between China and other countries.<br /> <br /> November 21st,2020 is the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu. People often call him a well-informed scholar, but he is more of a down-to-earth writer and scholar. He was indifferent to fame and wealth and alaways took a rigorous and serious attitude towards academic research. We feel ourselves in an entirely new world when we read the subtle metaphors in ''Fortress Besieged'', while we read ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', we are amazed at Qian's erudition. People all over the world admire his talent, but in fact,it is his meticulous and diligent reading spirit that makes him a well-informed scholar. Many of his life experiences and the question of whether his scholarship was systematic or not have attracted much attention. Wang Shuizhao, professor of Chinese Department of Fudan University, who has studied and worked with Ch'ien Chung-shu for a long time, has recently published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'', in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements based on the first-hand historical data, his personal experiences and his own understanding of academia, and gives answers to the questions discueesed widely, such as Qian's experience of being falsely accused, whether there exists system in his scholarship and the collision of viewpoints between Qian and Chen Yinke.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries'' 《十七十八世纪英国文学中的中国》<br /> <br /> ''Fortress Besieged'' 《围城》<br /> <br /> Kuomintang-controlled areas 国统区<br /> <br /> ''Written in the Margins of Life'' 《写在人生边上》<br /> <br /> ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts'' 《人·兽·鬼》<br /> <br /> ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' 《管锥编》<br /> <br /> ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'' 《谈艺录》<br /> <br /> the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu 钱钟书诞辰110周年纪念日<br /> <br /> ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu '' 《钱钟书的学术人生》<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.What is Ch'ien Chung-shu's representative work? When was it published?<br /> <br /> 2.When was the TV series ''Fortress Besieged'' broadcast?<br /> <br /> 3.Do you know other works about Ch'ien Chung-shu? Can you list some of them?<br /> <br /> 4.Which book did Wang Shuizhao publish in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu? What does he talk about in this book?<br /> <br /> 5.Which sentence is your favoriate in ''Fortress Besieged''? <br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Ch'ien Chung-shu's representive work is ''Fortress Besieged''. It was published in 1947.<br /> <br /> 2.It was broadcast in December 1990.<br /> <br /> 3.''Patchwork:Seven Essays on Art and Literature''（《七缀集》） and ''Poetic Remains of an Ephemeral Life''（《槐聚诗存》）.<br /> <br /> 4.Wang Shuizhao published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'' in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu, in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements.<br /> <br /> 5.&quot;I want to be able to occupy the whole life of the man I love. Before meeting me, he would have had no past and would be waiting for me with a clean slate.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧， 202070080597，MTI==<br /> <br /> '''相声 Crosstalk'''<br /> <br /> ===The Development of Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> Crosstalk, in the ancient time was known as onomatopoeia, originally refers to imitate others’ voices. It was evolved and further developed from the folk opera in North China, and integrated with imitating oral skills and other folk art forms. It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty. It’s a folk vocal art that uses jokes or funny questioning and answering to make the audience laugh. In the early years of the Republic of China (1912-1949), crosstalk gradually developed from one-person ventriloquism to one person stand-up talk, and the name changed to cross talk. Later, it developed into stand-up crosstalk, dual crosstalk, and group crosstalk. And become a veritable form of art. After years of development, dual crosstalk has finally become the most popular form of crosstalk among audiences.In the late Qing Dynasty, crosstalk formed its modern features and styles. The language uses in crosstalk is mainly Beijing dialect, however, there are also “dialect crosstalk” in other regions of China. (360 Encyclopedia)<br /> <br /> <br /> Crosstalk is a original folk art in China, with a long historical tradition, deeply loved by the majority of the people. The once-dead crosstalk art has been reborn and developed very rapidly especially since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. It is no longer confined to several cities in the north, nor spread only within the citizens, but also spread from the north to the whole country, from the city to the countryside, and from the citizens to all strata. (Hou Baolin, 1982:01)<br /> <br /> ===Four Basic Skills in Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> Speaking, imitating, teasing and singing are the four basic artistic skills of crosstalk. “Speaking” means to tell jokes, stories, lantern riddles, drinking games, etc; “imitating” is to imitate all kinds of birds and animals, hawking, singing and the sound of different languages, etc; “teasing” is to gag and tease; “sing” means to sing Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity, so they are called Taiping) (1982:194), opera lyrics and songs. Crosstalk artists regard “speaking, imitating, teasing and singing” as their “four compulsory lessons”. For example, by saying “tongue twisters” or “reciting classical repertoires” to grasp the rhythm in language and correct the pronunciation. By learning all kinds of sounds to gain the ability to imitate. To practice singing skills by singing “Taiping lyrics” , opera lyrics and songs. (Hou Baolin, 1982:11)<br /> <br /> ===Characteristics of Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> First of all, crosstalk is the art of “speaking”, which belongs to the art of “performing with words”, it is different from drama that “performing with body movements”. This kind of performance has a close relationship between the actors and the audience and shortened the distance between the stage and the audience. The actors directly communicate with the audience and perform with the audience's cooperation and tacit understanding to obtain artistic effect. In this sense, crosstalk is a collective performance of actors and audiences. From the perspective of the audience, they are not standing on the opposite side of the actors and appreciating the stage performance passively and objectively, but creating artistic images with the actors. (Hou Baolin. 1982:02)<br /> <br /> Secondly, crosstalk is the art of laughter. Crosstalk uses laughter as a weapon to expose contradictions, shape characters and evaluate life. Without laughter, it can constitute any other arts, but not crosstalk and comedy. In other words, crosstalk has the characteristics of humor and satire. It reflects that life is not flat, but exaggerated and even deformed. China has a long tradition of satirizing emperors or high rank officials, its written record could be traced back to the Zhou (1046BC-256BC) and Qin (221BC-207BC) Dynasties. Satire is the product of class oppression. China has been in a feudalistic society for a long time, without political democracy and freedom of speech, the people often take circuitous methods to fight against the ruling class. Satirical art is like a weed under a boulder. Only through deformation and roundabout can this kind of art maintain to exist. (Hou Baolin. 1982:03)<br /> <br /> <br /> “Speaking” and “laughing” constitute the basic outline of cross talk art, which is a language performance art with comedy style. “Speaking”, as a kind of rap art, establishes the mode of crosstalk art, which is distinguished from drama art. “Laughing” is the artistic characteristics of crosstalk, which distinguishes it from other rap art forms. These two characteristics are interdependent and complementary. (Hou Baolin. 1982:04)<br /> <br /> Crosstalk belongs to the art of drama, but it is different from comedy. In comedy, the laughter of audience mainly comes from plot and comic characters, while in crosstalk it mainly comes from “baofu” (jokes). Sometimes it relies on the plot, sometimes it is not needed, but win the applaud of audience by the charm of language. “Baofu” must be expressed in the way of “dialogue” and “chatting” between the actors . (Hou Baolin. 1982:04)<br /> <br /> ===Famous Artists of CrossTalk===<br /> <br /> In Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) and Emperor Guangxu (1875—1908) periods, Zhu Shaowen (stage name “Qiong Bupa, which means not afraid of poverty”) was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art. Other famous crosstalk artists including Hou Baolin(1917-1993), a pioneering master of crosstalk. In his 60 years of art career, he has devoted himself to the research and development of crosstalk art and brought laughter to the audience. Under his leadership and promotion, crosstalk art has really entered thousands of households and reached a remarkable artistic peak. His crosstalk works including Drama Talks, Drunkenness and etc. Ma Sanli (1914-2003) is the son of the crosstalk actor Ma Delu. Ma Sanli devoted himself to the exploration of long-term artistic practice, and created the unique “Ma’s Style of Crosstalk”. He was the oldest, most experienced and most accomplished crosstalk leader in the cross-talk circle at that time. So was deeply loved and respected by all walks of life and the audience. Ma's cross talk enjoys wide popularity among the people. In Tianjin, it was a saying that “no branches of crosstalk did not learn from Ma”. His representative works including “Eating Yuanxiao(dumpling)”, “Selling Tickets” and “the Yellow Crane Tower” . Other famous crosstalk artists include Zhang Yongxi, Liu Baorui, Hou Yaowen, Jiang Kun, Feng Gong, Niu Qun and Guo Degang. (Baijiahao, 2018 )<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> speaking, imitating, teasing and singing 说学逗唱<br /> <br /> Taiping lyrics 太平歌词<br /> <br /> Baofu 包袱<br /> <br /> Drama Talks 《戏剧杂谈》<br /> <br /> Drunkenness 《醉酒》<br /> <br /> Selling Tickets 《卖挂票》<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.When did crosstalk form its format?<br /> <br /> 2.What is Taiping lyrics?<br /> <br /> 3.Who was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art ?<br /> <br /> 4.What are the four basic skills of crosstalk?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty.<br /> <br /> 2.Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity) is the content to be sang in the crosstalk.<br /> <br /> 3.Zhu Shaowen.<br /> <br /> 4.They are speaking, imitating, teasing and singing.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> 1.Hou Baolin，Xue Baokun，1982，《相声溯源》，People's Education Press<br /> 2.https://cul.sohu.com/20090619/n264630449.shtml<br /> 3.https://baike.so.com/doc/1925383-2037001.html<br /> 4.https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1590742532351773378<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> Go 围棋--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:04, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===GO - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI===<br /> Go is an adversarial game with the objective of surrounding a larger total area of the board with one's stones than the opponent[1]. As the game progresses, the players position stones on the board to map out formations and potential territories. Contests between opposing formations are often extremely complex and may result in the expansion, reduction, or wholesale capture and loss of formation stones.[2]<br /> <br /> A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board. One or more liberties enclosed within a group is called an eye, and a group with two or more eyes cannot be captured, even if surrounded.[3] Such groups are said to be unconditionally alive.<br /> <br /> The general strategy is to expand one's territory, attack the opponent's weak groups (groups that can be killed), and always stay mindful of the &quot;life status&quot; of one's own groups. The liberties of groups are countable. Situations where mutually opposing groups must capture each other or die are called capturing races, or semeai. In a capturing race, the group with more liberties (and/or better &quot;shape&quot;) will ultimately be able to capture the opponent's stones. Capturing races and the elements of life or death are the primary challenges of Go.<br /> <br /> Players may pass rather than place a stone if they think there are no further opportunities for profitable play. The game ends when both players pass or when one player resigns. In general, to score the game, each player counts the number of unoccupied points surrounded by their stones and then subtracts the number of stones that were captured by the opponent. The player with the greater score (after adjusting for komi) wins the game.<br /> <br /> In the opening stages of the game, players typically establish positions (or &quot;bases&quot;) in the corners and around the sides of the board. These bases help to quickly develop strong shapes which have many options for life (self-viability for a group of stones that prevents capture) and establish formations for potential territory. Players usually start in the corners because establishing territory is easier with the aid of two edges of the board. Established corner opening sequences are called &quot;joseki&quot; and are often studied independently.<br /> <br /> &quot;Dame&quot; are points that lie in between the boundary walls of black and white, and as such are considered to be of no value to either side. &quot;Seki&quot; are mutually alive pairs of white and black groups where neither has two eyes. A &quot;ko&quot; (Chinese and Japanese: 劫) is a repeated-position shape that may be contested by making forcing moves elsewhere. After the forcing move is played, the ko may be &quot;taken back&quot; and returned to its original position.[30] Some &quot;ko fights&quot; may be important and decide the life of a large group, while others may be worth just one or two points. Some ko fights are referred to as &quot;picnic kos&quot; when only one side has a lot to lose. The Japanese call it a hanami (flower-viewing) ko. <br /> <br /> Playing with others usually requires a knowledge of each player's strength, indicated by the player's rank (increasing from 30 kyu to 1 kyu, then 1 dan to 7 dan, then 1 dan pro to 9 dan pro). A difference in rank may be compensated by a handicap—Black is allowed to place two or more stones on the board to compensate for White's greater strength. There are different rule-sets (Korean, Japanese, Chinese, AGA, etc.), which are almost entirely equivalent, except for certain special-case positions.<br /> <br /> Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, there are essentially only two rules in Go:<br /> • Rule 1 (the rule of liberty) states that every stone remaining on the board must have at least one open &quot;point&quot; (an intersection, called a &quot;liberty&quot;) directly orthogonally adjacent (up, down, left, or right), or must be part of a connected group that has at least one such open point (&quot;liberty&quot;) next to it. Stones or groups of stones which lose their last liberty are removed from the board.<br /> • Rule 2 (the &quot;ko rule&quot;) states that the stones on the board must never repeat a previous position of stones. Moves which would do so are forbidden, and thus only moves elsewhere on the board are permitted that turn.<br /> Almost all other information about how the game is played is a heuristic, meaning it is learned information about how the game is played, rather than a rule. Other rules are specialized, as they come about through different rule-sets, but the above two rules cover almost all of any played game.[4]<br /> Although there are some minor differences between rule-sets used in different countries, most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules, these differences do not greatly affect the tactics and strategy of the game.<br /> <br /> Except where noted, the basic rules presented here are valid independent of the scoring rules used. The scoring rules are explained separately. Go terms for which there is no ready English equivalent are commonly called by their Japanese names.<br /> <br /> The two players, Black and White, take turns placing stones of their colour on the intersections of the board, one stone at a time. The usual board size is a 19×19 grid but for beginners, or for playing quick games, the smaller board sizes of 13×13 and 9×9 are also popular.[5] The board is empty to begin with. Black plays first, unless black is given a handicap of two stones or more (in which case, white plays first). The players may choose any unoccupied intersection to play on, except for those forbidden by the ko and suicide rules (see below). Once played, a stone can never be moved and can be taken off the board only if it is captured. A player may also pass, declining to place a stone, though this is usually only done at the end of the game when both players believe nothing more can be accomplished with further play. When both players pass consecutively, the game ends and is then scored.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Go 围棋 heuristic 启发式的<br /> adversarial game 对抗性游戏 intersection 交叉点<br /> board 棋盘 black 黑棋<br /> formation 阵型 white 白棋<br /> move 走棋 scoring rule 计分规则<br /> liberty 自由度 player 棋手<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1, What’s the basic principle of Go?<br /> <br /> <br /> 2,Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, What are other two essential rules in Go？<br /> <br /> <br /> 3, What countries have the most notable scoring rules differences?--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1, A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board.<br /> <br /> 2,The rule of liberty and the &quot;ko rule&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3, Most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Matthews, Charles (2004). Teach Yourself Go. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-142977-1.<br /> <br /> [2]NRICH Team, Going First, University of Cambridge, retrieved 2007-06-16<br /> <br /> [3]Iwamoto, Kaoru (1977). Go for Beginners. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 978-0-394-73331-9.<br /> <br /> [4]British Go Association, Comparison of some go rules, retrieved 2007-12-20<br /> <br /> [5]Kim, Janice; Jeong, Soo-hyun (1997). Learn to Play Go. Five volumes (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Good Move Press. ISBN 978-0-9644796-1-6.<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜 专业 is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:21, 14 December 2020 (UTC)==<br /> <br /> ===The Four Most Handsome men in Ancient China===<br /> It is said that there were four most beautiful women in ancient times, and corresponding to that, it is worth mentioning that there were four most attractive men at that time.Despite that we consider these four men as attractive, this refers to more than just their appearance. They have a common feature: it proves that while their appearance is marvelous, they are also outstanding in literature. Namely, as a Chinese saying goes, they are endowed with both beauty and talent.<br /> These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> The allusion of “throwing fruit to fill a carriage” originates from Pan An, which resembles movie fans nowadays to see their idols. There is a comment on Pan An’s appearance: &quot;No more and no less.&quot; The history books also describe Pan An with three words “good-looking, well-mannered, and graceful”. Although these did not describe Pan An’s appearance in details, such as eyebrows and eyes or lips, from these side descriptions, we can know that Pan An’s appearance is far above ordinary people, and even his styles draw imitation from others. At the same time, Pan An is known as “the flower of a county in Heyang”, and he is also one of the few men who are compared with flowers to be praised for excellent appearance. The beauty of exterior only fails to last long in this world. Pan An's talent and temperament and the devotion to his wife are also often eulogized. Pan Yue showed his unusual talent since he was a child, and he was called a child prodigy by the villagers. In his early years, he was appreciated by an official and recommended as a scholar. Later, served as the magistrate of Heyang (now Meng County, Henan), he was diligent in political affairs, and advocated the people to plant more fruits and trees. The county was full of trees and peaches and plums everywhere, known as “Flower County”. During his administration, his political achievements were remarkable. Besides, Pan An holds a special place in the history of literature. He was good at composing verse and orders, expatiation, and skilled in the choice of words and building of sentences, which fully reflects the characteristics of Taikang literature that pays attention to the beauty of form. He was expert in composing Ci lyric of sorrow and admonishment, and his current works such as Widow's Fu, Mourning Poem and other famous works are all known for their narration and empathy. Pan An can be described as both internally and externally blessed.（Liu Xixue 2003,63-64）<br /> <br /> Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. There is a very popular legend about King Lanling. It's believed that King Lanling was a brave and supremely skilled general. However, because he looked very sweet and it seemed hard to frighten the enemy, he often wore a half-mask when fighting, which sounds very fairytale. Nevertheless, the beauty of King Lanling is beyond doubt and otherworldly. Book of Northern Qi Dynasty described that he was friendly looking and mentally strong, with beautiful voice and appearance. King Lanling spent half his life in military affairs, and made great achievements. While this gave him glory, it also brought bad luck. There is an old Chinese saying that the glow of a inferior from massive achievements will overshadow his superior. Although the King Lanling did not have the idea of usurping the throne, but the incumbent felt threatened because of his existence itself. In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> Song Yu (about 322 BC-298 BC), as it is widely rumored, a student of Qu Yuan, was born in the capital city of Song Dynasty during the Warring States Period (now Shangqiu, Henan). Song Yu was a writer of Ci lyric of State Chu in the late Warring States period, adept in Ci lyric and even acclaimed as a great poet after Qu Yuan' reputation. Later generations often referred to them as “Qu Song”. Rumors circulate that there are many Ci lyrics from him, and Book of Han records about 16 works, but many of them are lost today. His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on. He was the first to write about sadness from Autumn and to write about women. His description of women's nature exerts a great influence on later generations such as Cao Zhi. The goddess in Song Yu's The Fu poetry of Goddess embodies the essence of pre-Qin female beauty, recounting the beauty of the goddess of Wushan Mountain in details so much so that later generations have coveted for it for thousands of years. 16 works survived, among which Nine Discriminations is believed to be truly composed by him. It is equivalent to Qu Yuan's Li Sao or A lament in the history of Chinese literature. Both poets can be called the two shining pearls in Ci lyric at their times.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> <br /> Wei Jie (286-June 20, 312), a metaphysician and an official of the Jin Dynasty. Wei Jie was a noted talker and metaphysicist during the Wei and Jin Dynasties. He was appointed as an assistant of the prince in the matter of politics. In the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Yongjia(AD310), Wei Jie died at the age of 27. Both ancient books and ancients commented on Wei Jie's appearance. Wang Ji reckoned that, “A jade is on my side, and I feel like I am nobody”; “Wandering with Jiu is like sauntering with a pearl on the side, with him shining brightly.” History Retold as a Mirror for rulers authored by Sima Guang goes into detail: &quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot; Wei Jie not only have a mere marvelous exterior, but also he can discern metaphysics from his perspective. Wei Jie’s views always amaze the concerned parties. It is said that even three sons of the Wang family, are not as good as the first son of the Wei family, and the three sons of the Wang family were all well-known scholars at that time, and the Wei Jie could be regarded as unmatchable compared with the three in family background, appearance, and talents.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Pan An 潘安<br /> <br /> King Lanling 兰陵王<br /> <br /> Ji Kang 嵇康 <br /> <br /> Wei Jie 卫玠 <br /> <br /> throwing fruit to fill a carriage 掷果盈车<br /> <br /> scholar 秀才<br /> <br /> expatiation 铺陈<br /> <br /> Book of Northern Qi Dynasty 《北齐书》<br /> <br /> the Warring States Period 战国时期<br /> <br /> Book of Han 《汉书》<br /> <br /> Nine Discriminations 《九辨》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Wind 《风赋》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Goddess 《神女赋》<br /> <br /> the goddess of Wushan Mountain 巫山神女<br /> <br /> metaphysician 玄学家<br /> <br /> a noted talker 清谈名士<br /> <br /> History Retold as a Mirror for rulers 《资治通鉴》<br /> <br /> Widow's Fu 《寡妇赋》<br /> <br /> Mourning Poem 《悼亡诗》<br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1.Who are the four most handsome men at ancient time in China?<br /> <br /> 2.Who is Gao Changgong?<br /> <br /> 3.How did Lanlin King die?<br /> <br /> 4.What works did Song Yu compose?<br /> <br /> 5.Who are the two shining pearls in Ci lyric according to the passage?<br /> <br /> 6.What History Retold as a Mirror for rulers comment on Wei Jie?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.<br /> <br /> 2.Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. <br /> <br /> 3.In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King. <br /> <br /> 4.His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on.<br /> <br /> 5.Qu Yuan and Song Yu<br /> <br /> 6.&quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]刘细学.古代四大美男[J].文史天地,2003(06):63-64.<br /> <br /> [2]王真波.四大美男都是怎么死的[J].青年文学家,2008(11):59-60.<br /> <br /> ==Lo, Minh Thao==<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Mogao Grottoes--Lou Cancan 娄灿灿 student no.202070080599 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Mogao Grottoes===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The Mogao Grottoes, known as the Thousand Buddhas Caves, were built on the eastern cliff of Mingsha Mountain, 25 kilometers to the southeast of Dunhuang city. There are 492 caves (well preserved) today, containing over 2,400 painted clay statues and 45,000 square meters of murals and 5 timber structures on the cliff of the southern district. There are also more than 300 caves used as both living room and burying place for monks and painters on the cliff of the northern district. Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes,so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes. From the 4th until the 14th century, caves were constructed by monks to serve as shrines with funds from donors. (Fan Jinshi 2010，170)The major caves were sponsored by patrons such as important asclergies, local ruling elites, foreign dignitaries, as well as Chinese emperors. Other caves may have been funded by merchants and other local people such as women's groups. (Sha Wutian 2020, 122)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes]]====<br /> <br /> ===History===<br /> <br /> Mogao Grottoes were not built in one day. According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff. Later, monk Faliang（法良）came here and joined him cultivating in caves. Since then more and more caves have been excavated over a thousand year. (Whitfield 1990, 8) <br /> <br /> By the time of Northern Liang, small community of monks had formed at this site. The caves initially served only as a place of meditation for hermit monks. Later, they were developed to serve the monasteries that sprang up nearby. Members of the ruling families of Northern Wei and Northern Zhou constructed many caves here, and it flourished in the short-lived Sui Dynasty. By the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Mogao Caves had become a place of worship and pilgrimage for the public. In the Sui Dynasty, Hexi Corridor was controlled by central authority. The emperors were pious followers of Buddhism and they ordered to build stupas across the country. Therefore, more than 100 caves were excavated in Mogao Grottoes within 37 years. By the Tang Dynasty, the number of caves had reached over a thousand. During this period, Dunhuang became the main hub of commerce of the Silk Road and a major religious center. A large number of the caves were constructed during this era, including the two large statues of Buddha at the site, the largest one constructed in 695 following an edict a year earlier by Tang Empress Wu Zitian to build giant statues across the country. The site escaped the persecution of Buddhists ordered by Emperor Wuzong in 845 as it was then under Tibetan control. As a frontier town, Dunhuang had been occupied at various times by other non-Han Chinese people. After the Tang Dynasty, the site went into a gradual decline, and construction of new caves ceased entirely after the Yuan Dynasty. In the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, Mogao Grottoes were preserved and kept by Cao Yijin（曹议金). (MA Shichang 2010, 303) After that, his later generations governed Dunhuang Prefecture and constructed multiple family caves such as Cave 55. (Gao Xiujun 2016, 9) During the Ming Dynasty, the Silk Road was finally abandoned and Dunhuang slowly became depolulated and was forgotten by the outside world. Most of the Mogao caves were abandoned. The site, however, went back to a place of pilgrimage and worship by local people at the beginning of the twentieth century. On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings. Since then, Dunhuang has become well known throughout the world. Both Chinese and foreign scholars have made extensive studies on the findings.(Stein 1912, volume 2)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Taoist Wang Yuanlu.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Taoist Wang Yuanlu]]====<br /> <br /> ===Art===<br /> <br /> The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture and they vary from dynasty to dynasty. There are mainly three types of structural forms of Mogao Grottoes: Vihara, Chaitya and Hall with inverted funnel shaped ceiling. A Chaitya with a central pillar is the main form of the caves in the early period of the Sixteen States, with Northern Wei, Western Wei and Northern Zhou Dynasties included. The murals may be divided into seven sorts:Buddhist figures, Sutra illustration, Buddhist stories, Buddhist historical pictures, Chinese mythologies, donors and decorative designs. Buddhist stories in the murals can be divided into three types: Jataka（佛本生), Buddha’s life and fate story. A Jataka is a narrative which tells of the good deeds performed by Sakyamuni during his perious existence such as prince Sudanda giving up his body to feed the hungry tigers. As to sculptures, they were constructed on a wooden frame, padded with reed, then modelled in clay stucco and finished with paint.（Duan Wenjie 1994, 163) <br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Chaitya with a Central Pillar.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Chaitya with a Central Pillar]]==== <br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body]]====<br /> <br /> The artistic styles in the Sixteen States, which gradually turned away from being primitive and simple to an easy and graceful styles in the Northern Wei, manifested in figures with well-chiseled builds and emaciated looks. In Northern Zhou, the styles of figures show that Chinese art combining the influence of foreign and native styles gradually became more nationalized. The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs. The caves become spacious and more suited for large paintings, such as the Sutra illustrations and huge pictures of Buddha expounding sermons. Bold and vigorous, brush work was painted with intricate and flowing lines. For example, Lotus Sutra on the ceiling of Cave 420 displays a lot of episodes of mountains, forests, rivers, buildings and so on in a limitated space. The theme and art in the Sui Dynasty show an important devdelopment in traditional art and indicate a comimg glorious new era. In Tang Dynasty, the caves are large with an inverted funnel shaped ceiling. The murals consist mostly of huge paintings of stories from Buddhist Sutras with well-regulated scenes and well-balanced composition. The figures at that time have round and plump faces and curved eyebrows which expresses the aesthetical taste of the people living in Tang. The mural in Cave 220 contains vivid portraits of the Emperor and his ministers listening to a sermon. The ministers attending to Emperor are each bestowed with differrent appearances and expressions. Some are natural and graceful and some cautious. The well-proportioned painted statues were made with more consummate care and attention to the detail, showing us the solemn Buddha. In addition, very tall and colossal statues of Buddha began to be made. The outstanding one is an early Tang Dynasty statue 34 metres high in Cave 96. In 781-848A.D, Hexi region fell into the Tibetan. Hence, there was an interesting changes: the king of the Tibetan took the place of central-plain emperors in the wall-painting.( Fan Jinshi 2010, 175) <br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 251 in Northern Wei.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 251 in Northern Wei]]====<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty]]====<br /> <br /> <br /> By the time of the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, the grottoes carved in this period are very large and different in form and layout. The subject and style of the statues and murals remain the influence from Tang Dynasty, but the use of colours and the drawing techniques show a simple folk style. From the 9th century to 12th, the Uygur had been in Dunhuang. The artistic styles bear the imprint of both Han and Uygur. The Uygur murals are generally characterized by the simplicity of the subject, the looseness of the arrangement, the direct and rough brush strokes. The human figures have features of certain minority groups. In the Western Xia Dynasty(1036-1227), most of caves were repaired and renovated, and only 10 caves were built because of the limited cliffs. Compared to the Yulin Grottoes at the same time, painting of Dunhuang display the Pure-land Sutra, containing simpler content. Only 27 caves are extant in Yuan times(1227-1372). The murals in Cave 3, however, still remain the Tang and Song techniques, namely using different types of drawing to depict different parts of human figures such as iron-wire lines, orchid-leaf strokes and broken-reef strokes, etc. Since the 15th century, the Mogao Grottoes had gradually fallen into neglect in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. (Rong Xinjiang 1999, 248)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty]]====<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> hermit 隐士<br /> <br /> stupas 舍利塔<br /> <br /> Emperor Wuzong ofTang Dynasty 唐武宗<br /> <br /> Vihara 精舍<br /> <br /> Chaitya 支提窟<br /> <br /> stucco 灰泥<br /> <br /> Sakyamuni 释迦牟尼<br /> <br /> Sutras 佛经<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What do Dunhuang Grottoes refer to?<br /> <br /> 2.Who built the first cave and when?<br /> <br /> 3.In 1900, who found the treasure-house in Mogao Grottoes and what were stored in it?<br /> <br /> 4.How many aspects does the art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of and what are they respectively?<br /> <br /> 5.What are the characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes, so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes.<br /> <br /> 2.According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff.<br /> <br /> 3.On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings.<br /> <br /> 4.The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture.<br /> <br /> 5.The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Fan Jinshi 樊锦诗.(2010). ''敦煌石窟'' [The Caves of Dunhuang]. Gansu: The Dunhuang Academy 敦煌研究院. <br /> <br /> Gao Xiujun 高秀军.(2016). ''敦煌莫高窟第55窟研究'' [Research on the 55th Grotto of Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang].Lanzhou University 兰州大学.<br /> <br /> MA Shichang.(2010). Buddhist Cave-temples and the Cao Family at Mogao Ku, Dunhuang. MA Shichang,27(2),303-317.<br /> <br /> Rong Xinjiang 荣新江. (2010).'' 敦煌藏经洞的性质及其封闭原因'' [The Nature of the Dunhuang Library Cave and the Reasons for Its Sealing]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Sha Wutian 沙武田. (2020). 佛教供养与政治宣传——敦煌莫高窟第156窟供养人画像研究 [Buddhist offerings and Political Propaganda -- A Study on the Portrait of the Patron of the 156th Grottoes in Dunhuang].''中原文物'' Cultural Relics in Central Plain, No.215,118-128.<br /> <br /> Stein, M. Aurel. Ruins of Desert Cathay.(1912). Personal Narrative of Explorations in Central Asia and Westernmost China, volume 2. London: Macmillan.<br /> <br /> Suemori Kaoru. (2020).&quot;Thousand-Buddha images in Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes: Religious spaces created by polychromatic patterns&quot;. Kyoto: Hozokan. <br /> <br /> DuanWenjie. (1994). Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie. Abhinav Publications. p. 163.<br /> <br /> Whitfield, Roderick and Farrer, Anne, Caves of the Thousand Buddhas. (1990). Chinese Art from the Silk Route, British Museum Publications. P . 5-20.<br /> <br /> https://books.google.ru/books?hl=zh-CN&amp;lr=&amp;id=vYPNqlAMZWAC&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PP7&amp;dq=info:9v6pr21oST8J:scholar.google.com/&amp;ots=s-uXhnyDBp&amp;sig=u3H7MAh_OpGRS6Iwxoqx0rC5_fo&amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false<br /> <br /> https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogao_Caves<br /> <br /> https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=zh-CN&amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;q=mogao+grottoes&amp;oq=<br /> <br /> ==Four State-level Cultural Relics Luo Weijia罗维嘉 Student No.202070080600==<br /> <br /> ===Four State-level Cultural Relics===<br /> <br /> China, home to one of the world’s most ancient civilizations, abounds in cultural relics, from ancient tombs, architecture, instruments to handicrafts, historical books and so on. They embody rich information about history and culture and vividly display the process of Chinese cultural development. The astounding artistic and technological levels shown in those relics continue to impress people today.<br /> <br /> ====Houmuwu Ding====<br /> <br /> In ancient China, ding was a symbol of imperial power. Therefore, ding is often used in phrases and expressions in the Chinese language to imply authority. For instance, wending, literally “enquiring about ding”, means plotting to usurp political power, yiyan juiding, literally “One word of promise is equal to nine dings”, means a decisive comment.<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding,or Houmuwu Ding, was a very precious cultural relic, found in 1937 in Anyang of Henan Province (Zhang Peng:86-89).It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago. This square-shaped ding is the largest existing bronzeware in the ancient world. It is now housed in the National Museum of China in Beijing. <br /> <br /> Ding was a cooking vessel probably used to boil or cook food in the primitive society. At that time, dings were made of clay. During the Shang and Zhou (11th century-771 BC) dynasties, bronze cast technology reached a very high level in China. Therefore, people used bronze to cast ding. However, dings were no longer cooking utensils in ordinary people’s life but an object for important ceremonies to offer sacrifices. <br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding was cast by Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty as a ritual object for a ceremony to offer sacrifices to his mother. The three characters simuwu form an inscription on the inside of the sidewall. According to archeologists, si means sacrificial ceremony and muwu is the name of the emperor’s mother. Later on, Simuwu became the name of this huge ding (Zhang Peng:86-89).<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding is 1.33m high, 1.10m long and 0.78m wide, weighing 832.84kg. At that time, it needed 1000kg of metal and two to three hundred workers to produce it. This ding is solid in build, magnificent in appearance and was made with fine craftsmanship. The four pillar legs are thick and powerful. Each side has a blank space in the middle, surrounded by a band of decoration featuring taotie (animal faced creatures) and kuilong (one-legged dragons), symbolic of harvest and auspiciousness. Simuwu Ding represents the highest level of bronze cast technology in the Shang and Zhou dynasties.<br /> <br /> ==== The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi ====<br /> <br /> The chime bells, or bianzhong, are a kind of percussion musical instrument made of bronze. China is the earliest country to manufacture and use such instrument. Chime bells were divided into groups according to their size, temperament, pitch and were hang on a rack. A small hammer or wooden club is used to hit the bell to make a resonant and agreeable sound.<br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are the largest and the most complete ancient chimes existing today in China. They were unearthed from the tomb of Yi, the Marquis of Zeng, a small state of the Warring States Period (475 BC- 221 BC), in 1978. When they were found, all bells were still hanging on their rack. They are now preserved in Hubei Museum(Gao Nan:29). <br /> <br /> There are altogether 65 bells hung in eight groups on wooden or bronze bars. The rack, 10.79m long, 2.67m high, is made of three bars, namely, the upper, middle and lower bars, held up by six bronze warriors and a few round, wooden posts. The 65 bells weigh over 2500kg. The largest bell is 1.52m in height and weighs more than 203.6kg. The smallest bell is about 20cm in height and weighs 2.4kg (Gao Nan:29). It is extremely rare tosee a set with so many bells of such weight and size. <br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are exquisitely cast and look very elegant. To help artists to perform music, there are instructions on each bell with 3700 characters in all (Wan Quanwen:1-2). There are also words about the hanging indication and musical temperament that are called the “valuable music theory work”. The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi show that, as early as the Warring States Period, China already had a very rich musical culture. The chime bells still could produce a pure and accurate note after unearthed. The tone is excellent and the timbre is pure. <br /> <br /> After excavation of the chime, Chinese musicians created a melody entitled Bianzhong Yuewu (music and dance accompanied by chime bells), to once again demonstrate the charm of ancient Chinese music. <br /> <br /> ==== Jade Suit with Gold Thread ====<br /> <br /> Ordinarily, the texture of clothes is cotton, flax or silk. However, there were suits made of gold and jade, that is “Jade Suit with Gold Thread”.<br /> <br /> The emperors of the Han Dynasty believed that jade could prevent their corpses from decaying, and they regarded jade as full of dignity and nobility. Therefore, they used jade suits as their grave clothes. Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade separately that are called Jade Suit Sewn with Gold Thread, Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread and Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread.<br /> <br /> The two sets of jade suits of the Han Dynasty tomb unearthed in Mancheng of Hebei Province in 1968 revealed to the world the real features of such grave clothes (Li Yawen:38-39). Their owners were Liu Sheng, Prince Jing of Zhongshan, and his wife, Dou Wan, of the Western Han Dynasty(206 BC-25 AD). <br /> <br /> In appearance, a jade suit follows the shape of a human body. It consists of five parts, i.e., head mask, coat, trousers, gloves and shoes. Each part is made of pieces of jade. The size and shape of each jade piece was designed according to its position. Most jade pieces are shaped in square or rectangular form, but there are a few in trapezoid, triangle or multi sided shapes. Each jade piece is perforated at its corners, through which a gold thread goes through to sew the pieces together. Liu Sheng’s jade suit is rather large, 1.88m long and made up of 2498 pieces. The gold thread used for this suit is about 700g in weight (Li Yawen:38-39). <br /> <br /> Such refined suits made some 2000 years ago in the Han Dynasty indicate the high design level and excellent craftsmanship of that time. In fact, of course, the rulers’ dream of preventing their corpses from decaying could never be realized. The practice of wearing jade suits was banned during the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280).<br /> <br /> ==== Bronze Galloping Horse ====<br /> <br /> In 1969, a galloping horse in bronze was unearthed in an Eastern Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) tomb in Wuwei, Gansu Province in western China. The bronze statue is a famous representative sculpture of the Han Dynasty. Wuwei County leapt to fame with the discovery of this national treasure.<br /> <br /> The 34.5 cm-high bronze horse, covered with spots of verdigris, has a full and robust body. The prancing legs, flying tail, slightly dilated nostrils portray a galloping horse. What is ingenious about it is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow. That means the galloping horse is faster than a flying swallow (Wang Qian:10-11). The positioning of its four legs strictly conforms to that of a living horse and is highly praised by many local and foreign archeologists and artists. <br /> <br /> In this work, Chinese ancient artists combined realism and romanticism, and ingeniously integrated galloping horse and flying swallow through rich imagination, original conception and skillful craftsmanship (Wang Qian:10-11). The swift flying swallow sets off the amazingly fast speed of the galloping horse. According to analysis of its mechanics, Bronze Galloping Horse finds a center of gravity in the swallow to give the statue its stability. The romantic image of the swallow sets off the power and strength of the horse, providing a rich imaginative experience for viewers. <br /> <br /> Bronze Galloping Horse is believed to be a portrayal of the &quot;heavenly steed&quot; of Chinese legend. It is of high craftsmanship, fully expressive of the horse-breeding culture of China's western regions. It has become a symbol of Chinese tourism and a representative work that brings forth the time-honored cultural tradition of the Chinese nation and the oriental aesthetics to the world. The cultural relic is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> Houmuwu Ding 后母戊鼎<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding 司母戊鼎<br /> <br /> Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty 商王武丁<br /> <br /> taotie 饕餮<br /> <br /> National Museum of China 中国国家博物馆<br /> <br /> chime bells/bian zhong 编钟<br /> <br /> Marquis Yi 曾侯乙<br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi 曾侯乙编钟<br /> <br /> Bianzhong Yuewu 《编钟乐舞》<br /> <br /> Hubei Museum 湖北省博物馆<br /> <br /> Jade Suit with Gold Thread 金缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread 银缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread 铜缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Bronze Galloping Horse 铜奔马/ 马踏飞燕<br /> <br /> Gansu Provincial Museum 甘肃省博物馆<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1. What does ding symbolize?<br /> <br /> 2. When was Houmuwu Ding produced?<br /> <br /> 3.How many bells do the chime bells of Marquis Yi contain?<br /> <br /> 4.What is the size of the largest bell?<br /> <br /> 5.What kind of thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade?<br /> <br /> 6.When did the Jade Suit with Gold Thread unearth?<br /> <br /> 7.What is ingenious about the Galloping Horse?<br /> <br /> 8.Where is Bronze Galloping Horse preserved now?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Ding was a symbol of imperial power. <br /> <br /> 2.It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago. <br /> <br /> 3.They contain 65 bells.<br /> <br /> 4.The largest bell exceeds 1.5m in height and weighs more than 200kg.<br /> <br /> 5.Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade.<br /> <br /> 6.It unearthed in 1968.<br /> <br /> 7.It is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow. <br /> <br /> 8.It is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Zhang Peng 张鹏.(2020).青铜大师杜廼松:“司母戊鼎”名称不容置疑[No Doubt about the Name of Simuwu Ding].中国民族博览 (09):86-89.<br /> <br /> [2]Wan Quanwen 万全文.(2020).曾侯乙编钟[The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi].文史知识 (11):1-2.<br /> <br /> [3]Gao Nan 高楠.(2020).音乐中的国家宝藏——曾侯乙编钟[National Treasure in Music].琴童 (01):29.<br /> <br /> [4]Li Yawen 李雅雯.(2019)浅说满城汉墓中的金缕玉衣 [The Study of Jade Suit with Gold Thread Unearthed in Mancheng].文物鉴定与鉴赏 (03):38-39.<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Qian 王倩.(2020).青铜雕塑“马踏飞燕”的研究[The Study of the Bronze Sculpture ——the Galloping Horse].艺术品鉴, (26):10-11.<br /> <br /> == Architecture and Gardens, The Forbidden City Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴 Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> ===The Forbidden City===--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 08:30, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====I.Introduction==== <br /> The Forbidden City (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng) is a palace complex in Dongcheng District, Beijing, China, and with a total area of 720,000 square meters (180 acres). It lies in the center of Beijing's central axis. Today, the Forbidden City houses the Palace Museum, and was the former Chinese imperial palace and residence of the Emperor of China from the Ming dynasty (since the Yong Le Emperor) to the end of the Qing dynasty, between 1420 and 1924. The Forbidden City served as the home of Chinese emperors and their households and was the ceremonial and political center of the Chinese government.(Barmé, Geremie R 2018,26)<br /> The Forbidden City is a national AAAAA tourist attraction and was listed as the first batch of key cultural relics under national protection in 1961. What’s more, it was declared a world cultural heritage in 1987, and listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.(UNESCO,2007)<br /> ====[[File:A Panaroma view of the Forbidden City.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A Panaroma view of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====II.The Name of the Forbidden City====<br /> The common English name &quot;Forbidden City&quot; is a translation of the Chinese name Zijin Cheng (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng; English: Purple Forbidden City). The name Zijin Cheng first formally appeared in the period of Jia Jing. (Li Xieping1997, (04)29-31) In ancient China, the planning concept of &quot;harmony between man and nature&quot; was emphasized. The stars in the sky were used to correspond with the capital planning to highlight the legitimacy of the regime and the supremacy of imperial power. “ Zi ”, or &quot;Purple&quot;, refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star, The emperor of heaven lived in Ziwei palace, while the human emperor claimed to be the &quot;son of heaven&quot; who was ordered by heaven. His residence should be a symbol of Ziwei palace to correspond to the heaven emperor. “Jin” means that this splendid palace symbolizes supreme power and status of the royal family. In that case, this palace was forbidden, no one could enter and leave the palace without the emperor’s permission. Cheng means a city. Today, the site is most commonly known in Chinese as Gùgōng (故宫), which means the &quot;Former Palace&quot;. The museum which is based in these buildings is known as the &quot;Palace Museum&quot; (Chinese: 故宫博物院; pinyin: Gùgōng Bówùyùan).<br /> <br /> ====III.The History of the Forbidden City====<br /> <br /> When Hongwu’s son Zhu Di became the Yong Le Emperor, he moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, and construction began in 1406 on what would become the Forbidden City. Construction lasted 14 years and required more than a million workers. From 1420 to 1644, the Forbidden City was the seat of the Ming dynasty. (Yu Zhuoyun1984,18)In April 1644, it was captured by rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. He set fire to parts of the Forbidden City in the process of retreating to Shannxi. By October, the Manchus had achieved supremacy in northern China, and a ceremony was held at the Forbidden City to proclaim the Emperor Shunzhi as ruler of all China under the Qing dynasty. (Guo Moruo 1944,3.14) In the 22nd year of Kangxi's reign (1683), the reconstruction of the rest of the destroyed buildings of the Forbidden City was started, and it was basically completed in 1695.After being the home of 24 emperors – 14 of the Ming dynasty and 10 of the Qing dynasty – the Forbidden City ceased being the political centre of China in 1912 with the abdication of Puyi, the last Emperor of China. In 1933, the Japanese invasion of China forced the evacuation of the national treasures in the Forbidden City. Part of the collection was returned at the end of World War II, but the other part was evacuated to Taiwan in 1948 under orders of Chiang Kai-shek.After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, some damage was done to the Forbidden City as the country was swept up in revolutionary zeal. During the Cultural Revolution, however, further destruction was prevented when Premier Zhou Enlai sent an army battalion to guard the city.( Xie Mengyin&amp;Qu Wanlin2006, 11.7)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====IV.The Structure of the Forbidden City==== <br /> Firstly, The Forbidden City is a rectangle and symmetric in its layout. Its palaces are arranged along a north-south axis, on which the three main halls, the rear three palaces and the imperial garden are all located. This central axis not only runs through the Forbidden City, but also reaches Yongding Gate in the south, Drum Tower and bell tower in the north, and runs through the whole city.(Xie Li 2005,(03)100-102)<br /> Secondly, the Forbidden City is divided into two parts, the Outer Court and Inner Court. The Outer Court is the place where the emperor deals with political affairs. There are mainly three halls: the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony, and the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The Inner Court or Back Palace includes the northern sections, and was the residence of the Emperor and his family, and was used for day-to-day affairs of state. The inner court takes Palace of Heavenly Purity, Hall of Union and Palace of Earthly Tranquility as its center with six palaces in the east and six palaces in the west.<br /> <br /> ====[[File:The layout of the Forbidden City.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The layout of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====VI The Collections of the Forbidden City==== <br /> The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925, whose extensive collection of artwork and artifacts were built upon the imperial collections of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Part of the museum's former collection is now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. Both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.(Li Wei &amp; Wang Shuo 2005,6-22) <br /> The collections of the Palace Museum are based on the Qing imperial collection, including paintings, ceramics, seals, steles, sculptures, inscribed wares, bronze wares, enamel objects, etc. According to latest audit, it has 1,863,404 pieces of art. They are numbered by &quot;Gu&quot;, &quot;Xin&quot; and &quot;Shu&quot;. Except for the ancient books and documents, all the other collections are labeled with &quot;Gu&quot; and &quot;Xin&quot;. The number of ordinary cultural relics begins with the word &quot;Zi&quot;, and the ceramic specimens begin with the word &quot;Biao&quot;. The general catalogue is divided into 25 categories, and the numbers in each category are sorted from small to large. Many collections once lost and was brought to the Palace Museum, For example, Han Banquet map. And there are some exquisite collections like Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer, Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems and Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.(Website:The Collection of the Palace Museum )In addition, The Palace Museum has one of the largest collections of mechanical timepieces of the 18th and 19th centuries in the world, with more than 1,000 pieces. (Meng Fuxia 2012, (21) 73-74)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Han Banquet map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Han Banquet map]]====<br /> ====[[File:Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance]]====<br /> ====[[File:Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems]]====<br /> ====[[File:Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women]]====<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions==== <br /> palace complex 宫殿群<br /> <br /> central axis 中心轴<br /> <br /> the Palace Museum故宫博物院<br /> <br /> the Yong Le Emperor 永乐皇帝<br /> <br /> key cultural relics under national protection 国家重点文物保护单位<br /> <br /> world cultural heritage 世界文化遗产<br /> <br /> harmony between man and nature 天人合一<br /> <br /> the imperial garden 御花园<br /> <br /> the Hall of Supreme Harmony 太和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Central Harmony 中和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Preserving Harmony 保和殿<br /> <br /> Palace of Heavenly Purity (乾清宮)<br /> <br /> Hall of Union 交泰宫<br /> <br /> Palace of Earthly Tranquility 坤宁宫<br /> <br /> Han Banquet map 韩熙载夜宴图<br /> <br /> Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer陶彩绘女舞俑<br /> <br /> Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems十二生肖镜<br /> <br /> Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women画珐琅西洋人物鼻烟壶<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> 1. What’ s the meaning of “Zi” in the Chinese name Zijin Cheng?<br /> <br /> 2. When was the Forbidden City listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.<br /> <br /> 3.How many emperors have been lived in the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 4.How long did it take to build the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 5.Why some parts of national treasures are in the National Palace Museum in Taipei now.<br /> <br /> 6. What two parts can the Forbidden City be divided into?<br /> <br /> 7.When was the Palace Museum established?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.“Zi” refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star<br /> <br /> 2.In 1897.<br /> <br /> 3.24 emperors.<br /> <br /> 4.14 years.<br /> <br /> 5.Because both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.<br /> <br /> 6.They are the Outer Court and Inner Court.<br /> <br /> 7.The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Barmé, Geremie R(2008). The Forbidden City. Harvard University Press.26.<br /> <br /> UNESCO(2007). &quot;UNESCO World Heritage List: Imperial Palaces of the Ming and Qing Dynasties in Beijing and Shenyang&quot;.<br /> <br /> Li Xieping 李燮平. (1997) &quot;紫禁城&quot;名称始于何时[When did the name of the Forbidden City come into being?]. 紫禁城Forbidden City, (04) 29-31.<br /> <br /> Yu Zhuoyun(1984), Palaces of the Forbidden City, New York: Viking Press,p18.<br /> <br /> Guo Moruo 郭沫若.(1994) 甲申三百年祭[Commemorating 300th Anniversary of the Jia-Sheng Year]. 新华日报 New China Daily, 3.19.<br /> <br /> Xie Li 谢丽.(2005) 北京中轴线上的十七座门[Seventeen doors on the central axis of Beijing].紫禁城 Forbidden City, (03)100-102.<br /> <br /> Meng Fuxia 孟福霞. (2012)北京故宫空间布局构思探源——论中国古代宫殿建筑的美学精神[On the Origin of the Space Layout of the Palace Museum in Beijing--On the Aesthetic Spirit of Ancient Chinese Palace Architecture]大众文艺Popular Literature and Art, (21) 73-74. <br /> <br /> Li Wei&amp;Wang Shuo 刘薇,王硕.2005故宫文物南迁路线图揭秘[Unveiling the Route Map of the Cultural Relics of the Imperial Palace to the South] 华夏经纬网Jinwei Network, 6.22 http://www.huaxia.com/wh/gjzt/2005/00333230.html <br /> <br /> The Collection of the Palace Museum 故宫博物院馆藏https://www. dpm.org.cn /Home.html<br /> <br /> Xie Mengyin &amp; Qu Wanlin 谢荫明,瞿宛林. (2006) “文化大革命” 中谁保护了故宫 [Who protected the Forbidden City in the Cultural Revolution? ].人民网People’s Daily Online,11,7. http://history.people.com.cn/n/2014/0811/c372327-25441615.html<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Marriage Customs Mo Ling 莫玲 202070080602 &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;专业 is missing&lt;/span&gt;==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 莫玲 Mo Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Marriage Customs===<br /> <br /> China is an ancient country of rites. When it comes to the most important thing in one’s life---marriage, Chinese people have developed a set of unique and grand ceremonies. Generally speaking, weddings in ancient China needed to be approved by parents and arranged by parents. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;quotation is missing&lt;/span&gt;--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:15, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Six Procedures===<br /> <br /> There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying. Na Cai is the begining of all the marriage procedures. It refers that if a boy intends to marry a girl, firstly his family must invite a matchmaker to the girl's home to propose marriage. After obtaining the consent of the girl's family , the boy's family should entrust the matchmaker to make a proposal formally with some gifts. Usually, the most common gift is wild goose,which represents fidelity. Besides, mandarin ducks, phoenix and sheep are also frequently-used gifts. Wen Ming means that the boy's family ask the matchmaker to fetch the girl's name and date of birth. There are two purposes of this step: the one is to prevent the marriage of close relatives with the same surname; the other is to assure the compatibility of the potential bride and bridegroom through their “eight characters” of the birth moment. Naji happens after the matchmaker takes back the woman's name and eight characters. If divining an auspicious omen, the boy's family will inform it to the girl’s parents and decide to engage the marriage. What is more, Na Zheng is an important step when the boy sends betrothal presents to the girl and for courtesy the girl will send back part of the presents such as food and some clothes. Qing Qi means that the boy's family choose an auspicious day to hold the wedding ceremony and then dispatch the matchmaker to tell the girl’s family. Qin Ying is the last procedure of the six etiquettes, that is, the groom goes to the bride's home to take the bride to his home.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ===Customs===<br /> <br /> In addition to the six steps mentioned above, there are many other customs in the traditional Chinese wedding ceremony. Generally speaking, ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker, many young people could not master their own marriage. Before wedding ceremony, men and women were not allowed to meet each other in that ancient people were very conservative and most girls were kept in boudoirs. If they met in private before marriage, it would be regarded as a kind of female infidelity and parents would also think it quite unlucky. Under this circumstance, newlyweds could only see each other until the day of marriage.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47-48)<br /> <br /> On the wedding day, the boy’s family will hold a big banquet at home. Before setting out to pick up bride, the bridegroom should first worship his ancestors for the sake of safety and auspice during the process of picking up the bride. After that, the following step is the most grand one among the whole ceremony --- at the dusk moment, the groom and the bride, his parents as well as all the guests will gather together at the central room to witness the kneeling etiquettes of the couple, which consists of 4 steps: The first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber : the bride will be sent into the bridal chamber and the groom will drink with guests until night.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> After wedding ceremony, the couple must return to the girl’s home together at the third day, which is called “Huimen” or “Guiling”. This etiquette is indispensable. The groom should take some gifts for respect and change the way that he calls the bride’s parents, and the latter will also prepare a good meal for the couple’s coming.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ===Development===<br /> <br /> As time goes by, there are many reforms about marriage right now. Adults own the freedom to choose their spouse and they can meet each other every day if possible. Parents can’t master their “life event” any more.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47) In addition, many couples skip the cumbersome rites in the wedding ceremony. Some of them choose to hold the ceremony in the church with some close relatives and friends and some even finish it through travel.(Zhou Dandi &amp; Yue Shufa 2012,15)Nevertheless, most young people still adopt the main procedures of the traditional Chinese customs, some of which are handed down until right now. There still exist betrothal gifts and dowry, and many couples choose to wear red costumes. The groom should go to the bride’s home to escort her to the wedding and so on. Thus it can be seen that most traditional Chinese marriage customs are deep rooted in the hearts of Chinese people and shows a unique Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Gao Xiaoqian. 高筱倩.(2017) 中国传统婚嫁习俗研究［The Research on Traditional Chinese Marriage Customs］戏剧之家[Drama House] 235.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yueyong. 张月莹.(2013) 中国近代婚嫁礼俗及婚姻观念转变的探索[A Study on the Change of Marriage customs and Marriage Concepts in Modern China] 松州学刊［Songzhou Academic Journal］ 47-48.<br /> <br /> Zhou Dandi, Yue Shufa. 周丹迪, 岳书法.(2012) 浅析近代以来中国婚嫁民俗的演变[On the evolution of Chinese marriage customs since modern times] 文化学刊[Cultural Academic Journal] 15.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> Na Cai 纳彩 <br /> <br /> Wen Ming 问名<br /> <br /> Na Ji 纳吉 <br /> <br /> Na Zheng 纳征<br /> <br /> Qing Qi 纳征 <br /> <br /> Qin Ying 亲迎<br /> <br /> Huimen 回门 <br /> <br /> Guiling 归宁 <br /> <br /> betrothal presents 彩礼<br /> <br /> the central room 堂屋<br /> <br /> bridal chamber 婚房<br /> <br /> “eight characters” of the birth moment 生辰八字<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.How many procedures are needed from the negotiation to the completion of marriage?<br /> <br /> 2.Did the ancient young people have the rights to decide their own marriage or not and why?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the kneeling etiquettes?<br /> <br /> 4.When the couple have to return to the girl’s home?<br /> <br /> 5.What changes have been made nowadays?<br /> <br /> 6.Please list some new wedding customs.<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying.<br /> <br /> 2.No, they didn’t have the right to decide their own marriage because ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker.<br /> <br /> 3.It consists of 4 steps: the first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber.<br /> <br /> 4.At the third day of the wedding ceremony.<br /> <br /> 5.Adults can choose their spouse by themselves and they can meet each other whenever they want; Some couples choose to hold the ceremony in the church some even finish it through travel, etc.<br /> <br /> 6.Examples:couple can choose to live in the either part of the two families; wedding ceremony can be hold in hotel; the bride can wear white wedding dress rather than the single red in the ancient time.<br /> <br /> ==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br /> <br /> ====Topic: Chinese cinema (dramas and movies) and its popularity and affection in Vietnam====<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac - Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 202070080603专业 is missing--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:16, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br /> <br /> ===Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac===<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:oyltacz.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]2020 is the year of rat according to the Chinese zodiac which consists of twelve animals used by people to name years. The traditional Chinese zodiac has been passed down for more than 2000 years since its origin(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). The twelve zodiac signs are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig, which are assigned in a repeating 12-year cycle(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). This traditional Chinese scheme was originated from China and then has enjoyed a popularity in many other Asian countries(The Editorial Board, 2010: 12-13). With its cultural connotation and time-honored impact, the Chinese zodiac have(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;has&lt;/span&gt;) been engraved in every Chinese people. <br /> <br /> ====Origin====<br /> <br /> Regarding the origin of the Chinese zodiac, there are various opinions but many of them are presented with no sufficient evidence. There are many myths explaining these animal signs and their arrangement. Among them the most enduring one is the Great Race. In this story, the Jade Emperor, Ruler of the Heavens, wanted to devise a way to measure time, so he organized a race. At the end, the first twelve animals who made it across the river were the winners and so they earned themselves a spot on the zodiac calender in the order they arrived(The Editorial Board, 2010: 6). Besides this folk story, some scholars claim the zodiac scheme was indeed derived from the Twelve Earthly Branches but did not occur at the same time while the Earthly Branches appeared. Since the Han Dynasty, the Earthly Branches have been used to record the time of day. Therefore some hold until that time, the 12 zodiac came into being as a supplementary to refer to the 12 periods of 24 hours. Since the original meaning of the Earthly Branches at that time was obliterated due to the passage of time, the ancient Chinese attached the Earthly Branches and the Ten Heavenly Stems to the zodiac(The Editorial Board, 2010: 5-7). There also stands an opinion that the zodiac signs were originated from the totem worship in the primitive society. According to some research on the origin of Chinese zodiac, there were only twelve earliest surnames in ancient China, which were derived from the names of the twelve animals in the Chinese zodiac scheme. Here the twelve animals refer to the totems at ancient times and different surname tribes use different animals as their totems. Therefore, the twelve animals of Chinese zodiac was developed from the totems of ancient tribes(The Editorial Board, 2010: 4-5).<br /> <br /> ====Folk Culture and Belief ====<br /> <br /> The zodiac sign not only can reveal one’s age, but also represents his or her personality, career prospects and way of life according to Chinese superstition. <br /> <br /> The Chinese seem to believe that they have some affinity with the animals of the years in which they were born and that their personal traits and fortunes come under their mysterious influence. According to superstitious belief in China, Zodiac animals are combined with the Five Elements that consist of Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth, to tell one's destiny. Since people have their zodic sign's fixed elment, there are many folk beliefs based on this. For example, people born in the years of Metal Rat are believed to have a promising future; people born in the years of Fire Rat are deemed to be clever and intelligent and Wood Rat independent and self-respected(The Editorial Board, 2010: 40). <br /> <br /> Besides, since the zodiac is determined by the year of birth, there are many implications of one’s birth year. For example, some zodiacal preferences prevail in Chinese population. Chinese have always had a strong affection for the Dragon, so married couples prefer to give births in the year of Dragon. Since dragon is regarded as the auspicious and divine creatures, the children born in these years of dragon are believed to have fortune. These cultural preferences and folk beliefs have influenced prospective parents’ reproductive behavior in the Chinese society(Yip et al., 2002: 1804).<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese people believe certain animals get on better than the others, so the zodiac has had a great impact on marriage as well. Specifically, people who is born in the Year of Tiger would have perfect romance with Pigs, Rabbit with Dogs and Dragon with Roosters. On the contrary, some zodiac signs are believed to have misfortune if they are married with people of certain zodiac. As the Chinese idiom goes, if a dragon and a tiger fight each other, there will be one injured. This old says reflects that dragon and tiger are natural enemies according to the belief(The Editorial Board, 2010: 34-35). And this is the reason why men and women would like to evaluate their Bazi, the Eight Characters, before they get married. However, in reality, personality is related to one’s experience through the life journey rather than the pre-written zodiac signs. People born in the same year would have very distinctive personalities. Similarly, the destiny is also a result of people’s character and most decisions they’ll be making along the way. Of course the marriage is a more complex thing that cannot be deemed to have a pre-given outcome brought by the zodiac.<br /> <br /> ====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Chinese zodiac is a complex scheme which combines the traditional Chinese astrology in it. Based on the Five Elements theory, Yin and Yang system and Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches system, the traditional scheme have developed a profound connotation and implications through generation. Over thousands of years, this popular culture has affected people’s major decisions in naming, marriage, giving birth and attitude towards each other. But people have to consider zodiac in a rational and scientific way. Perhaps the zodiac may help us to understand what we’re given, but it cannot determine our destiny. We should treat it as the precious cultural heritage and explore the profound culture and historical traces embodied in it(The Editorial Board, 2010: 1-2).<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> 《大中国上下五千年》丛书编委会(2010) The Editorial Board of the ''Five Thousand Years of Great China''（''Dazhongguo Shangxia Wuqiannian''） ''Series'',《中国生肖文化》''The Culture of Chinese Zodiac'', 北京：外文出版社 Beijing: Foreign Languages Press.<br /> <br /> Yip, Paul S.F.伊普, Lee, Joseph 李 and Cheung, Y.B.张 (2002).The Influence of the Chinese Zodiac on Fertility in Hong Kong SAR 论生肖对香港生育率的影响. ''Social Science &amp; Medicine''《社会科学与医学》, Volume 55, Issue 10 第55卷第10期, 1803-1812.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions=== <br /> <br /> Jade Emperor 玉皇大帝<br /> <br /> Ten Heavenly Stems 十天干<br /> <br /> Twelve Earthly Branches 十二地支<br /> <br /> Five Elements 五行<br /> <br /> Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth 金木水火土<br /> <br /> Eight Characters 八字<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.How long is the history of Chinese zodiac?<br /> <br /> 2.What are the twelve zodiac signs in order? <br /> <br /> 3.From what time the Earthly Branches was used to record time?<br /> <br /> 4.According to Chinese folk belief, what kind of characteristics do people born in year of rat have?<br /> <br /> 5.Which zodiac animal is mostly praised in China?<br /> <br /> 6.Can you name some pairs of zodiac animal that get along well with each other according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> 7.Which pair of animals that are natural enemies according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.More than 2200 years.<br /> <br /> 2.Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig.<br /> <br /> 3.Han Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 4.They are smart, adaptable, and have the will to fight, but, on the other hand, they are so over-ambitious and easy to fail.<br /> <br /> 5.Dragon.<br /> <br /> 6.Tiger and pig, rabbit and dog and dragon and rooster. <br /> <br /> 7.Dragon and tiger.<br /> <br /> ==Lisu People and Daogan Festival of Lisu Ethnic Minority Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏 202070080641==<br /> --[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 08:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Lisu people and Daogan festival====<br /> <br /> The Lisu ethnic group are the Tibeto-Burman ethnic group living in mountainous areas such as Burma, southwest China, Thailand, and Arunachal Pradesh in India.<br /> <br /> [[File:Example1.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> There are about 730,000 Lisu people living in Lijiang, Baoshan, Nujiang, Diqing, Dehong and other counties in Yunnan and Sichuan provinces in China. The Lisu nationality is one of the 56 nationalities officially recognized by China. In Myanmar, the Lisu ethnic group is recognized as one of 135 ethnic groups with an estimated population of 600,000. Approximately 55,000 live in Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. They mainly inhabit remote mountainous areas. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans. Each clan has its own name or surname. The most famous family clans in the tribal clans are Laemae pha, Bya pha, Thorne pha, Ngwa Pha (Ngwazah), Naw pha, Seu pha, Khaw pha. Most of the surnames come from their own hunter work in primitive times. But later, they adopted many Chinese surnames. Their culture has the same characteristics as the Yi nationality or Nuosu (Lolo) culture. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> Daogan Festival (刀杆节) is a traditional festival of Lisu ethnic groups living in Lushui County(泸水县), Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture(怒江傈僳族自治州).Due to the death of the old artists, they were once lost in Nujiang Prefecture and recovered in recent years. They are mainly distributed in Luzhang Village(鲁掌镇), Luzu Village(鲁祖村) and Loma Village(洛玛村) of Lushui County(泸水县).(Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> [[File:Example2.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> ====Legend====<br /> <br /> During the Ming Dynasty, when people not belonging to the same clan of feudal China invaded the borders of Yunnan, the king sent Wang Ji (王骥), the war department of the Chinese feudal ministry, to resist the enemy with troops. Wang Ji united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders. Later, Wang Ji was killed by traitors. To commemorate Wang Ji's great achievement and to pray for the souls of the brave soldiers who died bravely defending the border, the Li tribe held the &quot;Up and down the mountain&quot; event. (上刀山，下火海), and designated the 15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year as the Knife Gan Festival.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Going up to the knife mountain and going down to the sea of ​​fire are the main custom performances of the Taozhen Festival, which reproduce the life experience of people living in mountainous areas as they climb the mountains and the hard spirit and skills of climbing.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> ====Performing====<br /> <br /> [[File:Example3.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> Pine trees were used as tool poles, iron knives as tool ladders, crinkled paper as flowers, and bamboo as flower sticks. When we go up the rice mountain and down the fire, we play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments under the knife pole. There are strict procedures and rituals from pointing flowers, pointing knives, playing knives, tying knives, tying flowers, welcoming flowers, and altars. Setting , knife pole , vertical pole , sacrificial dragon , knife stand and dismantling knife (in the sea of fire). Knife poles are usually called gold pillar, silver pillar or male pillar and female pillar respectively, representing the dead and the living. Thirty-six long sharp knives representing 365 days a year are tied to the sides of the ladder with paper flowers made of five-color paper.<br /> After the knife poles are tied, Heung Tong/Heung Tong (巫师) recites the words in his mouth and performs the knife dance with drum music. After the knife dance, to the sound of Suo na, gongs and drums, the knife bearer grasps the blade with both hands, steps on the blade with bare feet and then climbs up. When the knife-bearer reaches the top through the three scissors, the knife-bearer opens the lock of heaven, takes out the grains and flowers, spreads them out into the boiling crowd, and then places the red ribbon on the colored door, over which he sings the old prayer song, and then he comes down from the pole of the knife again. After that, he stepped barefoot into the burning charcoal fire, licking the burning plow with his tongue and biting the burning chains with his teeth, which showed the national spirit of the Li people and their superb performance skills.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> ====Development====<br /> <br /> According to legend, it commemorates an ancient Han Chinese hero who showed great kindness to the Lisu people. The Lisu people made the anniversary of the hero's death a traditional holiday for their own people, and used symbolic rituals such as going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire to express their feelings of willingness to go through fire in return. On the day of the Knife Festival, several able-bodied men first perform the &quot;firewalking&quot; ceremony. They jump into the red-hot coals with bare feet and perform various stunts. On the second day, they sharpen 36 long knives and tie them to two 20-meter-high wooden racks with rattan strips, forming a knife ladder. With bare hands and feet, the performers climb to the top from the edge of the knives and perform various difficult moves at the top of the pole. Today, this thrilling traditional sacrificial ritual has evolved into a sporting event for the good people of the Lisu people to perform their stunts.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> 1.Lisu people 傈僳族<br /> <br /> 2.&quot;Up and down the mountain&quot; event 上刀山，下火海<br /> <br /> 3.The Lisu tribe 傈僳族<br /> <br /> 4.clan 氏族<br /> <br /> 5.primitive times 原始时期<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.How many Lisu people live in Yunnan and Sichuan？<br /> <br /> 2.How many clans make up the Lisu people？<br /> <br /> 3.Who united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders？<br /> <br /> 4.Which day is the Daogan Festival？<br /> <br /> 5.What musical instruments do they play under the knife pole?<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.About 730,000 Lisu people. <br /> <br /> 2.The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans.<br /> <br /> 3.Wang Ji.<br /> <br /> 4.15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year.<br /> <br /> 5.They play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments.<br /> <br /> ====References====<br /> <br /> *Ernst, Gabriel (21 October 2019). &quot;'We try to not be Thai': the everyday resistance of ethnic minorities&quot;<br /> *&quot;Yunnan Province of China Government Web&quot;. Eng.yn.gov.cn.<br /> *李智环．Li Zhihuan. 傈僳族人口分布及形成原因分析 [Analysis of the Distribution and Causes of the Formation of the Lisu People] 《保山学院学报》， 2010 [Journal of Baoshan College], 2010<br /> <br /> ==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br /> Chinese Clothing== Phyo, Su Kyi, Student No-20191108000<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> <br /> Chinese Clothing has many ethnic groups with a long history while Han people dominate most periods in history. For thousands of years, generations of clothing designers have devoted themselves to building the Kingdom of Clothes, making the garments that cover the human body into an important component of Chinese culture. The progress of nation can be seen through its changes in clothing styles.Clothing manufacture in China dates back to prehistoric times, at least 7,000years ago. Archaeological findings of 18,000 years-old artifacts such as bone sewing needles and stone beads and shells with holes bored in them attest to the existence of ornamentation and of sewing extremely early in Chinese civilization. (www.topchinatravel. com, 2004)<br /> <br /> Chinese clothing has undergone continuous transformations throughout history,providing a reflection of the culture in place at any given time. A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry, and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive Chinese fashions through the ages. This illustrated introductory survey takes the reader through traditional Chinese clothing,ornamentation,and ceremonial wear, and discusses the importance of silk and the diverse costumes of China's ethnic groups before considering modern trends and China's place in the fashion world today.(Mei Hua-2010-page-1)<br /> <br /> A-Chinese traditional clothing<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional clothing contains rich cultural connotations.Today, after the reform and opening up, the clothing industry has developed vigorously. People gradually start pay attention to the local clothing culture, and pursue cultural connotation contained in clothing. For modern designers, the traditional clothing and its cultural background are their creation inspirations during creation phases,and they are also one of the expressive elements preferred by designers at home and abroad. Inheriting traditional clothing culture not only means that it needs us to turn the traditional clothing elements into a symbol, but also needs us to further understand the background and connotations of traditional clothing culture. The work of design without culture is like a gorgeous shell that can't stand the test of history. Only by grasping the inner spirit of traditional clothing culture, abandoning simple piled up work and patch-up work without connotation and learning the modern expressive methods of traditional clothing elements, one can design out the works which can touch people's heartstrings. (Jiangsu,2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Traditional clothing is the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics. Traditional clothing mutually integrates its unique style, comfortable fabric, bright colors,rich designs and exquisite craft elements to bring people impulsive feelings with visual communication. Traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics enjoys its unique artistic features in the style, color,fabrics,decoration and craft, ect. They are profoundly influenced by Chinese traditional culture ideas in the process of their formation and development and finally condensed into the national culture bearing Chinese culture features. These elements are the source of our inspiration in contemporary clothing design, and the use of these Chinese elements can help people to design out the clothing Chinese style.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional culture is an indispensable source of inspiration in fashion design. Putting the traditional elements into fashion design not only helps the native culture to extend itself, but also greatly promotes the culture exchanges in nationalities. Therefore, we should advocate the national advanced culture,make the Chinese traditional culture achieve the development in the clothing design, use the common language to express Chinese traditional culture essence, and integrate Chinese traditional element symbol into the spiritual elements of fashion design to make the national culture spirit and the language of the world integrate into the mainstream of modern clothing design.(Jiangsu,2016, page -3)<br /> <br /> ==Traditional Han Chinese Clothing (Han Fu):It refers to the attire worn byvthe Han people from the enthronement of the Yellow Emperor(about 2698BC) till the late Ming Dynasty (1368-1644AD).It became known as the Han Fu(fu means 'clothes&quot; in Chinese)because the fashion was improved and popularized during the Han Dynasty. It is usually in the from of long gown,cross collar, wrapping the right lapel over the left, loose wide sleeves and no buttons but a sash. Although simple in design, it gives different feelings to different wearers.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019-Aug-2)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Suit(Tang Zhuang):It is a combination of the Manchu male jacket ofvthe Qing Dynasty and the western style suit. It is usually straight collared,with coiled buttons down the front. Its color and design are in traditional Chinese style but tailoring is western.(www.topchinatravel. com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> ==Cheongsam(Qi Pao):Originated from the Manchu female clothes, it evolved by merging with western patterns that show off the beauty of a female body. Its features are straight collar, strain on the waist,coiled buttons and slits on both sides ofvthe dress. Materials used are usually silk, cotton and linen.Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire in the world today.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Tunic Suit(Zhongshan Zhuang) :Also called the Yat-sen Suit , it is designed by Dr.Sun Yat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire. It has a turn-down collar and four pockets with flaps. As Chairman Mao Zedong worn it quite frequently, it is also called the Mao Suit by westerners. It is the main attire from the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 till 1980,s. The country's leaders still wear it today when attending important occasions, such as military parades.(www.topchinatravel. com,2016,Auge-2.)<br /> <br /> B-Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements<br /> <br /> There are many old stories in ancient Chinese civilization, and Chinese traditional elements come up with the tenacity of the Chinese nations long history. Different times has their unique cultural connotations and form elements,which include Chinese architecture, costumes, traditional Chinese painting and folk art etc., and those cultural connotations and form elements are precious heritage that the ancestors leave to their off-springs. The change of dynasties in the history of our country lead to changes of cultural centers, which finally lead to the appearance Chinese traditional elements with different representative features in each historical periods, nations and regions. These elements include: Chinese silk ,cloth of brocade, hemp,blue printed fabric; chirpaur, Chinese -style chest covering, Chinese tunic suit, collar,surplice, mandarin and split etc.; colorful ethnic colors: such as bright red,green,yellow and blueetc.;Neolithic patterns, bronze patterns in Shang and Chou dynasties, ancient lacquer were pattern in Qin and Han dynasties, Buddhism patterns in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties and traditional decorative patterns in Tang,Sing and Qing dynasties. The essence of Chinese traditional culture which bear the role of inheriting national culture, and is the unique and external characteristic of Chinese nation.(Jiangsu,2016, page-3)<br /> <br /> Trems and Expressions<br /> <br /> 历史-history, <br /> <br /> 期-period, <br /> <br /> 世代-generations, <br /> <br /> 服装-clothing, <br /> <br /> 设计师-designers , <br /> <br /> 装饰-ornamentation<br /> <br /> 中国服饰- Chinese clothing<br /> <br /> 服饰-Costumes <br /> <br /> 传统服装-Traditional clothing<br /> <br /> 服装设计-Clothing design<br /> <br /> 时尚设计-Fashion design <br /> <br /> 几代服装设计师-Generations of clothing designers <br /> <br /> 中国西装-Chinese Suit<br /> <br /> 旗袍-Cheongsam<br /> <br /> 中山装-Chinese Tunic Suit <br /> <br /> 中国传统元素-Chinese traditional elements <br /> <br /> ===Questions ===<br /> <br /> 1-What’s archaeological findings in Chinese fashions through the ages?<br /> <br /> 2-What's Traditional Clothing?<br /> <br /> 3-What's Traditional culture indispensable?<br /> <br /> 4-How is means Han Fu?<br /> <br /> 5-What's the popular Chinese attire?<br /> <br /> 6-How called was Chinese Tunic Suit?<br /> <br /> 7-What'are include Chinese traditional elements? <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 04:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Answers===<br /> 1- A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry,<br /> and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive chinese fanshions through the ages.<br /> <br /> 2-Traditional clothingis the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing<br /> culture with Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> 3-Chineset traditional culture is an indispensablevsource of inspirationin fashion<br /> design.<br /> <br /> 4-Han Fu is fu means clothes in Chinese. <br /> <br /> 5-Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire inthe world today.<br /> <br /> 6-It is also called the Yat-sen Suit,it is designed byDr.SunYat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire.<br /> <br /> 7-Chinese traditional elements include: Chinese silk,cloth of brocade, hemp, blue printed fabric.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 11:56, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> 1.Jiangsu.“Influences of Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements on Modern Clothing Design”,<br /> <br /> Nanjing University of Finance and Economics,Soochow University,Published by Atlantic Press,2016.<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.Mei Hua, `Chinese Clothing´, Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building,Cambridge CB28RU,UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press,NewYork<br /> www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title:www.cambridge.org/9780521186896<br /> Originally published byChina Intercontinental Press as Cinese Clothing(9787508516615)in2010©ChinaIntercontinentalPress2010<br /> <br /> 3.https://www.topchinatravel.com/china-guide/history-of-chinese-clothing.htm<br /> <br /> 4.https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/clothing/--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 10:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br /> <br /> ===Chinese traditional dance===<br /> <br /> ==The Liquor Culture of China 瞿淼 Student No.202070080604==<br /> --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 08:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.The Origin of liquor in China====<br /> <br /> With a long history of liquor-making, China boasts a variety of vintage liquor, which is renowned at home and abroad. Penetrating in China’s entire history of civilization, the liquor culture plays a significant role in many aspects, such as cuisine, literature, and health care, of Chinese people’s daily life.<br /> As to the origin of Chinese liquor, opinions vary and no unanimous conclusion can be drawn, and the most widely accepted version is that Du Kang is the person who invented liquor. There are divergent views on Du Kang’s identity, so far, documents have been found which recorded his deeds in the Yellow Emperor era and Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties. And even his address is disputable. Some people think he lived in Baishui, Shaanxi province and was buried here, while others hold the opinion that he lived in Ruyang, Henan province. However, Du Kang is generally believed to be the Chinese Dionysus. According to the legend, one day it rained suddenly while Du Kang was herding the sheep. Hastily driving the sheep back to the sheepfold, he forgot some husked sorghum rice in a hollowed trunk by accident, and when he came back after a few days, the rice he left there became so fragrant that he couldn’t help tasting some. Surprisingly, it was palatable. This unexpected finding made Du Kang start to develop the liquor-brewing technique. Nowadays, Du kang has become the synonym of liquor in many places. Moreover, ancestral halls of Du Kang have been built in Baishui in Shaanxi province and Ruyang in Henan province to enshrine him. And the liquor produced in these places are called “Du Kang Liquor.”(Huang yixi, 2008, 12) <br /> <br /> ====2.The Types of liquor in Ancient China====<br /> With constant reform and innovation of the techniques of brewing liquor, thousands types of vintage liquor have been created in China. According to the different production techniques, Chinese liquor can be divided into fermented wine and distilled liquor.<br /> <br /> Yellow rice wine is the oldest fermented wine around the world. Shaoxing Wine, a famous specialty of Shaoxing, Zhejiang province, is the representative of yellow rice wine. It has a very long history, and the wine industry in Shaoxing was prosperous early in the Warring States period. Shaoxing wine looks yellow and clear, hence sugar is added in its raw material. The most prominent of Shaoxing Wine is that it’s fragrance improves with age. In addition to Shaoxing Wine, there are other famous yellow rice wine like Jiujiang Old Seal Wine, Mellow Wine and Dongwu Rice Wine and so on.<br /> <br /> Liquor and Spirits(Baijiu), a kind of distilled liquor, is divided into the following flavor types: sauce-flavor type, light flavor type, strong flavor type and other flavour types. Kweichow Moutai is a traditional Chinese specialty liquor. It is one of the world's three major distilled liquors on par with Scotch whiskey and French cognac. It is also the originator of Daqu sauce-flavored liquor with a history of more than 800 years. The style and quality of Kweichow Moutai is characterized by &quot;prominent sauce, elegant and delicate flavour, full-bodied, long aftertaste, and lasting fragrance in an empty cup&quot;. Its special style comes from the unique traditional brewing techniques formed over the years and the brewing methods are combined with the agricultural production in the Chishui River Basin, which is affected by the environment and seasonal production, retaining some of the original traces of local life. In 1996, Moutai's craftsmanship was identified as a state secret to be protected. In 2001, the traditional craft of Moutai was included in the first batch of national material cultural heritage. In 2006, the State Council approved the inclusion of the &quot;Moutai traditional brewing process&quot; in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage lists, and declared the world intangible cultural heritage.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Types of Drinking Vessel in Ancient China====<br /> Chinese people always pay attention to the beauty and delicacy of tableware, and we stress the exquisiteness and suitability of wine vessels when drinking. Therefore, drinking vessels as part of the liquor culture also have a long history and varied appearances.<br /> <br /> In different historical periods, due to the continuous development of society and economy, the production technology, materials, and appearance of wine vessels will naturally undergo corresponding changes; therefore, a wide variety of wine vessels have been produced. As early as the Neolithic culture period, pottery with shapes similar to later wine-ware, such as the pottery of the Peiligang culture period, appeared. The development of the liquor industry and the noble identity of the drinker have made it possible for liquor utensils to be differentiated from ordinary eating utensils. The quality of wine-ware often becomes one of the symbols of the status of drinkers. Bronze ware originated in Xia Dynasty, and the earliest bronze wine ware that has been discovered is from the Xia Erlitou culture period. Bronze ware reached its heyday in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and declined in the Spring and Autumn Period. The purpose of the Shang and Zhou drinking vessels was basically specific. In the Shang Dynasty, due to the development of the liquor industry and the improvement of bronze production technology, China's wine ware reached unprecedented prosperity. The bronze wine vessels of Shang and Zhou Dynasties were divided into liquor boiling vessels, liquor serving vessels, drinking vessels and liquor storaging vessels according to their purposes. Each vessel has many styles, some are in common styles, and some take animal shapes. Take Zun as an example, there are Elephant Zun, Rhino Zun, Niu Zun, Yang Zun, Tiger Zun, etc. During the Qin and Han Dynasties, lacquered wine utensils became popular in southern China. It became the main type in the Han Dynasty, Wei and Jin Dynasties, and its shape basically inherited the shape of bronze liquor vessels. Porcelain roughly appeared around the Eastern Han Dynasty. Compared with pottery, the performance of porcelain surpassed that of pottery. The shape of liquor glasses in the Tang Dynasty was much smaller than in the past, so some people think that distilled spirits appeared in the Tang Dynasty. The Song Dynasty was the heyday of ceramic production, and there were many exquisite wine vessels. People in Song Dynasty like to warm rice wine and drink it. So the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl were invented. People placed the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and poured hot water into the bowl to warm the wine. The representative porcelain wine-ware of the Ming and Qing Dynasty is the blue-and-white porcelain wine-ware.<br /> <br /> ====4.Drinking Order====<br /> As early as the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, drinking orders appeared at banquets in the Yellow River Basin. There are many ways to make wine orders. The way the literati and the ordinary people make drinking orders are naturally very different. Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc., while ordinary people use simple ways to act without any preparation. It requires a quick, witty, artistic and talented person to do liquor orders. The drinking order is of great significance to the transformation, enrichment and development of drinking rituals. It is not only an important means to add wine to the fun and to invigorate the banquet, but also to make Chinese culture enter the wine and become the Liquor Culture&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> 1.Du Kang 杜康<br /> <br /> 2.Chinese Dionysus 中国酒神<br /> <br /> 3.husked sorghum rice 秫米饭<br /> <br /> 4.Baishui 白水县（陕西渭南市辖县）<br /> <br /> 5.Ruyang 汝阳县（河南省洛阳市下辖县）<br /> <br /> 6.fermented wine 发酵酒<br /> <br /> 7.Distilled liquor 蒸馏酒<br /> <br /> 8.Yellow rice wine 黄酒<br /> <br /> 9.Shaoxing Wine 绍兴酒 <br /> <br /> 10.Jiujiang Old Seal Wine 九江成年封缸酒<br /> <br /> 11.Mellow Wine 醇香酒 <br /> <br /> 12.Dongwu Rice Wine 东吴老酒<br /> <br /> 13.Liquor and Spirits 白酒 <br /> <br /> 14.Kweichow Moutai 贵州茅台<br /> <br /> 15.sauce-flavor type 酱香型 <br /> <br /> 16.light flavor type 清香型 <br /> <br /> 17.strong flavor type 浓香型 <br /> <br /> 18.Daqu sauce-flavored liquor 大曲酱香型白酒<br /> <br /> 19.the Peiligang culture period裴李岗文化时期 <br /> <br /> 20.the Xia Erlitou culture period 夏二里头文化时期<br /> <br /> 21.Zun 樽 <br /> <br /> 22.injection vessel and bowl 注子和注碗<br /> <br /> 23.drinking order 行酒令<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.Who is generally believed to invent liquor in China? <br /> <br /> 2.What is the most prominent of Shaoxing Wine?<br /> <br /> 3.How to use the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl in the Song dynasty?<br /> <br /> 4.How do literati often make drinking orders in China?<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.Du Kang<br /> <br /> 2.It’s fragrance improves with age.<br /> <br /> 3.Place the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and pour hot water into the bowl to warm the wine.<br /> <br /> 4.Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc.<br /> <br /> ====Bibliography====<br /> *Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br /> <br /> *Li Fangzhou 李方舟. (1998) 酒令——酒文化的珍品[Liquor-a treasure of wine culture]. 质量天地Production Room.<br /> <br /> *Du Jinpeng 杜金鹏. (1995) 中国古代酒具[Ancient Chinese Wine Set]. 上海文化出版社 Shanghai Culture Publishing House.<br /> <br /> *Yang Li 杨 利. (2005) 酒文化及酒的精神文化价值探微[A Probe into Wine Culture and Spiritual Cultural Value of Wine]. 邵阳学院学报Academic Journal of Shaoyang University, 2005(02):82-83.<br /> <br /> *Xu Shaohua 徐少华. (1999) 中国酒文化研究50年[Research on 50 years of Chinese wine culture]. 酿酒科技Brewing Technology, 1999(06):15-18.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Fengqi 赵凤琦. (2014) 我国白酒产业可持续发展研究[Research on Sustainable Development of Chinese Liquor Industry]. 中国社会科学院研究生院CASS Graduate School.<br /> <br /> *Wng Jianguo&amp;Xu Liang 汪建国,徐亮.(2005)我国黄酒的特征及展望[Characteristics and Prospects of Chinese Rice Wine] 江苏调味副食品Journal of Jiangsu Seasoning Food, 2005(06):8-12.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jihua 丁季华. (1991) 中国酒文化的结构与功能[The structure and function of Chinese wine culture]. 历史教学问题History Research and Teaching, 1991(2).<br /> <br /> == China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH) - Rajabov, Anushervon student NO. 201921080005==<br /> <br /> ===China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH)===<br /> <br /> Introduction <br /> <br /> High-speed railway (HSR) in China is the longest network of high-speed railways in the world and is used most widely. The network of UNCC includes the recently built railway at the estimated speed of 200-350 km / h (120-220 miles per hour). The Chinese VSM accounts for two thirds of world high-speed railways. Almost all trains, the path and services of the HSR belong to the Chinese railway corporation under the CHINA Railway High Speed brand (CRH). The high-speed railway has developed rapidly in China over the past 15 years. CRH was put into operation in April 2007, the Intercity Line Beijing-Tianjin, which opened in August 2008, became the first HSR allocated passenger line. HSR applies to all administrative provincial levels, except Macau and Tibet. The total length of the HSR network reached 36,000 km (22,000 miles) in August 2020. The HSR construction boom continues, and the HSR network should reach 70,000 km (43,000 miles) in 2035. China's first high-speed trains were imported or built in accordance with the Technology Transfer Agreement with foreign trains manufacturers, including Alstom, Siemens, Bombardier and Kawasaki Heavy Industry Since the initial technical support, Chinese engineers have overpower the internal components of the train and built local trains produced by the CRRC State Corporation. The appearance of a rapidly accelerated railway in China has decreased in the way and changed Chinese society and the economy. The World Bank study has shown that &quot;a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality.&quot; where the sources are coming from?<br /> <br /> Definition and terminology <br /> <br /> High-speed trains in China are usually belonging to passenger trades of classes G, D and C. in class G trains (高 铁; Gāotiě; &quot;High-speed rail&quot;) are commonly used trains E In class D trains (动 车; Dòngchē; &quot;Electrical multiple unit&quot;) are presented by EMU trains operating at lower speeds, whether in high-speed or low-speed ways. The actual movement speed of class D trains can vary greatly. D211 Creament train from Guyang-east to Guangzhou-South along the High Speed Railway Guang-Guangzhou, a line with an estimated speed of 250 km / h, on average, 207 km / h per trip. The sleeping train D312 EMU between South Beijing and Shanghai at a low speed Beijing - Shanghai on average passing 121 km / h. Class C (c héngjì; “intercity”) trains that run on high-speed tracks at speeds above 250 km / h are also considered high-speed trains. where the sources are coming from ?<br /> <br /> Influence on airlines<br /> <br /> The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights. The effect of high-speed railway on airfare is most acute when traveling for less than 500 km (310 miles). By the spring of 2011, commercial airlines were fully stopped at previously popular routes such as Wuhan Nanjing, Wuhan Nanchang, Xi'an-Zhengzhou and Chengdu Chongqing. Flights along the routes with a length of more than 1500 km (930 miles) usually do not suffer. As of October 2013, half a speed of passengers were transported monthly on high-speed rail than in the country's airlines. where the source a<br /> Technologies <br /> Chinese High Speed Railway Controls Various Electric Forms of Trains, Hexie HAO Title (Simplified Chinese: 和谐 号; Traditional Chinese: 和 諧 號; Pinyin: Héxié Hào; Harmony) is for designs which are imported from other nations and designated CRH-1 to CRH-5 and CRH380A (L), CRH380B (L) and CRH380C (L). CRH compositions are designed for fast and convenient movement between cities. The weakness of intellectual property Hexie HAO creates obstacles to China in the export of its products related to high-speed railways, which leads to the development of a fully recycled railway franchise called Fuxing Hao (Rejuvenation) that based on local technologies. where are coming from?<br /> <br /> 4 + 4 HSR network <br /> <br /> The network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km. Most of the lines follow existing routes and are for passenger traffic only. These are known as Passenger Lines (PDL). Several sections of the national network, especially along the southeastern coastal corridor, have been built to connect cities that previously had no rail links. These sections will carry both passenger and cargo. High-speed trains on HSR corridors can usually reach speeds of 300-350 km / h (190-220 mph). On mixed HSR lines, passenger trains can reach a maximum speed of 200–250 km / h (120–160 mph). This ambitious national grid project was slated to be built by 2020, but government incentives have significantly shortened the construction timeframe for many lines. where the sources are coming from ?<br /> <br /> Advantages <br /> <br /> HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances that: Increases economic productivity and long-term competitiveness by increasing rail capacity and unifying labor markets. Moving passengers onto high-speed lines frees up older railways to carry more cargo, which is more beneficial for railways than for passengers whose fares are subsidized. Boosts the economy in the short term as high-speed rail construction creates jobs and stimulates demand in the construction, steel and cement industries during the economic downturn. 110,000 workers were mobilized for the construction of the Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway. Facilitates economic integration between cities and promotes the growth of second-tier cities. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains. where the sources are coming from ?<br /> <br /> Wenzhou accident <br /> <br /> On July 23, 2011, two high-speed trains collided on the Ningbo-Taizhou-Wenzhou railway in the Lucheng district of Wenzhou city, Zhejiang province. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped. Signals failed, causing another train to stop a stopped train. Several carriages derailed. State Chinese media confirmed 40 deaths and at least 192 people were hospitalized, including 12 seriously injured. The train accident in Wenzhou and the lack of accountability by rail officials have generated public outcry and heightened concerns about the safety and management of China's high-speed rail system. Concerns about quality and safety have also influenced plans to export cheaper high-speed train technology to other countries. In the aftermath of the deadly disaster, the Chinese government has suspended approval of new rail projects and began security checks on existing equipment. where the source are coming from?<br /> <br /> Terms and expressions<br /> <br /> 高 铁 - High-speed rail<br /> 动 车 - Electrical multiple unit<br /> 和 諧 號 – Harmony<br /> 復興號 - Rejuvenation<br /> <br /> Questions <br /> <br /> 1. What does the World Bank research say?<br /> 2. What forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights?<br /> 3. How many high speed rail corridors are there in the 4 + 4 HSR network? What is their total length?<br /> 4. What caused the accident?<br /> 5. What are the benefits of HSR?<br /> <br /> Answers<br /> <br /> 1. The World Bank study has shown that &quot;a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality.&quot; <br /> 2. The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights.<br /> 3. The 4 + 4 HSR network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km. <br /> 4. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped.<br /> 5. HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains.<br /> <br /> References misssing<br /> <br /> ==Language, The Chinese Language - Seydou, Sagara, Student No:201911080004,Major:Translation Studies===<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> China is a very big country with a large population, multi-ethnic,and multi-lingual. Each etthnic groups may have its own lingo, or dialects. There are great differences between these dialects because of pronunciation. For example, if people in different places use their dialects to talk, they may not be able to understand each other, and the situation may lead to embarrassment and understanding. Therefore, the Chinese people communicate with each other in a common language, Putonghua, also known as Mandarin in Western countries. Cheng Aimin (2019, 124)<br /> <br /> ==Putonghua and Dialects==<br /> <br /> Putonghua is the national language of China, and Chinese is the most widely spoken language in the world. More than one billion of the world's populations are Chinese speakers. The Chinese population is already one fifth of the population of the world and is rapidly expanding its presence everywhere and influence many people around the world. Cheng Aimin (2019, 25) <br /> It is the modern standard Chinese language with the Beijing pronunciation as its standard pronunciation, the northern dialect (also known as Mandarin, the official language in the past) as its basic dialect, and the modern vernacular as its grammatical norm. Therefore, the northern dialect sounds more like Putonghua than other dialects. Putonghua is a standardized language, which is legally used all over the country. In 2000, the law of the People’s Republic of China on common languages and characters established the legal status of Putonghua and standardized Chinese Characters as the national language and writing system. Putonghua is also one of the six working language of the United Nation and an important means of communication between China and foreign countries. According to statistics from ethnologist, in 2015, 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, but there were still about 400 million people who spoke dialects or minority languages. Article 19 of the constitution of the People’s Republic of China stipulates that ‘’ Putonghua is widely used by the state ‘’, and the third week of September is the national Putonghua Publicity week. We often hear some sayings like this: ‘’ Learn Putonghua well and you will have friend all over the world.’’ Chinese dialects are usually divided into seven groups: northern dialect Wu dialect, Hunan dialect, Jiangxi dialect, Hakka dialect, and Cantonese dialect and Fujian dialect. Most northern are close to Putonghua and easy to understand a non-native speaker. Cheng Aimin (2019, 126) <br /> <br /> The dialects in China differ greatly. Speaking Putonghua allows the Chinese people to communicate better with each other and promote the development of economy and culture everywhere. However, the promotion of Putonghua cannot be achieved in a short time. The Chinese government plans to enable more than 80% of Chinese people to speak Putonghua by 2020. (C.Gov art 10. 2017)<br /> Only by learning Putonghua can you communicate with people from all parts of China and event with Chinese –speaking people all over the world. While striving to promote Putonghua among the people of the whole country, China also pays special attention to the protection of dialects, which should not be lost after learning Putonghua. . Cheng Aimin (2019, 126)<br /> <br /> ==Ancient Chinese and Modern Chinese ==<br /> Over the past three thousand years, Chinese has undergone a long period of development and changes, and has been constantly interacting with the languages of other nations. Ancient Chinese and written Chinese characters are not exactly the same as they are now. When we visit Chinese historical sites, we often see couplets, poems, and inscriptions. Most of them are written in classical Chinese and traditional Chinese characters. Classical Chinese is a written language formed on the basis of the spoken language in the pre-Qin period. Cheng Aimin (2019, 127) <br /> <br /> By the time of the Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties (the 7th century to the 10th century), the spoken Chinese had changed greatly and had significant differences with the classical style of written Chinese. The pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar had changed greatly. But all the time, some people still insisted on writing in classical Chinese, while others wrote in the commonly used vernacular (spoken Chinese). The Four Classical Novels created in the Ming and Qing dynasties, The Dreams of the red Chambers, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, The Outlaws of the Marsh and the journey to the west, are all representative works of the ancient vernacular. After the May 4th movement in 1919, China launched a vernacular movement advocating ‘’my hand writes my speech’’. Since then, the vernacular has gradually been more widely used in the whole society, and modern Chinese has gradually developed and formed. Compared with ancient Chinese, modern Chinese absorbs a lot Western grammar and has added many disyllabic words. Cheng Aimin (2019 ,128)<br /> <br /> ==Idiomatic Phrases- Idioms, Proverbs, Common Sayings, and Allegorical Sayings.==<br /> Many phrases with fixed meanings in Chinese have been handed down from the ancient times. Mastering these phrases will make your language more authentic and vivid. For example, ‘’Lofty mountains and flowing rivers ‘’. Playing the lute to the cow’’ ‘’prescribing medicine according to symptoms’’, and ‘’ pleading guilty by carrying a rod on one’s back’ ’these phrases, often contain four Chinese characters each, are called idioms. They are quite formal and often originate from ancient historical stories, fables, myths and legends, or literary works. Sometimes we cannot guess the meaning of an idiom simply according to the meaning of the words. For example, 崇山峻岭，流淌的河流 ‘’lofty mountains and flowing rivers’’ means meeting someone who can really understand and appreciate them, while吹牛的长笛 ‘’ Playing the lute to the cow’’ means the casting pearls before swine. Wendy Abraham: (2018 ,115)<br /> There are also proverbs, common sayings, and allegorical sayings created and passed down by the common people in spoken language, which are quite colloquial and emotional, reflecting the unique culture of China.<br /> Proverbs are common and easy -to understand fixed phrases used orally, often explaining a truth. For example, ‘’ if you are not in charge of a home, you don’t know how expensive the firewood and rice, if you don’t have children, you don’t know kinds your parents are.’’ ‘’Seeing is better than hearing 100 times, and doing is better than seeing 100 times’’ Cheng Aimin (2019, 129)<br /> Common sayings mostly come in a three –character format, but there are also other formats. In addition to the literal meaning, there are deep metaphorical extensions. For example, 吹牛皮 ‘’blow cow skin’’ (meaning bragging or boating) ‘给某人. 穿紧身鞋 ‘’give SB . Tight shoes to wear ‘’ ( meaning making things hard for SB), ‘为外国人工作时的消磨时间‘’kill time when working for foreigners ‘’ ( loafing on the job) , 提一个黑锅 ‘’ carry a black pot’’ ( taking the blame for the fault of others ) , 钉在眼睛里 ‘’ nail in the eyes’’ ( thorn in the flesh ), 狗腿 ‘’ dog leg’’ ( hired thug) , 不管3x7 = 21 ‘’regardless of 3x7= 21’’( regardless of consequences, in the spite of anything ), 打不了八极 ‘’ can’t hit with eight poles’’ ( extremely distant or unrelated ). (Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002,232)<br /> An allegorical saying is divided into two parts. It is like a riddle: The first part is a metaphor, and the second part is an explanation. There are two types of allegorical sayings: homophonic and figurative. Example of the homophonic type ‘’ the nephew carries a lantern – to light up the uncle’’ (pronounced the same ‘’ as before ‘’ in Chinese); ‘’the monk opens an umbrella – no hair and no sky ‘’ (‘’ no hair ‘’ is pronounced similar to ‘’ lawless ‘’ in Chinese). Examples of the figurative type: ‘’ A mute person takes a dose of bitter medicine- they can’t say it is bitter ‘’; ‘’ Mice go to the street – everybody shouts and beats them.’’ Cheng Aimin (2019.130)<br /> <br /> ==Language policy==<br /> While vigorously promoting Putonghua, the Chinese government has also promulgated many policies to protect dialect and minority languages. In order to promote Putonghua, China promulgated the Chinese Pinyin Program in 1958. Pinyin (the standard Chinese sound- spelling system) is widely used in Putonghua promotion, international Chinese teaching, foreign exchange and other fields. It has become an important tool for reading Chinese characters, learning Putonghua, training and improving reading and writing ability. With the popularization of modern information technology, pinyin is widely used to input the Chinese characters on computers and mobile phones. Pinyin affects all aspects of social life. In translation, Chinese names of people, places, food, and even some cultural concept with Chinese characteristics (Such as Beijing, pingpang, Shaoling, Gongful) are directly spelled with Pinyin, which is therefore an important standard for translation and a bridge for international exchange. Minglang Zhou: (pp.71-95).<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion.== <br /> Today, an increasing number of people from other countries now want to learn Chinese language and culture and also many universities from different countries throughout the world offer Chinese language courses because Putonghua is also an open door to a huge job market in all of the countries where Putonghua is the language of commerce like Mainland China, Taiwan and Singapore. Learning Chinese can help to make a better future for everyone. Abundant opportunities for governments and business careers as well as scientific and cultural exchanges await the student of Chinese. The China market is blossoming after decades of global isolation. As China is rapidly becoming a world economic power as it opens its doors to foreign investment expands its infrastructure, those who know Chinese will be valuable to business.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> Cheng Aimin.(2019), ''中国概况'' [Understanding China]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> Minglang Zhou: Language Policy in the People’s Republic of China (p.71-95), Wendy Abraham: let’s talk Mandarin Chinese: 1,001 real-life phrases and Idioms. Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37) Article 10 Putonghua and the standardized Chinese characters shall be used as the basic language in education and teaching in schools and other institutions of education, except where otherwise provided for in laws.<br /> The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002)<br /> ===Terms and expressions===<br /> Lingo: 林戈<br /> Putonghua: 普通话<br /> Await student:等待学生<br /> Pinyin: 等待学生<br /> Lofty: 崇高：<br /> Vernacular: 白话：<br /> Swine: 猪：<br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1. Why Putonghua is spoken in United Nations Organization?<br /> 2. How many people speak Putonghua in China and around the world?<br /> 3 .Why Chinese government is promoted Putonghua among many others languages?<br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1. Because it is an important means of communication between China and foreign countries.<br /> 2. According to ethnologist 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, and according to the10 most spoken languages in the world Chinese (and all of its varieties such as Mandarin) is by far the most spoken language across the world with 1.31 billion speakers.<br /> 3. Because Putonghua is become an international language and it also facilitate understanding between different ethnic groups in China.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_2&diff=113014 2020-12-16T10:21:27Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac */</p> <hr /> <div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br /> *Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br /> <br /> '''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br /> *You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like &quot;Longevity Noodles&quot;) or Text B (&quot;Mooncakes&quot;), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title (&quot;Festival Meals&quot;) and arrange it accordingly.<br /> *In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br /> *For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br /> *Add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Please also add a list &quot;Terms and Expressions&quot;.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Questions&quot; section.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Answers&quot; section.<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Red Culture - Kang Haoyu 康浩宇, 202070080638==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康浩宇 Kang Haoyu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Red Culture===<br /> Chinese red culture is unique in the world. As a very important cultural resource, it has both tangible culture and intangible culture. Red culture in China refers to the advance culture with Chinese characteristics created by party and people in revolutionary years.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)<br /> <br /> ====1. Development====<br /> <br /> China has brilliant history and splendid civilization in ancient times. However, with the Opium War of 1840, China was plunged into the darkness of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression. Despite of all efforts that countless dedicated patriots had made, they still failed to change the plight. The October Revolution in Russia brought Marxism-Leninism. With Communism as the the highest ideal and ultimate goal, the Communist Party of China shouldered the historic mission of national rejuvenation. With the firm leadership of the party, Chinese people embraced national independence, people's liberation, national reunification and social stability, and stepped into a new era of prosperity and happiness.(Xi Jinpin 2017)<br /> <br /> Red culture is condensed by the Communist Party of China in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. It is an advanced Marxism culture that was inherited and developed in the new period of socialist construction. It's a collectivism culture of bravery, sacrifice and devotion that seeks happiness for the Chinese people and rejuvenation for the Chinese nation.Red culture is embodied in the aspects of ideal belief, value pursuit and spiritual outlook, and is integrated into material remains, mechanism behaviors and cultural and artistic forms.(Luo Liling, Pu Qingpin 2018, 45)<br /> <br /> First of all, red culture is a revolutionary culture, which was formed by the Chinese Communist Party in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. After the founding of People's Republic of China, the Communist Party of China led the Chinese people to inherit and carry forward the revolutionary culture. In the new period of socialist construction and reform and opening up, a vigorous and advanced socialist culture was formed, which enriched and developed the connotation of red culture. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture, and are the core value and spiritual subject of contemporary Chinese culture. As for Chinese red culture, Among them, Marxism is the soul, the common ideal of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the theme, the national spirit and the spirit of the times are the essence, and the socialist concept of honor and disgrace is the foundation. These four aspects influence, infiltrate and interact with each other, revealing the essential characteristics of red culture scientifically and completely.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)<br /> <br /> ====2. Symbols====<br /> <br /> The word “red” in “red culture” has many symbols. Chinese people have “red” complex since ancient time. Red represents authority. For, example, official documents are also called red heading documents. Red represents courage. Red is the color of Chinese national flag. Chinese military strategists and generals have a deep understanding of the role of red in war, so they use red flags to unite their morale, inspire their fighting and their courage, and summon the spirit of going forward bravely and not fearing sacrifice. Red represents honor and auspiciousness. For instance, the places are always adorned with red for conference and ceremony. People are awarded with red flower and red certificates. Red represents revolution. When Marx was asked about &quot;favorite color&quot; in his early years, he clearly answered &quot;red&quot;. In 1864, First International was founded, and its logo was red. The first army of Communist Party of China was named Red Army, and Ruijin, the first revolutionary base area, was called Red Capital. There were also red boats in South Lake and red flags in Jinggangshan.(Chen dongwang, Huang Weiliang 2006, 19)<br /> <br /> ====3. Values====<br /> <br /> Red culture has many values. Red culture has the value of history. It witnesses the early development history of the Communist Party of China. It shows the inevitability of the socialist road in China. And it is an important weapon to guide the success of Chinese revolution. Besides, red culture has the value of civilization. Carrying forward the red culture is an urgent need to cultivate a new national spirit. Red culture is important for the construction of socialism culture and ideology. Moreover, red culture has the value of economy. Red culture is a powerful driving force for the development of socialist market economy. It is an important medium of economic development under the new historical conditions. The red cultural industry has become a new economic growth point.(Wang Yidi 2007, 149)<br /> <br /> ====4. Red Culture in Nanchang====<br /> <br /> Nanchang is the capital city of Jiangxi Province and it is where August 1st uprising took place. Nanchang is renowned as the cradle of Chinese revolution and the place where the military flag rose. Because in August 1st uprising, communist party of china formed its first army in Nanchang. There are lots of red culture resources in Nanchang. <br /> <br /> Bayi Square is at the center of Nanchang city. It was built to memorize August 1st uprising. Bayi Square highlights the theme of &quot;Bayi History and Culture&quot; in all directions. The memorial area, cultural area, reminiscence area and leisure area of Bayi Square show Bayi Uprising in different forms. The landmark in the square is Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower. Besides, Nangchang August 1st Memorial Hall is a special memorial hall established to commemorate Nanchang Uprising.（Peng Bo, Zhang Li, Li Jiangyuan 2006, 58）<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] 程东旺, 黄伟良. “红色文化”的价值形态与德育功能探析[J]. 现代教育科学, 2006: 19-21.<br /> <br /> [2] 罗丽琳,蒲清平. 红色文化的思想政治教育基因及其时代价值[J].新疆师范大学学报, 2018: 45-52<br /> <br /> [3] 彭波, 张丽, 李江源. 整合红色资源,提升江西文化力[J]. 江西崛起策论, 2006:58-60.<br /> <br /> [4] 王以第. “红色文化”的价值内涵[J]. 文化论苑, 2007:149-150.<br /> <br /> [5] 习近平, 决胜全面建成小康社会 夺取新时代中国特色社会主义伟大胜利——在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告,人民日报,2017.<br /> <br /> [6] 朱桂莲,李晶. 德育视角下的中国红色文化研究综述[J]. 研究综述, 2010:87-89.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> red culture 红色文化<br /> <br /> Opium War 鸦片战争<br /> <br /> red heading documents 红头文件<br /> <br /> red army 红军<br /> <br /> August 1st uprising 八一起义<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1. What is the historical background of the birth of red culture?<br /> <br /> 2. What are two major components of red culture?<br /> <br /> 3. How many symbols dose the word &quot;red&quot; in red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 4. How many values dose red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 5. What is the landmark in Bayi Square?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1. In modern China, Communist Party of China led the Chinese revolution and led people to fight against suppression.<br /> <br /> 2. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture<br /> <br /> 3. Four. Authority, courage, honor and revolution.<br /> <br /> 4. Three. History value, civilization value and economic value.<br /> <br /> 5. Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower<br /> <br /> ==Landscape, The Ancient Tea Horse Road - Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> <br /> ===The Ancient Tea Horse Road===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. The ancient tea horse road is divided into two routes: the Sichuan-Tibet line and the Yunnan-Tibet line. The ancient tea horse road originated from the ancient southwest frontier of the tea horse mutual market, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and most prosperous in the middle and late World War II. The ancient Tea Horse Road divided into Shanxi-Gan, Shanxi-Kangtang (folk called wade ancient road, Sichuan-Tibet line is part of it), Yunnan-Tibet and other three main routes, connecting Sichuan, Yunnan-Tibet, extending into the territory of Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal, India, until reaching West Asia, West Africa, the Red Sea coast. 5 March 2013, the Tea Horse Road was listed by the State Council as the seventh batch of national key cultural relics conservation units.(Zou Jingyi 2018,131)<br /> <br /> ====Historical Routes====<br /> China’s ancient tea horse road is divided into:<br /> 1. The Shanxi-Gansu tea horse road is the main route for tea to travel westward in mainland China and exchange for horses. It is one of the main routes of the ancient Silk Road.<br /> 2. Shanxi and Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road), began in the Han Dynasty, formed by the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse each other. Due to the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government control of tea trafficking, tea trafficking sub-regional, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road.<br /> 3. The ancient Yunnan-Tibet Tea Horse Road. Formed around the late sixth century AD, it is south of Yunnan's main tea producing areas in Xishuangbanna Yiwu, Pu'er City, intermediate through today's Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture and Lijiang City, Shangri-La into Tibet, directly to Lhasa. Some also re-exported from Tibet to India and Nepal, is an important trade channel between ancient China and South Asia.<br /> 4.Sichuan-Tibet Tea Horse Road is a part of the Shan-Kang-Tibet Tea Horse Road, east of Yazhou edge tea production Ya'an, after playing arrow furnace (now Kangding), west to Lhasa, Tibet, and finally through to Bhutan, Nepal and India, a total length of nearly four thousand kilometers, is an essential bridge and link between ancient Tibet and the interior.<br /> There are three main routes of the ancient tea-horse road: The Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line. <br /> Among the three ancient tea-horse roads, the Qinghai-Tibet line was established in the Tang Dynasty and developed earlier, while the Sichuan-Tibet line was the most influential and well-known later. These three routes are closely related to Chengdu, among them, the Yunnan-Tibet route and the Sichuan-Tibet route must pass through Chengdu, and their development is closely related to the tea-horse trade.(Kang Yuming2020,281-283)<br /> <br /> Shanxi- Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road), was formed in the Han dynasty through the efforts of the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government controlled tea traffickin along the tea trafficking sub-region, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:02, 7 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> ====Historical Value====<br /> The Silk Road in the north and the ancient Tea Horse Road in the south. The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization. However, its history and value will always shine brightly.(Li Gang 2011,113-117)<br /> <br /> 1.The Golden Road of Tourism<br /> The ancient tea-horse road tour has unique scenery, profound cultural connotation, exclusive resources and is unparalleled in the world.<br /> 2. Ancient Roads for the Propagation of Civilization<br /> The ancient Tea Horse Road was not only an important migration corridor for the ancient ancestors between Wei-Tibet and present Sichuan and Yunnan, but also an important aperture for the spread and exchange of ancient civilizations between present Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet.<br /> 3.Migration Corridor of National Cultures<br /> On this ancient road, which stretches for more than 10,000 miles, Chinese, Tibetan, Yi, Naxi, Lisu, Hani, Kino, Qiang, Pumi, Bai, Nu, Jingpo, Achang and other ethnic groups have flourished here for thousands of years, highlighting the diversity and original form of ethnic culture in southwest China.<br /> 4.Religious Propagation Road<br /> With the development of the tea-horse trade and the extension of the ancient tea-horse route, Tibetan Buddhism spread widely along this route on the Tibetan Plateau and surrounding areas. The development and spread of Tibetan stupas can be roughly divided into two routes: one is Tibet - Qinghai - Gansu - Inner Mongolia - the other is Tibet - Qinghai - Gansu - Inner Mongolia. -Liaoning--Jilin--Heilongjiang--Beijing--Hebei --Henan--Jiangsu; second, Tibet--Yunnan--Sichuan. --Guangxi--Hubei.<br /> 5. The Path of National Spirituality<br /> You can't talk about the ancient tea-horse road without mentioning the horse gangs. The horse gangs have formed a unique cultural carrier in the course of thousands of years. Their spirit is attached to this ancient road, and become part of the Chinese national spirit.<br /> 6.The Road of National Unity and Integration<br /> The ancient tea-horse road is like a huge net in southwest China, through which people of all nationalities strengthen their ties and communication, promote political, economic and cultural interaction, development and integration among all nationalities, and enhance the emotional ties between them.<br /> 7.The Road of Securing the Borders<br /> The expansion of the ancient tea-horse road and the flourishing of the tea-horse trade contributed to the stability and consolidation of China's southwest frontier.<br /> 8.The road to economic development<br /> The Thousand-Year Tea Horse Trail contributed to the formation of many towns in the region through the tea and horse trade, which greatly contributed to the economic development of the region.(Ji Jing2016,354-355)<br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road(茶马古道)<br /> <br /> 2.Sichuan-Tibet Line（川藏线）<br /> <br /> 3.Yunnan-Tibet line（滇藏线）<br /> <br /> 4.wade ancient road（蹚古道）<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What is the ancient tea horse road ?<br /> <br /> 2.How many main routes does the ancient tea-horse road conclude?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the historical value?<br /> --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 04:15, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. <br /> <br /> 2.There are three main routes, including the Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line.<br /> <br /> 3.The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]邹怡情,张依玫.作为文化线路的茶马古道遗产保护研究[J].北京规划建设,2018(04):131-140.<br /> <br /> [2]康昱明,李金峰.甘肃茶马古道文化线路遗产探究[J].农村经济与科技,2020,31(11):281-283.<br /> <br /> [3]李刚,李薇.论历史上三条茶马古道的联系及历史地位[J].西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2011,41(04):113-117.<br /> <br /> [4]纪静.茶马古道的兴起及其价值研究[J].福建茶叶,2016,38(07):354-355.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:06, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Literature, Novels - Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> <br /> ===Four satirical novels in ancient China===<br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.<br /> <br /> ==== Nie Hai Hua====<br /> Nie Hai Hua was written by Zen Pu (1872-1935).A total of 35 chapters.it is a novel of condemnation, historical fiction and political fiction. In the novel, Jin yun (wen qing) is the main character.After won the scholarship, he took a famous courtesan, Fu Caiyun, as his concubine in Suzhou.He was then ordered to travel to Russia, Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands. After returning to China, Jin Wenqing died of illness in Beijing, and Fu Caiyun left the Jin family to resume her old profession in Shanghai, changing her name to Cao Menglan then went to Tianjin to work as a prostitute, calling herself Sai Jinhua.<br /> The novel takes the story of Jin Wenqing and Fu Caiyun as the main line, vividly describes the historical and cultural changes as well as political and social changes from Tongzhi to Guangxu more than 30 years, exposing the decay and decline of the rulers, criticizing the feudal system of imperial examination, satirizing the officials, truly reflecting their spiritual life and cultural mentality. at the same time also enthusiastically glorifies Feng Zicai, Liu Yongfu and other war heroes and Sun Yat-sen and so on. The revolutionary activities of the Democratic Revolutionaries express the author's patriotic thoughts against the feudal dictatorship and advocate national democratic revolution. In specific writing, the author adopts the modern popular block novel structure combined with the traditional mesh novel structure to unfold the plot, with ups and downs, twists and turns, touching and orderly, always around the main line.<br /> As a historical novel, Nie Hai Hua draws on the spirit of the ancient &quot;good history&quot; of China to portray its characters. At the same time, it draws on the satirical approach of &quot;The History of Confucianism&quot; in which &quot;the fair-minded accuse the evils of the times&quot;, commenting on events and weighing characters in a realistic manner. In terms of art, Nie Hai Hua also has many shortcomings.However, it is a skillful structure and outstanding novel at that time.<br /> <br /> ==== the Travels of an Old Man====<br /> The Travels of an Old Man was written by Liu E (1857-1909) and a total of 20 chapters. Liu E was an entrepreneur and scholar, not a professional writer, but his reputation as a literary figure was far greater than that of an entrepreneur and scholar. This novel is an unfinished work of his that was written in his later years with an autobiographical nature.<br /> The novel takes a bell-ringing mountebank, Lao can (Tie Ying), as its main character, and narrates his experiences and activities during his travels in northern China, exposing the decadence and darkness of the Qing government, the brutality and lethargy of the officials, and the poverty and oppression of the people, especially attacking the abusive behavior of those &quot;Qing officials&quot; who are actually cruel officials, and expressing the author's strong views on the perilous reality of society and the country. <br /> The artistic achievement of the novel is very high. The first is the superb descriptive skills, whether it is a description, a landscape, or a narrative, can be vividly depicted, such as the scenery of Thousand Buddha Mountain, Daming Lake etc., which makes people have a sense of being in the real world. Secondly, its psychological description and psychological analysis, with appropriate language, can brilliantly show the inner world of the characters. Thirdly, the exquisite structural art. The novel is in the form of a Travel Journal, with travel as a clue,and organic combined of what he see, hear, think and do along the way forms a unique structural feature of the novel.<br /> <br /> ==== The Records of Officialdom Exposure====<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure by Li Baojia (1867-1906), five editions and a total of 60 chapters. This is the first long chapter novel in China's modern era that was published serially in newspapers and magazines and achieved a social sensation, creating a culture of critical reality in modern fiction.<br /> The novel consists of more than 30 relatively independent bureaucratic stories linked together,involving the Qing government from the emperor, down to the minor officials and so on,and these various bureaucrats of all kinds of evil behavior were exposed:They embezzled public funds, corrupt and pervert the law or the named &quot;expedition bandits&quot;, but is harmful to the people. The work is like a scroll of the officialdom at the end of the feudal society, touching on the main contradictions of that time.<br /> The novel's writing method is modelled on &quot;The Scholars&quot; and has been developed, making full use of exaggeration, comic style and satirical techniques. only a few strokes will outline the character's voice and physical appearance. And the author also good at describing the details, so that the characters are vivid and evocative, with a strong artistic impact. Therefore, the subsequent imitation of the work is quite a lot, it become a great view.<br /> <br /> ==== 20 years witness strange present situation====<br /> The Strange Situation Witnessed in Twenty Years was written by Wu Woyao(1866-1910), A total of 60 chapters. This is a long novel with autobiographical flavor.it through nearly 200 short stories that the protagonist hears and witnesses from the death of his father to his failure in business. it outlines the strange realities of late Qing society during the 20 years from the Sino-French War to the beginning of the 20th century.<br /> The scope of social life is much broader than The Records of Officialdom Exposure. In addition to describing the officialdom, there are also involving the shopping malls, foreign markets, science fields, medical and astrological practices. It exposes the political situation, moral outlook, social customs, and human conditions of the increasingly colonized Chinese feudal society, and is of high cognitive value in helping readers to see the irreparable historical destiny of the late Qing society and feudal system.<br /> The novel adopts the first-person narrative story, structured in a way that makes the reader feel intimate and trustworthy, setting a precedent in the history of Chinese fiction. The structure is also very clever: &quot;nine deaths and a lifetime&quot; is not only the narrator of the book story, but also the backbone of the structure of the book, and at the same time uses flashbacks, interpolations and other methods, combining it organically together, making the whole book complex and simple appropriate, muddle together.<br /> <br /> ==== Conclution====<br /> As a result of the bourgeois reformists and democratic revolutionaries strongly advocated, the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty got unprecedented development, and a large number of influential novels emerged, forming a prosperous situation of the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty.The emergence of the &quot;Four satirical novels&quot; in the late Qing Dynasty is an important sign that The creation of Chinese novels has entered another prosperous period.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> *[1]https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E6%99%9A%E6%B8%85%E5%9B%9B%E5%A4%A7%E8%B0%B4%E8%B4%A3%E5%B0%8F%E8%AF%B4/702907?fr=aladdin<br /> *[2]二十年目睹之怪现状[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 吴趼人, 2012<br /> *[3]老残游记[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 刘鹗, 2012<br /> *[4]官场现形记[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 李宝嘉, 2012<br /> *[5]孽海花[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 曾朴, 2012<br /> *[6]四大谴责小说政治批判手法研究[J].李辉东,2017<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure 《官场现形记》<br /> <br /> The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years 《二十年之目睹怪现象》<br /> <br /> the Travels of an Old Man 《老残游记》<br /> <br /> Nai Hai Hua 《孽海花》<br /> <br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty 晚清四大谴责小说<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1、what are The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty ?<br /> <br /> 2、which novel is modeled the &quot;The Scholars&quot;?<br /> <br /> 3、what’s the common characteristic of these four novels? <br /> <br /> 4、what other satirical novels do you know?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1、They are Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua.<br /> <br /> 2、The Records of Officialdom Exposure<br /> <br /> 3、The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time.<br /> <br /> 4、E.g.The Scholars<br /> <br /> ==Shadow Puppets - Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> ===Shadow Puppets Li Lili No.202070080594 专业：英语笔译===<br /> ====The Origin of Shadow Play====<br /> Shadow play has a long history from the written records. Legend has it that Madame Li, the wife of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, died of illness. Emperor Wu's yearning for her was so intense that he was in a trance and ignored the government's affairs all day. Minister Li Shaoweng went out one day when he came across a child playing with a doll in his hand, with its shadow being vivid. So he came up with an idea that he could cut the image of Mrs. Li from cotton and silk, painted it with color, and installed wooden poles on her hands and feet. After seeing it, Emperor Wu was glued to it and couldn't put it down. This love story is considered to be the earliest origin of shadow play. There are also some views that shadow play originated in Xi'an of Tang Dynasty, however, it is worth discussing that although there were an variety of operas in the Tang Dynasty, yet there were no any records of shadow play mentioned in the Tang Dynasty. Up to now, the earliest shadow play we can see is recorded in Song Dynasty. Its rise and development is closely related to Bianjing’s (the capital of Northern Song Dynasty)superior geographical environment, the development of commodity trade and good commercial transportation at that time.(Wei Liqun 2018,13-14)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> [[File:shadow play.jpg]]<br /> In Chinese ancient socitey, Chinese began to give performances using puppets against an illuminated screen. This is “shadow puppets”, also known as “lamp and shadow play”. It is considered as “precursor of movie” because it was the earliest moving part of form dubbed with human voice in the world. During a play, puppeteers hide behind the white screen and move puppets, while narrating the story, usually through singing. Performances are accompanied by musicians playing percussion and stringed instruments. A shadow puppet can perform actions such as “serving drinks” , “waving a sword and a spear, ” or even “smoking ”by puppeteer holding and moving manipulating rods on its body. Typically, a shadow puppet has three rods, some may have five or seven rods. It can create rich designs such as shadow puppets, animals and stage props, for example, buildings, imperial palaces, chariots, tables and chairs as well as weapons. It is so rich that it includes almost everything under the sun.It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools. The well-known ones include Tangshan Shadow Play in Hebei Province, Beijing Shadow Play as well as Shaanxi, Shanxi and Hunan Shadow Play. etc.(Wang Yexia 2012,1-3)<br /> <br /> So how to make a puppet? First. Draw pictures of the various parts of the shadow puppets; second, finish carving with a knife and a hard board underneath the design; third, color the puppet with watercolor pens; forth, paint the body parts with a brush dipped in oil. This can make the puppet transparent and better reflect colors under the light.; fifth, connect joint sections with the cotton thread; sixth, make the manipulating rods; finally, attach the manipulating rods to the shadow puppet with cotton thread. The “head” is the most important part of a shadow puppet and its total component number is about four times that of the “body”. A shadow puppet’s “head”and the “body” can be mixed and matched with each other. (Wang Yexia 2012,29-33)<br /> <br /> The eyes and the eyebrows of a shadow puppet’s five facial features represent different personalities. The good and positive people are typical of a benevolent and kind countenance, with nice-looking eyebrows and eyes, while the villain or the general are ferocious look, with sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes. And the former are often concealed teeth and the latter are revealed teeth. The middle-aged person are short beard, but the elderly man are long beard. The decorative designs on the shadow puppets are so important that they must match the character’s social status. In a shadow play, female characters are usually decorated with patters such as flowers, grass, clouds and phoenix, while male characters are often decorated with dragons, tigers, water and clouds. Shadows puppets look colorful under the light. To achieve a better visual effect, the translucent puppets need to be painted on both sides. The head of color can also represent different characters’ personalities. The red is symbol of a heroic and upstanding character. The black is a sign of a just, honest and selfless personality. The yellow shows a brave and irascible character, and are often used in fantasy plays to represent people with magic power. (Wang Yexia 2012,9-16)<br /> <br /> ====The Present Situation of Contemporary Shadow Play====<br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, shadow play, as an art form, has undergone a series of reforms under the guidance of the Party's principles, including the organization of theatrical troupes, the compilation and creation of plays, the drawing and performing forms of shadow play. With the advent of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, the prosperity of shadow play came to an abrupt end. The troupe was disbanded, the repertoire was banned, and the artists were transferred to other fields. A large number of precious shadow puppet props and documents were damaged. This situation, except for some places, lasted until 1976. After the end of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, shadow puppet art recovered rapidly, However, with the economic development being put in the first place of social activities and the popularity of television and the richness of artistic forms, shadow play is declining day by day with an irresistible trend, because shadow play arts are unable to keep pace with the times and get the appreciation of the audience. As a result, the prospect of shadow play art is becoming increasingly bleak. （Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）<br /> <br /> In order to inherit Chinese excellent culture and protect the ancient art forms such as shadow play. On May 20, 2006, it was approved by the State Council to be included in the first part of national intangible cultural heritage list. On November 27, 2011, UNESCO put Chinese shadow play on the &quot;list of representative works of human intangible cultural heritage&quot;.（Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）<br /> <br /> ===References：===<br /> Wang Yexia 王业霞.(2012). 《皮影戏》 [Shadow Play] 北京：高等教育出版社 Beijing: [Higher Education Publishing House] <br /> <br /> Wei Liqun 魏力群.(2018). 《小书大传承-皮影》[&quot;Small Book, Big Heritage - Shadow Play&quot;] 重庆：重庆出版社 Chongqing: [Chongqing Publishing House]<br /> <br /> Zhu Hengfu 朱恒夫.(2020) 中国皮影戏的历史，现状与剧目特征[The History, Current Situation and Repertoire Characteristics of Chinese Shadow Theatre] 浙江艺术职业学院学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Arts Vocational College]<br /> <br /> ===Words and Expressions===<br /> shadow puppet皮影戏 <br /> paper cutting 剪纸<br /> ventriloquism 口技<br /> manipulating rod 操纵杆<br /> five facial features 五官<br /> sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes 尖眉杏眼<br /> Cultural Revolution 文化大革命<br /> intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1.When is the earliest shadow puppet’s record?<br /> <br /> 2.What art of forms do shadow play use?<br /> <br /> 3. What does a red head stand for in a play?<br /> <br /> 4.When is it put on the list of intangible cultural heritage&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.Song dynasty.<br /> <br /> 2.It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools.<br /> <br /> 3.The red is symbol of a heroic and upstanding character.<br /> <br /> 4. On November 27, 2011.<br /> <br /> ==Confucian Culture - Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Confucian Culture ===<br /> <br /> <br /> ==== Introduction ====<br /> <br /> Confucian school is an academic school founded by Confucius, developed by Mencius, and composed by Xunzi. Today, it still retains a certain vitality. Confucian school takes Confucianism as its guiding ideology whose central ideas are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 31)<br /> <br /> Confucian school was on an equal footing with the other hundred schools in the pre-Qin period. After the First Emperor of Qin, also called Qin Shihuang, burned books and buried scholars alive, the development of the Confucian school suffered a serious defeat. Then, in order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's advice of &quot;banishing other schools of thought and worshiping Confucianism only&quot; and imposed restrictions on thought, which led to the revival of Confucian school. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 20) The concepts of &quot;Confucian school&quot;, &quot;Confucianism&quot;, and &quot;Confucian Religion&quot; should be distinguished since Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism a social stratification, and Confucian religion belief. (Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 2017, 60-61)<br /> <br /> Laozi founded Chinese Taoist school; Confucius started Chinese Confucian school; Sun Tzu initiated Chinese military strategist school; Mozi was the founder of Mohism in the early Warring States. Confucianism contributes to guiding the code of conduct and constructing social order; Taoism focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalism serves the system construction of national political management.; the concepts of Universal Love and utilitarianism are two cornerstones for the Mohism. The General Unity idea of Confucianism has played an important role in the unification of a nation, the enhancement of national cohesion and the integration of cultural values. (Tan Su 2012, 68) After more than two thousand years of development and evolution, Confucian culture has built up a complete ideological system, involving politics, education, morality, ethics, code of conduct, life skills and other aspects. It has cultivated the wisdom and soul of the Chinese people throughout the history, and formed deep-rooted set patterns of thinking, psychology and survival. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42-43)<br /> <br /> ==== Analysis of Confucian Culture ====<br /> <br /> ===== Intelligence Development =====<br /> <br /> Confucius is a great educator, as well as a pioneer and practitioner of mass education. After Confucianism was established as a dominant culture, both the rulers and the public respected the teachings of the sage and attached great importance to education. In this context, a basic requirement is to stay highly cultured and steeped in propriety. After the Emperor Wen initiated the imperial examination system in the Sui Dynasty, those who are good scholars could make an official, which inspired students of poor families to change their lives by studying hard and diligent. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 19) For generations, the Chinese people have attached great importance to the education of their children, which is conducive to the improvement of the thinking ability of the whole nation. <br /> <br /> However, the corrupt of bureaucracy and the darkness of officialdom in metaphase and anaphase made many literati feel despairing about official career and discredit about the concept. In addition, the Four Books and Five Classics were the main learning content of Confucianism. Apart from government-run schools, private schools and self-study can hardly meet the requirements of the Six Classical Arts. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 21) Therefore, the Four Books and Five Classics were the focus of students, while the Six Classical Arts were not highly valued. <br /> <br /> =====Spiritual Guidance =====<br /> <br /> In terms of spirit, Confucianism contends that &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.&quot; (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 86) Benevolent people love each other, which reflects the essence of “Unity of Man and Nature” and also the most brilliant connotation of Confucianism. This philosophy calls for people’s active contributions to the society. It is still alive in modern times, and is the fundamental requirement of people's spiritual orientation in the future. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32)<br /> <br /> =====Order Construction =====<br /> <br /> In the age of barbarism and backwardness, a common feature was that a small number of people used power and force to suppress and enslave the majority, thus resulting in labor division and unfair distribution of wealth and generating corresponding social hierarchy and concepts. Given the fact that Confucianism developed in the transitional period of feudal society, the thoughts of Confucius and Mencius were rooted in the idealist view of destiny and did not break the shackles of social hierarchy. In addition, they even advocated the distinguish between the noble and the humble and highlighted the importance of hierarchy division. In this context, the benevolence they advocated had great limitations in political management. The public could not be treated equally in terms of political status. Instead, the so-called benevolence calls for improvement of the living conditions of the public and more benefits from the ruling class. However, its purpose was to maintain social order and reconcile social contradictions. This is also the root cause of feudal rulers’ favoring of Confucianism. In essence, Confucianism did not promote social equality, instead, it worked to maintain the unequal feudal hierarchy that aggravated servitude. In fact, after a long history of feudal rule, the sense of hierarchy would be part of the national psyche. With the progress of times and civilization, the view of destiny and the thought of social order have become psychological shackles of the Chinese people. (Li Fangping 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> After eliminating the ideology of feudal hierarchy and formalism, some philosophies of Confucianism still generate positive effects on modern society. Specifically, the spirit of benevolence and universal love is conducive to cultivate people’s spirits; (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 33) the concept of “the country belongs to the public” reflects a sense of social responsibility to make contributions for society, which can be expanded into a sharing social and political philosophy for different countries. Filial piety and brotherhood increase the harmony and stability of family; Loyalty, faithfulness, propriety and forgiveness are conducive to the relationship between different countries, societies and people. &quot;Loyalty&quot; means that people should stay loyal to the country and people; &quot;Friendliness&quot; and &quot;forgiveness&quot; play an important role in resolving various contradictions and animosities; when it comes to &quot;filial piety&quot; and &quot;propriety&quot;, many redundant forms inherited from feudal society should be eradicated and be more practical. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-41)<br /> <br /> ====The Contemporary Value of Confucian Culture ====<br /> <br /> Today, Confucian culture is still of great significance. We must explore the value of Confucian culture on the basis of the excellent tradition of the Chinese nation and by combining the characteristics of the times with and the actual situation. The Confucian culture has affected Chinese more than two thousand years and gone deep into each aspect of Chinese society. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39)<br /> <br /> =====Ideological and Political Education =====<br /> <br /> Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy, and it places a high priority on human value and dignity. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 51-57) Over the years, the Chinese nation has been influenced by this excellent philosophy. On this occasion, its behavioral pattern and psychological structure are endowed with uniqueness, which is mainly manifested in two aspects. One is to respect yourself, learn how to love and care yourself. Moreover, gain dignity and achieve the development of human value through the continuous improvement of moral cultivation. Second, respect others and show respect for others' personality by respecting, understanding and caring for others. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-40)<br /> <br /> ===== Modern Economic Construction=====<br /> <br /> Under today’s circumstance, some ideological contents are still alive and produce positive effects on promoting the economic construction of modernization and fostering modern patriotism emotion of the Chinese people. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65)<br /> <br /> First of all, Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of &quot;benevolence&quot; and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65) Since Confucian culture reflects a collectivist view on life, individuals are full of sense of duty and responsibility towards others and groups. In this context, their self-cultivation targets at regulating the family, country and the world. Thus, the value of individual is closely linked with the rise and fall of the country, so they have a strong sense of responsibility. (Tan Su 2012, 68) &quot;Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country&quot; has been a common belief for thousands of years. Such a social responsibility will give rise to a huge driving force for the development of the country and society.<br /> <br /> Second, the consciousness of &quot;self-improvement&quot; and the proposition of &quot;seeking truth&quot; in the Confucian culture strengthen the national spirit and provide a source power for China’s economic modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 66) Yi Zhuan put forward: &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection.’’ It means that continuous development is the law of nature and that a gentleman should pursue progress and be strong, unyielding resilient and positive. For thousands of years, the Chinese nation has formed a fine tradition of working hard and striving for strength under the influence of these thoughts. Today, we carry forward the spirits of “self-improvement” and &quot;seeking truth&quot; in ways that further enhance national spirits and provide a strong driving force for the socialist modernization.<br /> <br /> Third, the &quot;reform and innovation&quot; concept in Confucian culture is conducive to the expansion of the reform and opening up and the acceleration of China's socialist modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 67) On the basis of admitting the fact that the continuous development is the universal law of nature, Confucian culture puts forward the &quot;innovation idea&quot;. The Book of Rites said, &quot;If you can in one day renovate yourself; do so from day to day and let there be daily renovation.&quot; The Book of Changes said, &quot;Reform refers to destroy the old, while innovation means to establish the new.” The concept is not only serves as the theoretical basis for reform and innovation throughout the history, but also provides valuable lessons for the reform in socialist economic and political systems today. Domestically, promoting the innovative spirits can greatly enhance the reform consciousness of the Chinese people. Externally, it is conducive to advancing the opening up by leveraging the global influence of Confucian culture.<br /> <br /> ===== Legal Construction =====<br /> <br /> Confucian culture places a high priority on personal cultivation, while a highly civilized society under the rule of law must be composed of highly educated citizens. Confucian school, a school with thousands of years of history in China, has become an integral part of the Chinese culture. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32-33) Nowadays, since China has called for the policy of combining the rule of virtue with the rule of law, it is the time for Confucian culture to find its historical position and fully play its role. Exploring the influence of Confucian culture on the construction of contemporary Chinese rule by law, not only can we help us more deeply understand the traditional culture, but also can promote the process of building the rule of law in contemporary China. <br /> <br /> The rule by virtue thought is an important part of Confucian culture and it emphasizes the importance of moral education. It is a national strategy pursued by ancient Chinese rulers and a method of national governance embodying reference significance in today’s China. (Wei Na 2014, 1-2) In terms of national governance, Confucianism emphasizes the importance of morality, believing that national governance should not mainly rely on harsh punishment, instead, moral education should be applied to reform people. Confucius said, &quot;By governing with virtue, rulers will be loved by the public, just like stars surround the North Star.&quot; By comparing rulers to the North Star and people to the stars, Confucius emphasized the importance of moral governance. (Wang Jie 2004, 77)<br /> <br /> How to rule by virtue? First of all, rulers should pay attention to their personal cultivation and develop good moral characters, so that they can set a good example for the public. Only when officials and common people obey the ruler sincerely, can a good social atmosphere be formed. Secondly, since Confucianism takes &quot;benevolence&quot; as its core and calls for the rule of virtue, many people subconsciously believe that Confucianism denies the role of criminal law and that Confucian culture does not call for the rule of law. In fact, this is not the case. While Confucianism advocates the rule of virtue, it also emphasizes the supplementary role of rule of law. (Wang Jie 2004, 82-83) Confucius said, &quot;Sages believe that national governance must combine the rule of virtue and law.&quot; That is to say, if people are governed by systems and laws, they seek for impunity but lack of conscience; however, if they are guided by morality and etiquette, they will have a sense of right and wrong and will impose strict requirements on themselves.<br /> <br /> In a word, we should clearly realize that, although Confucian culture is an excellent traditional culture in China, it was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. Under this circumstance, we must analyse Confucian culture dialectically and explore the value of Confucian culture. At the same time, we should discard the bad habits and unfavorable factors left by it, so as to better carry forward our traditional culture and accelerate the construction of the rule of law in contemporary China. (Wang Jie 2004, 83) <br /> <br /> ====The Confucius Institute ====<br /> <br /> With the improvement of China's international status and the increasingly extensive international exchanges, Chinese culture has won wider foreign attention and the world is more eager to learn and understand the Chinese culture. The Confucius Institute project, founded in 2004, emerges in response to the call of the times. Today, Confucius Institutes have spread throughout Asia, Africa, The Americas, Europe and Oceania. (Wang Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 30) Fundamentally speaking, its is conducive to the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture since language is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is of positive significance to the construction of China's national image, the promotion of China's international influence, the realization of wider international communication.<br /> <br /> The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Today, countries are committed to spreading their own language and culture, so there is a fierce competition in international cultural promotion. In addition, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. At present, Confucius Institutes are prevalent all over the world, but the promotion strategy seeking for quantity and speed results in a serious shortage of teachers capable of teaching Chinese as a foreign language. According to statistics, there is a global shortage of at least five million TCSL teachers. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 31) Secondly, the lack of high-quality and localized teaching materials for Chinese has also become a bottleneck for the development of Confucius Institutes. The shortage of Chinese textbooks affects the depth of cultural communication of Confucius Institutes directly. Thirdly, Confucius Institutes are not capable of spreading the ideological depth of the Chinese culture. Although the textbooks are rich in content, they mainly focus on promoting folk culture by introducing Chinese food, tea and wine, traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts. Meanwhile, they rarely involve the ideological essence of traditional Chinese culture and the modern value of Chinese culture. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 32)<br /> <br /> The Confucius Institutes should fully explore the modern significance of Confucianism and cast the quintessence of Chinese culture, and strengthen the spread of the core idea of Chinese culture and its modern cultural value. The connotation of Chinese culture is very rich. What Confucius Institutes should spread is not all the contents of Chinese culture, but the contents with universal value that are different from other countries and represent the essence of Chinese culture. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions ====<br /> <br /> 儒家 Confucian school<br /> <br /> 儒学 Confucianism<br /> <br /> 儒教 Confucian religion <br /> <br /> 兼爱 Universal love<br /> <br /> 恕、忠、孝、悌、勇 forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage<br /> <br /> 仁、义、礼、智、信 benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith<br /> <br /> 学而优则仕 A good scholar will make an official<br /> <br /> 四书五经 the Four Books and Five Classics<br /> <br /> 天行健，君子当自强不息；地势坤，君子以厚德载物。As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.<br /> <br /> 天下兴亡，匹夫有责 Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country<br /> <br /> ====Questions ====<br /> <br /> 1. What’s the central ideas of Confucian culture?<br /> <br /> 2. What’s the difference among Confucian school, Confucianism and Confucian religion?<br /> <br /> 3. What do you think of the relationship between Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school, Legalist school?<br /> <br /> 4. What’s the Six Classical Arts?<br /> <br /> 5. What you think of the ancient influence of Confucianism?<br /> <br /> 6. Do you think Confucian culture still has its contemporary values in China? And why?<br /> <br /> 7. What do you think of the current situation of the development of the Confucian institute?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1. The central ideas of Confucian culture are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith.<br /> <br /> 2. Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism is a social stratification, and Confucian is a religion belief.<br /> <br /> 3. Confucian school emphasizes the code of conduct and the social order construction; Taoist school focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalist school serves the system construction of national political management; Mohist school emphasizes Universal Love and utilitarianism. Although Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school and Legalist school are different schools with different theories, they are not completely antagonistic. <br /> <br /> 4. The Six Classical Arts refers to propriety(礼), music（乐）, archery（射）, riding（御）, writing（书） and arithematic（数）. <br /> <br /> 5. The ancient influence of Confucianism should be analysed from a historical perspective. It was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. While contributing to intelligence development, spiritual guidance and order construction to some extent, it has also led to some negative effects in the long run. For example, it called for rigid feudal hierarchy and resulted in spiritual constraints. <br /> <br /> 6. Yes. Although Confucian culture has a history of thousands of years, it still has contemporary values in today's society. For instance, Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy and places a high priority on human value and dignity, which is still of profound significance; Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of &quot;benevolence&quot; and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy.<br /> <br /> 7. The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Nowadays, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. Joint efforts of all social sectors should be made to achieve the sustainable development of it. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 陈智斌, 杜艾红. (2017). 儒学、儒家、儒教之异同 [The Differences and Similarities of Confucian School, Confucianism and Confucian Religion]. ''审计月刊'' Audit Monthly. <br /> <br /> Li Chenzong 李承宗. (2002). 论儒家文化对培养现代爱国主义情感的积极作用 [On the Positive Effects of Confucian Culture on Cultivating Patriotism]. ''廊坊师范学院学报'' Journal of Langfang Teachers College. <br /> <br /> Li Fangping 李芳萍. (2013). 儒家思想对中国文化的影响研究 [A Study on the Influence of Confucianism on Chinese Culture]. ''前沿'' Forward Position.<br /> <br /> Li Xiaoyu 李晓愚. (2010). 儒家仁爱思想的当代诠释 [Contemporary Interpretation of Benevolence]. ''郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Zhengzhou University. <br /> <br /> Tan Su 谭苏. (2012). 论春秋战国时期的百家争鸣 [On the Competition of Ideas in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period]. ''兰台世界'' Lantai World. <br /> <br /> Wang Jie 王杰. (2004). 为政以德: 孔子的德治主义治国模式 [Rule of Virtue: Confucian’s Model of Governance]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C．<br /> <br /> Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 吴瑛, 提文静. (2009). 孔子学院的发展现状与问题分析 [The Development Status and Problems of Confucius Institute]. ''云南师范大学学报 (对外汉语教学与研究版)'' Journal of Yunnan Normal University. <br /> <br /> Xiang Chunling 向春玲. (2008). 儒家文化的现代意义 [On Modern Significance of Confucian Culture]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C．<br /> <br /> Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (1990). ''中国儒学思想史'' [The History of Chinese Confucianism]. 陕西：陕西人民出版社 Shaanxi: Shaanxi People’s Publishing House.<br /> <br /> ==Ch'ien Chung-shu - Liu Liu刘柳， 202070080596 MTI==<br /> <br /> ====Ch'ien Chung-shu====<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu (1910-1998), a well-known scholar, writer, translator and literary researcher, was born into an education family in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province. In Chinese academic circles, Qian was ranked with Rao Zongyi, a master in academic circles, and both were called &quot;South Rao and North Qian&quot;. He was admitted to Tsinghua University in 1929 and got to know Yang Jiang in 1932. Qian became famous soon after the enrolment, not only for the 15 mark of his mathematics, but for his excellent Chinese and English, especially full marks in English. Qian had an engagement with Yang the year after their acquaintance and went to study at Oxford University in England along with her. In 1937, he obtained the bachelor's degree from Oxford with the treatise ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries'', and his daughter Qian Yuan was born the same year. He wrote a great many profound literary works in his lifetime. When it comes to Ch'ien Chung-shu, people would think of his representative work ''Fortress Besieged'', which was published in 1947.<br /> <br /> As a realistic satirical novel, ''Fortress Besieged'' is known as &quot;The New Scholars&quot; in the 1940s. The novel is centralized on Fang Hongjian,who returned from studying abroad at the beginning of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression. It depicts the struggles in love, marriage,career and life of a group of intellectuals who were far away from the times and the people during the War of Resistance against Japanese Agression. It reveals their inner poverty, emptiness and lowliness, criticizes the dark reality of the Kuomintang-controlled areas, and reveals the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life. In the preface of the book, Qian said that, &quot;In this book I intended to write about a certain segment of society and a certain kind of people in modern China. In writing about these people, I didn’t forget they are human beings, still human beings with the basic nature of hairless, two-legged animals. &quot;The novel is like an X-ray mirror that reveals the deformed characters and ugly souls of those &quot;hairless and two-legged animals&quot; and analyzes the cultural matrix which is responsible for the deformed characters and ugly souls of these &quot;latest style&quot; literati. Yang Jiang said, &quot;The main connotation of ''Fortress Besieged'' is that those who are besieged by the city want to escape, while those outside want to rush in. This is what most people wish for in life, whether in marriage or career. &quot;The meaning of &quot;fortress besieged&quot; is also stated several times in the novel. It tells people that life is a besieged city everywhere, people have marriage and divorce, divorce and marriage in endless succession,with everlasting confusion and dilemma. The questions that Qian raised in the novel refer to a question of universal significance, which is the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life as a whole. In December 1990, the television series ''Fortress Besieged'' was broadcast on China Central Television(CCTV) and enjoyed great popularity.<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu has made significant achievements in literary research and literary creation. In particular, it is of great significance to carry forward and deny traditional Chinese culture scientifically and learn from foreign culture selectively. He has wrote the collection of essays ''Written in the Margins of Life''(1941), the collection of short stories ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts''(1946), and the novel ''Fortress Besieged''(1947). Both his essays and novels are wise and meaningful. Qian has read Chinese history, philosophy and literary classics in depth and has studied western old and new literature, philosophy and psychology. Many of his works, such as ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideaas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', have enjoyed high reputation in academic circles both at home and abroad.<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu viewd China and the world with a cultural criticism spirit. Based on his profound knowledge of Chinese and world culture, Qian has always shown a clear mind and a deep insight when observing Chinese and Western culture. He didn't reject any theories or doctrines, nor did he blindly follow any authorities. He devoted his life to promoting Chinese literature and art to the world. To this end, he not only explicated the profound meaning and unique value of Chinese culture in depth, but also pointed out its historical and regional limitations. He not only criticized the Chinese for their arrogance towards the local culture due to certain illusions, but also mercilessly eliminated the Westerners' prejudice centered on European and American culture due to ignorance. It is Ch'ien Chung-shu who has promoted cultural communication between China and other countries.<br /> <br /> November 21st,2020 is the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu. People often call him a well-informed scholar, but he is more of a down-to-earth writer and scholar. He was indifferent to fame and wealth and alaways took a rigorous and serious attitude towards academic research. We feel ourselves in an entirely new world when we read the subtle metaphors in ''Fortress Besieged'', while we read ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', we are amazed at Qian's erudition. People all over the world admire his talent, but in fact,it is his meticulous and diligent reading spirit that makes him a well-informed scholar. Many of his life experiences and the question of whether his scholarship was systematic or not have attracted much attention. Wang Shuizhao, professor of Chinese Department of Fudan University, who has studied and worked with Ch'ien Chung-shu for a long time, has recently published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'', in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements based on the first-hand historical data, his personal experiences and his own understanding of academia, and gives answers to the questions discueesed widely, such as Qian's experience of being falsely accused, whether there exists system in his scholarship and the collision of viewpoints between Qian and Chen Yinke.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries'' 《十七十八世纪英国文学中的中国》<br /> <br /> ''Fortress Besieged'' 《围城》<br /> <br /> Kuomintang-controlled areas 国统区<br /> <br /> ''Written in the Margins of Life'' 《写在人生边上》<br /> <br /> ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts'' 《人·兽·鬼》<br /> <br /> ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' 《管锥编》<br /> <br /> ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'' 《谈艺录》<br /> <br /> the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu 钱钟书诞辰110周年纪念日<br /> <br /> ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu '' 《钱钟书的学术人生》<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.What is Ch'ien Chung-shu's representative work? When was it published?<br /> <br /> 2.When was the TV series ''Fortress Besieged'' broadcast?<br /> <br /> 3.Do you know other works about Ch'ien Chung-shu? Can you list some of them?<br /> <br /> 4.Which book did Wang Shuizhao publish in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu? What does he talk about in this book?<br /> <br /> 5.Which sentence is your favoriate in ''Fortress Besieged''? <br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Ch'ien Chung-shu's representive work is ''Fortress Besieged''. It was published in 1947.<br /> <br /> 2.It was broadcast in December 1990.<br /> <br /> 3.''Patchwork:Seven Essays on Art and Literature''（《七缀集》） and ''Poetic Remains of an Ephemeral Life''（《槐聚诗存》）.<br /> <br /> 4.Wang Shuizhao published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'' in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu, in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements.<br /> <br /> 5.&quot;I want to be able to occupy the whole life of the man I love. Before meeting me, he would have had no past and would be waiting for me with a clean slate.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧， 202070080597，MTI==<br /> <br /> '''相声 Crosstalk'''<br /> <br /> ===The Development of Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> Crosstalk, in the ancient time was known as onomatopoeia, originally refers to imitate others’ voices. It was evolved and further developed from the folk opera in North China, and integrated with imitating oral skills and other folk art forms. It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty. It’s a folk vocal art that uses jokes or funny questioning and answering to make the audience laugh. In the early years of the Republic of China (1912-1949), crosstalk gradually developed from one-person ventriloquism to one person stand-up talk, and the name changed to cross talk. Later, it developed into stand-up crosstalk, dual crosstalk, and group crosstalk. And become a veritable form of art. After years of development, dual crosstalk has finally become the most popular form of crosstalk among audiences.In the late Qing Dynasty, crosstalk formed its modern features and styles. The language uses in crosstalk is mainly Beijing dialect, however, there are also “dialect crosstalk” in other regions of China. (360 Encyclopedia)<br /> <br /> <br /> Crosstalk is a original folk art in China, with a long historical tradition, deeply loved by the majority of the people. The once-dead crosstalk art has been reborn and developed very rapidly especially since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. It is no longer confined to several cities in the north, nor spread only within the citizens, but also spread from the north to the whole country, from the city to the countryside, and from the citizens to all strata. (Hou Baolin, 1982:01)<br /> <br /> ===Four Basic Skills in Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> Speaking, imitating, teasing and singing are the four basic artistic skills of crosstalk. “Speaking” means to tell jokes, stories, lantern riddles, drinking games, etc; “imitating” is to imitate all kinds of birds and animals, hawking, singing and the sound of different languages, etc; “teasing” is to gag and tease; “sing” means to sing Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity, so they are called Taiping) (1982:194), opera lyrics and songs. Crosstalk artists regard “speaking, imitating, teasing and singing” as their “four compulsory lessons”. For example, by saying “tongue twisters” or “reciting classical repertoires” to grasp the rhythm in language and correct the pronunciation. By learning all kinds of sounds to gain the ability to imitate. To practice singing skills by singing “Taiping lyrics” , opera lyrics and songs. (Hou Baolin, 1982:11)<br /> <br /> ===Characteristics of Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> First of all, crosstalk is the art of “speaking”, which belongs to the art of “performing with words”, it is different from drama that “performing with body movements”. This kind of performance has a close relationship between the actors and the audience and shortened the distance between the stage and the audience. The actors directly communicate with the audience and perform with the audience's cooperation and tacit understanding to obtain artistic effect. In this sense, crosstalk is a collective performance of actors and audiences. From the perspective of the audience, they are not standing on the opposite side of the actors and appreciating the stage performance passively and objectively, but creating artistic images with the actors. (Hou Baolin. 1982:02)<br /> <br /> Secondly, crosstalk is the art of laughter. Crosstalk uses laughter as a weapon to expose contradictions, shape characters and evaluate life. Without laughter, it can constitute any other arts, but not crosstalk and comedy. In other words, crosstalk has the characteristics of humor and satire. It reflects that life is not flat, but exaggerated and even deformed. China has a long tradition of satirizing emperors or high rank officials, its written record could be traced back to the Zhou (1046BC-256BC) and Qin (221BC-207BC) Dynasties. Satire is the product of class oppression. China has been in a feudalistic society for a long time, without political democracy and freedom of speech, the people often take circuitous methods to fight against the ruling class. Satirical art is like a weed under a boulder. Only through deformation and roundabout can this kind of art maintain to exist. (Hou Baolin. 1982:03)<br /> <br /> <br /> “Speaking” and “laughing” constitute the basic outline of cross talk art, which is a language performance art with comedy style. “Speaking”, as a kind of rap art, establishes the mode of crosstalk art, which is distinguished from drama art. “Laughing” is the artistic characteristics of crosstalk, which distinguishes it from other rap art forms. These two characteristics are interdependent and complementary. (Hou Baolin. 1982:04)<br /> <br /> Crosstalk belongs to the art of drama, but it is different from comedy. In comedy, the laughter of audience mainly comes from plot and comic characters, while in crosstalk it mainly comes from “baofu” (jokes). Sometimes it relies on the plot, sometimes it is not needed, but win the applaud of audience by the charm of language. “Baofu” must be expressed in the way of “dialogue” and “chatting” between the actors . (Hou Baolin. 1982:04)<br /> <br /> ===Famous Artists of CrossTalk===<br /> <br /> In Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) and Emperor Guangxu (1875—1908) periods, Zhu Shaowen (stage name “Qiong Bupa, which means not afraid of poverty”) was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art. Other famous crosstalk artists including Hou Baolin(1917-1993), a pioneering master of crosstalk. In his 60 years of art career, he has devoted himself to the research and development of crosstalk art and brought laughter to the audience. Under his leadership and promotion, crosstalk art has really entered thousands of households and reached a remarkable artistic peak. His crosstalk works including Drama Talks, Drunkenness and etc. Ma Sanli (1914-2003) is the son of the crosstalk actor Ma Delu. Ma Sanli devoted himself to the exploration of long-term artistic practice, and created the unique “Ma’s Style of Crosstalk”. He was the oldest, most experienced and most accomplished crosstalk leader in the cross-talk circle at that time. So was deeply loved and respected by all walks of life and the audience. Ma's cross talk enjoys wide popularity among the people. In Tianjin, it was a saying that “no branches of crosstalk did not learn from Ma”. His representative works including “Eating Yuanxiao(dumpling)”, “Selling Tickets” and “the Yellow Crane Tower” . Other famous crosstalk artists include Zhang Yongxi, Liu Baorui, Hou Yaowen, Jiang Kun, Feng Gong, Niu Qun and Guo Degang. (Baijiahao, 2018 )<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> speaking, imitating, teasing and singing 说学逗唱<br /> <br /> Taiping lyrics 太平歌词<br /> <br /> Baofu 包袱<br /> <br /> Drama Talks 《戏剧杂谈》<br /> <br /> Drunkenness 《醉酒》<br /> <br /> Selling Tickets 《卖挂票》<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.When did crosstalk form its format?<br /> <br /> 2.What is Taiping lyrics?<br /> <br /> 3.Who was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art ?<br /> <br /> 4.What are the four basic skills of crosstalk?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty.<br /> <br /> 2.Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity) is the content to be sang in the crosstalk.<br /> <br /> 3.Zhu Shaowen.<br /> <br /> 4.They are speaking, imitating, teasing and singing.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> 1.Hou Baolin，Xue Baokun，1982，《相声溯源》，People's Education Press<br /> 2.https://cul.sohu.com/20090619/n264630449.shtml<br /> 3.https://baike.so.com/doc/1925383-2037001.html<br /> 4.https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1590742532351773378<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> Go 围棋--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:04, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===GO - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI===<br /> Go is an adversarial game with the objective of surrounding a larger total area of the board with one's stones than the opponent[1]. As the game progresses, the players position stones on the board to map out formations and potential territories. Contests between opposing formations are often extremely complex and may result in the expansion, reduction, or wholesale capture and loss of formation stones.[2]<br /> <br /> A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board. One or more liberties enclosed within a group is called an eye, and a group with two or more eyes cannot be captured, even if surrounded.[3] Such groups are said to be unconditionally alive.<br /> <br /> The general strategy is to expand one's territory, attack the opponent's weak groups (groups that can be killed), and always stay mindful of the &quot;life status&quot; of one's own groups. The liberties of groups are countable. Situations where mutually opposing groups must capture each other or die are called capturing races, or semeai. In a capturing race, the group with more liberties (and/or better &quot;shape&quot;) will ultimately be able to capture the opponent's stones. Capturing races and the elements of life or death are the primary challenges of Go.<br /> <br /> Players may pass rather than place a stone if they think there are no further opportunities for profitable play. The game ends when both players pass or when one player resigns. In general, to score the game, each player counts the number of unoccupied points surrounded by their stones and then subtracts the number of stones that were captured by the opponent. The player with the greater score (after adjusting for komi) wins the game.<br /> <br /> In the opening stages of the game, players typically establish positions (or &quot;bases&quot;) in the corners and around the sides of the board. These bases help to quickly develop strong shapes which have many options for life (self-viability for a group of stones that prevents capture) and establish formations for potential territory. Players usually start in the corners because establishing territory is easier with the aid of two edges of the board. Established corner opening sequences are called &quot;joseki&quot; and are often studied independently.<br /> <br /> &quot;Dame&quot; are points that lie in between the boundary walls of black and white, and as such are considered to be of no value to either side. &quot;Seki&quot; are mutually alive pairs of white and black groups where neither has two eyes. A &quot;ko&quot; (Chinese and Japanese: 劫) is a repeated-position shape that may be contested by making forcing moves elsewhere. After the forcing move is played, the ko may be &quot;taken back&quot; and returned to its original position.[30] Some &quot;ko fights&quot; may be important and decide the life of a large group, while others may be worth just one or two points. Some ko fights are referred to as &quot;picnic kos&quot; when only one side has a lot to lose. The Japanese call it a hanami (flower-viewing) ko. <br /> <br /> Playing with others usually requires a knowledge of each player's strength, indicated by the player's rank (increasing from 30 kyu to 1 kyu, then 1 dan to 7 dan, then 1 dan pro to 9 dan pro). A difference in rank may be compensated by a handicap—Black is allowed to place two or more stones on the board to compensate for White's greater strength. There are different rule-sets (Korean, Japanese, Chinese, AGA, etc.), which are almost entirely equivalent, except for certain special-case positions.<br /> <br /> Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, there are essentially only two rules in Go:<br /> • Rule 1 (the rule of liberty) states that every stone remaining on the board must have at least one open &quot;point&quot; (an intersection, called a &quot;liberty&quot;) directly orthogonally adjacent (up, down, left, or right), or must be part of a connected group that has at least one such open point (&quot;liberty&quot;) next to it. Stones or groups of stones which lose their last liberty are removed from the board.<br /> • Rule 2 (the &quot;ko rule&quot;) states that the stones on the board must never repeat a previous position of stones. Moves which would do so are forbidden, and thus only moves elsewhere on the board are permitted that turn.<br /> Almost all other information about how the game is played is a heuristic, meaning it is learned information about how the game is played, rather than a rule. Other rules are specialized, as they come about through different rule-sets, but the above two rules cover almost all of any played game.[4]<br /> Although there are some minor differences between rule-sets used in different countries, most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules, these differences do not greatly affect the tactics and strategy of the game.<br /> <br /> Except where noted, the basic rules presented here are valid independent of the scoring rules used. The scoring rules are explained separately. Go terms for which there is no ready English equivalent are commonly called by their Japanese names.<br /> <br /> The two players, Black and White, take turns placing stones of their colour on the intersections of the board, one stone at a time. The usual board size is a 19×19 grid but for beginners, or for playing quick games, the smaller board sizes of 13×13 and 9×9 are also popular.[5] The board is empty to begin with. Black plays first, unless black is given a handicap of two stones or more (in which case, white plays first). The players may choose any unoccupied intersection to play on, except for those forbidden by the ko and suicide rules (see below). Once played, a stone can never be moved and can be taken off the board only if it is captured. A player may also pass, declining to place a stone, though this is usually only done at the end of the game when both players believe nothing more can be accomplished with further play. When both players pass consecutively, the game ends and is then scored.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Go 围棋 heuristic 启发式的<br /> adversarial game 对抗性游戏 intersection 交叉点<br /> board 棋盘 black 黑棋<br /> formation 阵型 white 白棋<br /> move 走棋 scoring rule 计分规则<br /> liberty 自由度 player 棋手<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1, What’s the basic principle of Go?<br /> <br /> <br /> 2,Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, What are other two essential rules in Go？<br /> <br /> <br /> 3, What countries have the most notable scoring rules differences?--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1, A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board.<br /> <br /> 2,The rule of liberty and the &quot;ko rule&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3, Most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Matthews, Charles (2004). Teach Yourself Go. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-142977-1.<br /> <br /> [2]NRICH Team, Going First, University of Cambridge, retrieved 2007-06-16<br /> <br /> [3]Iwamoto, Kaoru (1977). Go for Beginners. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 978-0-394-73331-9.<br /> <br /> [4]British Go Association, Comparison of some go rules, retrieved 2007-12-20<br /> <br /> [5]Kim, Janice; Jeong, Soo-hyun (1997). Learn to Play Go. Five volumes (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Good Move Press. ISBN 978-0-9644796-1-6.<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜 专业 is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:21, 14 December 2020 (UTC)==<br /> <br /> ===The Four Most Handsome men in Ancient China===<br /> It is said that there were four most beautiful women in ancient times, and corresponding to that, it is worth mentioning that there were four most attractive men at that time.Despite that we consider these four men as attractive, this refers to more than just their appearance. They have a common feature: it proves that while their appearance is marvelous, they are also outstanding in literature. Namely, as a Chinese saying goes, they are endowed with both beauty and talent.<br /> These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> The allusion of “throwing fruit to fill a carriage” originates from Pan An, which resembles movie fans nowadays to see their idols. There is a comment on Pan An’s appearance: &quot;No more and no less.&quot; The history books also describe Pan An with three words “good-looking, well-mannered, and graceful”. Although these did not describe Pan An’s appearance in details, such as eyebrows and eyes or lips, from these side descriptions, we can know that Pan An’s appearance is far above ordinary people, and even his styles draw imitation from others. At the same time, Pan An is known as “the flower of a county in Heyang”, and he is also one of the few men who are compared with flowers to be praised for excellent appearance. The beauty of exterior only fails to last long in this world. Pan An's talent and temperament and the devotion to his wife are also often eulogized. Pan Yue showed his unusual talent since he was a child, and he was called a child prodigy by the villagers. In his early years, he was appreciated by an official and recommended as a scholar. Later, served as the magistrate of Heyang (now Meng County, Henan), he was diligent in political affairs, and advocated the people to plant more fruits and trees. The county was full of trees and peaches and plums everywhere, known as “Flower County”. During his administration, his political achievements were remarkable. Besides, Pan An holds a special place in the history of literature. He was good at composing verse and orders, expatiation, and skilled in the choice of words and building of sentences, which fully reflects the characteristics of Taikang literature that pays attention to the beauty of form. He was expert in composing Ci lyric of sorrow and admonishment, and his current works such as Widow's Fu, Mourning Poem and other famous works are all known for their narration and empathy. Pan An can be described as both internally and externally blessed.（Liu Xixue 2003,63-64）<br /> <br /> Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. There is a very popular legend about King Lanling. It's believed that King Lanling was a brave and supremely skilled general. However, because he looked very sweet and it seemed hard to frighten the enemy, he often wore a half-mask when fighting, which sounds very fairytale. Nevertheless, the beauty of King Lanling is beyond doubt and otherworldly. Book of Northern Qi Dynasty described that he was friendly looking and mentally strong, with beautiful voice and appearance. King Lanling spent half his life in military affairs, and made great achievements. While this gave him glory, it also brought bad luck. There is an old Chinese saying that the glow of a inferior from massive achievements will overshadow his superior. Although the King Lanling did not have the idea of usurping the throne, but the incumbent felt threatened because of his existence itself. In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> Song Yu (about 322 BC-298 BC), as it is widely rumored, a student of Qu Yuan, was born in the capital city of Song Dynasty during the Warring States Period (now Shangqiu, Henan). Song Yu was a writer of Ci lyric of State Chu in the late Warring States period, adept in Ci lyric and even acclaimed as a great poet after Qu Yuan' reputation. Later generations often referred to them as “Qu Song”. Rumors circulate that there are many Ci lyrics from him, and Book of Han records about 16 works, but many of them are lost today. His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on. He was the first to write about sadness from Autumn and to write about women. His description of women's nature exerts a great influence on later generations such as Cao Zhi. The goddess in Song Yu's The Fu poetry of Goddess embodies the essence of pre-Qin female beauty, recounting the beauty of the goddess of Wushan Mountain in details so much so that later generations have coveted for it for thousands of years. 16 works survived, among which Nine Discriminations is believed to be truly composed by him. It is equivalent to Qu Yuan's Li Sao or A lament in the history of Chinese literature. Both poets can be called the two shining pearls in Ci lyric at their times.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> <br /> Wei Jie (286-June 20, 312), a metaphysician and an official of the Jin Dynasty. Wei Jie was a noted talker and metaphysicist during the Wei and Jin Dynasties. He was appointed as an assistant of the prince in the matter of politics. In the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Yongjia(AD310), Wei Jie died at the age of 27. Both ancient books and ancients commented on Wei Jie's appearance. Wang Ji reckoned that, “A jade is on my side, and I feel like I am nobody”; “Wandering with Jiu is like sauntering with a pearl on the side, with him shining brightly.” History Retold as a Mirror for rulers authored by Sima Guang goes into detail: &quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot; Wei Jie not only have a mere marvelous exterior, but also he can discern metaphysics from his perspective. Wei Jie’s views always amaze the concerned parties. It is said that even three sons of the Wang family, are not as good as the first son of the Wei family, and the three sons of the Wang family were all well-known scholars at that time, and the Wei Jie could be regarded as unmatchable compared with the three in family background, appearance, and talents.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Pan An 潘安<br /> <br /> King Lanling 兰陵王<br /> <br /> Ji Kang 嵇康 <br /> <br /> Wei Jie 卫玠 <br /> <br /> throwing fruit to fill a carriage 掷果盈车<br /> <br /> scholar 秀才<br /> <br /> expatiation 铺陈<br /> <br /> Book of Northern Qi Dynasty 《北齐书》<br /> <br /> the Warring States Period 战国时期<br /> <br /> Book of Han 《汉书》<br /> <br /> Nine Discriminations 《九辨》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Wind 《风赋》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Goddess 《神女赋》<br /> <br /> the goddess of Wushan Mountain 巫山神女<br /> <br /> metaphysician 玄学家<br /> <br /> a noted talker 清谈名士<br /> <br /> History Retold as a Mirror for rulers 《资治通鉴》<br /> <br /> Widow's Fu 《寡妇赋》<br /> <br /> Mourning Poem 《悼亡诗》<br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1.Who are the four most handsome men at ancient time in China?<br /> <br /> 2.Who is Gao Changgong?<br /> <br /> 3.How did Lanlin King die?<br /> <br /> 4.What works did Song Yu compose?<br /> <br /> 5.Who are the two shining pearls in Ci lyric according to the passage?<br /> <br /> 6.What History Retold as a Mirror for rulers comment on Wei Jie?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.<br /> <br /> 2.Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. <br /> <br /> 3.In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King. <br /> <br /> 4.His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on.<br /> <br /> 5.Qu Yuan and Song Yu<br /> <br /> 6.&quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]刘细学.古代四大美男[J].文史天地,2003(06):63-64.<br /> <br /> [2]王真波.四大美男都是怎么死的[J].青年文学家,2008(11):59-60.<br /> <br /> ==Lo, Minh Thao==<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Mogao Grottoes--Lou Cancan 娄灿灿 student no.202070080599 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Mogao Grottoes===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The Mogao Grottoes, known as the Thousand Buddhas Caves, were built on the eastern cliff of Mingsha Mountain, 25 kilometers to the southeast of Dunhuang city. There are 492 caves (well preserved) today, containing over 2,400 painted clay statues and 45,000 square meters of murals and 5 timber structures on the cliff of the southern district. There are also more than 300 caves used as both living room and burying place for monks and painters on the cliff of the northern district. Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes,so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes. From the 4th until the 14th century, caves were constructed by monks to serve as shrines with funds from donors. (Fan Jinshi 2010，170)The major caves were sponsored by patrons such as important asclergies, local ruling elites, foreign dignitaries, as well as Chinese emperors. Other caves may have been funded by merchants and other local people such as women's groups. (Sha Wutian 2020, 122)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes]]====<br /> <br /> ===History===<br /> <br /> Mogao Grottoes were not built in one day. According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff. Later, monk Faliang（法良）came here and joined him cultivating in caves. Since then more and more caves have been excavated over a thousand year. (Whitfield 1990, 8) <br /> <br /> By the time of Northern Liang, small community of monks had formed at this site. The caves initially served only as a place of meditation for hermit monks. Later, they were developed to serve the monasteries that sprang up nearby. Members of the ruling families of Northern Wei and Northern Zhou constructed many caves here, and it flourished in the short-lived Sui Dynasty. By the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Mogao Caves had become a place of worship and pilgrimage for the public. In the Sui Dynasty, Hexi Corridor was controlled by central authority. The emperors were pious followers of Buddhism and they ordered to build stupas across the country. Therefore, more than 100 caves were excavated in Mogao Grottoes within 37 years. By the Tang Dynasty, the number of caves had reached over a thousand. During this period, Dunhuang became the main hub of commerce of the Silk Road and a major religious center. A large number of the caves were constructed during this era, including the two large statues of Buddha at the site, the largest one constructed in 695 following an edict a year earlier by Tang Empress Wu Zitian to build giant statues across the country. The site escaped the persecution of Buddhists ordered by Emperor Wuzong in 845 as it was then under Tibetan control. As a frontier town, Dunhuang had been occupied at various times by other non-Han Chinese people. After the Tang Dynasty, the site went into a gradual decline, and construction of new caves ceased entirely after the Yuan Dynasty. In the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, Mogao Grottoes were preserved and kept by Cao Yijin（曹议金). (MA Shichang 2010, 303) After that, his later generations governed Dunhuang Prefecture and constructed multiple family caves such as Cave 55. (Gao Xiujun 2016, 9) During the Ming Dynasty, the Silk Road was finally abandoned and Dunhuang slowly became depolulated and was forgotten by the outside world. Most of the Mogao caves were abandoned. The site, however, went back to a place of pilgrimage and worship by local people at the beginning of the twentieth century. On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings. Since then, Dunhuang has become well known throughout the world. Both Chinese and foreign scholars have made extensive studies on the findings.(Stein 1912, volume 2)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Taoist Wang Yuanlu.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Taoist Wang Yuanlu]]====<br /> <br /> ===Art===<br /> <br /> The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture and they vary from dynasty to dynasty. There are mainly three types of structural forms of Mogao Grottoes: Vihara, Chaitya and Hall with inverted funnel shaped ceiling. A Chaitya with a central pillar is the main form of the caves in the early period of the Sixteen States, with Northern Wei, Western Wei and Northern Zhou Dynasties included. The murals may be divided into seven sorts:Buddhist figures, Sutra illustration, Buddhist stories, Buddhist historical pictures, Chinese mythologies, donors and decorative designs. Buddhist stories in the murals can be divided into three types: Jataka（佛本生), Buddha’s life and fate story. A Jataka is a narrative which tells of the good deeds performed by Sakyamuni during his perious existence such as prince Sudanda giving up his body to feed the hungry tigers. As to sculptures, they were constructed on a wooden frame, padded with reed, then modelled in clay stucco and finished with paint.（Duan Wenjie 1994, 163) <br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Chaitya with a Central Pillar.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Chaitya with a Central Pillar]]==== <br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body]]====<br /> <br /> The artistic styles in the Sixteen States, which gradually turned away from being primitive and simple to an easy and graceful styles in the Northern Wei, manifested in figures with well-chiseled builds and emaciated looks. In Northern Zhou, the styles of figures show that Chinese art combining the influence of foreign and native styles gradually became more nationalized. The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs. The caves become spacious and more suited for large paintings, such as the Sutra illustrations and huge pictures of Buddha expounding sermons. Bold and vigorous, brush work was painted with intricate and flowing lines. For example, Lotus Sutra on the ceiling of Cave 420 displays a lot of episodes of mountains, forests, rivers, buildings and so on in a limitated space. The theme and art in the Sui Dynasty show an important devdelopment in traditional art and indicate a comimg glorious new era. In Tang Dynasty, the caves are large with an inverted funnel shaped ceiling. The murals consist mostly of huge paintings of stories from Buddhist Sutras with well-regulated scenes and well-balanced composition. The figures at that time have round and plump faces and curved eyebrows which expresses the aesthetical taste of the people living in Tang. The mural in Cave 220 contains vivid portraits of the Emperor and his ministers listening to a sermon. The ministers attending to Emperor are each bestowed with differrent appearances and expressions. Some are natural and graceful and some cautious. The well-proportioned painted statues were made with more consummate care and attention to the detail, showing us the solemn Buddha. In addition, very tall and colossal statues of Buddha began to be made. The outstanding one is an early Tang Dynasty statue 34 metres high in Cave 96. In 781-848A.D, Hexi region fell into the Tibetan. Hence, there was an interesting changes: the king of the Tibetan took the place of central-plain emperors in the wall-painting.( Fan Jinshi 2010, 175) <br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 251 in Northern Wei.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 251 in Northern Wei]]====<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty]]====<br /> <br /> <br /> By the time of the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, the grottoes carved in this period are very large and different in form and layout. The subject and style of the statues and murals remain the influence from Tang Dynasty, but the use of colours and the drawing techniques show a simple folk style. From the 9th century to 12th, the Uygur had been in Dunhuang. The artistic styles bear the imprint of both Han and Uygur. The Uygur murals are generally characterized by the simplicity of the subject, the looseness of the arrangement, the direct and rough brush strokes. The human figures have features of certain minority groups. In the Western Xia Dynasty(1036-1227), most of caves were repaired and renovated, and only 10 caves were built because of the limited cliffs. Compared to the Yulin Grottoes at the same time, painting of Dunhuang display the Pure-land Sutra, containing simpler content. Only 27 caves are extant in Yuan times(1227-1372). The murals in Cave 3, however, still remain the Tang and Song techniques, namely using different types of drawing to depict different parts of human figures such as iron-wire lines, orchid-leaf strokes and broken-reef strokes, etc. Since the 15th century, the Mogao Grottoes had gradually fallen into neglect in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. (Rong Xinjiang 1999, 248)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty]]====<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> hermit 隐士<br /> <br /> stupas 舍利塔<br /> <br /> Emperor Wuzong ofTang Dynasty 唐武宗<br /> <br /> Vihara 精舍<br /> <br /> Chaitya 支提窟<br /> <br /> stucco 灰泥<br /> <br /> Sakyamuni 释迦牟尼<br /> <br /> Sutras 佛经<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What do Dunhuang Grottoes refer to?<br /> <br /> 2.Who built the first cave and when?<br /> <br /> 3.In 1900, who found the treasure-house in Mogao Grottoes and what were stored in it?<br /> <br /> 4.How many aspects does the art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of and what are they respectively?<br /> <br /> 5.What are the characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes, so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes.<br /> <br /> 2.According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff.<br /> <br /> 3.On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings.<br /> <br /> 4.The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture.<br /> <br /> 5.The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Fan Jinshi 樊锦诗.(2010). ''敦煌石窟'' [The Caves of Dunhuang]. Gansu: The Dunhuang Academy 敦煌研究院. <br /> <br /> Gao Xiujun 高秀军.(2016). ''敦煌莫高窟第55窟研究'' [Research on the 55th Grotto of Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang].Lanzhou University 兰州大学.<br /> <br /> MA Shichang.(2010). Buddhist Cave-temples and the Cao Family at Mogao Ku, Dunhuang. MA Shichang,27(2),303-317.<br /> <br /> Rong Xinjiang 荣新江. (2010).'' 敦煌藏经洞的性质及其封闭原因'' [The Nature of the Dunhuang Library Cave and the Reasons for Its Sealing]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Sha Wutian 沙武田. (2020). 佛教供养与政治宣传——敦煌莫高窟第156窟供养人画像研究 [Buddhist offerings and Political Propaganda -- A Study on the Portrait of the Patron of the 156th Grottoes in Dunhuang].''中原文物'' Cultural Relics in Central Plain, No.215,118-128.<br /> <br /> Stein, M. Aurel. Ruins of Desert Cathay.(1912). Personal Narrative of Explorations in Central Asia and Westernmost China, volume 2. London: Macmillan.<br /> <br /> Suemori Kaoru. (2020).&quot;Thousand-Buddha images in Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes: Religious spaces created by polychromatic patterns&quot;. Kyoto: Hozokan. <br /> <br /> DuanWenjie. (1994). Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie. Abhinav Publications. p. 163.<br /> <br /> Whitfield, Roderick and Farrer, Anne, Caves of the Thousand Buddhas. (1990). Chinese Art from the Silk Route, British Museum Publications. P . 5-20.<br /> <br /> https://books.google.ru/books?hl=zh-CN&amp;lr=&amp;id=vYPNqlAMZWAC&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PP7&amp;dq=info:9v6pr21oST8J:scholar.google.com/&amp;ots=s-uXhnyDBp&amp;sig=u3H7MAh_OpGRS6Iwxoqx0rC5_fo&amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false<br /> <br /> https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogao_Caves<br /> <br /> https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=zh-CN&amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;q=mogao+grottoes&amp;oq=<br /> <br /> ==Four State-level Cultural Relics Luo Weijia罗维嘉 Student No.202070080600==<br /> <br /> ===Four State-level Cultural Relics===<br /> <br /> China, home to one of the world’s most ancient civilizations, abounds in cultural relics, from ancient tombs, architecture, instruments to handicrafts, historical books and so on. They embody rich information about history and culture and vividly display the process of Chinese cultural development. The astounding artistic and technological levels shown in those relics continue to impress people today.<br /> <br /> ====Houmuwu Ding====<br /> <br /> In ancient China, ding was a symbol of imperial power. Therefore, ding is often used in phrases and expressions in the Chinese language to imply authority. For instance, wending, literally “enquiring about ding”, means plotting to usurp political power, yiyan juiding, literally “One word of promise is equal to nine dings”, means a decisive comment.<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding,or Houmuwu Ding, was a very precious cultural relic, found in 1937 in Anyang of Henan Province (Zhang Peng:86-89).It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago. This square-shaped ding is the largest existing bronzeware in the ancient world. It is now housed in the National Museum of China in Beijing. <br /> <br /> Ding was a cooking vessel probably used to boil or cook food in the primitive society. At that time, dings were made of clay. During the Shang and Zhou (11th century-771 BC) dynasties, bronze cast technology reached a very high level in China. Therefore, people used bronze to cast ding. However, dings were no longer cooking utensils in ordinary people’s life but an object for important ceremonies to offer sacrifices. <br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding was cast by Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty as a ritual object for a ceremony to offer sacrifices to his mother. The three characters simuwu form an inscription on the inside of the sidewall. According to archeologists, si means sacrificial ceremony and muwu is the name of the emperor’s mother. Later on, Simuwu became the name of this huge ding (Zhang Peng:86-89).<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding is 1.33m high, 1.10m long and 0.78m wide, weighing 832.84kg. At that time, it needed 1000kg of metal and two to three hundred workers to produce it. This ding is solid in build, magnificent in appearance and was made with fine craftsmanship. The four pillar legs are thick and powerful. Each side has a blank space in the middle, surrounded by a band of decoration featuring taotie (animal faced creatures) and kuilong (one-legged dragons), symbolic of harvest and auspiciousness. Simuwu Ding represents the highest level of bronze cast technology in the Shang and Zhou dynasties.<br /> <br /> ==== The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi ====<br /> <br /> The chime bells, or bianzhong, are a kind of percussion musical instrument made of bronze. China is the earliest country to manufacture and use such instrument. Chime bells were divided into groups according to their size, temperament, pitch and were hang on a rack. A small hammer or wooden club is used to hit the bell to make a resonant and agreeable sound.<br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are the largest and the most complete ancient chimes existing today in China. They were unearthed from the tomb of Yi, the Marquis of Zeng, a small state of the Warring States Period (475 BC- 221 BC), in 1978. When they were found, all bells were still hanging on their rack. They are now preserved in Hubei Museum(Gao Nan:29). <br /> <br /> There are altogether 65 bells hung in eight groups on wooden or bronze bars. The rack, 10.79m long, 2.67m high, is made of three bars, namely, the upper, middle and lower bars, held up by six bronze warriors and a few round, wooden posts. The 65 bells weigh over 2500kg. The largest bell is 1.52m in height and weighs more than 203.6kg. The smallest bell is about 20cm in height and weighs 2.4kg (Gao Nan:29). It is extremely rare tosee a set with so many bells of such weight and size. <br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are exquisitely cast and look very elegant. To help artists to perform music, there are instructions on each bell with 3700 characters in all (Wan Quanwen:1-2). There are also words about the hanging indication and musical temperament that are called the “valuable music theory work”. The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi show that, as early as the Warring States Period, China already had a very rich musical culture. The chime bells still could produce a pure and accurate note after unearthed. The tone is excellent and the timbre is pure. <br /> <br /> After excavation of the chime, Chinese musicians created a melody entitled Bianzhong Yuewu (music and dance accompanied by chime bells), to once again demonstrate the charm of ancient Chinese music. <br /> <br /> ==== Jade Suit with Gold Thread ====<br /> <br /> Ordinarily, the texture of clothes is cotton, flax or silk. However, there were suits made of gold and jade, that is “Jade Suit with Gold Thread”.<br /> <br /> The emperors of the Han Dynasty believed that jade could prevent their corpses from decaying, and they regarded jade as full of dignity and nobility. Therefore, they used jade suits as their grave clothes. Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade separately that are called Jade Suit Sewn with Gold Thread, Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread and Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread.<br /> <br /> The two sets of jade suits of the Han Dynasty tomb unearthed in Mancheng of Hebei Province in 1968 revealed to the world the real features of such grave clothes (Li Yawen:38-39). Their owners were Liu Sheng, Prince Jing of Zhongshan, and his wife, Dou Wan, of the Western Han Dynasty(206 BC-25 AD). <br /> <br /> In appearance, a jade suit follows the shape of a human body. It consists of five parts, i.e., head mask, coat, trousers, gloves and shoes. Each part is made of pieces of jade. The size and shape of each jade piece was designed according to its position. Most jade pieces are shaped in square or rectangular form, but there are a few in trapezoid, triangle or multi sided shapes. Each jade piece is perforated at its corners, through which a gold thread goes through to sew the pieces together. Liu Sheng’s jade suit is rather large, 1.88m long and made up of 2498 pieces. The gold thread used for this suit is about 700g in weight (Li Yawen:38-39). <br /> <br /> Such refined suits made some 2000 years ago in the Han Dynasty indicate the high design level and excellent craftsmanship of that time. In fact, of course, the rulers’ dream of preventing their corpses from decaying could never be realized. The practice of wearing jade suits was banned during the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280).<br /> <br /> ==== Bronze Galloping Horse ====<br /> <br /> In 1969, a galloping horse in bronze was unearthed in an Eastern Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) tomb in Wuwei, Gansu Province in western China. The bronze statue is a famous representative sculpture of the Han Dynasty. Wuwei County leapt to fame with the discovery of this national treasure.<br /> <br /> The 34.5 cm-high bronze horse, covered with spots of verdigris, has a full and robust body. The prancing legs, flying tail, slightly dilated nostrils portray a galloping horse. What is ingenious about it is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow. That means the galloping horse is faster than a flying swallow (Wang Qian:10-11). The positioning of its four legs strictly conforms to that of a living horse and is highly praised by many local and foreign archeologists and artists. <br /> <br /> In this work, Chinese ancient artists combined realism and romanticism, and ingeniously integrated galloping horse and flying swallow through rich imagination, original conception and skillful craftsmanship (Wang Qian:10-11). The swift flying swallow sets off the amazingly fast speed of the galloping horse. According to analysis of its mechanics, Bronze Galloping Horse finds a center of gravity in the swallow to give the statue its stability. The romantic image of the swallow sets off the power and strength of the horse, providing a rich imaginative experience for viewers. <br /> <br /> Bronze Galloping Horse is believed to be a portrayal of the &quot;heavenly steed&quot; of Chinese legend. It is of high craftsmanship, fully expressive of the horse-breeding culture of China's western regions. It has become a symbol of Chinese tourism and a representative work that brings forth the time-honored cultural tradition of the Chinese nation and the oriental aesthetics to the world. The cultural relic is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> Houmuwu Ding 后母戊鼎<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding 司母戊鼎<br /> <br /> Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty 商王武丁<br /> <br /> taotie 饕餮<br /> <br /> National Museum of China 中国国家博物馆<br /> <br /> chime bells/bian zhong 编钟<br /> <br /> Marquis Yi 曾侯乙<br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi 曾侯乙编钟<br /> <br /> Bianzhong Yuewu 《编钟乐舞》<br /> <br /> Hubei Museum 湖北省博物馆<br /> <br /> Jade Suit with Gold Thread 金缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread 银缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread 铜缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Bronze Galloping Horse 铜奔马/ 马踏飞燕<br /> <br /> Gansu Provincial Museum 甘肃省博物馆<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1. What does ding symbolize?<br /> <br /> 2. When was Houmuwu Ding produced?<br /> <br /> 3.How many bells do the chime bells of Marquis Yi contain?<br /> <br /> 4.What is the size of the largest bell?<br /> <br /> 5.What kind of thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade?<br /> <br /> 6.When did the Jade Suit with Gold Thread unearth?<br /> <br /> 7.What is ingenious about the Galloping Horse?<br /> <br /> 8.Where is Bronze Galloping Horse preserved now?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Ding was a symbol of imperial power. <br /> <br /> 2.It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago. <br /> <br /> 3.They contain 65 bells.<br /> <br /> 4.The largest bell exceeds 1.5m in height and weighs more than 200kg.<br /> <br /> 5.Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade.<br /> <br /> 6.It unearthed in 1968.<br /> <br /> 7.It is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow. <br /> <br /> 8.It is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Zhang Peng 张鹏.(2020).青铜大师杜廼松:“司母戊鼎”名称不容置疑[No Doubt about the Name of Simuwu Ding].中国民族博览 (09):86-89.<br /> <br /> [2]Wan Quanwen 万全文.(2020).曾侯乙编钟[The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi].文史知识 (11):1-2.<br /> <br /> [3]Gao Nan 高楠.(2020).音乐中的国家宝藏——曾侯乙编钟[National Treasure in Music].琴童 (01):29.<br /> <br /> [4]Li Yawen 李雅雯.(2019)浅说满城汉墓中的金缕玉衣 [The Study of Jade Suit with Gold Thread Unearthed in Mancheng].文物鉴定与鉴赏 (03):38-39.<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Qian 王倩.(2020).青铜雕塑“马踏飞燕”的研究[The Study of the Bronze Sculpture ——the Galloping Horse].艺术品鉴, (26):10-11.<br /> <br /> == Architecture and Gardens, The Forbidden City Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴 Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==<br /> <br /> ===The Forbidden City===--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 08:30, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====I.Introduction==== <br /> The Forbidden City (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng) is a palace complex in Dongcheng District, Beijing, China, and with a total area of 720,000 square meters (180 acres). It lies in the center of Beijing's central axis. Today, the Forbidden City houses the Palace Museum, and was the former Chinese imperial palace and residence of the Emperor of China from the Ming dynasty (since the Yong Le Emperor) to the end of the Qing dynasty, between 1420 and 1924. The Forbidden City served as the home of Chinese emperors and their households and was the ceremonial and political center of the Chinese government.(Barmé, Geremie R 2018,26)<br /> The Forbidden City is a national AAAAA tourist attraction and was listed as the first batch of key cultural relics under national protection in 1961. What’s more, it was declared a world cultural heritage in 1987, and listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.(UNESCO,2007)<br /> ====[[File:A Panaroma view of the Forbidden City.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A Panaroma view of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====II.The Name of the Forbidden City====<br /> The common English name &quot;Forbidden City&quot; is a translation of the Chinese name Zijin Cheng (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng; English: Purple Forbidden City). The name Zijin Cheng first formally appeared in the period of Jia Jing. (Li Xieping1997, (04)29-31) In ancient China, the planning concept of &quot;harmony between man and nature&quot; was emphasized. The stars in the sky were used to correspond with the capital planning to highlight the legitimacy of the regime and the supremacy of imperial power. “ Zi ”, or &quot;Purple&quot;, refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star, The emperor of heaven lived in Ziwei palace, while the human emperor claimed to be the &quot;son of heaven&quot; who was ordered by heaven. His residence should be a symbol of Ziwei palace to correspond to the heaven emperor. “Jin” means that this splendid palace symbolizes supreme power and status of the royal family. In that case, this palace was forbidden, no one could enter and leave the palace without the emperor’s permission. Cheng means a city. Today, the site is most commonly known in Chinese as Gùgōng (故宫), which means the &quot;Former Palace&quot;. The museum which is based in these buildings is known as the &quot;Palace Museum&quot; (Chinese: 故宫博物院; pinyin: Gùgōng Bówùyùan).<br /> <br /> ====III.The History of the Forbidden City====<br /> <br /> When Hongwu’s son Zhu Di became the Yong Le Emperor, he moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, and construction began in 1406 on what would become the Forbidden City. Construction lasted 14 years and required more than a million workers. From 1420 to 1644, the Forbidden City was the seat of the Ming dynasty. (Yu Zhuoyun1984,18)In April 1644, it was captured by rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. He set fire to parts of the Forbidden City in the process of retreating to Shannxi. By October, the Manchus had achieved supremacy in northern China, and a ceremony was held at the Forbidden City to proclaim the Emperor Shunzhi as ruler of all China under the Qing dynasty. (Guo Moruo 1944,3.14) In the 22nd year of Kangxi's reign (1683), the reconstruction of the rest of the destroyed buildings of the Forbidden City was started, and it was basically completed in 1695.After being the home of 24 emperors – 14 of the Ming dynasty and 10 of the Qing dynasty – the Forbidden City ceased being the political centre of China in 1912 with the abdication of Puyi, the last Emperor of China. In 1933, the Japanese invasion of China forced the evacuation of the national treasures in the Forbidden City. Part of the collection was returned at the end of World War II, but the other part was evacuated to Taiwan in 1948 under orders of Chiang Kai-shek.After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, some damage was done to the Forbidden City as the country was swept up in revolutionary zeal. During the Cultural Revolution, however, further destruction was prevented when Premier Zhou Enlai sent an army battalion to guard the city.( Xie Mengyin&amp;Qu Wanlin2006, 11.7)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====IV.The Structure of the Forbidden City==== <br /> Firstly, The Forbidden City is a rectangle and symmetric in its layout. Its palaces are arranged along a north-south axis, on which the three main halls, the rear three palaces and the imperial garden are all located. This central axis not only runs through the Forbidden City, but also reaches Yongding Gate in the south, Drum Tower and bell tower in the north, and runs through the whole city.(Xie Li 2005,(03)100-102)<br /> Secondly, the Forbidden City is divided into two parts, the Outer Court and Inner Court. The Outer Court is the place where the emperor deals with political affairs. There are mainly three halls: the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony, and the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The Inner Court or Back Palace includes the northern sections, and was the residence of the Emperor and his family, and was used for day-to-day affairs of state. The inner court takes Palace of Heavenly Purity, Hall of Union and Palace of Earthly Tranquility as its center with six palaces in the east and six palaces in the west.<br /> <br /> ====[[File:The layout of the Forbidden City.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The layout of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====VI The Collections of the Forbidden City==== <br /> The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925, whose extensive collection of artwork and artifacts were built upon the imperial collections of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Part of the museum's former collection is now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. Both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.(Li Wei &amp; Wang Shuo 2005,6-22) <br /> The collections of the Palace Museum are based on the Qing imperial collection, including paintings, ceramics, seals, steles, sculptures, inscribed wares, bronze wares, enamel objects, etc. According to latest audit, it has 1,863,404 pieces of art. They are numbered by &quot;Gu&quot;, &quot;Xin&quot; and &quot;Shu&quot;. Except for the ancient books and documents, all the other collections are labeled with &quot;Gu&quot; and &quot;Xin&quot;. The number of ordinary cultural relics begins with the word &quot;Zi&quot;, and the ceramic specimens begin with the word &quot;Biao&quot;. The general catalogue is divided into 25 categories, and the numbers in each category are sorted from small to large. Many collections once lost and was brought to the Palace Museum, For example, Han Banquet map. And there are some exquisite collections like Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer, Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems and Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.(Website:The Collection of the Palace Museum )In addition, The Palace Museum has one of the largest collections of mechanical timepieces of the 18th and 19th centuries in the world, with more than 1,000 pieces. (Meng Fuxia 2012, (21) 73-74)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Han Banquet map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Han Banquet map]]====<br /> ====[[File:Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance]]====<br /> ====[[File:Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems]]====<br /> ====[[File:Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women]]====<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions==== <br /> palace complex 宫殿群<br /> <br /> central axis 中心轴<br /> <br /> the Palace Museum故宫博物院<br /> <br /> the Yong Le Emperor 永乐皇帝<br /> <br /> key cultural relics under national protection 国家重点文物保护单位<br /> <br /> world cultural heritage 世界文化遗产<br /> <br /> harmony between man and nature 天人合一<br /> <br /> the imperial garden 御花园<br /> <br /> the Hall of Supreme Harmony 太和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Central Harmony 中和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Preserving Harmony 保和殿<br /> <br /> Palace of Heavenly Purity (乾清宮)<br /> <br /> Hall of Union 交泰宫<br /> <br /> Palace of Earthly Tranquility 坤宁宫<br /> <br /> Han Banquet map 韩熙载夜宴图<br /> <br /> Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer陶彩绘女舞俑<br /> <br /> Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems十二生肖镜<br /> <br /> Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women画珐琅西洋人物鼻烟壶<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> 1. What’ s the meaning of “Zi” in the Chinese name Zijin Cheng?<br /> <br /> 2. When was the Forbidden City listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.<br /> <br /> 3.How many emperors have been lived in the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 4.How long did it take to build the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 5.Why some parts of national treasures are in the National Palace Museum in Taipei now.<br /> <br /> 6. What two parts can the Forbidden City be divided into?<br /> <br /> 7.When was the Palace Museum established?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.“Zi” refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star<br /> <br /> 2.In 1897.<br /> <br /> 3.24 emperors.<br /> <br /> 4.14 years.<br /> <br /> 5.Because both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.<br /> <br /> 6.They are the Outer Court and Inner Court.<br /> <br /> 7.The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Barmé, Geremie R(2008). The Forbidden City. Harvard University Press.26.<br /> <br /> UNESCO(2007). &quot;UNESCO World Heritage List: Imperial Palaces of the Ming and Qing Dynasties in Beijing and Shenyang&quot;.<br /> <br /> Li Xieping 李燮平. (1997) &quot;紫禁城&quot;名称始于何时[When did the name of the Forbidden City come into being?]. 紫禁城Forbidden City, (04) 29-31.<br /> <br /> Yu Zhuoyun(1984), Palaces of the Forbidden City, New York: Viking Press,p18.<br /> <br /> Guo Moruo 郭沫若.(1994) 甲申三百年祭[Commemorating 300th Anniversary of the Jia-Sheng Year]. 新华日报 New China Daily, 3.19.<br /> <br /> Xie Li 谢丽.(2005) 北京中轴线上的十七座门[Seventeen doors on the central axis of Beijing].紫禁城 Forbidden City, (03)100-102.<br /> <br /> Meng Fuxia 孟福霞. (2012)北京故宫空间布局构思探源——论中国古代宫殿建筑的美学精神[On the Origin of the Space Layout of the Palace Museum in Beijing--On the Aesthetic Spirit of Ancient Chinese Palace Architecture]大众文艺Popular Literature and Art, (21) 73-74. <br /> <br /> Li Wei&amp;Wang Shuo 刘薇,王硕.2005故宫文物南迁路线图揭秘[Unveiling the Route Map of the Cultural Relics of the Imperial Palace to the South] 华夏经纬网Jinwei Network, 6.22 http://www.huaxia.com/wh/gjzt/2005/00333230.html <br /> <br /> The Collection of the Palace Museum 故宫博物院馆藏https://www. dpm.org.cn /Home.html<br /> <br /> Xie Mengyin &amp; Qu Wanlin 谢荫明,瞿宛林. (2006) “文化大革命” 中谁保护了故宫 [Who protected the Forbidden City in the Cultural Revolution? ].人民网People’s Daily Online,11,7. http://history.people.com.cn/n/2014/0811/c372327-25441615.html<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Marriage Customs Mo Ling 莫玲 202070080602 &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;专业 is missing&lt;/span&gt;==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 莫玲 Mo Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Marriage Customs===<br /> <br /> China is an ancient country of rites. When it comes to the most important thing in one’s life---marriage, Chinese people have developed a set of unique and grand ceremonies. Generally speaking, weddings in ancient China needed to be approved by parents and arranged by parents. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;quotation is missing&lt;/span&gt;--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:15, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Six Procedures===<br /> <br /> There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying. Na Cai is the begining of all the marriage procedures. It refers that if a boy intends to marry a girl, firstly his family must invite a matchmaker to the girl's home to propose marriage. After obtaining the consent of the girl's family , the boy's family should entrust the matchmaker to make a proposal formally with some gifts. Usually, the most common gift is wild goose,which represents fidelity. Besides, mandarin ducks, phoenix and sheep are also frequently-used gifts. Wen Ming means that the boy's family ask the matchmaker to fetch the girl's name and date of birth. There are two purposes of this step: the one is to prevent the marriage of close relatives with the same surname; the other is to assure the compatibility of the potential bride and bridegroom through their “eight characters” of the birth moment. Naji happens after the matchmaker takes back the woman's name and eight characters. If divining an auspicious omen, the boy's family will inform it to the girl’s parents and decide to engage the marriage. What is more, Na Zheng is an important step when the boy sends betrothal presents to the girl and for courtesy the girl will send back part of the presents such as food and some clothes. Qing Qi means that the boy's family choose an auspicious day to hold the wedding ceremony and then dispatch the matchmaker to tell the girl’s family. Qin Ying is the last procedure of the six etiquettes, that is, the groom goes to the bride's home to take the bride to his home.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ===Customs===<br /> <br /> In addition to the six steps mentioned above, there are many other customs in the traditional Chinese wedding ceremony. Generally speaking, ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker, many young people could not master their own marriage. Before wedding ceremony, men and women were not allowed to meet each other in that ancient people were very conservative and most girls were kept in boudoirs. If they met in private before marriage, it would be regarded as a kind of female infidelity and parents would also think it quite unlucky. Under this circumstance, newlyweds could only see each other until the day of marriage.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47-48)<br /> <br /> On the wedding day, the boy’s family will hold a big banquet at home. Before setting out to pick up bride, the bridegroom should first worship his ancestors for the sake of safety and auspice during the process of picking up the bride. After that, the following step is the most grand one among the whole ceremony --- at the dusk moment, the groom and the bride, his parents as well as all the guests will gather together at the central room to witness the kneeling etiquettes of the couple, which consists of 4 steps: The first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber : the bride will be sent into the bridal chamber and the groom will drink with guests until night.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> After wedding ceremony, the couple must return to the girl’s home together at the third day, which is called “Huimen” or “Guiling”. This etiquette is indispensable. The groom should take some gifts for respect and change the way that he calls the bride’s parents, and the latter will also prepare a good meal for the couple’s coming.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ===Development===<br /> <br /> As time goes by, there are many reforms about marriage right now. Adults own the freedom to choose their spouse and they can meet each other every day if possible. Parents can’t master their “life event” any more.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47) In addition, many couples skip the cumbersome rites in the wedding ceremony. Some of them choose to hold the ceremony in the church with some close relatives and friends and some even finish it through travel.(Zhou Dandi &amp; Yue Shufa 2012,15)Nevertheless, most young people still adopt the main procedures of the traditional Chinese customs, some of which are handed down until right now. There still exist betrothal gifts and dowry, and many couples choose to wear red costumes. The groom should go to the bride’s home to escort her to the wedding and so on. Thus it can be seen that most traditional Chinese marriage customs are deep rooted in the hearts of Chinese people and shows a unique Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Gao Xiaoqian. 高筱倩.(2017) 中国传统婚嫁习俗研究［The Research on Traditional Chinese Marriage Customs］戏剧之家[Drama House] 235.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yueyong. 张月莹.(2013) 中国近代婚嫁礼俗及婚姻观念转变的探索[A Study on the Change of Marriage customs and Marriage Concepts in Modern China] 松州学刊［Songzhou Academic Journal］ 47-48.<br /> <br /> Zhou Dandi, Yue Shufa. 周丹迪, 岳书法.(2012) 浅析近代以来中国婚嫁民俗的演变[On the evolution of Chinese marriage customs since modern times] 文化学刊[Cultural Academic Journal] 15.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> Na Cai 纳彩 <br /> <br /> Wen Ming 问名<br /> <br /> Na Ji 纳吉 <br /> <br /> Na Zheng 纳征<br /> <br /> Qing Qi 纳征 <br /> <br /> Qin Ying 亲迎<br /> <br /> Huimen 回门 <br /> <br /> Guiling 归宁 <br /> <br /> betrothal presents 彩礼<br /> <br /> the central room 堂屋<br /> <br /> bridal chamber 婚房<br /> <br /> “eight characters” of the birth moment 生辰八字<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.How many procedures are needed from the negotiation to the completion of marriage?<br /> <br /> 2.Did the ancient young people have the rights to decide their own marriage or not and why?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the kneeling etiquettes?<br /> <br /> 4.When the couple have to return to the girl’s home?<br /> <br /> 5.What changes have been made nowadays?<br /> <br /> 6.Please list some new wedding customs.<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying.<br /> <br /> 2.No, they didn’t have the right to decide their own marriage because ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker.<br /> <br /> 3.It consists of 4 steps: the first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber.<br /> <br /> 4.At the third day of the wedding ceremony.<br /> <br /> 5.Adults can choose their spouse by themselves and they can meet each other whenever they want; Some couples choose to hold the ceremony in the church some even finish it through travel, etc.<br /> <br /> 6.Examples:couple can choose to live in the either part of the two families; wedding ceremony can be hold in hotel; the bride can wear white wedding dress rather than the single red in the ancient time.<br /> <br /> ==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br /> <br /> ====Topic: Chinese cinema (dramas and movies) and its popularity and affection in Vietnam====<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac - Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 202070080603专业 is missing--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:16, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br /> <br /> ===Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac===<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:oyltacz.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]2020 is the year of rat according to the Chinese zodiac which consists of twelve animals used by people to name years. The traditional Chinese zodiac has been passed down for more than 2000 years since its origin(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). The twelve zodiac signs are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig, which are assigned in a repeating 12-year cycle(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). This traditional Chinese scheme was originated from China and then has enjoyed a popularity in many other Asian countries(The Editorial Board, 2010: 12-13). With its cultural connotation and time-honored impact, the Chinese zodiac have(has&lt;/span&gt;) been engraved in every Chinese people. <br /> <br /> ====Origin====<br /> <br /> Regarding the origin of the Chinese zodiac, there are various opinions but many of them are presented with no sufficient evidence. There are many myths explaining these animal signs and their arrangement. Among them the most enduring one is the Great Race. In this story, the Jade Emperor, Ruler of the Heavens, wanted to devise a way to measure time, so he organized a race. At the end, the first twelve animals who made it across the river were the winners and so they earned themselves a spot on the zodiac calender in the order they arrived(The Editorial Board, 2010: 6). Besides this folk story, some scholars claim the zodiac scheme was indeed derived from the Twelve Earthly Branches but did not occur at the same time while the Earthly Branches appeared. Since the Han Dynasty, the Earthly Branches have been used to record the time of day. Therefore some hold until that time, the 12 zodiac came into being as a supplementary to refer to the 12 periods of 24 hours. Since the original meaning of the Earthly Branches at that time was obliterated due to the passage of time, the ancient Chinese attached the Earthly Branches and the Ten Heavenly Stems to the zodiac(The Editorial Board, 2010: 5-7). There also stands an opinion that the zodiac signs were originated from the totem worship in the primitive society. According to some research on the origin of Chinese zodiac, there were only twelve earliest surnames in ancient China, which were derived from the names of the twelve animals in the Chinese zodiac scheme. Here the twelve animals refer to the totems at ancient times and different surname tribes use different animals as their totems. Therefore, the twelve animals of Chinese zodiac was developed from the totems of ancient tribes(The Editorial Board, 2010: 4-5).<br /> <br /> ====Folk Culture and Belief ====<br /> <br /> The zodiac sign not only can reveal one’s age, but also represents his or her personality, career prospects and way of life according to Chinese superstition. <br /> <br /> The Chinese seem to believe that they have some affinity with the animals of the years in which they were born and that their personal traits and fortunes come under their mysterious influence. According to superstitious belief in China, Zodiac animals are combined with the Five Elements that consist of Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth, to tell one's destiny. Since people have their zodic sign's fixed elment, there are many folk beliefs based on this. For example, people born in the years of Metal Rat are believed to have a promising future; people born in the years of Fire Rat are deemed to be clever and intelligent and Wood Rat independent and self-respected(The Editorial Board, 2010: 40). <br /> <br /> Besides, since the zodiac is determined by the year of birth, there are many implications of one’s birth year. For example, some zodiacal preferences prevail in Chinese population. Chinese have always had a strong affection for the Dragon, so married couples prefer to give births in the year of Dragon. Since dragon is regarded as the auspicious and divine creatures, the children born in these years of dragon are believed to have fortune. These cultural preferences and folk beliefs have influenced prospective parents’ reproductive behavior in the Chinese society(Yip et al., 2002: 1804).<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese people believe certain animals get on better than the others, so the zodiac has had a great impact on marriage as well. Specifically, people who is born in the Year of Tiger would have perfect romance with Pigs, Rabbit with Dogs and Dragon with Roosters. On the contrary, some zodiac signs are believed to have misfortune if they are married with people of certain zodiac. As the Chinese idiom goes, if a dragon and a tiger fight each other, there will be one injured. This old says reflects that dragon and tiger are natural enemies according to the belief(The Editorial Board, 2010: 34-35). And this is the reason why men and women would like to evaluate their Bazi, the Eight Characters, before they get married. However, in reality, personality is related to one’s experience through the life journey rather than the pre-written zodiac signs. People born in the same year would have very distinctive personalities. Similarly, the destiny is also a result of people’s character and most decisions they’ll be making along the way. Of course the marriage is a more complex thing that cannot be deemed to have a pre-given outcome brought by the zodiac.<br /> <br /> ====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Chinese zodiac is a complex scheme which combines the traditional Chinese astrology in it. Based on the Five Elements theory, Yin and Yang system and Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches system, the traditional scheme have developed a profound connotation and implications through generation. Over thousands of years, this popular culture has affected people’s major decisions in naming, marriage, giving birth and attitude towards each other. But people have to consider zodiac in a rational and scientific way. Perhaps the zodiac may help us to understand what we’re given, but it cannot determine our destiny. We should treat it as the precious cultural heritage and explore the profound culture and historical traces embodied in it(The Editorial Board, 2010: 1-2).<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> 《大中国上下五千年》丛书编委会(2010) The Editorial Board of the ''Five Thousand Years of Great China''（''Dazhongguo Shangxia Wuqiannian''） ''Series'',《中国生肖文化》''The Culture of Chinese Zodiac'', 北京：外文出版社 Beijing: Foreign Languages Press.<br /> <br /> Yip, Paul S.F.伊普, Lee, Joseph 李 and Cheung, Y.B.张 (2002).The Influence of the Chinese Zodiac on Fertility in Hong Kong SAR 论生肖对香港生育率的影响. ''Social Science &amp; Medicine''《社会科学与医学》, Volume 55, Issue 10 第55卷第10期, 1803-1812.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions=== <br /> <br /> Jade Emperor 玉皇大帝<br /> <br /> Ten Heavenly Stems 十天干<br /> <br /> Twelve Earthly Branches 十二地支<br /> <br /> Five Elements 五行<br /> <br /> Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth 金木水火土<br /> <br /> Eight Characters 八字<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.How long is the history of Chinese zodiac?<br /> <br /> 2.What are the twelve zodiac signs in order? <br /> <br /> 3.From what time the Earthly Branches was used to record time?<br /> <br /> 4.According to Chinese folk belief, what kind of characteristics do people born in year of rat have?<br /> <br /> 5.Which zodiac animal is mostly praised in China?<br /> <br /> 6.Can you name some pairs of zodiac animal that get along well with each other according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> 7.Which pair of animals that are natural enemies according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.More than 2200 years.<br /> <br /> 2.Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig.<br /> <br /> 3.Han Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 4.They are smart, adaptable, and have the will to fight, but, on the other hand, they are so over-ambitious and easy to fail.<br /> <br /> 5.Dragon.<br /> <br /> 6.Tiger and pig, rabbit and dog and dragon and rooster. <br /> <br /> 7.Dragon and tiger.<br /> <br /> ==Lisu People and Daogan Festival of Lisu Ethnic Minority Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏 202070080641==<br /> --[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 08:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Lisu people and Daogan festival====<br /> <br /> The Lisu ethnic group are the Tibeto-Burman ethnic group living in mountainous areas such as Burma, southwest China, Thailand, and Arunachal Pradesh in India.<br /> <br /> [[File:Example1.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> There are about 730,000 Lisu people living in Lijiang, Baoshan, Nujiang, Diqing, Dehong and other counties in Yunnan and Sichuan provinces in China. The Lisu nationality is one of the 56 nationalities officially recognized by China. In Myanmar, the Lisu ethnic group is recognized as one of 135 ethnic groups with an estimated population of 600,000. Approximately 55,000 live in Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. They mainly inhabit remote mountainous areas. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans. Each clan has its own name or surname. The most famous family clans in the tribal clans are Laemae pha, Bya pha, Thorne pha, Ngwa Pha (Ngwazah), Naw pha, Seu pha, Khaw pha. Most of the surnames come from their own hunter work in primitive times. But later, they adopted many Chinese surnames. Their culture has the same characteristics as the Yi nationality or Nuosu (Lolo) culture. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> Daogan Festival (刀杆节) is a traditional festival of Lisu ethnic groups living in Lushui County(泸水县), Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture(怒江傈僳族自治州).Due to the death of the old artists, they were once lost in Nujiang Prefecture and recovered in recent years. They are mainly distributed in Luzhang Village(鲁掌镇), Luzu Village(鲁祖村) and Loma Village(洛玛村) of Lushui County(泸水县).(Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> [[File:Example2.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> ====Legend====<br /> <br /> During the Ming Dynasty, when people not belonging to the same clan of feudal China invaded the borders of Yunnan, the king sent Wang Ji (王骥), the war department of the Chinese feudal ministry, to resist the enemy with troops. Wang Ji united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders. Later, Wang Ji was killed by traitors. To commemorate Wang Ji's great achievement and to pray for the souls of the brave soldiers who died bravely defending the border, the Li tribe held the &quot;Up and down the mountain&quot; event. (上刀山，下火海), and designated the 15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year as the Knife Gan Festival.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Going up to the knife mountain and going down to the sea of ​​fire are the main custom performances of the Taozhen Festival, which reproduce the life experience of people living in mountainous areas as they climb the mountains and the hard spirit and skills of climbing.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> ====Performing====<br /> <br /> [[File:Example3.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> Pine trees were used as tool poles, iron knives as tool ladders, crinkled paper as flowers, and bamboo as flower sticks. When we go up the rice mountain and down the fire, we play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments under the knife pole. There are strict procedures and rituals from pointing flowers, pointing knives, playing knives, tying knives, tying flowers, welcoming flowers, and altars. Setting , knife pole , vertical pole , sacrificial dragon , knife stand and dismantling knife (in the sea of fire). Knife poles are usually called gold pillar, silver pillar or male pillar and female pillar respectively, representing the dead and the living. Thirty-six long sharp knives representing 365 days a year are tied to the sides of the ladder with paper flowers made of five-color paper.<br /> After the knife poles are tied, Heung Tong/Heung Tong (巫师) recites the words in his mouth and performs the knife dance with drum music. After the knife dance, to the sound of Suo na, gongs and drums, the knife bearer grasps the blade with both hands, steps on the blade with bare feet and then climbs up. When the knife-bearer reaches the top through the three scissors, the knife-bearer opens the lock of heaven, takes out the grains and flowers, spreads them out into the boiling crowd, and then places the red ribbon on the colored door, over which he sings the old prayer song, and then he comes down from the pole of the knife again. After that, he stepped barefoot into the burning charcoal fire, licking the burning plow with his tongue and biting the burning chains with his teeth, which showed the national spirit of the Li people and their superb performance skills.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> ====Development====<br /> <br /> According to legend, it commemorates an ancient Han Chinese hero who showed great kindness to the Lisu people. The Lisu people made the anniversary of the hero's death a traditional holiday for their own people, and used symbolic rituals such as going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire to express their feelings of willingness to go through fire in return. On the day of the Knife Festival, several able-bodied men first perform the &quot;firewalking&quot; ceremony. They jump into the red-hot coals with bare feet and perform various stunts. On the second day, they sharpen 36 long knives and tie them to two 20-meter-high wooden racks with rattan strips, forming a knife ladder. With bare hands and feet, the performers climb to the top from the edge of the knives and perform various difficult moves at the top of the pole. Today, this thrilling traditional sacrificial ritual has evolved into a sporting event for the good people of the Lisu people to perform their stunts.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> 1.Lisu people 傈僳族<br /> <br /> 2.&quot;Up and down the mountain&quot; event 上刀山，下火海<br /> <br /> 3.The Lisu tribe 傈僳族<br /> <br /> 4.clan 氏族<br /> <br /> 5.primitive times 原始时期<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.How many Lisu people live in Yunnan and Sichuan？<br /> <br /> 2.How many clans make up the Lisu people？<br /> <br /> 3.Who united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders？<br /> <br /> 4.Which day is the Daogan Festival？<br /> <br /> 5.What musical instruments do they play under the knife pole?<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.About 730,000 Lisu people. <br /> <br /> 2.The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans.<br /> <br /> 3.Wang Ji.<br /> <br /> 4.15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year.<br /> <br /> 5.They play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments.<br /> <br /> ====References====<br /> <br /> *Ernst, Gabriel (21 October 2019). &quot;'We try to not be Thai': the everyday resistance of ethnic minorities&quot;<br /> *&quot;Yunnan Province of China Government Web&quot;. Eng.yn.gov.cn.<br /> *李智环．Li Zhihuan. 傈僳族人口分布及形成原因分析 [Analysis of the Distribution and Causes of the Formation of the Lisu People] 《保山学院学报》， 2010 [Journal of Baoshan College], 2010<br /> <br /> ==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br /> Chinese Clothing== Phyo, Su Kyi, Student No-20191108000<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> <br /> Chinese Clothing has many ethnic groups with a long history while Han people dominate most periods in history. For thousands of years, generations of clothing designers have devoted themselves to building the Kingdom of Clothes, making the garments that cover the human body into an important component of Chinese culture. The progress of nation can be seen through its changes in clothing styles.Clothing manufacture in China dates back to prehistoric times, at least 7,000years ago. Archaeological findings of 18,000 years-old artifacts such as bone sewing needles and stone beads and shells with holes bored in them attest to the existence of ornamentation and of sewing extremely early in Chinese civilization. (www.topchinatravel. com, 2004)<br /> <br /> Chinese clothing has undergone continuous transformations throughout history,providing a reflection of the culture in place at any given time. A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry, and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive Chinese fashions through the ages. This illustrated introductory survey takes the reader through traditional Chinese clothing,ornamentation,and ceremonial wear, and discusses the importance of silk and the diverse costumes of China's ethnic groups before considering modern trends and China's place in the fashion world today.(Mei Hua-2010-page-1)<br /> <br /> A-Chinese traditional clothing<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional clothing contains rich cultural connotations.Today, after the reform and opening up, the clothing industry has developed vigorously. People gradually start pay attention to the local clothing culture, and pursue cultural connotation contained in clothing. For modern designers, the traditional clothing and its cultural background are their creation inspirations during creation phases,and they are also one of the expressive elements preferred by designers at home and abroad. Inheriting traditional clothing culture not only means that it needs us to turn the traditional clothing elements into a symbol, but also needs us to further understand the background and connotations of traditional clothing culture. The work of design without culture is like a gorgeous shell that can't stand the test of history. Only by grasping the inner spirit of traditional clothing culture, abandoning simple piled up work and patch-up work without connotation and learning the modern expressive methods of traditional clothing elements, one can design out the works which can touch people's heartstrings. (Jiangsu,2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Traditional clothing is the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics. Traditional clothing mutually integrates its unique style, comfortable fabric, bright colors,rich designs and exquisite craft elements to bring people impulsive feelings with visual communication. Traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics enjoys its unique artistic features in the style, color,fabrics,decoration and craft, ect. They are profoundly influenced by Chinese traditional culture ideas in the process of their formation and development and finally condensed into the national culture bearing Chinese culture features. These elements are the source of our inspiration in contemporary clothing design, and the use of these Chinese elements can help people to design out the clothing Chinese style.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional culture is an indispensable source of inspiration in fashion design. Putting the traditional elements into fashion design not only helps the native culture to extend itself, but also greatly promotes the culture exchanges in nationalities. Therefore, we should advocate the national advanced culture,make the Chinese traditional culture achieve the development in the clothing design, use the common language to express Chinese traditional culture essence, and integrate Chinese traditional element symbol into the spiritual elements of fashion design to make the national culture spirit and the language of the world integrate into the mainstream of modern clothing design.(Jiangsu,2016, page -3)<br /> <br /> ==Traditional Han Chinese Clothing (Han Fu):It refers to the attire worn byvthe Han people from the enthronement of the Yellow Emperor(about 2698BC) till the late Ming Dynasty (1368-1644AD).It became known as the Han Fu(fu means 'clothes&quot; in Chinese)because the fashion was improved and popularized during the Han Dynasty. It is usually in the from of long gown,cross collar, wrapping the right lapel over the left, loose wide sleeves and no buttons but a sash. Although simple in design, it gives different feelings to different wearers.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019-Aug-2)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Suit(Tang Zhuang):It is a combination of the Manchu male jacket ofvthe Qing Dynasty and the western style suit. It is usually straight collared,with coiled buttons down the front. Its color and design are in traditional Chinese style but tailoring is western.(www.topchinatravel. com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> ==Cheongsam(Qi Pao):Originated from the Manchu female clothes, it evolved by merging with western patterns that show off the beauty of a female body. Its features are straight collar, strain on the waist,coiled buttons and slits on both sides ofvthe dress. Materials used are usually silk, cotton and linen.Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire in the world today.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Tunic Suit(Zhongshan Zhuang) :Also called the Yat-sen Suit , it is designed by Dr.Sun Yat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire. It has a turn-down collar and four pockets with flaps. As Chairman Mao Zedong worn it quite frequently, it is also called the Mao Suit by westerners. It is the main attire from the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 till 1980,s. The country's leaders still wear it today when attending important occasions, such as military parades.(www.topchinatravel. com,2016,Auge-2.)<br /> <br /> B-Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements<br /> <br /> There are many old stories in ancient Chinese civilization, and Chinese traditional elements come up with the tenacity of the Chinese nations long history. Different times has their unique cultural connotations and form elements,which include Chinese architecture, costumes, traditional Chinese painting and folk art etc., and those cultural connotations and form elements are precious heritage that the ancestors leave to their off-springs. The change of dynasties in the history of our country lead to changes of cultural centers, which finally lead to the appearance Chinese traditional elements with different representative features in each historical periods, nations and regions. These elements include: Chinese silk ,cloth of brocade, hemp,blue printed fabric; chirpaur, Chinese -style chest covering, Chinese tunic suit, collar,surplice, mandarin and split etc.; colorful ethnic colors: such as bright red,green,yellow and blueetc.;Neolithic patterns, bronze patterns in Shang and Chou dynasties, ancient lacquer were pattern in Qin and Han dynasties, Buddhism patterns in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties and traditional decorative patterns in Tang,Sing and Qing dynasties. The essence of Chinese traditional culture which bear the role of inheriting national culture, and is the unique and external characteristic of Chinese nation.(Jiangsu,2016, page-3)<br /> <br /> Trems and Expressions<br /> <br /> 历史-history, <br /> <br /> 期-period, <br /> <br /> 世代-generations, <br /> <br /> 服装-clothing, <br /> <br /> 设计师-designers , <br /> <br /> 装饰-ornamentation<br /> <br /> 中国服饰- Chinese clothing<br /> <br /> 服饰-Costumes <br /> <br /> 传统服装-Traditional clothing<br /> <br /> 服装设计-Clothing design<br /> <br /> 时尚设计-Fashion design <br /> <br /> 几代服装设计师-Generations of clothing designers <br /> <br /> 中国西装-Chinese Suit<br /> <br /> 旗袍-Cheongsam<br /> <br /> 中山装-Chinese Tunic Suit <br /> <br /> 中国传统元素-Chinese traditional elements <br /> <br /> ===Questions ===<br /> <br /> 1-What’s archaeological findings in Chinese fashions through the ages?<br /> <br /> 2-What's Traditional Clothing?<br /> <br /> 3-What's Traditional culture indispensable?<br /> <br /> 4-How is means Han Fu?<br /> <br /> 5-What's the popular Chinese attire?<br /> <br /> 6-How called was Chinese Tunic Suit?<br /> <br /> 7-What'are include Chinese traditional elements? <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 04:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Answers===<br /> 1- A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry,<br /> and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive chinese fanshions through the ages.<br /> <br /> 2-Traditional clothingis the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing<br /> culture with Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> 3-Chineset traditional culture is an indispensablevsource of inspirationin fashion<br /> design.<br /> <br /> 4-Han Fu is fu means clothes in Chinese. <br /> <br /> 5-Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire inthe world today.<br /> <br /> 6-It is also called the Yat-sen Suit,it is designed byDr.SunYat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire.<br /> <br /> 7-Chinese traditional elements include: Chinese silk,cloth of brocade, hemp, blue printed fabric.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 11:56, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> 1.Jiangsu.“Influences of Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements on Modern Clothing Design”,<br /> <br /> Nanjing University of Finance and Economics,Soochow University,Published by Atlantic Press,2016.<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.Mei Hua, `Chinese Clothing´, Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building,Cambridge CB28RU,UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press,NewYork<br /> www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title:www.cambridge.org/9780521186896<br /> Originally published byChina Intercontinental Press as Cinese Clothing(9787508516615)in2010©ChinaIntercontinentalPress2010<br /> <br /> 3.https://www.topchinatravel.com/china-guide/history-of-chinese-clothing.htm<br /> <br /> 4.https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/clothing/--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 10:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br /> <br /> ===Chinese traditional dance===<br /> <br /> ==The Liquor Culture of China 瞿淼 Student No.202070080604==<br /> --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 08:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.The Origin of liquor in China====<br /> <br /> With a long history of liquor-making, China boasts a variety of vintage liquor, which is renowned at home and abroad. Penetrating in China’s entire history of civilization, the liquor culture plays a significant role in many aspects, such as cuisine, literature, and health care, of Chinese people’s daily life.<br /> As to the origin of Chinese liquor, opinions vary and no unanimous conclusion can be drawn, and the most widely accepted version is that Du Kang is the person who invented liquor. There are divergent views on Du Kang’s identity, so far, documents have been found which recorded his deeds in the Yellow Emperor era and Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties. And even his address is disputable. Some people think he lived in Baishui, Shaanxi province and was buried here, while others hold the opinion that he lived in Ruyang, Henan province. However, Du Kang is generally believed to be the Chinese Dionysus. According to the legend, one day it rained suddenly while Du Kang was herding the sheep. Hastily driving the sheep back to the sheepfold, he forgot some husked sorghum rice in a hollowed trunk by accident, and when he came back after a few days, the rice he left there became so fragrant that he couldn’t help tasting some. Surprisingly, it was palatable. This unexpected finding made Du Kang start to develop the liquor-brewing technique. Nowadays, Du kang has become the synonym of liquor in many places. Moreover, ancestral halls of Du Kang have been built in Baishui in Shaanxi province and Ruyang in Henan province to enshrine him. And the liquor produced in these places are called “Du Kang Liquor.”(Huang yixi, 2008, 12) <br /> <br /> ====2.The Types of liquor in Ancient China====<br /> With constant reform and innovation of the techniques of brewing liquor, thousands types of vintage liquor have been created in China. According to the different production techniques, Chinese liquor can be divided into fermented wine and distilled liquor.<br /> <br /> Yellow rice wine is the oldest fermented wine around the world. Shaoxing Wine, a famous specialty of Shaoxing, Zhejiang province, is the representative of yellow rice wine. It has a very long history, and the wine industry in Shaoxing was prosperous early in the Warring States period. Shaoxing wine looks yellow and clear, hence sugar is added in its raw material. The most prominent of Shaoxing Wine is that it’s fragrance improves with age. In addition to Shaoxing Wine, there are other famous yellow rice wine like Jiujiang Old Seal Wine, Mellow Wine and Dongwu Rice Wine and so on.<br /> <br /> Liquor and Spirits(Baijiu), a kind of distilled liquor, is divided into the following flavor types: sauce-flavor type, light flavor type, strong flavor type and other flavour types. Kweichow Moutai is a traditional Chinese specialty liquor. It is one of the world's three major distilled liquors on par with Scotch whiskey and French cognac. It is also the originator of Daqu sauce-flavored liquor with a history of more than 800 years. The style and quality of Kweichow Moutai is characterized by &quot;prominent sauce, elegant and delicate flavour, full-bodied, long aftertaste, and lasting fragrance in an empty cup&quot;. Its special style comes from the unique traditional brewing techniques formed over the years and the brewing methods are combined with the agricultural production in the Chishui River Basin, which is affected by the environment and seasonal production, retaining some of the original traces of local life. In 1996, Moutai's craftsmanship was identified as a state secret to be protected. In 2001, the traditional craft of Moutai was included in the first batch of national material cultural heritage. In 2006, the State Council approved the inclusion of the &quot;Moutai traditional brewing process&quot; in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage lists, and declared the world intangible cultural heritage.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Types of Drinking Vessel in Ancient China====<br /> Chinese people always pay attention to the beauty and delicacy of tableware, and we stress the exquisiteness and suitability of wine vessels when drinking. Therefore, drinking vessels as part of the liquor culture also have a long history and varied appearances.<br /> <br /> In different historical periods, due to the continuous development of society and economy, the production technology, materials, and appearance of wine vessels will naturally undergo corresponding changes; therefore, a wide variety of wine vessels have been produced. As early as the Neolithic culture period, pottery with shapes similar to later wine-ware, such as the pottery of the Peiligang culture period, appeared. The development of the liquor industry and the noble identity of the drinker have made it possible for liquor utensils to be differentiated from ordinary eating utensils. The quality of wine-ware often becomes one of the symbols of the status of drinkers. Bronze ware originated in Xia Dynasty, and the earliest bronze wine ware that has been discovered is from the Xia Erlitou culture period. Bronze ware reached its heyday in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and declined in the Spring and Autumn Period. The purpose of the Shang and Zhou drinking vessels was basically specific. In the Shang Dynasty, due to the development of the liquor industry and the improvement of bronze production technology, China's wine ware reached unprecedented prosperity. The bronze wine vessels of Shang and Zhou Dynasties were divided into liquor boiling vessels, liquor serving vessels, drinking vessels and liquor storaging vessels according to their purposes. Each vessel has many styles, some are in common styles, and some take animal shapes. Take Zun as an example, there are Elephant Zun, Rhino Zun, Niu Zun, Yang Zun, Tiger Zun, etc. During the Qin and Han Dynasties, lacquered wine utensils became popular in southern China. It became the main type in the Han Dynasty, Wei and Jin Dynasties, and its shape basically inherited the shape of bronze liquor vessels. Porcelain roughly appeared around the Eastern Han Dynasty. Compared with pottery, the performance of porcelain surpassed that of pottery. The shape of liquor glasses in the Tang Dynasty was much smaller than in the past, so some people think that distilled spirits appeared in the Tang Dynasty. The Song Dynasty was the heyday of ceramic production, and there were many exquisite wine vessels. People in Song Dynasty like to warm rice wine and drink it. So the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl were invented. People placed the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and poured hot water into the bowl to warm the wine. The representative porcelain wine-ware of the Ming and Qing Dynasty is the blue-and-white porcelain wine-ware.<br /> <br /> ====4.Drinking Order====<br /> As early as the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, drinking orders appeared at banquets in the Yellow River Basin. There are many ways to make wine orders. The way the literati and the ordinary people make drinking orders are naturally very different. Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc., while ordinary people use simple ways to act without any preparation. It requires a quick, witty, artistic and talented person to do liquor orders. The drinking order is of great significance to the transformation, enrichment and development of drinking rituals. It is not only an important means to add wine to the fun and to invigorate the banquet, but also to make Chinese culture enter the wine and become the Liquor Culture&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> 1.Du Kang 杜康<br /> <br /> 2.Chinese Dionysus 中国酒神<br /> <br /> 3.husked sorghum rice 秫米饭<br /> <br /> 4.Baishui 白水县（陕西渭南市辖县）<br /> <br /> 5.Ruyang 汝阳县（河南省洛阳市下辖县）<br /> <br /> 6.fermented wine 发酵酒<br /> <br /> 7.Distilled liquor 蒸馏酒<br /> <br /> 8.Yellow rice wine 黄酒<br /> <br /> 9.Shaoxing Wine 绍兴酒 <br /> <br /> 10.Jiujiang Old Seal Wine 九江成年封缸酒<br /> <br /> 11.Mellow Wine 醇香酒 <br /> <br /> 12.Dongwu Rice Wine 东吴老酒<br /> <br /> 13.Liquor and Spirits 白酒 <br /> <br /> 14.Kweichow Moutai 贵州茅台<br /> <br /> 15.sauce-flavor type 酱香型 <br /> <br /> 16.light flavor type 清香型 <br /> <br /> 17.strong flavor type 浓香型 <br /> <br /> 18.Daqu sauce-flavored liquor 大曲酱香型白酒<br /> <br /> 19.the Peiligang culture period裴李岗文化时期 <br /> <br /> 20.the Xia Erlitou culture period 夏二里头文化时期<br /> <br /> 21.Zun 樽 <br /> <br /> 22.injection vessel and bowl 注子和注碗<br /> <br /> 23.drinking order 行酒令<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.Who is generally believed to invent liquor in China? <br /> <br /> 2.What is the most prominent of Shaoxing Wine?<br /> <br /> 3.How to use the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl in the Song dynasty?<br /> <br /> 4.How do literati often make drinking orders in China?<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.Du Kang<br /> <br /> 2.It’s fragrance improves with age.<br /> <br /> 3.Place the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and pour hot water into the bowl to warm the wine.<br /> <br /> 4.Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc.<br /> <br /> ====Bibliography====<br /> *Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br /> <br /> *Li Fangzhou 李方舟. (1998) 酒令——酒文化的珍品[Liquor-a treasure of wine culture]. 质量天地Production Room.<br /> <br /> *Du Jinpeng 杜金鹏. (1995) 中国古代酒具[Ancient Chinese Wine Set]. 上海文化出版社 Shanghai Culture Publishing House.<br /> <br /> *Yang Li 杨 利. (2005) 酒文化及酒的精神文化价值探微[A Probe into Wine Culture and Spiritual Cultural Value of Wine]. 邵阳学院学报Academic Journal of Shaoyang University, 2005(02):82-83.<br /> <br /> *Xu Shaohua 徐少华. (1999) 中国酒文化研究50年[Research on 50 years of Chinese wine culture]. 酿酒科技Brewing Technology, 1999(06):15-18.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Fengqi 赵凤琦. (2014) 我国白酒产业可持续发展研究[Research on Sustainable Development of Chinese Liquor Industry]. 中国社会科学院研究生院CASS Graduate School.<br /> <br /> *Wng Jianguo&amp;Xu Liang 汪建国,徐亮.(2005)我国黄酒的特征及展望[Characteristics and Prospects of Chinese Rice Wine] 江苏调味副食品Journal of Jiangsu Seasoning Food, 2005(06):8-12.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jihua 丁季华. (1991) 中国酒文化的结构与功能[The structure and function of Chinese wine culture]. 历史教学问题History Research and Teaching, 1991(2).<br /> <br /> == China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH) - Rajabov, Anushervon student NO. 201921080005==<br /> <br /> ===China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH)===<br /> <br /> Introduction <br /> <br /> High-speed railway (HSR) in China is the longest network of high-speed railways in the world and is used most widely. The network of UNCC includes the recently built railway at the estimated speed of 200-350 km / h (120-220 miles per hour). The Chinese VSM accounts for two thirds of world high-speed railways. Almost all trains, the path and services of the HSR belong to the Chinese railway corporation under the CHINA Railway High Speed brand (CRH). The high-speed railway has developed rapidly in China over the past 15 years. CRH was put into operation in April 2007, the Intercity Line Beijing-Tianjin, which opened in August 2008, became the first HSR allocated passenger line. HSR applies to all administrative provincial levels, except Macau and Tibet. The total length of the HSR network reached 36,000 km (22,000 miles) in August 2020. The HSR construction boom continues, and the HSR network should reach 70,000 km (43,000 miles) in 2035. China's first high-speed trains were imported or built in accordance with the Technology Transfer Agreement with foreign trains manufacturers, including Alstom, Siemens, Bombardier and Kawasaki Heavy Industry Since the initial technical support, Chinese engineers have overpower the internal components of the train and built local trains produced by the CRRC State Corporation. The appearance of a rapidly accelerated railway in China has decreased in the way and changed Chinese society and the economy. The World Bank study has shown that &quot;a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality.&quot; where the sources are coming from?<br /> <br /> Definition and terminology <br /> <br /> High-speed trains in China are usually belonging to passenger trades of classes G, D and C. in class G trains (高 铁; Gāotiě; &quot;High-speed rail&quot;) are commonly used trains E In class D trains (动 车; Dòngchē; &quot;Electrical multiple unit&quot;) are presented by EMU trains operating at lower speeds, whether in high-speed or low-speed ways. The actual movement speed of class D trains can vary greatly. D211 Creament train from Guyang-east to Guangzhou-South along the High Speed Railway Guang-Guangzhou, a line with an estimated speed of 250 km / h, on average, 207 km / h per trip. The sleeping train D312 EMU between South Beijing and Shanghai at a low speed Beijing - Shanghai on average passing 121 km / h. Class C (c héngjì; “intercity”) trains that run on high-speed tracks at speeds above 250 km / h are also considered high-speed trains. where the sources are coming from ?<br /> <br /> Influence on airlines<br /> <br /> The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights. The effect of high-speed railway on airfare is most acute when traveling for less than 500 km (310 miles). By the spring of 2011, commercial airlines were fully stopped at previously popular routes such as Wuhan Nanjing, Wuhan Nanchang, Xi'an-Zhengzhou and Chengdu Chongqing. Flights along the routes with a length of more than 1500 km (930 miles) usually do not suffer. As of October 2013, half a speed of passengers were transported monthly on high-speed rail than in the country's airlines. where the source a<br /> Technologies <br /> Chinese High Speed Railway Controls Various Electric Forms of Trains, Hexie HAO Title (Simplified Chinese: 和谐 号; Traditional Chinese: 和 諧 號; Pinyin: Héxié Hào; Harmony) is for designs which are imported from other nations and designated CRH-1 to CRH-5 and CRH380A (L), CRH380B (L) and CRH380C (L). CRH compositions are designed for fast and convenient movement between cities. The weakness of intellectual property Hexie HAO creates obstacles to China in the export of its products related to high-speed railways, which leads to the development of a fully recycled railway franchise called Fuxing Hao (Rejuvenation) that based on local technologies. where are coming from?<br /> <br /> 4 + 4 HSR network <br /> <br /> The network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km. Most of the lines follow existing routes and are for passenger traffic only. These are known as Passenger Lines (PDL). Several sections of the national network, especially along the southeastern coastal corridor, have been built to connect cities that previously had no rail links. These sections will carry both passenger and cargo. High-speed trains on HSR corridors can usually reach speeds of 300-350 km / h (190-220 mph). On mixed HSR lines, passenger trains can reach a maximum speed of 200–250 km / h (120–160 mph). This ambitious national grid project was slated to be built by 2020, but government incentives have significantly shortened the construction timeframe for many lines. where the sources are coming from ?<br /> <br /> Advantages <br /> <br /> HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances that: Increases economic productivity and long-term competitiveness by increasing rail capacity and unifying labor markets. Moving passengers onto high-speed lines frees up older railways to carry more cargo, which is more beneficial for railways than for passengers whose fares are subsidized. Boosts the economy in the short term as high-speed rail construction creates jobs and stimulates demand in the construction, steel and cement industries during the economic downturn. 110,000 workers were mobilized for the construction of the Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway. Facilitates economic integration between cities and promotes the growth of second-tier cities. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains. where the sources are coming from ?<br /> <br /> Wenzhou accident <br /> <br /> On July 23, 2011, two high-speed trains collided on the Ningbo-Taizhou-Wenzhou railway in the Lucheng district of Wenzhou city, Zhejiang province. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped. Signals failed, causing another train to stop a stopped train. Several carriages derailed. State Chinese media confirmed 40 deaths and at least 192 people were hospitalized, including 12 seriously injured. The train accident in Wenzhou and the lack of accountability by rail officials have generated public outcry and heightened concerns about the safety and management of China's high-speed rail system. Concerns about quality and safety have also influenced plans to export cheaper high-speed train technology to other countries. In the aftermath of the deadly disaster, the Chinese government has suspended approval of new rail projects and began security checks on existing equipment. where the source are coming from?<br /> <br /> Terms and expressions<br /> <br /> 高 铁 - High-speed rail<br /> 动 车 - Electrical multiple unit<br /> 和 諧 號 – Harmony<br /> 復興號 - Rejuvenation<br /> <br /> Questions <br /> <br /> 1. What does the World Bank research say?<br /> 2. What forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights?<br /> 3. How many high speed rail corridors are there in the 4 + 4 HSR network? What is their total length?<br /> 4. What caused the accident?<br /> 5. What are the benefits of HSR?<br /> <br /> Answers<br /> <br /> 1. The World Bank study has shown that &quot;a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality.&quot; <br /> 2. The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights.<br /> 3. The 4 + 4 HSR network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km. <br /> 4. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped.<br /> 5. HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains.<br /> <br /> References misssing<br /> <br /> ==Language, The Chinese Language - Seydou, Sagara, Student No:201911080004,Major:Translation Studies===<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> China is a very big country with a large population, multi-ethnic,and multi-lingual. Each etthnic groups may have its own lingo, or dialects. There are great differences between these dialects because of pronunciation. For example, if people in different places use their dialects to talk, they may not be able to understand each other, and the situation may lead to embarrassment and understanding. Therefore, the Chinese people communicate with each other in a common language, Putonghua, also known as Mandarin in Western countries. Cheng Aimin (2019, 124)<br /> <br /> ==Putonghua and Dialects==<br /> <br /> Putonghua is the national language of China, and Chinese is the most widely spoken language in the world. More than one billion of the world's populations are Chinese speakers. The Chinese population is already one fifth of the population of the world and is rapidly expanding its presence everywhere and influence many people around the world. Cheng Aimin (2019, 25) <br /> It is the modern standard Chinese language with the Beijing pronunciation as its standard pronunciation, the northern dialect (also known as Mandarin, the official language in the past) as its basic dialect, and the modern vernacular as its grammatical norm. Therefore, the northern dialect sounds more like Putonghua than other dialects. Putonghua is a standardized language, which is legally used all over the country. In 2000, the law of the People’s Republic of China on common languages and characters established the legal status of Putonghua and standardized Chinese Characters as the national language and writing system. Putonghua is also one of the six working language of the United Nation and an important means of communication between China and foreign countries. According to statistics from ethnologist, in 2015, 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, but there were still about 400 million people who spoke dialects or minority languages. Article 19 of the constitution of the People’s Republic of China stipulates that ‘’ Putonghua is widely used by the state ‘’, and the third week of September is the national Putonghua Publicity week. We often hear some sayings like this: ‘’ Learn Putonghua well and you will have friend all over the world.’’ Chinese dialects are usually divided into seven groups: northern dialect Wu dialect, Hunan dialect, Jiangxi dialect, Hakka dialect, and Cantonese dialect and Fujian dialect. Most northern are close to Putonghua and easy to understand a non-native speaker. Cheng Aimin (2019, 126) <br /> <br /> The dialects in China differ greatly. Speaking Putonghua allows the Chinese people to communicate better with each other and promote the development of economy and culture everywhere. However, the promotion of Putonghua cannot be achieved in a short time. The Chinese government plans to enable more than 80% of Chinese people to speak Putonghua by 2020. (C.Gov art 10. 2017)<br /> Only by learning Putonghua can you communicate with people from all parts of China and event with Chinese –speaking people all over the world. While striving to promote Putonghua among the people of the whole country, China also pays special attention to the protection of dialects, which should not be lost after learning Putonghua. . Cheng Aimin (2019, 126)<br /> <br /> ==Ancient Chinese and Modern Chinese ==<br /> Over the past three thousand years, Chinese has undergone a long period of development and changes, and has been constantly interacting with the languages of other nations. Ancient Chinese and written Chinese characters are not exactly the same as they are now. When we visit Chinese historical sites, we often see couplets, poems, and inscriptions. Most of them are written in classical Chinese and traditional Chinese characters. Classical Chinese is a written language formed on the basis of the spoken language in the pre-Qin period. Cheng Aimin (2019, 127) <br /> <br /> By the time of the Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties (the 7th century to the 10th century), the spoken Chinese had changed greatly and had significant differences with the classical style of written Chinese. The pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar had changed greatly. But all the time, some people still insisted on writing in classical Chinese, while others wrote in the commonly used vernacular (spoken Chinese). The Four Classical Novels created in the Ming and Qing dynasties, The Dreams of the red Chambers, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, The Outlaws of the Marsh and the journey to the west, are all representative works of the ancient vernacular. After the May 4th movement in 1919, China launched a vernacular movement advocating ‘’my hand writes my speech’’. Since then, the vernacular has gradually been more widely used in the whole society, and modern Chinese has gradually developed and formed. Compared with ancient Chinese, modern Chinese absorbs a lot Western grammar and has added many disyllabic words. Cheng Aimin (2019 ,128)<br /> <br /> ==Idiomatic Phrases- Idioms, Proverbs, Common Sayings, and Allegorical Sayings.==<br /> Many phrases with fixed meanings in Chinese have been handed down from the ancient times. Mastering these phrases will make your language more authentic and vivid. For example, ‘’Lofty mountains and flowing rivers ‘’. Playing the lute to the cow’’ ‘’prescribing medicine according to symptoms’’, and ‘’ pleading guilty by carrying a rod on one’s back’ ’these phrases, often contain four Chinese characters each, are called idioms. They are quite formal and often originate from ancient historical stories, fables, myths and legends, or literary works. Sometimes we cannot guess the meaning of an idiom simply according to the meaning of the words. For example, 崇山峻岭，流淌的河流 ‘’lofty mountains and flowing rivers’’ means meeting someone who can really understand and appreciate them, while吹牛的长笛 ‘’ Playing the lute to the cow’’ means the casting pearls before swine. Wendy Abraham: (2018 ,115)<br /> There are also proverbs, common sayings, and allegorical sayings created and passed down by the common people in spoken language, which are quite colloquial and emotional, reflecting the unique culture of China.<br /> Proverbs are common and easy -to understand fixed phrases used orally, often explaining a truth. For example, ‘’ if you are not in charge of a home, you don’t know how expensive the firewood and rice, if you don’t have children, you don’t know kinds your parents are.’’ ‘’Seeing is better than hearing 100 times, and doing is better than seeing 100 times’’ Cheng Aimin (2019, 129)<br /> Common sayings mostly come in a three –character format, but there are also other formats. In addition to the literal meaning, there are deep metaphorical extensions. For example, 吹牛皮 ‘’blow cow skin’’ (meaning bragging or boating) ‘给某人. 穿紧身鞋 ‘’give SB . Tight shoes to wear ‘’ ( meaning making things hard for SB), ‘为外国人工作时的消磨时间‘’kill time when working for foreigners ‘’ ( loafing on the job) , 提一个黑锅 ‘’ carry a black pot’’ ( taking the blame for the fault of others ) , 钉在眼睛里 ‘’ nail in the eyes’’ ( thorn in the flesh ), 狗腿 ‘’ dog leg’’ ( hired thug) , 不管3x7 = 21 ‘’regardless of 3x7= 21’’( regardless of consequences, in the spite of anything ), 打不了八极 ‘’ can’t hit with eight poles’’ ( extremely distant or unrelated ). (Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002,232)<br /> An allegorical saying is divided into two parts. It is like a riddle: The first part is a metaphor, and the second part is an explanation. There are two types of allegorical sayings: homophonic and figurative. Example of the homophonic type ‘’ the nephew carries a lantern – to light up the uncle’’ (pronounced the same ‘’ as before ‘’ in Chinese); ‘’the monk opens an umbrella – no hair and no sky ‘’ (‘’ no hair ‘’ is pronounced similar to ‘’ lawless ‘’ in Chinese). Examples of the figurative type: ‘’ A mute person takes a dose of bitter medicine- they can’t say it is bitter ‘’; ‘’ Mice go to the street – everybody shouts and beats them.’’ Cheng Aimin (2019.130)<br /> <br /> ==Language policy==<br /> While vigorously promoting Putonghua, the Chinese government has also promulgated many policies to protect dialect and minority languages. In order to promote Putonghua, China promulgated the Chinese Pinyin Program in 1958. Pinyin (the standard Chinese sound- spelling system) is widely used in Putonghua promotion, international Chinese teaching, foreign exchange and other fields. It has become an important tool for reading Chinese characters, learning Putonghua, training and improving reading and writing ability. With the popularization of modern information technology, pinyin is widely used to input the Chinese characters on computers and mobile phones. Pinyin affects all aspects of social life. In translation, Chinese names of people, places, food, and even some cultural concept with Chinese characteristics (Such as Beijing, pingpang, Shaoling, Gongful) are directly spelled with Pinyin, which is therefore an important standard for translation and a bridge for international exchange. Minglang Zhou: (pp.71-95).<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion.== <br /> Today, an increasing number of people from other countries now want to learn Chinese language and culture and also many universities from different countries throughout the world offer Chinese language courses because Putonghua is also an open door to a huge job market in all of the countries where Putonghua is the language of commerce like Mainland China, Taiwan and Singapore. Learning Chinese can help to make a better future for everyone. Abundant opportunities for governments and business careers as well as scientific and cultural exchanges await the student of Chinese. The China market is blossoming after decades of global isolation. As China is rapidly becoming a world economic power as it opens its doors to foreign investment expands its infrastructure, those who know Chinese will be valuable to business.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> Cheng Aimin.(2019), ''中国概况'' [Understanding China]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> Minglang Zhou: Language Policy in the People’s Republic of China (p.71-95), Wendy Abraham: let’s talk Mandarin Chinese: 1,001 real-life phrases and Idioms. Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37) Article 10 Putonghua and the standardized Chinese characters shall be used as the basic language in education and teaching in schools and other institutions of education, except where otherwise provided for in laws.<br /> The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002)<br /> ===Terms and expressions===<br /> Lingo: 林戈<br /> Putonghua: 普通话<br /> Await student:等待学生<br /> Pinyin: 等待学生<br /> Lofty: 崇高：<br /> Vernacular: 白话：<br /> Swine: 猪：<br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1. Why Putonghua is spoken in United Nations Organization?<br /> 2. How many people speak Putonghua in China and around the world?<br /> 3 .Why Chinese government is promoted Putonghua among many others languages?<br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1. Because it is an important means of communication between China and foreign countries.<br /> 2. According to ethnologist 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, and according to the10 most spoken languages in the world Chinese (and all of its varieties such as Mandarin) is by far the most spoken language across the world with 1.31 billion speakers.<br /> 3. Because Putonghua is become an international language and it also facilitate understanding between different ethnic groups in China.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=112281 2020-12-14T08:38:36Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> <br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾:<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J].论中西思维方式【J】. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]《汉英对比翻译》【M】. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. [J]  Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *徐通锵. 《语言论———语义型语言的结构原理和研究方法》【M】长春：东北师范大学出版社, 1997.<br /> Xu Tongqiang. Linguistics—the Structural principle and research methodology of semantic language, [M] Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1997.<br /> *张 黎. 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】长春：吉林教育出版社，1994.<br /> Zhang Li. — on Chinese Parataxis Grammar, [M] Changchun: Jilin Education Press, 1994.<br /> *张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】 中国翻译，2001 (7), 13.<br /> Zhang Sijie, Zhang Boran. Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, [J]. Chinese Translation, 2001 (7), 13.<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43). Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles. <br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text. As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation. In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory. According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to rthat the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable. <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process. On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information. Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information. Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers. Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures. Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning. In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty. It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today. “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation. Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters.<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation. There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition. At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater lives in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89). <br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation Version=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of Vanity Fair====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on. From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language. <br /> <br /> Exampe 1 <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).. In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved. If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating. In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22). Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty. Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating. Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent. Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1964).''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''《翻译理论与实践》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Jan de Waard.(1986) ''From One Language to Another''《从一种语言到另一种语言》. Nashville: Thomas Nelson托马斯·纳尔逊出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''《语言、文化与翻译》.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Thackeray,William萨克雷.（2006）. ''Vanity Fair''《名利场》.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie陈岷婕.(2013).浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[On Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Nida’s “functional Equivalence”].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju郭丁菊.(2013).功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance from the Translation of Vanity Fair].Harbin:Northeast Forestry University东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong李建中.(2009)中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Beijing:Peking University Press北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai谭凯.(2011)严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance” and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence].青年作家Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi王运熙,Gu Yisheng顾易生.(2007).中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Shanghai:Shanghai Classics Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复(2009).《天演论》译例言[Preface to Evolution and Ethics].Beijing:The Commercial Press商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi杨必.(2013)《名利场》[Vanity Fair].Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei张妍梅.(2019).功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of Vanity Fair from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory].Lanzhou:Lanzhou Jiaotong University兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi张曦.(2014).翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on :Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House中国学术期刊电子出版社(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 专业 is missing--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian，2009：413）, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei(whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang, 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway 欧内斯特· 海明威. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> <br /> Abstract<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies on C-E translation. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces the background and development of translation strategies. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis combines the characteristics of the two kinds of texts to explore the translation strategies that suits for the two types, including domestication, foreignization, omission and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of C-E translation.<br /> <br /> KEY WORDS<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> <br /> 中文摘要<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对中文英译的翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍翻译策略的背景和发展，然后描述新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的特点和翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，遗漏等的翻译策略。本文有望为中文英译翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> 关键词<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process, especially for Chinese to English translation. Towards texts in different styles which have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the background, development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restruction and generalization in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis, as well as point out the drawbacks and advantages. <br /> <br /> 2.Theoretical Framework<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts means a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps.(1993) Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. (1994) So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules. <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997) <br /> <br /> 2.1Main functions of texts <br /> <br /> 2.1.1The Referential Function<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function.(Ping, 2002) If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> 2.1.2The Expressive Function<br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> 2.1.3The Appellative Function<br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Main Text - types<br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the expressive, informative and vocative function. <br /> <br /> 2.2.1 The Expressive Texts <br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Informative Texts<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> 2.2.3 The Vocative Texts<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> 2.3 Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel.--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 05:00, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_2&diff=112215 2020-12-14T08:16:30Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac - Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 202070080603 */</p> <hr /> <div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br /> *Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br /> <br /> '''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br /> *You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like &quot;Longevity Noodles&quot;) or Text B (&quot;Mooncakes&quot;), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title (&quot;Festival Meals&quot;) and arrange it accordingly.<br /> *In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br /> *For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br /> *Add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Please also add a list &quot;Terms and Expressions&quot;.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Questions&quot; section.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Answers&quot; section.<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Red Culture - Kang Haoyu 康浩宇, 202070080638==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康浩宇 Kang Haoyu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Red Culture===<br /> Chinese red culture is unique in the world. As a very important cultural resource, it has both tangible culture and intangible culture. Red culture in China refers to the advance culture with Chinese characteristics created by party and people in revolutionary years.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)<br /> <br /> ====1. Development====<br /> <br /> China has brilliant history and splendid civilization in ancient times. However, with the Opium War of 1840, China was plunged into the darkness of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression. Despite of all efforts that countless dedicated patriots had made, they still failed to change the plight. The October Revolution in Russia brought Marxism-Leninism. With Communism as the the highest ideal and ultimate goal, the Communist Party of China shouldered the historic mission of national rejuvenation. With the firm leadership of the party, Chinese people embraced national independence, people's liberation, national reunification and social stability, and stepped into a new era of prosperity and happiness.(Xi Jinpin 2017)<br /> <br /> Red culture is condensed by the Communist Party of China in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. It is an advanced Marxism culture that was inherited and developed in the new period of socialist construction. It's a collectivism culture of bravery, sacrifice and devotion that seeks happiness for the Chinese people and rejuvenation for the Chinese nation.Red culture is embodied in the aspects of ideal belief, value pursuit and spiritual outlook, and is integrated into material remains, mechanism behaviors and cultural and artistic forms.(Luo Liling, Pu Qingpin 2018, 45)<br /> <br /> First of all, red culture is a revolutionary culture, which was formed by the Chinese Communist Party in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. After the founding of People's Republic of China, the Communist Party of China led the Chinese people to inherit and carry forward the revolutionary culture. In the new period of socialist construction and reform and opening up, a vigorous and advanced socialist culture was formed, which enriched and developed the connotation of red culture. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture, and are the core value and spiritual subject of contemporary Chinese culture. As for Chinese red culture, Among them, Marxism is the soul, the common ideal of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the theme, the national spirit and the spirit of the times are the essence, and the socialist concept of honor and disgrace is the foundation. These four aspects influence, infiltrate and interact with each other, revealing the essential characteristics of red culture scientifically and completely.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)<br /> <br /> ====2. Symbols====<br /> <br /> The word “red” in “red culture” has many symbols. Chinese people have “red” complex since ancient time. Red represents authority. For, example, official documents are also called red heading documents. Red represents courage. Red is the color of Chinese national flag. Chinese military strategists and generals have a deep understanding of the role of red in war, so they use red flags to unite their morale, inspire their fighting and their courage, and summon the spirit of going forward bravely and not fearing sacrifice. Red represents honor and auspiciousness. For instance, the places are always adorned with red for conference and ceremony. People are awarded with red flower and red certificates. Red represents revolution. When Marx was asked about &quot;favorite color&quot; in his early years, he clearly answered &quot;red&quot;. In 1864, First International was founded, and its logo was red. The first army of Communist Party of China was named Red Army, and Ruijin, the first revolutionary base area, was called Red Capital. There were also red boats in South Lake and red flags in Jinggangshan.(Chen dongwang, Huang Weiliang 2006, 19)<br /> <br /> ====3. Values====<br /> <br /> Red culture has many values. Red culture has the value of history. It witnesses the early development history of the Communist Party of China. It shows the inevitability of the socialist road in China. And it is an important weapon to guide the success of Chinese revolution. Besides, red culture has the value of civilization. Carrying forward the red culture is an urgent need to cultivate a new national spirit. Red culture is important for the construction of socialism culture and ideology. Moreover, red culture has the value of economy. Red culture is a powerful driving force for the development of socialist market economy. It is an important medium of economic development under the new historical conditions. The red cultural industry has become a new economic growth point.(Wang Yidi 2007, 149)<br /> <br /> ====4. Red Culture in Nanchang====<br /> <br /> Nanchang is the capital city of Jiangxi Province and it is where August 1st uprising took place. Nanchang is renowned as the cradle of Chinese revolution and the place where the military flag rose. Because in August 1st uprising, communist party of china formed its first army in Nanchang. There are lots of red culture resources in Nanchang. <br /> <br /> Bayi Square is at the center of Nanchang city. It was built to memorize August 1st uprising. Bayi Square highlights the theme of &quot;Bayi History and Culture&quot; in all directions. The memorial area, cultural area, reminiscence area and leisure area of Bayi Square show Bayi Uprising in different forms. The landmark in the square is Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower. Besides, Nangchang August 1st Memorial Hall is a special memorial hall established to commemorate Nanchang Uprising.（Peng Bo, Zhang Li, Li Jiangyuan 2006, 58）<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] 程东旺, 黄伟良. “红色文化”的价值形态与德育功能探析[J]. 现代教育科学, 2006: 19-21.<br /> <br /> [2] 罗丽琳,蒲清平. 红色文化的思想政治教育基因及其时代价值[J].新疆师范大学学报, 2018: 45-52<br /> <br /> [3] 彭波, 张丽, 李江源. 整合红色资源,提升江西文化力[J]. 江西崛起策论, 2006:58-60.<br /> <br /> [4] 王以第. “红色文化”的价值内涵[J]. 文化论苑, 2007:149-150.<br /> <br /> [5] 习近平, 决胜全面建成小康社会 夺取新时代中国特色社会主义伟大胜利——在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告,人民日报,2017.<br /> <br /> [6] 朱桂莲,李晶. 德育视角下的中国红色文化研究综述[J]. 研究综述, 2010:87-89.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> red culture 红色文化<br /> <br /> Opium War 鸦片战争<br /> <br /> red heading documents 红头文件<br /> <br /> red army 红军<br /> <br /> August 1st uprising 八一起义<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1. What is the historical background of the birth of red culture?<br /> <br /> 2. What are two major components of red culture?<br /> <br /> 3. How many symbols dose the word &quot;red&quot; in red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 4. How many values dose red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 5. What is the landmark in Bayi Square?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1. In modern China, Communist Party of China led the Chinese revolution and led people to fight against suppression.<br /> <br /> 2. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture<br /> <br /> 3. Four. Authority, courage, honor and revolution.<br /> <br /> 4. Three. History value, civilization value and economic value.<br /> <br /> 5. Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower<br /> <br /> ==Landscape, The Ancient Tea Horse Road - Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> <br /> ===The Ancient Tea Horse Road===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. The ancient tea horse road is divided into two routes: the Sichuan-Tibet line and the Yunnan-Tibet line. The ancient tea horse road originated from the ancient southwest frontier of the tea horse mutual market, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and most prosperous in the middle and late World War II. The ancient Tea Horse Road divided into Shanxi-Gan, Shanxi-Kangtang (folk called wade ancient road, Sichuan-Tibet line is part of it), Yunnan-Tibet and other three main routes, connecting Sichuan, Yunnan-Tibet, extending into the territory of Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal, India, until reaching West Asia, West Africa, the Red Sea coast. 5 March 2013, the Tea Horse Road was listed by the State Council as the seventh batch of national key cultural relics conservation units.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> ====Historical Routes====<br /> China’s ancient tea horse road is divided into:<br /> 1. The Shanxi-Gansu tea horse road is the main route for tea to travel westward in mainland China and exchange for horses. It is one of the main routes of the ancient Silk Road.<br /> <br /> 2. Shanxi and Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road), began in the Han Dynasty, formed by the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse each other. Due to the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government control of tea trafficking, tea trafficking sub-regional, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road.((Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 3. the ancient Yunnan-Tibet Tea Horse Road. Formed around the late sixth century AD, it is south of Yunnan's main tea producing areas in Xishuangbanna Yiwu, Pu'er City, intermediate through today's Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture and Lijiang City, Shangri-La into Tibet, directly to Lhasa. Some also re-exported from Tibet to India and Nepal, is an important trade channel between ancient China and South Asia.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 4.Sichuan-Tibet Tea Horse Road is a part of the Shan-Kang-Tibet Tea Horse Road, east of Yazhou edge tea production Ya'an, after playing arrow furnace (now Kangding), west to Lhasa, Tibet, and finally through to Bhutan, Nepal and India, a total length of nearly four thousand kilometers, is an essential bridge and link between ancient Tibet and the interior.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> There are three main routes of the ancient tea-horse road: The Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line. <br /> <br /> Among the three ancient tea-horse roads, the Qinghai-Tibet line was established in the Tang Dynasty and developed earlier, while the Sichuan-Tibet line was the most influential and well-known later. These three routes are closely related to Chengdu, among them, the Yunnan-Tibet route and the Sichuan-Tibet route must pass through Chengdu, and their development is closely related to the tea-horse trade.<br /> <br /> Shanxi- Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road), was formed in the Han dynasty through the efforts of the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government controlled tea traffickin along the tea trafficking sub-region, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:02, 7 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> ====Historical Value====<br /> The Silk Road in the north and the ancient Tea Horse Road in the south. The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization. However, its history and value will always shine brightly.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 1.The Golden Road of Tourism<br /> <br /> The ancient tea-horse road tour has unique scenery, profound cultural connotation, exclusive resources and is unparalleled in the world.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 2. Ancient Roads for the Propagation of Civilization<br /> <br /> The ancient Tea Horse Road was not only an important migration corridor for the ancient ancestors between Wei-Tibet and present Sichuan and Yunnan, but also an important aperture for the spread and exchange of ancient civilizations between present Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 3.Migration Corridor of National Cultures<br /> <br /> On this ancient road, which stretches for more than 10,000 miles, Chinese, Tibetan, Yi, Naxi, Lisu, Hani, Kino, Qiang, Pumi, Bai, Nu, Jingpo, Achang and other ethnic groups have flourished here for thousands of years, highlighting the diversity and original form of ethnic culture in southwest China.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 4.Religious Propagation Road<br /> <br /> With the development of the tea-horse trade and the extension of the ancient tea-horse route, Tibetan Buddhism spread widely along this route on the Tibetan Plateau and surrounding areas. The development and spread of Tibetan stupas can be roughly divided into two routes: one is Tibet - Qinghai - Gansu - Inner Mongolia - the other is Tibet - Qinghai - Gansu - Inner Mongolia. -Liaoning--Jilin--Heilongjiang--Beijing--Hebei --Henan--Jiangsu; second, Tibet--Yunnan--Sichuan. --Guangxi--Hubei.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 5. The Path of National Spirituality<br /> <br /> You can't talk about the ancient tea-horse road without mentioning the horse gangs. The horse gangs have formed a unique cultural carrier in the course of thousands of years. Their spirit is attached to this ancient road, and become part of the Chinese national spirit.(Baidu Baike)<br /> 6.The Road of National Unity and Integration<br /> <br /> The ancient tea-horse road is like a huge net in southwest China, through which people of all nationalities strengthen their ties and communication, promote political, economic and cultural interaction, development and integration among all nationalities, and enhance the emotional ties between them.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 7.The Road of Securing the Borders<br /> <br /> The expansion of the ancient tea-horse road and the flourishing of the tea-horse trade contributed to the stability and consolidation of China's southwest frontier.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 8.The road to economic development<br /> <br /> The Thousand-Year Tea Horse Trail contributed to the formation of many towns in the region through the tea and horse trade, which greatly contributed to the economic development of the region.(Baidu Baike)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:42, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road(茶马古道)<br /> <br /> 2.Sichuan-Tibet Line（川藏线）<br /> <br /> 3.Yunnan-Tibet line（滇藏线）<br /> <br /> 4.wade ancient road（蹚古道）<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What is the ancient tea horse road ?<br /> <br /> 2.How many main routes does the ancient tea-horse road conclude?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the historical value?<br /> --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 04:15, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. <br /> <br /> 2.There are three main routes, including the Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line.<br /> <br /> 3.The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> The Chinese text rooted in Baidu Baike. The website as following:https://baike.baidu.com.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:15, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Literature, Novels - Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> <br /> ===Four satirical novels in ancient China===<br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.<br /> <br /> ==== Nie Hai Hua====<br /> Nie Hai Hua was written by Zen Pu (1872-1935).A total of 35 chapters.it is a novel of condemnation, historical fiction and political fiction. In the novel, Jin yun (wen qing) is the main character.After won the scholarship, he took a famous courtesan, Fu Caiyun, as his concubine in Suzhou.He was then ordered to travel to Russia, Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands. After returning to China, Jin Wenqing died of illness in Beijing, and Fu Caiyun left the Jin family to resume her old profession in Shanghai, changing her name to Cao Menglan then went to Tianjin to work as a prostitute, calling herself Sai Jinhua.<br /> The novel takes the story of Jin Wenqing and Fu Caiyun as the main line, vividly describes the historical and cultural changes as well as political and social changes from Tongzhi to Guangxu more than 30 years, exposing the decay and decline of the rulers, criticizing the feudal system of imperial examination, satirizing the officials, truly reflecting their spiritual life and cultural mentality. at the same time also enthusiastically glorifies Feng Zicai, Liu Yongfu and other war heroes and Sun Yat-sen and so on. The revolutionary activities of the Democratic Revolutionaries express the author's patriotic thoughts against the feudal dictatorship and advocate national democratic revolution. In specific writing, the author adopts the modern popular block novel structure combined with the traditional mesh novel structure to unfold the plot, with ups and downs, twists and turns, touching and orderly, always around the main line.<br /> As a historical novel, Nie Hai Hua draws on the spirit of the ancient &quot;good history&quot; of China to portray its characters. At the same time, it draws on the satirical approach of &quot;The History of Confucianism&quot; in which &quot;the fair-minded accuse the evils of the times&quot;, commenting on events and weighing characters in a realistic manner. In terms of art, Nie Hai Hua also has many shortcomings.However, it is a skillful structure and outstanding novel at that time.<br /> <br /> ==== the Travels of an Old Man====<br /> The Travels of an Old Man was written by Liu E (1857-1909) and a total of 20 chapters. Liu E was an entrepreneur and scholar, not a professional writer, but his reputation as a literary figure was far greater than that of an entrepreneur and scholar. This novel is an unfinished work of his that was written in his later years with an autobiographical nature.<br /> The novel takes a bell-ringing mountebank, Lao can (Tie Ying), as its main character, and narrates his experiences and activities during his travels in northern China, exposing the decadence and darkness of the Qing government, the brutality and lethargy of the officials, and the poverty and oppression of the people, especially attacking the abusive behavior of those &quot;Qing officials&quot; who are actually cruel officials, and expressing the author's strong views on the perilous reality of society and the country. <br /> The artistic achievement of the novel is very high. The first is the superb descriptive skills, whether it is a description, a landscape, or a narrative, can be vividly depicted, such as the scenery of Thousand Buddha Mountain, Daming Lake etc., which makes people have a sense of being in the real world. Secondly, its psychological description and psychological analysis, with appropriate language, can brilliantly show the inner world of the characters. Thirdly, the exquisite structural art. The novel is in the form of a Travel Journal, with travel as a clue,and organic combined of what he see, hear, think and do along the way forms a unique structural feature of the novel.<br /> <br /> ==== The Records of Officialdom Exposure====<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure by Li Baojia (1867-1906), five editions and a total of 60 chapters. This is the first long chapter novel in China's modern era that was published serially in newspapers and magazines and achieved a social sensation, creating a culture of critical reality in modern fiction.<br /> The novel consists of more than 30 relatively independent bureaucratic stories linked together,involving the Qing government from the emperor, down to the minor officials and so on,and these various bureaucrats of all kinds of evil behavior were exposed:They embezzled public funds, corrupt and pervert the law or the named &quot;expedition bandits&quot;, but is harmful to the people. The work is like a scroll of the officialdom at the end of the feudal society, touching on the main contradictions of that time.<br /> The novel's writing method is modelled on &quot;The Scholars&quot; and has been developed, making full use of exaggeration, comic style and satirical techniques. only a few strokes will outline the character's voice and physical appearance. And the author also good at describing the details, so that the characters are vivid and evocative, with a strong artistic impact. Therefore, the subsequent imitation of the work is quite a lot, it become a great view.<br /> <br /> ==== 20 years witness strange present situation====<br /> The Strange Situation Witnessed in Twenty Years was written by Wu Woyao(1866-1910), A total of 60 chapters. This is a long novel with autobiographical flavor.it through nearly 200 short stories that the protagonist hears and witnesses from the death of his father to his failure in business. it outlines the strange realities of late Qing society during the 20 years from the Sino-French War to the beginning of the 20th century.<br /> The scope of social life is much broader than The Records of Officialdom Exposure. In addition to describing the officialdom, there are also involving the shopping malls, foreign markets, science fields, medical and astrological practices. It exposes the political situation, moral outlook, social customs, and human conditions of the increasingly colonized Chinese feudal society, and is of high cognitive value in helping readers to see the irreparable historical destiny of the late Qing society and feudal system.<br /> The novel adopts the first-person narrative story, structured in a way that makes the reader feel intimate and trustworthy, setting a precedent in the history of Chinese fiction. The structure is also very clever: &quot;nine deaths and a lifetime&quot; is not only the narrator of the book story, but also the backbone of the structure of the book, and at the same time uses flashbacks, interpolations and other methods, combining it organically together, making the whole book complex and simple appropriate, muddle together.<br /> <br /> ==== Conclution====<br /> As a result of the bourgeois reformists and democratic revolutionaries strongly advocated, the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty got unprecedented development, and a large number of influential novels emerged, forming a prosperous situation of the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty.The emergence of the &quot;Four satirical novels&quot; in the late Qing Dynasty is an important sign that The creation of Chinese novels has entered another prosperous period.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E6%99%9A%E6%B8%85%E5%9B%9B%E5%A4%A7%E8%B0%B4%E8%B4%A3%E5%B0%8F%E8%AF%B4/702907?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure 《官场现形记》<br /> <br /> The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years 《二十年之目睹怪现象》<br /> <br /> the Travels of an Old Man 《老残游记》<br /> <br /> Nai Hai Hua 《孽海花》<br /> <br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty 晚清四大谴责小说<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1、what are The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty ?<br /> <br /> 2、which novel is modeled the &quot;The Scholars&quot;?<br /> <br /> 3、what’s the common characteristic of these four novels? <br /> <br /> 4、what other satirical novels do you know?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1、They are Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua.<br /> <br /> 2、The Records of Officialdom Exposure<br /> <br /> 3、The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time.<br /> <br /> 4、E.g.The Scholars<br /> <br /> ==Shadow Puppets - Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> ===Shadow Puppets Li Lili No.202070080594===<br /> ====The Origin of Shadow Play====<br /> Shadow play has a history of more than 2000 years from the written records. Legend has it that Madame Li, the wife of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, died of illness. Emperor Wu's yearning was so intense that he was in a trance and ignored the government's affairs all day. Minister Li Shaoweng went out one day when he came across a child playing with a doll in his hand, with its shadow being vivid. So he came up with an idea that he could cut the image of Mrs. Li from cotton and silk, painted it with color, and installed wooden poles on her hands and feet. After seeing it, Emperor Wu was glued to it and couldn't put it down. This love story written in Hanshu is considered to be the earliest origin of shadow play. There are also some views that shadow play originated in Xi'an of Tang Dynasty, however, it is worth discussing that although there were an variety of operas in the Tang Dynasty, yet there were no any records of shadow play mentioned in the Tang Dynasty. Up to now, the earliest shadow play we can see is recorded in Song Dynasty. Its rise and development in Bianjing of the Northern Song Dynasty is closely related to Bianjing’s superior geographical environment, the development of commodity trade and commercial transportation at that time.(Wei Liqun 2018,13-14)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> More than 2,000 years ago, Chinese began to give performances using puppets against an illuminated screen. This is “shadow puppets”, also known as “lamp and shadow play”. It is considered as “precursor of movie” because it was the earliest moving part of form dubbed with human voice in the world. During a play, puppeteers hide behind the white screen and move puppets, while narrating the story, usually through singing. Performances are accompanied by musicians playing percussion and stringed instruments. A shadow puppet can perform actions such as “serving drinks” , “waving a sword and a spear, ” or even “smoking ”by puppeteer holding and moving manipulating rods on its body. Typically, a shadow puppet has three rods, some may have five or seven rods. It can create rich designs such as shadow puppets, animals and stage props, for example, buildings, imperial palaces, chariots, tables and chairs as well as weapons. It is so rich that it includes almost everything under the sun.It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools. The well-known ones include Tangshan Shadow Play in Hebei Province, Beijing Shadow Play as well as Shaanxi, Shanxi and Hunan Shadow Play. etc.(Wang Yexia 2012,1-3)<br /> <br /> So how to make a puppet? First. Draw pictures of the various parts of the shadow puppets; second, finish carving with a knife and a hard board underneath the design; third, color the puppet with watercolor pens; forth, paint the body parts with a brush dipped in oil. This can make the puppet transparent and better reflect colors under the light.; fifth, connect joint sections with the cotton thread; sixth, make the manipulating rods; finally, attach the manipulating rods to the shadow puppet with cotton thread. The “head” is the most important part of a shadow puppet and its total component number is about four times that of the “body”. A shadow puppet’s “head”. And the “body” can be mixed and matched with each other. (Wang Yexia 2012,29-33)<br /> <br /> The eyes and the eyebrows of a shadow puppet’s five facial features represent different personalities. The good and positive people are typical of a benevolent and kind countenance, with nice-looking eyebrows and eyes, while the villain or the general are ferocious look, with sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes. And the former are often concealed teeth and the latter are revealed teeth. The middle-aged person are short beard, but the elderly man are long beard. The decorative designs on the shadow puppets are very important and match the character’s social status. In a shadow play, female characters are usually decorated with patters such as flowers, grass, clouds and phoenix, while male characters are often decorated with dragons, tigers, water and clouds. Shadows puppets look colorful under the light. To achieve a better visual effect, the translucent puppets need to be painted on both sides. The head of color can also represent different characters’ personalities. The red is symbol of a heroic and upstanding character. The black is a sign of a just, honest and selfless personality. The yellow shows a brave and irascible character, also are used in fantasy plays to represent people with magic power. To make a shadow puppet move flexibly, a complete figure often has many components such as a head, a chest,a belly, two legs, two arms, two elbows, two hands. (Wang Yexia 2012,9-16)<br /> <br /> ====The Present Situation of Contemporary Shadow Play====<br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, shadow play, as an art form, has undergone a series of reforms under the guidance of the Party's principles, including the organization of theatrical troupes, the compilation and creation of plays, the drawing and performing forms of shadow play. With the advent of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, the prosperity of shadow play came to an abrupt end. The troupe was disbanded, the repertoire was banned, and the artists were transferred to work. A large number of precious shadow puppet props and documents were damaged. This situation, except for some places, lasted until 1976. After the end of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, shadow puppet art recovered rapidly, However, with the economic development being put in the first place of social activities and the popularity of television and the richness of artistic forms, shadow play is declining day by day with an irresistible trend, because shadow play arts are unable to keep pace with the times and get the appreciation of the audience. As a result, the prospect of shadow play art is becoming increasingly bleak. （Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）<br /> In order to inherit Chinese excellent culture and protect the ancient art forms such as shadow play. On May 20, 2006, it was approved by the State Council to be included in the first part of national intangible cultural heritage list. On November 27, 2011, UNESCO put Chinese shadow play on the &quot;list of representative works of human intangible cultural heritage&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===References：===<br /> 王业霞 《皮影戏》 北京：高等教育出版社 2012 Wang Yexia [Shadow Play] Beijing: [Higher Education Publishing House] 2012<br /> <br /> 魏力群 《小书大传承-皮影》 重庆：重庆出版社 2018 Wei Liqun [&quot;Small Book, Big Heritage - Shadow Play&quot;] Chongqing: [Chongqing Publishing House] 2018<br /> <br /> 朱恒夫 中国皮影戏的历史，现状与剧目特征[J] 浙江艺术职业学院学报 2020(18) Zhu [Hengfu The History, Current Situation and Repertoire Characteristics of Chinese Shadow Theatre][J] [Journal of Zhejiang Arts Vocational College] 2020(18)<br /> <br /> ===Words and Expressions===<br /> shadow puppet皮影戏 <br /> paper cutting 剪纸<br /> ventriloquism 口技<br /> manipulating rod 操纵杆<br /> five facial features 五官<br /> sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes 尖眉杏眼<br /> Cultural Revolution 文化大革命<br /> intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1.When is the earliest shadow puppet’s record?<br /> <br /> 2.What art of forms do shadow play use?<br /> <br /> 3. What does a red head stand for in a play?<br /> <br /> 4.When is it put on the list of intangible cultural heritage&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.Song dynasty.<br /> <br /> 2.It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools.<br /> <br /> 3.The red is symbol of a heroic and upstanding character.<br /> <br /> 4. On November 27, 2011.<br /> <br /> ==Confucian Culture - Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Confucian Culture ===<br /> <br /> <br /> ==== Introduction ====<br /> <br /> Confucian school is an academic school founded by Confucius, developed by Mencius, and composed by Xunzi. Today, it still retains a certain vitality. Confucian school takes Confucianism as its guiding ideology whose central ideas are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 31)<br /> <br /> Confucian school was on an equal footing with the other hundred schools in the pre-Qin period. After the First Emperor of Qin, also called Qin Shihuang, burned books and buried scholars alive, the development of the Confucian school suffered a serious defeat. Then, in order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's advice of &quot;banishing other schools of thought and worshiping Confucianism only&quot; and imposed restrictions on thought, which led to the revival of Confucian school. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 20) The concepts of &quot;Confucian school&quot;, &quot;Confucianism&quot;, and &quot;Confucian Religion&quot; should be distinguished since Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism a social stratification, and Confucian religion belief. (Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 2017, 60-61)<br /> <br /> Laozi founded Chinese Taoist school; Confucius started Chinese Confucian school; Sun Tzu initiated Chinese military strategist school; Mozi was the founder of Mohism in the early Warring States. Confucianism contributes to guiding the code of conduct and constructing social order; Taoism focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalism serves the system construction of national political management.; the concepts of Universal Love and utilitarianism are two cornerstones for the Mohism. The General Unity idea of Confucianism has played an important role in the unification of a nation, the enhancement of national cohesion and the integration of cultural values. (Tan Su 2012, 68) After more than two thousand years of development and evolution, Confucian culture has built up a complete ideological system, involving politics, education, morality, ethics, code of conduct, life skills and other aspects. It has cultivated the wisdom and soul of the Chinese people throughout the history, and formed deep-rooted set patterns of thinking, psychology and survival. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42-43)<br /> <br /> ==== Analysis of Confucian Culture ====<br /> <br /> ===== Intelligence Development =====<br /> <br /> Confucius is a great educator, as well as a pioneer and practitioner of mass education. After Confucianism was established as a dominant culture, both the rulers and the public respected the teachings of the sage and attached great importance to education. In this context, a basic requirement is to stay highly cultured and steeped in propriety. After the Emperor Wen initiated the imperial examination system in the Sui Dynasty, those who are good scholars could make an official, which inspired students of poor families to change their lives by studying hard and diligent. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 19) For generations, the Chinese people have attached great importance to the education of their children, which is conducive to the improvement of the thinking ability of the whole nation. <br /> <br /> However, the corrupt of bureaucracy and the darkness of officialdom in metaphase and anaphase made many literati feel despairing about official career and discredit about the concept. In addition, the Four Books and Five Classics were the main learning content of Confucianism. Apart from government-run schools, private schools and self-study can hardly meet the requirements of the Six Classical Arts. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 21) Therefore, the Four Books and Five Classics were the focus of students, while the Six Classical Arts were not highly valued. <br /> <br /> =====Spiritual Guidance =====<br /> <br /> In terms of spirit, Confucianism contends that &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.&quot; (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 86) Benevolent people love each other, which reflects the essence of “Unity of Man and Nature” and also the most brilliant connotation of Confucianism. This philosophy calls for people’s active contributions to the society. It is still alive in modern times, and is the fundamental requirement of people's spiritual orientation in the future. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32)<br /> <br /> =====Order Construction =====<br /> <br /> In the age of barbarism and backwardness, a common feature was that a small number of people used power and force to suppress and enslave the majority, thus resulting in labor division and unfair distribution of wealth and generating corresponding social hierarchy and concepts. Given the fact that Confucianism developed in the transitional period of feudal society, the thoughts of Confucius and Mencius were rooted in the idealist view of destiny and did not break the shackles of social hierarchy. In addition, they even advocated the distinguish between the noble and the humble and highlighted the importance of hierarchy division. In this context, the benevolence they advocated had great limitations in political management. The public could not be treated equally in terms of political status. Instead, the so-called benevolence calls for improvement of the living conditions of the public and more benefits from the ruling class. However, its purpose was to maintain social order and reconcile social contradictions. This is also the root cause of feudal rulers’ favoring of Confucianism. In essence, Confucianism did not promote social equality, instead, it worked to maintain the unequal feudal hierarchy that aggravated servitude. In fact, after a long history of feudal rule, the sense of hierarchy would be part of the national psyche. With the progress of times and civilization, the view of destiny and the thought of social order have become psychological shackles of the Chinese people. (Li Fangping 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> After eliminating the ideology of feudal hierarchy and formalism, some philosophies of Confucianism still generate positive effects on modern society. Specifically, the spirit of benevolence and universal love is conducive to cultivate people’s spirits; (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 33) the concept of “the country belongs to the public” reflects a sense of social responsibility to make contributions for society, which can be expanded into a sharing social and political philosophy for different countries. Filial piety and brotherhood increase the harmony and stability of family; Loyalty, faithfulness, propriety and forgiveness are conducive to the relationship between different countries, societies and people. &quot;Loyalty&quot; means that people should stay loyal to the country and people; &quot;Friendliness&quot; and &quot;forgiveness&quot; play an important role in resolving various contradictions and animosities; when it comes to &quot;filial piety&quot; and &quot;propriety&quot;, many redundant forms inherited from feudal society should be eradicated and be more practical. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-41)<br /> <br /> ====The Contemporary Value of Confucian Culture ====<br /> <br /> Today, Confucian culture is still of great significance. We must explore the value of Confucian culture on the basis of the excellent tradition of the Chinese nation and by combining the characteristics of the times with and the actual situation. The Confucian culture has affected Chinese more than two thousand years and gone deep into each aspect of Chinese society. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39)<br /> <br /> =====Ideological and Political Education =====<br /> <br /> Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy, and it places a high priority on human value and dignity. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 51-57) Over the years, the Chinese nation has been influenced by this excellent philosophy. On this occasion, its behavioral pattern and psychological structure are endowed with uniqueness, which is mainly manifested in two aspects. One is to respect yourself, learn how to love and care yourself. Moreover, gain dignity and achieve the development of human value through the continuous improvement of moral cultivation. Second, respect others and show respect for others' personality by respecting, understanding and caring for others. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-40)<br /> <br /> ===== Modern Economic Construction=====<br /> <br /> Under today’s circumstance, some ideological contents are still alive and produce positive effects on promoting the economic construction of modernization and fostering modern patriotism emotion of the Chinese people. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65)<br /> <br /> First of all, Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of &quot;benevolence&quot; and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65) Since Confucian culture reflects a collectivist view on life, individuals are full of sense of duty and responsibility towards others and groups. In this context, their self-cultivation targets at regulating the family, country and the world. Thus, the value of individual is closely linked with the rise and fall of the country, so they have a strong sense of responsibility. (Tan Su 2012, 68) &quot;Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country&quot; has been a common belief for thousands of years. Such a social responsibility will give rise to a huge driving force for the development of the country and society.<br /> <br /> Second, the consciousness of &quot;self-improvement&quot; and the proposition of &quot;seeking truth&quot; in the Confucian culture strengthen the national spirit and provide a source power for China’s economic modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 66) Yi Zhuan put forward: &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection.’’ It means that continuous development is the law of nature and that a gentleman should pursue progress and be strong, unyielding resilient and positive. For thousands of years, the Chinese nation has formed a fine tradition of working hard and striving for strength under the influence of these thoughts. Today, we carry forward the spirits of “self-improvement” and &quot;seeking truth&quot; in ways that further enhance national spirits and provide a strong driving force for the socialist modernization.<br /> <br /> Third, the &quot;reform and innovation&quot; concept in Confucian culture is conducive to the expansion of the reform and opening up and the acceleration of China's socialist modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 67) On the basis of admitting the fact that the continuous development is the universal law of nature, Confucian culture puts forward the &quot;innovation idea&quot;. The Book of Rites said, &quot;If you can in one day renovate yourself; do so from day to day and let there be daily renovation.&quot; The Book of Changes said, &quot;Reform refers to destroy the old, while innovation means to establish the new.” The concept is not only serves as the theoretical basis for reform and innovation throughout the history, but also provides valuable lessons for the reform in socialist economic and political systems today. Domestically, promoting the innovative spirits can greatly enhance the reform consciousness of the Chinese people. Externally, it is conducive to advancing the opening up by leveraging the global influence of Confucian culture.<br /> <br /> ===== Legal Construction =====<br /> <br /> Confucian culture places a high priority on personal cultivation, while a highly civilized society under the rule of law must be composed of highly educated citizens. Confucian school, a school with thousands of years of history in China, has become an integral part of the Chinese culture. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32-33) Nowadays, since China has called for the policy of combining the rule of virtue with the rule of law, it is the time for Confucian culture to find its historical position and fully play its role. Exploring the influence of Confucian culture on the construction of contemporary Chinese rule by law, not only can we help us more deeply understand the traditional culture, but also can promote the process of building the rule of law in contemporary China. <br /> <br /> The rule by virtue thought is an important part of Confucian culture and it emphasizes the importance of moral education. It is a national strategy pursued by ancient Chinese rulers and a method of national governance embodying reference significance in today’s China. (Wei Na 2014, 1-2) In terms of national governance, Confucianism emphasizes the importance of morality, believing that national governance should not mainly rely on harsh punishment, instead, moral education should be applied to reform people. Confucius said, &quot;By governing with virtue, rulers will be loved by the public, just like stars surround the North Star.&quot; By comparing rulers to the North Star and people to the stars, Confucius emphasized the importance of moral governance. (Wang Jie 2004, 77)<br /> <br /> How to rule by virtue? First of all, rulers should pay attention to their personal cultivation and develop good moral characters, so that they can set a good example for the public. Only when officials and common people obey the ruler sincerely, can a good social atmosphere be formed. Secondly, since Confucianism takes &quot;benevolence&quot; as its core and calls for the rule of virtue, many people subconsciously believe that Confucianism denies the role of criminal law and that Confucian culture does not call for the rule of law. In fact, this is not the case. While Confucianism advocates the rule of virtue, it also emphasizes the supplementary role of rule of law. (Wang Jie 2004, 82-83) Confucius said, &quot;Sages believe that national governance must combine the rule of virtue and law.&quot; That is to say, if people are governed by systems and laws, they seek for impunity but lack of conscience; however, if they are guided by morality and etiquette, they will have a sense of right and wrong and will impose strict requirements on themselves.<br /> <br /> In a word, we should clearly realize that, although Confucian culture is an excellent traditional culture in China, it was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. Under this circumstance, we must analyse Confucian culture dialectically and explore the value of Confucian culture. At the same time, we should discard the bad habits and unfavorable factors left by it, so as to better carry forward our traditional culture and accelerate the construction of the rule of law in contemporary China. (Wang Jie 2004, 83) <br /> <br /> ====The Confucius Institute ====<br /> <br /> With the improvement of China's international status and the increasingly extensive international exchanges, Chinese culture has won wider foreign attention and the world is more eager to learn and understand the Chinese culture. The Confucius Institute project, founded in 2004, emerges in response to the call of the times. Today, Confucius Institutes have spread throughout Asia, Africa, The Americas, Europe and Oceania. (Wang Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 30) Fundamentally speaking, its is conducive to the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture since language is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is of positive significance to the construction of China's national image, the promotion of China's international influence, the realization of wider international communication.<br /> <br /> The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Today, countries are committed to spreading their own language and culture, so there is a fierce competition in international cultural promotion. In addition, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. At present, Confucius Institutes are prevalent all over the world, but the promotion strategy seeking for quantity and speed results in a serious shortage of teachers capable of teaching Chinese as a foreign language. According to statistics, there is a global shortage of at least five million TCSL teachers. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 31) Secondly, the lack of high-quality and localized teaching materials for Chinese has also become a bottleneck for the development of Confucius Institutes. The shortage of Chinese textbooks affects the depth of cultural communication of Confucius Institutes directly. Thirdly, Confucius Institutes are not capable of spreading the ideological depth of the Chinese culture. Although the textbooks are rich in content, they mainly focus on promoting folk culture by introducing Chinese food, tea and wine, traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts. Meanwhile, they rarely involve the ideological essence of traditional Chinese culture and the modern value of Chinese culture. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 32)<br /> <br /> The Confucius Institutes should fully explore the modern significance of Confucianism and cast the quintessence of Chinese culture, and strengthen the spread of the core idea of Chinese culture and its modern cultural value. The connotation of Chinese culture is very rich. What Confucius Institutes should spread is not all the contents of Chinese culture, but the contents with universal value that are different from other countries and represent the essence of Chinese culture. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions ====<br /> <br /> 儒家 Confucian school<br /> <br /> 儒学 Confucianism<br /> <br /> 儒教 Confucian religion <br /> <br /> 兼爱 Universal love<br /> <br /> 恕、忠、孝、悌、勇 forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage<br /> <br /> 仁、义、礼、智、信 benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith<br /> <br /> 学而优则仕 A good scholar will make an official<br /> <br /> 四书五经 the Four Books and Five Classics<br /> <br /> 天行健，君子当自强不息；地势坤，君子以厚德载物。As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.<br /> <br /> 天下兴亡，匹夫有责 Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country<br /> <br /> ====Questions ====<br /> <br /> 1. What’s the central ideas of Confucian culture?<br /> <br /> 2. What’s the difference among Confucian school, Confucianism and Confucian religion?<br /> <br /> 3. What do you think of the relationship between Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school, Legalist school?<br /> <br /> 4. What’s the Six Classical Arts?<br /> <br /> 5. What you think of the ancient influence of Confucianism?<br /> <br /> 6. Do you think Confucian culture still has its contemporary values in China? And why?<br /> <br /> 7. What do you think of the current situation of the development of the Confucian institute?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1. The central ideas of Confucian culture are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith.<br /> <br /> 2. Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism is a social stratification, and Confucian is a religion belief.<br /> <br /> 3. Confucian school emphasizes the code of conduct and the social order construction; Taoist school focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalist school serves the system construction of national political management; Mohist school emphasizes Universal Love and utilitarianism. Although Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school and Legalist school are different schools with different theories, they are not completely antagonistic. <br /> <br /> 4. The Six Classical Arts refers to propriety(礼), music（乐）, archery（射）, riding（御）, writing（书） and arithematic（数）. <br /> <br /> 5. The ancient influence of Confucianism should be analysed from a historical perspective. It was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. While contributing to intelligence development, spiritual guidance and order construction to some extent, it has also led to some negative effects in the long run. For example, it called for rigid feudal hierarchy and resulted in spiritual constraints. <br /> <br /> 6. Yes. Although Confucian culture has a history of thousands of years, it still has contemporary values in today's society. For instance, Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy and places a high priority on human value and dignity, which is still of profound significance; Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of &quot;benevolence&quot; and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy.<br /> <br /> 7. The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Nowadays, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. Joint efforts of all social sectors should be made to achieve the sustainable development of it. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 陈智斌, 杜艾红. (2017). 儒学、儒家、儒教之异同 [The Differences and Similarities of Confucian School, Confucianism and Confucian Religion]. ''审计月刊'' Audit Monthly. <br /> <br /> Li Chenzong 李承宗. (2002). 论儒家文化对培养现代爱国主义情感的积极作用 [On the Positive Effects of Confucian Culture on Cultivating Patriotism]. ''廊坊师范学院学报'' Journal of Langfang Teachers College. <br /> <br /> Li Fangping 李芳萍. (2013). 儒家思想对中国文化的影响研究 [A Study on the Influence of Confucianism on Chinese Culture]. ''前沿'' Forward Position.<br /> <br /> Li Xiaoyu 李晓愚. (2010). 儒家仁爱思想的当代诠释 [Contemporary Interpretation of Benevolence]. ''郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Zhengzhou University. <br /> <br /> Tan Su 谭苏. (2012). 论春秋战国时期的百家争鸣 [On the Competition of Ideas in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period]. ''兰台世界'' Lantai World. <br /> <br /> Wang Jie 王杰. (2004). 为政以德: 孔子的德治主义治国模式 [Rule of Virtue: Confucian’s Model of Governance]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C．<br /> <br /> Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 吴瑛, 提文静. (2009). 孔子学院的发展现状与问题分析 [The Development Status and Problems of Confucius Institute]. ''云南师范大学学报 (对外汉语教学与研究版)'' Journal of Yunnan Normal University. <br /> <br /> Xiang Chunling 向春玲. (2008). 儒家文化的现代意义 [On Modern Significance of Confucian Culture]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C．<br /> <br /> Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (1990). ''中国儒学思想史'' [The History of Chinese Confucianism]. 陕西：陕西人民出版社 Shaanxi: Shaanxi People’s Publishing House.<br /> <br /> ==Ch'ien Chung-shu Liu Liu 刘柳， 202070080596==<br /> <br /> ====Ch'ien Chung-shu====<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu (1910-1998), a well-known scholar, writer, translator and literary researcher, was born into an education family in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province. In Chinese academic circles, Qian was ranked with Rao Zongyi, a master in academic circles, and both were called &quot;South Rao and North Qian&quot;. He was admitted to Tsinghua University in 1929 and got to know Yang Jiang in 1932. Qian became famous soon after the enrolment, not only for the 15 mark of his mathematics, but for his excellent Chinese and English, especially full marks in English. Qian had an engagement with Yang the year after their acquaintance and went to study at Oxford University in England along with her. In 1937, he obtained the bachelor's degree from Oxford with the treatise ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries'', and his daughter Qian Yuan was born the same year. He wrote a great many profound literary works in his lifetime. When it comes to Ch'ien Chung-shu, people would think of his representative work ''Fortress Besieged'', which was published in 1947.<br /> <br /> As a realistic satirical novel, ''Fortress Besieged'' is known as &quot;The New Scholars&quot; in the 1940s. The novel is centralized on Fang Hongjian,who returned from studying abroad at the beginning of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression. It depicts the struggles in love, marriage,career and life of a group of intellectuals who were far away from the times and the people during the War of Resistance against Japanese Agression. It reveals their inner poverty, emptiness and lowliness, criticizes the dark reality of the Kuomintang-controlled areas, and reveals the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life. In the preface of the book, Qian said that, &quot;In this book I intended to write about a certain segment of society and a certain kind of people in modern China. In writing about these people, I didn’t forget they are human beings, still human beings with the basic nature of hairless, two-legged animals. &quot;The novel is like an X-ray mirror that reveals the deformed characters and ugly souls of those &quot;hairless and two-legged animals&quot; and analyzes the cultural matrix which is responsible for the deformed characters and ugly souls of these &quot;latest style&quot; literati. Yang Jiang said, &quot;The main connotation of ''Fortress Besieged'' is that those who are besieged by the city want to escape, while those outside want to rush in. This is what most people wish for in life, whether in marriage or career. &quot;The meaning of &quot;fortress besieged&quot; is also stated several times in the novel. It tells people that life is a besieged city everywhere, people have marriage and divorce, divorce and marriage in endless succession,with everlasting confusion and dilemma. The questions that Qian raised in the novel refer to a question of universal significance, which is the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life as a whole. In December 1990, the television series ''Fortress Besieged'' was broadcast on China Central Television(CCTV) and enjoyed great popularity.<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu has made significant achievements in literary research and literary creation. In particular, it is of great significance to carry forward and deny traditional Chinese culture scientifically and learn from foreign culture selectively. He has wrote the collection of essays ''Written in the Margins of Life''(1941), the collection of short stories ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts''(1946), and the novel ''Fortress Besieged''(1947). Both his essays and novels are wise and meaningful. Qian has read Chinese history, philosophy and literary classics in depth and has studied western old and new literature, philosophy and psychology. Many of his works, such as ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideaas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', have enjoyed high reputation in academic circles both at home and abroad.<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu viewd China and the world with a cultural criticism spirit. Based on his profound knowledge of Chinese and world culture, Qian has always shown a clear mind and a deep insight when observing Chinese and Western culture. He didn't reject any theories or doctrines, nor did he blindly follow any authorities. He devoted his life to promoting Chinese literature and art to the world. To this end, he not only explicated the profound meaning and unique value of Chinese culture in depth, but also pointed out its historical and regional limitations. He not only criticized the Chinese for their arrogance towards the local culture due to certain illusions, but also mercilessly eliminated the Westerners' prejudice centered on European and American culture due to ignorance. It is Ch'ien Chung-shu who has promoted cultural communication between China and other countries.<br /> <br /> November 21st,2020 is the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu. People often call him a well-informed scholar, but he is more of a down-to-earth writer and scholar. He was indifferent to fame and wealth and alaways took a rigorous and serious attitude towards academic research. We feel ourselves in an entirely new world when we read the subtle metaphors in ''Fortress Besieged'', while we read ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', we are amazed at Qian's erudition. People all over the world admire his talent, but in fact,it is his meticulous and diligent reading spirit that makes him a well-informed scholar. Many of his life experiences and the question of whether his scholarship was systematic or not have attracted much attention. Wang Shuizhao, professor of Chinese Department of Fudan University, who has studied and worked with Ch'ien Chung-shu for a long time, has recently published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'', in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements based on the first-hand historical data, his personal experiences and his own understanding of academia, and gives answers to the questions discueesed widely, such as Qian's experience of being falsely accused, whether there exists system in his scholarship and the collision of viewpoints between Qian and Chen Yinke.<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries'' 《十七十八世纪英国文学中的中国》<br /> <br /> ''Fortress Besieged'' 《围城》<br /> <br /> Kuomintang-controlled areas 国统区<br /> <br /> ''Written in the Margins of Life'' 《写在人生边上》<br /> <br /> ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts'' 《人·兽·鬼》<br /> <br /> ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' 《管锥编》<br /> <br /> ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'' 《谈艺录》<br /> <br /> the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu 钱钟书诞辰110周年纪念日<br /> <br /> ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu '' 《钱钟书的学术人生》<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.What is Ch'ien Chung-shu's representative work? When was it published?<br /> <br /> 2.When was the TV series ''Fortress Besieged'' broadcast?<br /> <br /> 3.Do you know other works about Ch'ien Chung-shu? Can you list some of them?<br /> <br /> 4.Which book did Wang Shuizhao publish in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu? What does he talk about in this book?<br /> <br /> 5.Which sentence is your favoriate in ''Fortress Besieged''? <br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Ch'ien Chung-shu's representive work is ''Fortress Besieged''. It was published in 1947.<br /> <br /> 2.It was broadcast in December 1990.<br /> <br /> 3.''Patchwork:Seven Essays on Art and Literature''（《七缀集》） and ''Poetic Remains of an Ephemeral Life''（《槐聚诗存》）.<br /> <br /> 4.Wang Shuizhao published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'' in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu, in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements.<br /> <br /> 5.&quot;I want to be able to occupy the whole life of the man I love. Before meeting me, he would have had no past and would be waiting for me with a clean slate.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧， 202070080597==<br /> <br /> '''相声 Crosstalk'''<br /> <br /> ===The Development of Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> Crosstalk, in the ancient time was known as onomatopoeia, originally refers to imitate others’ voices. It was evolved and further developed from the folk opera in North China, and integrated with imitating oral skills and other folk art forms. It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty. It’s a folk vocal art that uses jokes or funny questioning and answering to make the audience laugh. In the early years of the Republic of China (1912-1949), crosstalk gradually developed from one-person ventriloquism to one person stand-up talk, and the name changed to cross talk. Later, it developed into stand-up crosstalk, dual crosstalk, and group crosstalk. And become a veritable form of art. After years of development, dual crosstalk has finally become the most popular form of crosstalk among audiences.In the late Qing Dynasty, crosstalk formed its modern features and styles. The language uses in crosstalk is mainly Beijing dialect, however, there are also “dialect crosstalk” in other regions of China. (360 Encyclopedia)<br /> <br /> <br /> Crosstalk is a original folk art in China, with a long historical tradition, deeply loved by the majority of the people. The once-dead crosstalk art has been reborn and developed very rapidly especially since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. It is no longer confined to several cities in the north, nor spread only within the citizens, but also spread from the north to the whole country, from the city to the countryside, and from the citizens to all strata. (Hou Baolin, 1982:01)<br /> <br /> ===Four Basic Skills in Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> Speaking, imitating, teasing and singing are the four basic artistic skills of crosstalk. “Speaking” means to tell jokes, stories, lantern riddles, drinking games, etc; “imitating” is to imitate all kinds of birds and animals, hawking, singing and the sound of different languages, etc; “teasing” is to gag and tease; “sing” means to sing Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity, so they are called Taiping) (1982:194), opera lyrics and songs. Crosstalk artists regard “speaking, imitating, teasing and singing” as their “four compulsory lessons”. For example, by saying “tongue twisters” or “reciting classical repertoires” to grasp the rhythm in language and correct the pronunciation. By learning all kinds of sounds to gain the ability to imitate. To practice singing skills by singing “Taiping lyrics” , opera lyrics and songs. (Hou Baolin, 1982:11)<br /> <br /> ===Characteristics of Crosstalk===<br /> <br /> First of all, crosstalk is the art of “speaking”, which belongs to the art of “performing with words”, it is different from drama that “performing with body movements”. This kind of performance has a close relationship between the actors and the audience and shortened the distance between the stage and the audience. The actors directly communicate with the audience and perform with the audience's cooperation and tacit understanding to obtain artistic effect. In this sense, crosstalk is a collective performance of actors and audiences. From the perspective of the audience, they are not standing on the opposite side of the actors and appreciating the stage performance passively and objectively, but creating artistic images with the actors. (Hou Baolin. 1982:02)<br /> <br /> Secondly, crosstalk is the art of laughter. Crosstalk uses laughter as a weapon to expose contradictions, shape characters and evaluate life. Without laughter, it can constitute any other arts, but not crosstalk and comedy. In other words, crosstalk has the characteristics of humor and satire. It reflects that life is not flat, but exaggerated and even deformed. China has a long tradition of satirizing emperors or high rank officials, its written record could be traced back to the Zhou (1046BC-256BC) and Qin (221BC-207BC) Dynasties. Satire is the product of class oppression. China has been in a feudalistic society for a long time, without political democracy and freedom of speech, the people often take circuitous methods to fight against the ruling class. Satirical art is like a weed under a boulder. Only through deformation and roundabout can this kind of art maintain to exist. (Hou Baolin. 1982:03)<br /> <br /> <br /> “Speaking” and “laughing” constitute the basic outline of cross talk art, which is a language performance art with comedy style. “Speaking”, as a kind of rap art, establishes the mode of crosstalk art, which is distinguished from drama art. “Laughing” is the artistic characteristics of crosstalk, which distinguishes it from other rap art forms. These two characteristics are interdependent and complementary. (Hou Baolin. 1982:04)<br /> <br /> Crosstalk belongs to the art of drama, but it is different from comedy. In comedy, the laughter of audience mainly comes from plot and comic characters, while in crosstalk it mainly comes from “baofu” (jokes). Sometimes it relies on the plot, sometimes it is not needed, but win the applaud of audience by the charm of language. “Baofu” must be expressed in the way of “dialogue” and “chatting” between the actors . (Hou Baolin. 1982:04)<br /> <br /> ===Famous Artists of CrossTalk===<br /> <br /> In Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) and Emperor Guangxu (1875—1908) periods, Zhu Shaowen (stage name “Qiong Bupa, which means not afraid of poverty”) was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art. Other famous crosstalk artists including Hou Baolin(1917-1993), a pioneering master of crosstalk. In his 60 years of art career, he has devoted himself to the research and development of crosstalk art and brought laughter to the audience. Under his leadership and promotion, crosstalk art has really entered thousands of households and reached a remarkable artistic peak. His crosstalk works including Drama Talks, Drunkenness and etc. Ma Sanli (1914-2003) is the son of the crosstalk actor Ma Delu. Ma Sanli devoted himself to the exploration of long-term artistic practice, and created the unique “Ma’s Style of Crosstalk”. He was the oldest, most experienced and most accomplished crosstalk leader in the cross-talk circle at that time. So was deeply loved and respected by all walks of life and the audience. Ma's cross talk enjoys wide popularity among the people. In Tianjin, it was a saying that “no branches of crosstalk did not learn from Ma”. His representative works including “Eating Yuanxiao(dumpling)”, “Selling Tickets” and “the Yellow Crane Tower” . Other famous crosstalk artists include Zhang Yongxi, Liu Baorui, Hou Yaowen, Jiang Kun, Feng Gong, Niu Qun and Guo Degang. (Baijiahao, 2018 )<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> speaking, imitating, teasing and singing 说学逗唱<br /> <br /> Taiping lyrics 太平歌词<br /> <br /> Baofu 包袱<br /> <br /> Drama Talks 《戏剧杂谈》<br /> <br /> Drunkenness 《醉酒》<br /> <br /> Selling Tickets 《卖挂票》<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.When did crosstalk form its format?<br /> <br /> 2.What is Taiping lyrics?<br /> <br /> 3.Who was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art ?<br /> <br /> 4.What are the four basic skills of crosstalk?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty.<br /> <br /> 2.Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity) is the content to be sang in the crosstalk.<br /> <br /> 3.Zhu Shaowen.<br /> <br /> 4.They are speaking, imitating, teasing and singing.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> 1.Hou Baolin，Xue Baokun，1982，《相声溯源》，People's Education Press<br /> 2.https://cul.sohu.com/20090619/n264630449.shtml<br /> 3.https://baike.so.com/doc/1925383-2037001.html<br /> 4.https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1590742532351773378<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> Go 围棋--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:04, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===GO - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI===<br /> Go is an adversarial game with the objective of surrounding a larger total area of the board with one's stones than the opponent[1]. As the game progresses, the players position stones on the board to map out formations and potential territories. Contests between opposing formations are often extremely complex and may result in the expansion, reduction, or wholesale capture and loss of formation stones.[2]<br /> <br /> A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board. One or more liberties enclosed within a group is called an eye, and a group with two or more eyes cannot be captured, even if surrounded.[3] Such groups are said to be unconditionally alive.<br /> <br /> The general strategy is to expand one's territory, attack the opponent's weak groups (groups that can be killed), and always stay mindful of the &quot;life status&quot; of one's own groups. The liberties of groups are countable. Situations where mutually opposing groups must capture each other or die are called capturing races, or semeai. In a capturing race, the group with more liberties (and/or better &quot;shape&quot;) will ultimately be able to capture the opponent's stones. Capturing races and the elements of life or death are the primary challenges of Go.<br /> <br /> Players may pass rather than place a stone if they think there are no further opportunities for profitable play. The game ends when both players pass or when one player resigns. In general, to score the game, each player counts the number of unoccupied points surrounded by their stones and then subtracts the number of stones that were captured by the opponent. The player with the greater score (after adjusting for komi) wins the game.<br /> <br /> In the opening stages of the game, players typically establish positions (or &quot;bases&quot;) in the corners and around the sides of the board. These bases help to quickly develop strong shapes which have many options for life (self-viability for a group of stones that prevents capture) and establish formations for potential territory. Players usually start in the corners because establishing territory is easier with the aid of two edges of the board. Established corner opening sequences are called &quot;joseki&quot; and are often studied independently.<br /> <br /> &quot;Dame&quot; are points that lie in between the boundary walls of black and white, and as such are considered to be of no value to either side. &quot;Seki&quot; are mutually alive pairs of white and black groups where neither has two eyes. A &quot;ko&quot; (Chinese and Japanese: 劫) is a repeated-position shape that may be contested by making forcing moves elsewhere. After the forcing move is played, the ko may be &quot;taken back&quot; and returned to its original position.[30] Some &quot;ko fights&quot; may be important and decide the life of a large group, while others may be worth just one or two points. Some ko fights are referred to as &quot;picnic kos&quot; when only one side has a lot to lose. The Japanese call it a hanami (flower-viewing) ko. <br /> <br /> Playing with others usually requires a knowledge of each player's strength, indicated by the player's rank (increasing from 30 kyu to 1 kyu, then 1 dan to 7 dan, then 1 dan pro to 9 dan pro). A difference in rank may be compensated by a handicap—Black is allowed to place two or more stones on the board to compensate for White's greater strength. There are different rule-sets (Korean, Japanese, Chinese, AGA, etc.), which are almost entirely equivalent, except for certain special-case positions.<br /> <br /> Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, there are essentially only two rules in Go:<br /> • Rule 1 (the rule of liberty) states that every stone remaining on the board must have at least one open &quot;point&quot; (an intersection, called a &quot;liberty&quot;) directly orthogonally adjacent (up, down, left, or right), or must be part of a connected group that has at least one such open point (&quot;liberty&quot;) next to it. Stones or groups of stones which lose their last liberty are removed from the board.<br /> • Rule 2 (the &quot;ko rule&quot;) states that the stones on the board must never repeat a previous position of stones. Moves which would do so are forbidden, and thus only moves elsewhere on the board are permitted that turn.<br /> Almost all other information about how the game is played is a heuristic, meaning it is learned information about how the game is played, rather than a rule. Other rules are specialized, as they come about through different rule-sets, but the above two rules cover almost all of any played game.[4]<br /> Although there are some minor differences between rule-sets used in different countries, most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules, these differences do not greatly affect the tactics and strategy of the game.<br /> <br /> Except where noted, the basic rules presented here are valid independent of the scoring rules used. The scoring rules are explained separately. Go terms for which there is no ready English equivalent are commonly called by their Japanese names.<br /> <br /> The two players, Black and White, take turns placing stones of their colour on the intersections of the board, one stone at a time. The usual board size is a 19×19 grid but for beginners, or for playing quick games, the smaller board sizes of 13×13 and 9×9 are also popular.[5] The board is empty to begin with. Black plays first, unless black is given a handicap of two stones or more (in which case, white plays first). The players may choose any unoccupied intersection to play on, except for those forbidden by the ko and suicide rules (see below). Once played, a stone can never be moved and can be taken off the board only if it is captured. A player may also pass, declining to place a stone, though this is usually only done at the end of the game when both players believe nothing more can be accomplished with further play. When both players pass consecutively, the game ends and is then scored.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Go 围棋 heuristic 启发式的<br /> adversarial game 对抗性游戏 intersection 交叉点<br /> board 棋盘 black 黑棋<br /> formation 阵型 white 白棋<br /> move 走棋 scoring rule 计分规则<br /> liberty 自由度 player 棋手<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1, What’s the basic principle of Go?<br /> <br /> <br /> 2,Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, What are other two essential rules in Go？<br /> <br /> <br /> 3, What countries have the most notable scoring rules differences?--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1, A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board.<br /> <br /> 2,The rule of liberty and the &quot;ko rule&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3, Most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Matthews, Charles (2004). Teach Yourself Go. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-142977-1.<br /> <br /> [2]NRICH Team, Going First, University of Cambridge, retrieved 2007-06-16<br /> <br /> [3]Iwamoto, Kaoru (1977). Go for Beginners. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 978-0-394-73331-9.<br /> <br /> [4]British Go Association, Comparison of some go rules, retrieved 2007-12-20<br /> <br /> [5]Kim, Janice; Jeong, Soo-hyun (1997). Learn to Play Go. Five volumes (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Good Move Press. ISBN 978-0-9644796-1-6.<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> ===The Four Most Handsome men in Ancient China===<br /> It is said that there were four most beautiful women in ancient times, and corresponding to that, it is worth mentioning that there were four most attractive men at that time.Despite that we consider these four men as attractive, this refers to more than just their appearance. They have a common feature: it proves that while their appearance is marvelous, they are also outstanding in literature. Namely, as a Chinese saying goes, they are endowed with both beauty and talent.<br /> These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> The allusion of “throwing fruit to fill a carriage” originates from Pan An, which resembles movie fans nowadays to see their idols. There is a comment on Pan An’s appearance: &quot;No more and no less.&quot; The history books also describe Pan An with three words “good-looking, well-mannered, and graceful”. Although these did not describe Pan An’s appearance in details, such as eyebrows and eyes or lips, from these side descriptions, we can know that Pan An’s appearance is far above ordinary people, and even his styles draw imitation from others. At the same time, Pan An is known as “the flower of a county in Heyang”, and he is also one of the few men who are compared with flowers to be praised for excellent appearance. The beauty of exterior only fails to last long in this world. Pan An's talent and temperament and the devotion to his wife are also often eulogized. Pan Yue showed his unusual talent since he was a child, and he was called a child prodigy by the villagers. In his early years, he was appreciated by an official and recommended as a scholar. Later, served as the magistrate of Heyang (now Meng County, Henan), he was diligent in political affairs, and advocated the people to plant more fruits and trees. The county was full of trees and peaches and plums everywhere, known as “Flower County”. During his administration, his political achievements were remarkable. Besides, Pan An holds a special place in the history of literature. He was good at composing verse and orders, expatiation, and skilled in the choice of words and building of sentences, which fully reflects the characteristics of Taikang literature that pays attention to the beauty of form. He was expert in composing Ci lyric of sorrow and admonishment, and his current works such as Widow's Fu, Mourning Poem and other famous works are all known for their narration and empathy. Pan An can be described as both internally and externally blessed.（Liu Xixue 2003,63-64）<br /> <br /> Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. There is a very popular legend about King Lanling. It's believed that King Lanling was a brave and supremely skilled general. However, because he looked very sweet and it seemed hard to frighten the enemy, he often wore a half-mask when fighting, which sounds very fairytale. Nevertheless, the beauty of King Lanling is beyond doubt and otherworldly. Book of Northern Qi Dynasty described that he was friendly looking and mentally strong, with beautiful voice and appearance. King Lanling spent half his life in military affairs, and made great achievements. While this gave him glory, it also brought bad luck. There is an old Chinese saying that the glow of a inferior from massive achievements will overshadow his superior. Although the King Lanling did not have the idea of usurping the throne, but the incumbent felt threatened because of his existence itself. In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> Song Yu (about 322 BC-298 BC), as it is widely rumored, a student of Qu Yuan, was born in the capital city of Song Dynasty during the Warring States Period (now Shangqiu, Henan). Song Yu was a writer of Ci lyric of State Chu in the late Warring States period, adept in Ci lyric and even acclaimed as a great poet after Qu Yuan' reputation. Later generations often referred to them as “Qu Song”. Rumors circulate that there are many Ci lyrics from him, and Book of Han records about 16 works, but many of them are lost today. His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on. He was the first to write about sadness from Autumn and to write about women. His description of women's nature exerts a great influence on later generations such as Cao Zhi. The goddess in Song Yu's The Fu poetry of Goddess embodies the essence of pre-Qin female beauty, recounting the beauty of the goddess of Wushan Mountain in details so much so that later generations have coveted for it for thousands of years. 16 works survived, among which Nine Discriminations is believed to be truly composed by him. It is equivalent to Qu Yuan's Li Sao or A lament in the history of Chinese literature. Both poets can be called the two shining pearls in Ci lyric at their times.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> <br /> Wei Jie (286-June 20, 312), a metaphysician and an official of the Jin Dynasty. Wei Jie was a noted talker and metaphysicist during the Wei and Jin Dynasties. He was appointed as an assistant of the prince in the matter of politics. In the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Yongjia(AD310), Wei Jie died at the age of 27. Both ancient books and ancients commented on Wei Jie's appearance. Wang Ji reckoned that, “A jade is on my side, and I feel like I am nobody”; “Wandering with Jiu is like sauntering with a pearl on the side, with him shining brightly.” History Retold as a Mirror for rulers authored by Sima Guang goes into detail: &quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot; Wei Jie not only have a mere marvelous exterior, but also he can discern metaphysics from his perspective. Wei Jie’s views always amaze the concerned parties. It is said that even three sons of the Wang family, are not as good as the first son of the Wei family, and the three sons of the Wang family were all well-known scholars at that time, and the Wei Jie could be regarded as unmatchable compared with the three in family background, appearance, and talents.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Pan An 潘安<br /> <br /> King Lanling 兰陵王<br /> <br /> Ji Kang 嵇康 <br /> <br /> Wei Jie 卫玠 <br /> <br /> throwing fruit to fill a carriage 掷果盈车<br /> <br /> scholar 秀才<br /> <br /> expatiation 铺陈<br /> <br /> Book of Northern Qi Dynasty 《北齐书》<br /> <br /> the Warring States Period 战国时期<br /> <br /> Book of Han 《汉书》<br /> <br /> Nine Discriminations 《九辨》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Wind 《风赋》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Goddess 《神女赋》<br /> <br /> the goddess of Wushan Mountain 巫山神女<br /> <br /> metaphysician 玄学家<br /> <br /> a noted talker 清谈名士<br /> <br /> History Retold as a Mirror for rulers 《资治通鉴》<br /> <br /> Widow's Fu 《寡妇赋》<br /> <br /> Mourning Poem 《悼亡诗》<br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1.Who are the four most handsome men at ancient time in China?<br /> <br /> 2.Who is Gao Changgong?<br /> <br /> 3.How did Lanlin King die?<br /> <br /> 4.What works did Song Yu compose?<br /> <br /> 5.Who are the two shining pearls in Ci lyric according to the passage?<br /> <br /> 6.What History Retold as a Mirror for rulers comment on Wei Jie?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.<br /> <br /> 2.Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. <br /> <br /> 3.In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King. <br /> <br /> 4.His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on.<br /> <br /> 5.Qu Yuan and Song Yu<br /> <br /> 6.&quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]刘细学.古代四大美男[J].文史天地,2003(06):63-64.<br /> <br /> [2]王真波.四大美男都是怎么死的[J].青年文学家,2008(11):59-60.<br /> <br /> ==Lo, Minh Thao==<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Mogao Grottoes--Lou Cancan 娄灿灿 student no.202070080599==<br /> <br /> ===Mogao Grottoes===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The Mogao Grottoes, known as the Thousand Buddhas Caves, were built on the eastern cliff of Mingsha Mountain, 25 kilometers to the southeast of Dunhuang city. There are 492 caves (well preserved) today, containing over 2,400 painted clay statues and 45,000 square meters of murals and 5 timber structures on the cliff of the southern district. There are also more than 300 caves used as both living room and burying place for monks and painters on the cliff of the northern district. Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes,so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes. From the 4th until the 14th century, caves were constructed by monks to serve as shrines with funds from donors. (Fan Jinshi 2010，170)The major caves were sponsored by patrons such as important asclergies, local ruling elites, foreign dignitaries, as well as Chinese emperors. Other caves may have been funded by merchants and other local people such as women's groups. (Sha Wutian 2020, 122)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes]]====<br /> <br /> ===History===<br /> <br /> Mogao Grottoes were not built in one day. According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff. Later, monk Faliang（法良）came here and joined him cultivating in caves. Since then more and more caves have been excavated over a thousand year. (Whitfield 1990, 8) <br /> <br /> By the time of Northern Liang, small community of monks had formed at this site. The caves initially served only as a place of meditation for hermit monks. Later, they were developed to serve the monasteries that sprang up nearby. Members of the ruling families of Northern Wei and Northern Zhou constructed many caves here, and it flourished in the short-lived Sui Dynasty. By the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Mogao Caves had become a place of worship and pilgrimage for the public. In the Sui Dynasty, Hexi Corridor was controlled by central authority. The emperors were pious followers of Buddhism and they ordered to build stupas across the country. Therefore, more than 100 caves were excavated in Mogao Grottoes within 37 years. By the Tang Dynasty, the number of caves had reached over a thousand. During this period, Dunhuang became the main hub of commerce of the Silk Road and a major religious center. A large number of the caves were constructed during this era, including the two large statues of Buddha at the site, the largest one constructed in 695 following an edict a year earlier by Tang Empress Wu Zitian to build giant statues across the country. The site escaped the persecution of Buddhists ordered by Emperor Wuzong in 845 as it was then under Tibetan control. As a frontier town, Dunhuang had been occupied at various times by other non-Han Chinese people. <br /> <br /> After the Tang Dynasty, the site went into a gradual decline, and construction of new caves ceased entirely after the Yuan Dynasty. In the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, Mogao Grottoes were preserved and kept by Cao Yijin（曹议金). (MA Shichang 2010, 303) After that, his later generations governed Dunhuang Prefecture and constructed multiple family caves such as Cave 55. (Gao Xiujun 2016, 9) During the Ming Dynasty, the Silk Road was finally abandoned and Dunhuang slowly became depolulated and was forgotten by the outside world. Most of the Mogao caves were abandoned. The site, however, went back to a place of pilgrimage and worship by local people at the beginning of the twentieth century. On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings. Since then, Dunhuang has become well known throughout the world. Both Chinese and foreign scholars have made extensive studies on the findings.(Stein 1912, volume 2)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Taoist Wang Yuanlu.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Taoist Wang Yuanlu]]====<br /> <br /> ===Art===<br /> <br /> The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture and they vary from dynasty to dynasty. There are mainly three types of structural forms of Mogao Grottoes: Vihara, Chaitya and Hall with inverted funnel shaped ceiling. A Chaitya with a central pillar is the main form of the caves in the early period of the Sixteen States, with Northern Wei, Western Wei and Northern Zhou Dynasties included. The murals may be divided into seven sorts:Buddhist figures, Sutra illustration, Buddhist stories, Buddhist historical pictures, Chinese mythologies, donors and decorative designs. Buddhist stories in the murals can be divided into three types: Jataka（佛本生), Buddha’s life and fate story. A Jataka is a narrative which tells of the good deeds performed by Sakyamuni during his perious existence such as prince Sudanda giving up his body to feed the hungry tigers. As to sculptures, they were constructed on a wooden frame, padded with reed, then modelled in clay stucco and finished with paint.（Duan Wenjie 1994, 163) <br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Chaitya with a Central Pillar.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Chaitya with a Central Pillar]]==== <br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body]]====<br /> <br /> The artistic styles in the Sixteen States, which gradually turned away from being primitive and simple to an easy and graceful styles in the Northern Wei, manifested in figures with well-chiseled builds and emaciated looks. In Northern Zhou, the styles of figures show that Chinese art combining the influence of foreign and native styles gradually became more nationalized. The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs. The caves become spacious and more suited for large paintings, such as the Sutra illustrations and huge pictures of Buddha expounding sermons. Bold and vigorous, brush work was painted with intricate and flowing lines. For example, Lotus Sutra on the ceiling of Cave 420 displays a lot of episodes of mountains, forests, rivers, buildings and so on in a limitated space. The theme and art in the Sui Dynasty show an important devdelopment in traditional art and indicate a comimg glorious new era. In Tang Dynasty, the caves are large with an inverted funnel shaped ceiling. The murals consist mostly of huge paintings of stories from Buddhist Sutras with well-regulated scenes and well-balanced composition. The figures at that time have round and plump faces and curved eyebrows which expresses the aesthetical taste of the people living in Tang. The mural in Cave 220 contains vivid portraits of the Emperor and his ministers listening to a sermon. The ministers attending to Emperor are each bestowed with differrent appearances and expressions. Some are natural and graceful and some cautious. The well-proportioned painted statues were made with more consummate care and attention to the detail, showing us the solemn Buddha. In addition, very tall and colossal statues of Buddha began to be made. The outstanding one is an early Tang Dynasty statue 34 metres high in Cave 96.( Fan Jinshi 2010, 175) In 781-848A.D, Hexi region fell into the Tibetan. Hence, there was an interesting changes: the king of the Tibetan took the place of central-plain emperors in the wall-painting. <br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 251 in Northern Wei.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 251 in Northern Wei]]====<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty]]====<br /> <br /> <br /> By the time of the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, the grottoes carved in this period are very large and different in form and layout. The subject and style of the statues and murals remain the influence from Tang Dynasty, but the use of colours and the drawing techniques show a simple folk style. From the 9th century to 12th, the Uygur had been in Dunhuang. The artistic styles bear the imprint of both Han and Uygur. The Uygur murals are generally characterized by the simplicity of the subject, the looseness of the arrangement, the direct and rough brush strokes. The human figures have features of certain minority groups. In the Western Xia Dynasty(1036-1227), most of caves were repaired and renovated, and only 10 caves were built because of the limited cliffs. Compared to the Yulin Grottoes at the same time, painting of Dunhuang display the Pure-land Sutra, containing simpler content. Only 27 caves are extant in Yuan times(1227-1372). The murals in Cave 3, however, still remain the Tang and Song techniques, namely using different types of drawing to depict different parts of human figures such as iron-wire lines, orchid-leaf strokes and broken-reef strokes, etc. Since the 15th century, the Mogao Grottoes had gradually fallen into neglect in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. (Rong Xinjiang 1999, 248)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty]]====<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> hermit 隐士<br /> <br /> stupas 舍利塔<br /> <br /> Emperor Wuzong 唐武宗<br /> <br /> Vihara 精舍<br /> <br /> Chaitya 支提窟<br /> <br /> stucco 灰泥<br /> <br /> Sakyamuni 释迦牟尼<br /> <br /> Sutras 佛经<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What do Dunhuang Grottoes refer to?<br /> <br /> 2.Who built the first cave and when?<br /> <br /> 3.In 1900, who found the treasure-house in Mogao Grottoes and what were stored in it?<br /> <br /> 4.How many aspects does the art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of and what are they respectively?<br /> <br /> 5.What are the characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes, so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes.<br /> <br /> 2.According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff.<br /> <br /> 3.On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings.<br /> <br /> 4.The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture.<br /> <br /> 5.The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Fan Jinshi 樊锦诗.(2010). 敦煌石窟 [The Caves of Dunhuang]. Gansu: The Dunhuang Academy敦煌研究院. <br /> <br /> Gao Xiujun 高秀军.(2016). 敦煌莫高窟第55窟研究 [Research on the 55th Grotto of Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang].Lanzhou University兰州大学.<br /> <br /> MA Shichang.(2010).Buddhist Cave-temples and the Cao Family at Mogao Ku, Dunhuang.MA Shichang,27(2),303-317.<br /> <br /> Rong Xinjiang 荣新江. (2010). 敦煌藏经洞的性质及其封闭原因 [The Nature of the Dunhuang Library Cave and the Reasons for Its Sealing]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Sha Wutian 沙武田. (2020). 佛教供养与政治宣传——敦煌莫高窟第156窟供养人画像研究 [Buddhist offerings and Political Propaganda -- A Study on the Portrait of the Patron of the 156th Grottoes in Dunhuang].中原文物 Cultural Relics in Central Plain,No.215,118-128.<br /> <br /> Stein, M. Aurel. Ruins of Desert Cathay.(1912). Personal Narrative of Explorations in Central Asia and Westernmost China, volume 2. London: Macmillan.<br /> <br /> Suemori Kaoru. (2020).&quot;Thousand-Buddha images in Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes: Religious spaces created by polychromatic patterns&quot;. Kyoto: Hozokan. <br /> <br /> DuanWenjie. (1994). Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie. Abhinav Publications. p. 163.<br /> <br /> Whitfield, Roderick and Farrer, Anne, Caves of the Thousand Buddhas. (1990). Chinese Art from the Silk Route, British Museum Publications. P . 5-20.<br /> <br /> https://books.google.ru/books?hl=zh-CN&amp;lr=&amp;id=vYPNqlAMZWAC&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PP7&amp;dq=info:9v6pr21oST8J:scholar.google.com/&amp;ots=s-uXhnyDBp&amp;sig=u3H7MAh_OpGRS6Iwxoqx0rC5_fo&amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false<br /> <br /> https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogao_Caves<br /> <br /> https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=zh-CN&amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;q=mogao+grottoes&amp;oq=<br /> <br /> ==Four State-level Cultural Relics Luo Weijia罗维嘉 Student No.202070080600==<br /> <br /> ===Four State-level Cultural Relics===<br /> <br /> China, home to one of the world’s most ancient civilizations, abounds in cultural relics, from ancient tombs, architecture, instruments to handicrafts, historical books and so on. They embody rich information about history and culture and vividly display the process of Chinese cultural development. The astounding artistic and technological levels shown in those relics continue to impress people today.<br /> <br /> ====Houmuwu Ding====<br /> <br /> In ancient China, ding was a symbol of imperial power. Therefore, ding is often used in phrases and expressions in the Chinese language to imply authority. For instance, wending, literally “enquiring about ding”, means plotting to usurp political power, yiyan juiding, literally “One word of promise is equal to nine dings”, means a decisive comment.<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding,or Houmuwu Ding, was a very precious cultural relic, found in 1937 in Anyang of Henan Province (Zhang Peng:86-89).It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago. This square-shaped ding is the largest existing bronzeware in the ancient world. It is now housed in the National Museum of China in Beijing. <br /> <br /> Ding was a cooking vessel probably used to boil or cook food in the primitive society. At that time, dings were made of clay. During the Shang and Zhou (11th century-771 BC) dynasties, bronze cast technology reached a very high level in China. Therefore, people used bronze to cast ding. However, dings were no longer cooking utensils in ordinary people’s life but an object for important ceremonies to offer sacrifices. <br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding was cast by Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty as a ritual object for a ceremony to offer sacrifices to his mother. The three characters simuwu form an inscription on the inside of the sidewall. According to archeologists, si means sacrificial ceremony and muwu is the name of the emperor’s mother. Later on, Simuwu became the name of this huge ding (Zhang Peng:86-89).<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding is 1.33m high, 1.10m long and 0.78m wide, weighing 832.84kg. At that time, it needed 1000kg of metal and two to three hundred workers to produce it. This ding is solid in build, magnificent in appearance and was made with fine craftsmanship. The four pillar legs are thick and powerful. Each side has a blank space in the middle, surrounded by a band of decoration featuring taotie (animal faced creatures) and kuilong (one-legged dragons), symbolic of harvest and auspiciousness. Simuwu Ding represents the highest level of bronze cast technology in the Shang and Zhou dynasties.<br /> <br /> ==== The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi ====<br /> <br /> The chime bells, or bianzhong, are a kind of percussion musical instrument made of bronze. China is the earliest country to manufacture and use such instrument. Chime bells were divided into groups according to their size, temperament, pitch and were hang on a rack. A small hammer or wooden club is used to hit the bell to make a resonant and agreeable sound.<br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are the largest and the most complete ancient chimes existing today in China. They were unearthed from the tomb of Yi, the Marquis of Zeng, a small state of the Warring States Period (475 BC- 221 BC), in 1978. When they were found, all bells were still hanging on their rack. They are now preserved in Hubei Museum(Gao Nan:29). <br /> <br /> There are altogether 65 bells hung in eight groups on wooden or bronze bars. The rack, 10.79m long, 2.67m high, is made of three bars, namely, the upper, middle and lower bars, held up by six bronze warriors and a few round, wooden posts. The 65 bells weigh over 2500kg. The largest bell is 1.52m in height and weighs more than 203.6kg. The smallest bell is about 20cm in height and weighs 2.4kg (Gao Nan:29). It is extremely rare tosee a set with so many bells of such weight and size. <br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are exquisitely cast and look very elegant. To help artists to perform music, there are instructions on each bell with 3700 characters in all (Wan Quanwen:1-2). There are also words about the hanging indication and musical temperament that are called the “valuable music theory work”. The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi show that, as early as the Warring States Period, China already had a very rich musical culture. The chime bells still could produce a pure and accurate note after unearthed. The tone is excellent and the timbre is pure. <br /> <br /> After excavation of the chime, Chinese musicians created a melody entitled Bianzhong Yuewu (music and dance accompanied by chime bells), to once again demonstrate the charm of ancient Chinese music. <br /> <br /> ==== Jade Suit with Gold Thread ====<br /> <br /> Ordinarily, the texture of clothes is cotton, flax or silk. However, there were suits made of gold and jade, that is “Jade Suit with Gold Thread”.<br /> <br /> The emperors of the Han Dynasty believed that jade could prevent their corpses from decaying, and they regarded jade as full of dignity and nobility. Therefore, they used jade suits as their grave clothes. Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade separately that are called Jade Suit Sewn with Gold Thread, Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread and Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread.<br /> <br /> The two sets of jade suits of the Han Dynasty tomb unearthed in Mancheng of Hebei Province in 1968 revealed to the world the real features of such grave clothes (Li Yawen:38-39). Their owners were Liu Sheng, Prince Jing of Zhongshan, and his wife, Dou Wan, of the Western Han Dynasty(206 BC-25 AD). <br /> <br /> In appearance, a jade suit follows the shape of a human body. It consists of five parts, i.e., head mask, coat, trousers, gloves and shoes. Each part is made of pieces of jade. The size and shape of each jade piece was designed according to its position. Most jade pieces are shaped in square or rectangular form, but there are a few in trapezoid, triangle or multi sided shapes. Each jade piece is perforated at its corners, through which a gold thread goes through to sew the pieces together. Liu Sheng’s jade suit is rather large, 1.88m long and made up of 2498 pieces. The gold thread used for this suit is about 700g in weight (Li Yawen:38-39). <br /> <br /> Such refined suits made some 2000 years ago in the Han Dynasty indicate the high design level and excellent craftsmanship of that time. In fact, of course, the rulers’ dream of preventing their corpses from decaying could never be realized. The practice of wearing jade suits was banned during the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280).<br /> <br /> ==== Bronze Galloping Horse ====<br /> <br /> In 1969, a galloping horse in bronze was unearthed in an Eastern Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) tomb in Wuwei, Gansu Province in western China. The bronze statue is a famous representative sculpture of the Han Dynasty. Wuwei County leapt to fame with the discovery of this national treasure.<br /> <br /> The 34.5 cm-high bronze horse, covered with spots of verdigris, has a full and robust body. The prancing legs, flying tail, slightly dilated nostrils portray a galloping horse. What is ingenious about it is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow. That means the galloping horse is faster than a flying swallow (Wang Qian:10-11). The positioning of its four legs strictly conforms to that of a living horse and is highly praised by many local and foreign archeologists and artists. <br /> <br /> In this work, Chinese ancient artists combined realism and romanticism, and ingeniously integrated galloping horse and flying swallow through rich imagination, original conception and skillful craftsmanship (Wang Qian:10-11). The swift flying swallow sets off the amazingly fast speed of the galloping horse. According to analysis of its mechanics, Bronze Galloping Horse finds a center of gravity in the swallow to give the statue its stability. The romantic image of the swallow sets off the power and strength of the horse, providing a rich imaginative experience for viewers. <br /> <br /> Bronze Galloping Horse is believed to be a portrayal of the &quot;heavenly steed&quot; of Chinese legend. It is of high craftsmanship, fully expressive of the horse-breeding culture of China's western regions. It has become a symbol of Chinese tourism and a representative work that brings forth the time-honored cultural tradition of the Chinese nation and the oriental aesthetics to the world. The cultural relic is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> Houmuwu Ding 后母戊鼎<br /> <br /> Simuwu Ding 司母戊鼎<br /> <br /> Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty 商王武丁<br /> <br /> taotie 饕餮<br /> <br /> National Museum of China 中国国家博物馆<br /> <br /> chime bells/bian zhong 编钟<br /> <br /> Marquis Yi 曾侯乙<br /> <br /> The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi 曾侯乙编钟<br /> <br /> Bianzhong Yuewu 《编钟乐舞》<br /> <br /> Hubei Museum 湖北省博物馆<br /> <br /> Jade Suit with Gold Thread 金缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread 银缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread 铜缕玉衣<br /> <br /> Bronze Galloping Horse 铜奔马/ 马踏飞燕<br /> <br /> Gansu Provincial Museum 甘肃省博物馆<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1. What does ding symbolize?<br /> <br /> 2. When was Houmuwu Ding produced?<br /> <br /> 3.How many bells do the chime bells of Marquis Yi contain?<br /> <br /> 4.What is the size of the largest bell?<br /> <br /> 5.What kind of thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade?<br /> <br /> 6.When did the Jade Suit with Gold Thread unearth?<br /> <br /> 7.What is ingenious about the Galloping Horse?<br /> <br /> 8.Where is Bronze Galloping Horse preserved now?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Ding was a symbol of imperial power. <br /> <br /> 2.It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago. <br /> <br /> 3.They contain 65 bells.<br /> <br /> 4.The largest bell exceeds 1.5m in height and weighs more than 200kg.<br /> <br /> 5.Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade.<br /> <br /> 6.It unearthed in 1968.<br /> <br /> 7.It is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow. <br /> <br /> 8.It is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Zhang Peng 张鹏.(2020).青铜大师杜廼松:“司母戊鼎”名称不容置疑[No Doubt about the Name of Simuwu Ding].中国民族博览 (09):86-89.<br /> <br /> [2]Wan Quanwen 万全文.(2020).曾侯乙编钟[The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi].文史知识 (11):1-2.<br /> <br /> [3]Gao Nan 高楠.(2020).音乐中的国家宝藏——曾侯乙编钟[National Treasure in Music].琴童 (01):29.<br /> <br /> [4]Li Yawen 李雅雯.(2019)浅说满城汉墓中的金缕玉衣 [The Study of Jade Suit with Gold Thread Unearthed in Mancheng].文物鉴定与鉴赏 (03):38-39.<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Qian 王倩.(2020).青铜雕塑“马踏飞燕”的研究[The Study of the Bronze Sculpture ——the Galloping Horse].艺术品鉴, (26):10-11.<br /> <br /> == The Forbidden City Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴 Student No.202070080601==<br /> <br /> ===The Forbidden City===--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 08:30, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====I.Introduction==== <br /> The Forbidden City (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng) is a palace complex in Dongcheng District, Beijing, China, and with a total area of 720,000 square meters (180 acres). It lies in the center of Beijing's central axis. Today, the Forbidden City houses the Palace Museum, and was the former Chinese imperial palace and residence of the Emperor of China from the Ming dynasty (since the Yong Le Emperor) to the end of the Qing dynasty, between 1420 and 1924. The Forbidden City served as the home of Chinese emperors and their households and was the ceremonial and political center of the Chinese government.(Barmé, Geremie R 2018,26)<br /> The Forbidden City is a national AAAAA tourist attraction and was listed as the first batch of key cultural relics under national protection in 1961. What’s more, it was declared a world cultural heritage in 1987, and listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.(UNESCO,2007)<br /> ====[[File:A Panaroma view of the Forbidden City.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A Panaroma view of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====II.The Name of the Forbidden City====<br /> The common English name &quot;Forbidden City&quot; is a translation of the Chinese name Zijin Cheng (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng; English: Purple Forbidden City). The name Zijin Cheng first formally appeared in the period of Jia Jing. (Li Xieping1997, (04)29-31) In ancient China, the planning concept of &quot;harmony between man and nature&quot; was emphasized. The stars in the sky were used to correspond with the capital planning to highlight the legitimacy of the regime and the supremacy of imperial power. “ Zi ”, or &quot;Purple&quot;, refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star, The emperor of heaven lived in Ziwei palace, while the human emperor claimed to be the &quot;son of heaven&quot; who was ordered by heaven. His residence should be a symbol of Ziwei palace to correspond to the heaven emperor. “Jin” means that this splendid palace symbolizes supreme power and status of the royal family. In that case, this palace was forbidden, no one could enter and leave the palace without the emperor’s permission. Cheng means a city. Today, the site is most commonly known in Chinese as Gùgōng (故宫), which means the &quot;Former Palace&quot;. The museum which is based in these buildings is known as the &quot;Palace Museum&quot; (Chinese: 故宫博物院; pinyin: Gùgōng Bówùyùan).<br /> <br /> ====III.The History of the Forbidden City====<br /> <br /> When Hongwu’s son Zhu Di became the Yong Le Emperor, he moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, and construction began in 1406 on what would become the Forbidden City. Construction lasted 14 years and required more than a million workers. From 1420 to 1644, the Forbidden City was the seat of the Ming dynasty. (Yu Zhuoyun1984,18)In April 1644, it was captured by rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. He set fire to parts of the Forbidden City in the process of retreating to Shannxi. By October, the Manchus had achieved supremacy in northern China, and a ceremony was held at the Forbidden City to proclaim the Emperor Shunzhi as ruler of all China under the Qing dynasty. (Guo Moruo 1944,3.14) In the 22nd year of Kangxi's reign (1683), the reconstruction of the rest of the destroyed buildings of the Forbidden City was started, and it was basically completed in 1695.After being the home of 24 emperors – 14 of the Ming dynasty and 10 of the Qing dynasty – the Forbidden City ceased being the political centre of China in 1912 with the abdication of Puyi, the last Emperor of China. In 1933, the Japanese invasion of China forced the evacuation of the national treasures in the Forbidden City. Part of the collection was returned at the end of World War II, but the other part was evacuated to Taiwan in 1948 under orders of Chiang Kai-shek.After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, some damage was done to the Forbidden City as the country was swept up in revolutionary zeal. During the Cultural Revolution, however, further destruction was prevented when Premier Zhou Enlai sent an army battalion to guard the city.( Xie Mengyin&amp;Qu Wanlin2006, 11.7)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====IV.The Structure of the Forbidden City==== <br /> Firstly, The Forbidden City is a rectangle and symmetric in its layout. Its palaces are arranged along a north-south axis, on which the three main halls, the rear three palaces and the imperial garden are all located. This central axis not only runs through the Forbidden City, but also reaches Yongding Gate in the south, Drum Tower and bell tower in the north, and runs through the whole city.(Xie Li 2005,(03)100-102)<br /> Secondly, the Forbidden City is divided into two parts, the Outer Court and Inner Court. The Outer Court is the place where the emperor deals with political affairs. There are mainly three halls: the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony, and the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The Inner Court or Back Palace includes the northern sections, and was the residence of the Emperor and his family, and was used for day-to-day affairs of state. The inner court takes Palace of Heavenly Purity, Hall of Union and Palace of Earthly Tranquility as its center with six palaces in the east and six palaces in the west.<br /> <br /> ====[[File:The layout of the Forbidden City.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The layout of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====VI The Collections of the Forbidden City==== <br /> The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925, whose extensive collection of artwork and artifacts were built upon the imperial collections of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Part of the museum's former collection is now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. Both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.(Li Wei &amp; Wang Shuo 2005,6-22) <br /> The collections of the Palace Museum are based on the Qing imperial collection, including paintings, ceramics, seals, steles, sculptures, inscribed wares, bronze wares, enamel objects, etc. According to latest audit, it has 1,863,404 pieces of art. They are numbered by &quot;Gu&quot;, &quot;Xin&quot; and &quot;Shu&quot;. Except for the ancient books and documents, all the other collections are labeled with &quot;Gu&quot; and &quot;Xin&quot;. The number of ordinary cultural relics begins with the word &quot;Zi&quot;, and the ceramic specimens begin with the word &quot;Biao&quot;. The general catalogue is divided into 25 categories, and the numbers in each category are sorted from small to large. Many collections once lost and was brought to the Palace Museum, For example, Han Banquet map. And there are some exquisite collections like Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer, Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems and Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.(Website:The Collection of the Palace Museum )In addition, The Palace Museum has one of the largest collections of mechanical timepieces of the 18th and 19th centuries in the world, with more than 1,000 pieces. (Meng Fuxia 2012, (21) 73-74)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Han Banquet map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Han Banquet map]]====<br /> ====[[File:Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance]]====<br /> ====[[File:Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems]]====<br /> ====[[File:Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women]]====<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions==== <br /> palace complex 宫殿群<br /> <br /> central axis 中心轴<br /> <br /> the Palace Museum故宫博物院<br /> <br /> the Yong Le Emperor 永乐皇帝<br /> <br /> key cultural relics under national protection 国家重点文物保护单位<br /> <br /> world cultural heritage 世界文化遗产<br /> <br /> harmony between man and nature 天人合一<br /> <br /> the imperial garden 御花园<br /> <br /> the Hall of Supreme Harmony 太和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Central Harmony 中和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Preserving Harmony 保和殿<br /> <br /> Palace of Heavenly Purity (乾清宮)<br /> <br /> Hall of Union 交泰宫<br /> <br /> Palace of Earthly Tranquility 坤宁宫<br /> <br /> Han Banquet map 韩熙载夜宴图<br /> <br /> Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer陶彩绘女舞俑<br /> <br /> Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems十二生肖镜<br /> <br /> Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women画珐琅西洋人物鼻烟壶<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> 1. What’ s the meaning of “Zi” in the Chinese name Zijin Cheng?<br /> <br /> 2. When was the Forbidden City listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.<br /> <br /> 3.How many emperors have been lived in the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 4.How long did it take to build the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 5.Why some parts of national treasures are in the National Palace Museum in Taipei now.<br /> <br /> 6. What two parts can the Forbidden City be divided into?<br /> <br /> 7.When was the Palace Museum established?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.“Zi” refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star<br /> <br /> 2.In 1897.<br /> <br /> 3.24 emperors.<br /> <br /> 4.14 years.<br /> <br /> 5.Because both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.<br /> <br /> 6.They are the Outer Court and Inner Court.<br /> <br /> 7.The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Barmé, Geremie R(2008). The Forbidden City. Harvard University Press.26.<br /> <br /> UNESCO(2007). &quot;UNESCO World Heritage List: Imperial Palaces of the Ming and Qing Dynasties in Beijing and Shenyang&quot;.<br /> <br /> Li Xieping 李燮平. (1997) &quot;紫禁城&quot;名称始于何时[When did the name of the Forbidden City come into being?]. 紫禁城Forbidden City, (04) 29-31.<br /> <br /> Yu Zhuoyun(1984), Palaces of the Forbidden City, New York: Viking Press,p18.<br /> <br /> Guo Moruo 郭沫若.(1994) 甲申三百年祭[Commemorating 300th Anniversary of the Jia-Sheng Year]. 新华日报 New China Daily, 3.19.<br /> <br /> Xie Li 谢丽.(2005) 北京中轴线上的十七座门[Seventeen doors on the central axis of Beijing].紫禁城 Forbidden City, (03)100-102.<br /> <br /> Meng Fuxia 孟福霞. (2012)北京故宫空间布局构思探源——论中国古代宫殿建筑的美学精神[On the Origin of the Space Layout of the Palace Museum in Beijing--On the Aesthetic Spirit of Ancient Chinese Palace Architecture]大众文艺Popular Literature and Art, (21) 73-74. <br /> <br /> Li Wei&amp;Wang Shuo 刘薇,王硕.2005故宫文物南迁路线图揭秘[Unveiling the Route Map of the Cultural Relics of the Imperial Palace to the South] 华夏经纬网Jinwei Network, 6.22 http://www.huaxia.com/wh/gjzt/2005/00333230.html <br /> <br /> The Collection of the Palace Museum 故宫博物院馆藏https://www. dpm.org.cn /Home.html<br /> <br /> Xie Mengyin &amp; Qu Wanlin 谢荫明,瞿宛林. (2006) “文化大革命” 中谁保护了故宫 [Who protected the Forbidden City in the Cultural Revolution? ].人民网People’s Daily Online,11,7. http://history.people.com.cn/n/2014/0811/c372327-25441615.html<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Marriage Customs Mo Ling 莫玲 202070080602 &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;专业 is missing&lt;/span&gt;==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 莫玲 Mo Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Marriage Customs===<br /> <br /> China is an ancient country of rites. When it comes to the most important thing in one’s life---marriage, Chinese people have developed a set of unique and grand ceremonies. Generally speaking, weddings in ancient China needed to be approved by parents and arranged by parents. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;quotation is missing&lt;/span&gt;--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:15, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Six Procedures===<br /> <br /> There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying. Na Cai is the begining of all the marriage procedures. It refers that if a boy intends to marry a girl, firstly his family must invite a matchmaker to the girl's home to propose marriage. After obtaining the consent of the girl's family , the boy's family should entrust the matchmaker to make a proposal formally with some gifts. Usually, the most common gift is wild goose,which represents fidelity. Besides, mandarin ducks, phoenix and sheep are also frequently-used gifts. Wen Ming means that the boy's family ask the matchmaker to fetch the girl's name and date of birth. There are two purposes of this step: the one is to prevent the marriage of close relatives with the same surname; the other is to assure the compatibility of the potential bride and bridegroom through their “eight characters” of the birth moment. Naji happens after the matchmaker takes back the woman's name and eight characters. If divining an auspicious omen, the boy's family will inform it to the girl’s parents and decide to engage the marriage. What is more, Na Zheng is an important step when the boy sends betrothal presents to the girl and for courtesy the girl will send back part of the presents such as food and some clothes. Qing Qi means that the boy's family choose an auspicious day to hold the wedding ceremony and then dispatch the matchmaker to tell the girl’s family. Qin Ying is the last procedure of the six etiquettes, that is, the groom goes to the bride's home to take the bride to his home.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ===Customs===<br /> <br /> In addition to the six steps mentioned above, there are many other customs in the traditional Chinese wedding ceremony. Generally speaking, ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker, many young people could not master their own marriage. Before wedding ceremony, men and women were not allowed to meet each other in that ancient people were very conservative and most girls were kept in boudoirs. If they met in private before marriage, it would be regarded as a kind of female infidelity and parents would also think it quite unlucky. Under this circumstance, newlyweds could only see each other until the day of marriage.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47-48)<br /> <br /> On the wedding day, the boy’s family will hold a big banquet at home. Before setting out to pick up bride, the bridegroom should first worship his ancestors for the sake of safety and auspice during the process of picking up the bride. After that, the following step is the most grand one among the whole ceremony --- at the dusk moment, the groom and the bride, his parents as well as all the guests will gather together at the central room to witness the kneeling etiquettes of the couple, which consists of 4 steps: The first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber : the bride will be sent into the bridal chamber and the groom will drink with guests until night.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> After wedding ceremony, the couple must return to the girl’s home together at the third day, which is called “Huimen” or “Guiling”. This etiquette is indispensable. The groom should take some gifts for respect and change the way that he calls the bride’s parents, and the latter will also prepare a good meal for the couple’s coming.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ===Development===<br /> <br /> As time goes by, there are many reforms about marriage right now. Adults own the freedom to choose their spouse and they can meet each other every day if possible. Parents can’t master their “life event” any more.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47) In addition, many couples skip the cumbersome rites in the wedding ceremony. Some of them choose to hold the ceremony in the church with some close relatives and friends and some even finish it through travel.(Zhou Dandi &amp; Yue Shufa 2012,15)Nevertheless, most young people still adopt the main procedures of the traditional Chinese customs, some of which are handed down until right now. There still exist betrothal gifts and dowry, and many couples choose to wear red costumes. The groom should go to the bride’s home to escort her to the wedding and so on. Thus it can be seen that most traditional Chinese marriage customs are deep rooted in the hearts of Chinese people and shows a unique Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Gao Xiaoqian. 高筱倩.(2017) 中国传统婚嫁习俗研究［The Research on Traditional Chinese Marriage Customs］戏剧之家[Drama House] 235.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yueyong. 张月莹.(2013) 中国近代婚嫁礼俗及婚姻观念转变的探索[A Study on the Change of Marriage customs and Marriage Concepts in Modern China] 松州学刊［Songzhou Academic Journal］ 47-48.<br /> <br /> Zhou Dandi, Yue Shufa. 周丹迪, 岳书法.(2012) 浅析近代以来中国婚嫁民俗的演变[On the evolution of Chinese marriage customs since modern times] 文化学刊[Cultural Academic Journal] 15.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> Na Cai 纳彩 <br /> <br /> Wen Ming 问名<br /> <br /> Na Ji 纳吉 <br /> <br /> Na Zheng 纳征<br /> <br /> Qing Qi 纳征 <br /> <br /> Qin Ying 亲迎<br /> <br /> Huimen 回门 <br /> <br /> Guiling 归宁 <br /> <br /> betrothal presents 彩礼<br /> <br /> the central room 堂屋<br /> <br /> bridal chamber 婚房<br /> <br /> “eight characters” of the birth moment 生辰八字<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.How many procedures are needed from the negotiation to the completion of marriage?<br /> <br /> 2.Did the ancient young people have the rights to decide their own marriage or not and why?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the kneeling etiquettes?<br /> <br /> 4.When the couple have to return to the girl’s home?<br /> <br /> 5.What changes have been made nowadays?<br /> <br /> 6.Please list some new wedding customs.<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying.<br /> <br /> 2.No, they didn’t have the right to decide their own marriage because ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker.<br /> <br /> 3.It consists of 4 steps: the first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber.<br /> <br /> 4.At the third day of the wedding ceremony.<br /> <br /> 5.Adults can choose their spouse by themselves and they can meet each other whenever they want; Some couples choose to hold the ceremony in the church some even finish it through travel, etc.<br /> <br /> 6.Examples:couple can choose to live in the either part of the two families; wedding ceremony can be hold in hotel; the bride can wear white wedding dress rather than the single red in the ancient time.<br /> <br /> ==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br /> <br /> ====Topic: Chinese cinema (dramas and movies) and its popularity and affection in Vietnam====<br /> <br /> <br /> == Headline text ==<br /> ==Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac - Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 202070080603==专业 is missing--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:16, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ===Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac===<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:oyltacz.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]2020 is the year of rat according to the Chinese zodiac which consists of twelve animals used by people to name years. The traditional Chinese zodiac has been passed down for more than 2000 years since its origin(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). The twelve zodiac signs are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig, which are assigned in a repeating 12-year cycle(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). This traditional Chinese scheme was originated from China and then has enjoyed a popularity in many other Asian countries(The Editorial Board, 2010: 12-13). With its cultural connotation and time-honored impact, the Chinese zodiac have been engraved in every Chinese people. <br /> <br /> ====Origin====<br /> <br /> Regarding the origin of the Chinese zodiac, there are various opinions but many of them are presented with no sufficient evidence. There are many myths explaining these animal signs and their arrangement. Among them the most enduring one is the Great Race. In this story, the Jade Emperor, Ruler of the Heavens, wanted to devise a way to measure time, so he organized a race. At the end, the first twelve animals who made it across the river were the winners and so they earned themselves a spot on the zodiac calender in the order they arrived(The Editorial Board, 2010: 6). Besides this folk story, some scholars claim the zodiac scheme was indeed derived from the Twelve Earthly Branches but did not occur at the same time while the Earthly Branches appeared. Since the Han Dynasty, the Earthly Branches have been used to record the time of day. Therefore some hold until that time, the 12 zodiac came into being as a supplementary to refer to the 12 periods of 24 hours. Since the original meaning of the Earthly Branches at that time was obliterated due to the passage of time, the ancient Chinese attached the Earthly Branches and the Ten Heavenly Stems to the zodiac(The Editorial Board, 2010: 5-7). There also stands an opinion that the zodiac signs were originated from the totem worship in the primitive society. According to some research on the origin of Chinese zodiac, there were only twelve earliest surnames in ancient China, which were derived from the names of the twelve animals in the Chinese zodiac scheme. Here the twelve animals refer to the totems at ancient times and different surname tribes use different animals as their totems. Therefore, the twelve animals of Chinese zodiac was developed from the totems of ancient tribes(The Editorial Board, 2010: 4-5).<br /> <br /> ====Folk Culture and Belief ====<br /> <br /> The zodiac sign not only can reveal one’s age, but also represents his or her personality, career prospects and way of life according to Chinese superstition. <br /> <br /> The Chinese seem to believe that they have some affinity with the animals of the years in which they were born and that their personal traits and fortunes come under their mysterious influence. According to superstitious belief in China, Zodiac animals are combined with the Five Elements that consist of Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth, to tell one's destiny. Since people have their zodic sign's fixed elment, there are many folk beliefs based on this. For example, people born in the years of Metal Rat are believed to have a promising future; people born in the years of Fire Rat are deemed to be clever and intelligent and Wood Rat independent and self-respected(The Editorial Board, 2010: 40). <br /> <br /> Besides, since the zodiac is determined by the year of birth, there are many implications of one’s birth year. For example, some zodiacal preferences prevail in Chinese population. Chinese have always had a strong affection for the Dragon, so married couples prefer to give births in the year of Dragon. Since dragon is regarded as the auspicious and divine creatures, the children born in these years of dragon are believed to have fortune. These cultural preferences and folk beliefs have influenced prospective parents’ reproductive behavior in the Chinese society(Yip et al., 2002: 1804).<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese people believe certain animals get on better than the others, so the zodiac has had a great impact on marriage as well. Specifically, people who is born in the Year of Tiger would have perfect romance with Pigs, Rabbit with Dogs and Dragon with Roosters. On the contrary, some zodiac signs are believed to have misfortune if they are married with people of certain zodiac. As the Chinese idiom goes, if a dragon and a tiger fight each other, there will be one injured. This old says reflects that dragon and tiger are natural enemies according to the belief(The Editorial Board, 2010: 34-35). And this is the reason why men and women would like to evaluate their Bazi, the Eight Characters, before they get married. However, in reality, personality is related to one’s experience through the life journey rather than the pre-written zodiac signs. People born in the same year would have very distinctive personalities. Similarly, the destiny is also a result of people’s character and most decisions they’ll be making along the way. Of course the marriage is a more complex thing that cannot be deemed to have a pre-given outcome brought by the zodiac.<br /> <br /> ====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Chinese zodiac is a complex scheme which combines the traditional Chinese astrology in it. Based on the Five Elements theory, Yin and Yang system and Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches system, the traditional scheme have developed a profound connotation and implications through generation. Over thousands of years, this popular culture has affected people’s major decisions in naming, marriage, giving birth and attitude towards each other. But people have to consider zodiac in a rational and scientific way. Perhaps the zodiac may help us to understand what we’re given, but it cannot determine our destiny. We should treat it as the precious cultural heritage and explore the profound culture and historical traces embodied in it(The Editorial Board, 2010: 1-2).<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> 《大中国上下五千年》丛书编委会(2010) The Editorial Board of the ''Five Thousand Years of Great China''（''Dazhongguo Shangxia Wuqiannian''） ''Series'',《中国生肖文化》''The Culture of Chinese Zodiac'', 北京：外文出版社 Beijing: Foreign Languages Press.<br /> <br /> Yip, Paul S.F.伊普, Lee, Joseph 李 and Cheung, Y.B.张 (2002).The Influence of the Chinese Zodiac on Fertility in Hong Kong SAR 论生肖对香港生育率的影响. ''Social Science &amp; Medicine''《社会科学与医学》, Volume 55, Issue 10 第55卷第10期, 1803-1812.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions=== <br /> <br /> Jade Emperor 玉皇大帝<br /> <br /> Ten Heavenly Stems 十天干<br /> <br /> Twelve Earthly Branches 十二地支<br /> <br /> Five Elements 五行<br /> <br /> Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth 金木水火土<br /> <br /> Eight Characters 八字<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.How long is the history of Chinese zodiac?<br /> <br /> 2.What are the twelve zodiac signs in order? <br /> <br /> 3.From what time the Earthly Branches was used to record time?<br /> <br /> 4.According to Chinese folk belief, what kind of characteristics do people born in year of rat have?<br /> <br /> 5.Which zodiac animal is mostly praised in China?<br /> <br /> 6.Can you name some pairs of zodiac animal that get along well with each other according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> 7.Which pair of animals that are natural enemies according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.More than 2200 years.<br /> <br /> 2.Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig.<br /> <br /> 3.Han Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 4.They are smart, adaptable, and have the will to fight, but, on the other hand, they are so over-ambitious and easy to fail.<br /> <br /> 5.Dragon.<br /> <br /> 6.Tiger and pig, rabbit and dog and dragon and rooster. <br /> <br /> 7.Dragon and tiger.<br /> <br /> ==Lisu People and Daogan Festival of Lisu Ethnic Minority Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏 202070080641==<br /> --[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 08:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Lisu people and Daogan festival====<br /> <br /> The Lisu ethnic group are the Tibeto-Burman ethnic group living in mountainous areas such as Burma, southwest China, Thailand, and Arunachal Pradesh in India.<br /> <br /> [[File:Example1.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> There are about 730,000 Lisu people living in Lijiang, Baoshan, Nujiang, Diqing, Dehong and other counties in Yunnan and Sichuan provinces in China. The Lisu nationality is one of the 56 nationalities officially recognized by China. In Myanmar, the Lisu ethnic group is recognized as one of 135 ethnic groups with an estimated population of 600,000. Approximately 55,000 live in Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. They mainly inhabit remote mountainous areas. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans. Each clan has its own name or surname. The most famous family clans in the tribal clans are Laemae pha, Bya pha, Thorne pha, Ngwa Pha (Ngwazah), Naw pha, Seu pha, Khaw pha. Most of the surnames come from their own hunter work in primitive times. But later, they adopted many Chinese surnames. Their culture has the same characteristics as the Yi nationality or Nuosu (Lolo) culture. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> Daogan Festival (刀杆节) is a traditional festival of Lisu ethnic groups living in Lushui County(泸水县), Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture(怒江傈僳族自治州).Due to the death of the old artists, they were once lost in Nujiang Prefecture and recovered in recent years. They are mainly distributed in Luzhang Village(鲁掌镇), Luzu Village(鲁祖村) and Loma Village(洛玛村) of Lushui County(泸水县).(Ernst, Gabriel 2019)<br /> <br /> [[File:Example2.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> ====Legend====<br /> <br /> During the Ming Dynasty, when people not belonging to the same clan of feudal China invaded the borders of Yunnan, the king sent Wang Ji (王骥), the war department of the Chinese feudal ministry, to resist the enemy with troops. Wang Ji united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders. Later, Wang Ji was killed by traitors. To commemorate Wang Ji's great achievement and to pray for the souls of the brave soldiers who died bravely defending the border, the Li tribe held the &quot;Up and down the mountain&quot; event. (上刀山，下火海), and designated the 15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year as the Knife Gan Festival.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Going up to the knife mountain and going down to the sea of ​​fire are the main custom performances of the Taozhen Festival, which reproduce the life experience of people living in mountainous areas as they climb the mountains and the hard spirit and skills of climbing.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> ====Performing====<br /> <br /> [[File:Example3.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> Pine trees were used as tool poles, iron knives as tool ladders, crinkled paper as flowers, and bamboo as flower sticks. When we go up the rice mountain and down the fire, we play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments under the knife pole. There are strict procedures and rituals from pointing flowers, pointing knives, playing knives, tying knives, tying flowers, welcoming flowers, and altars. Setting , knife pole , vertical pole , sacrificial dragon , knife stand and dismantling knife (in the sea of fire). Knife poles are usually called gold pillar, silver pillar or male pillar and female pillar respectively, representing the dead and the living. Thirty-six long sharp knives representing 365 days a year are tied to the sides of the ladder with paper flowers made of five-color paper.<br /> After the knife poles are tied, Heung Tong/Heung Tong (巫师) recites the words in his mouth and performs the knife dance with drum music. After the knife dance, to the sound of Suo na, gongs and drums, the knife bearer grasps the blade with both hands, steps on the blade with bare feet and then climbs up. When the knife-bearer reaches the top through the three scissors, the knife-bearer opens the lock of heaven, takes out the grains and flowers, spreads them out into the boiling crowd, and then places the red ribbon on the colored door, over which he sings the old prayer song, and then he comes down from the pole of the knife again. After that, he stepped barefoot into the burning charcoal fire, licking the burning plow with his tongue and biting the burning chains with his teeth, which showed the national spirit of the Li people and their superb performance skills.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> ====Development====<br /> <br /> According to legend, it commemorates an ancient Han Chinese hero who showed great kindness to the Lisu people. The Lisu people made the anniversary of the hero's death a traditional holiday for their own people, and used symbolic rituals such as going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire to express their feelings of willingness to go through fire in return. On the day of the Knife Festival, several able-bodied men first perform the &quot;firewalking&quot; ceremony. They jump into the red-hot coals with bare feet and perform various stunts. On the second day, they sharpen 36 long knives and tie them to two 20-meter-high wooden racks with rattan strips, forming a knife ladder. With bare hands and feet, the performers climb to the top from the edge of the knives and perform various difficult moves at the top of the pole. Today, this thrilling traditional sacrificial ritual has evolved into a sporting event for the good people of the Lisu people to perform their stunts.(Li Zhihuan,2010)<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> 1.Lisu people 傈僳族<br /> <br /> 2.&quot;Up and down the mountain&quot; event 上刀山，下火海<br /> <br /> 3.The Lisu tribe 傈僳族<br /> <br /> 4.clan 氏族<br /> <br /> 5.primitive times 原始时期<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.How many Lisu people live in Yunnan and Sichuan？<br /> <br /> 2.How many clans make up the Lisu people？<br /> <br /> 3.Who united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders？<br /> <br /> 4.Which day is the Daogan Festival？<br /> <br /> 5.What musical instruments do they play under the knife pole?<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.About 730,000 Lisu people. <br /> <br /> 2.The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans.<br /> <br /> 3.Wang Ji.<br /> <br /> 4.15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year.<br /> <br /> 5.They play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments.<br /> <br /> ====References====<br /> <br /> *Ernst, Gabriel (21 October 2019). &quot;'We try to not be Thai': the everyday resistance of ethnic minorities&quot;<br /> *&quot;Yunnan Province of China Government Web&quot;. Eng.yn.gov.cn.<br /> *李智环．Li Zhihuan. 傈僳族人口分布及形成原因分析 [Analysis of the Distribution and Causes of the Formation of the Lisu People] 《保山学院学报》， 2010 [Journal of Baoshan College], 2010<br /> <br /> ==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br /> Chinese Clothing== Phyo, Su Kyi, Student No-20191108000<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> <br /> Chinese Clothing has many ethnic groups with a long history while Han people dominate most periods in history. For thousands of years, generations of clothing designers have devoted themselves to building the Kingdom of Clothes, making the garments that cover the human body into an important component of Chinese culture. The progress of nation can be seen through its changes in clothing styles.Clothing manufacture in China dates back to prehistoric times, at least 7,000years ago. Archaeological findings of 18,000 years-old artifacts such as bone sewing needles and stone beads and shells with holes bored in them attest to the existence of ornamentation and of sewing extremely early in Chinese civilization. (www.topchinatravel. com, 2004)<br /> <br /> Chinese clothing has undergone continuous transformations throughout history,providing a reflection of the culture in place at any given time. A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry, and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive Chinese fashions through the ages. This illustrated introductory survey takes the reader through traditional Chinese clothing,ornamentation,and ceremonial wear, and discusses the importance of silk and the diverse costumes of China's ethnic groups before considering modern trends and China's place in the fashion world today.(Mei Hua-2010-page-1)<br /> <br /> A-Chinese traditional clothing<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional clothing contains rich cultural connotations.Today, after the reform and opening up, the clothing industry has developed vigorously. People gradually start pay attention to the local clothing culture, and pursue cultural connotation contained in clothing. For modern designers, the traditional clothing and its cultural background are their creation inspirations during creation phases,and they are also one of the expressive elements preferred by designers at home and abroad. Inheriting traditional clothing culture not only means that it needs us to turn the traditional clothing elements into a symbol, but also needs us to further understand the background and connotations of traditional clothing culture. The work of design without culture is like a gorgeous shell that can't stand the test of history. Only by grasping the inner spirit of traditional clothing culture, abandoning simple piled up work and patch-up work without connotation and learning the modern expressive methods of traditional clothing elements, one can design out the works which can touch people's heartstrings. (Jiangsu,2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Traditional clothing is the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics. Traditional clothing mutually integrates its unique style, comfortable fabric, bright colors,rich designs and exquisite craft elements to bring people impulsive feelings with visual communication. Traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics enjoys its unique artistic features in the style, color,fabrics,decoration and craft, ect. They are profoundly influenced by Chinese traditional culture ideas in the process of their formation and development and finally condensed into the national culture bearing Chinese culture features. These elements are the source of our inspiration in contemporary clothing design, and the use of these Chinese elements can help people to design out the clothing Chinese style.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional culture is an indispensable source of inspiration in fashion design. Putting the traditional elements into fashion design not only helps the native culture to extend itself, but also greatly promotes the culture exchanges in nationalities. Therefore, we should advocate the national advanced culture,make the Chinese traditional culture achieve the development in the clothing design, use the common language to express Chinese traditional culture essence, and integrate Chinese traditional element symbol into the spiritual elements of fashion design to make the national culture spirit and the language of the world integrate into the mainstream of modern clothing design.(Jiangsu,2016, page -3)<br /> <br /> ==Traditional Han Chinese Clothing (Han Fu):It refers to the attire worn byvthe Han people from the enthronement of the Yellow Emperor(about 2698BC) till the late Ming Dynasty (1368-1644AD).It became known as the Han Fu(fu means 'clothes&quot; in Chinese)because the fashion was improved and popularized during the Han Dynasty. It is usually in the from of long gown,cross collar, wrapping the right lapel over the left, loose wide sleeves and no buttons but a sash. Although simple in design, it gives different feelings to different wearers.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019-Aug-2)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Suit(Tang Zhuang):It is a combination of the Manchu male jacket ofvthe Qing Dynasty and the western style suit. It is usually straight collared,with coiled buttons down the front. Its color and design are in traditional Chinese style but tailoring is western.(www.topchinatravel. com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> ==Cheongsam(Qi Pao):Originated from the Manchu female clothes, it evolved by merging with western patterns that show off the beauty of a female body. Its features are straight collar, strain on the waist,coiled buttons and slits on both sides ofvthe dress. Materials used are usually silk, cotton and linen.Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire in the world today.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Tunic Suit(Zhongshan Zhuang) :Also called the Yat-sen Suit , it is designed by Dr.Sun Yat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire. It has a turn-down collar and four pockets with flaps. As Chairman Mao Zedong worn it quite frequently, it is also called the Mao Suit by westerners. It is the main attire from the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 till 1980,s. The country's leaders still wear it today when attending important occasions, such as military parades.(www.topchinatravel. com,2016,Auge-2.)<br /> <br /> B-Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements<br /> <br /> There are many old stories in ancient Chinese civilization, and Chinese traditional elements come up with the tenacity of the Chinese nations long history. Different times has their unique cultural connotations and form elements,which include Chinese architecture, costumes, traditional Chinese painting and folk art etc., and those cultural connotations and form elements are precious heritage that the ancestors leave to their off-springs. The change of dynasties in the history of our country lead to changes of cultural centers, which finally lead to the appearance Chinese traditional elements with different representative features in each historical periods, nations and regions. These elements include: Chinese silk ,cloth of brocade, hemp,blue printed fabric; chirpaur, Chinese -style chest covering, Chinese tunic suit, collar,surplice, mandarin and split etc.; colorful ethnic colors: such as bright red,green,yellow and blueetc.;Neolithic patterns, bronze patterns in Shang and Chou dynasties, ancient lacquer were pattern in Qin and Han dynasties, Buddhism patterns in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties and traditional decorative patterns in Tang,Sing and Qing dynasties. The essence of Chinese traditional culture which bear the role of inheriting national culture, and is the unique and external characteristic of Chinese nation.(Jiangsu,2016, page-3)<br /> <br /> Trems and Expressions<br /> <br /> 历史-history, <br /> <br /> 期-period, <br /> <br /> 世代-generations, <br /> <br /> 服装-clothing, <br /> <br /> 设计师-designers , <br /> <br /> 装饰-ornamentation<br /> <br /> 中国服饰- Chinese clothing<br /> <br /> 服饰-Costumes <br /> <br /> 传统服装-Traditional clothing<br /> <br /> 服装设计-Clothing design<br /> <br /> 时尚设计-Fashion design <br /> <br /> 几代服装设计师-Generations of clothing designers <br /> <br /> 中国西装-Chinese Suit<br /> <br /> 旗袍-Cheongsam<br /> <br /> 中山装-Chinese Tunic Suit <br /> <br /> 中国传统元素-Chinese traditional elements <br /> <br /> ===Questions ===<br /> <br /> 1-What’s archaeological findings in Chinese fashions through the ages?<br /> <br /> 2-What's Traditional Clothing?<br /> <br /> 3-What's Traditional culture indispensable?<br /> <br /> 4-How is means Han Fu?<br /> <br /> 5-What's the popular Chinese attire?<br /> <br /> 6-How called was Chinese Tunic Suit?<br /> <br /> 7-What'are include Chinese traditional elements? <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 04:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Answers===<br /> 1- A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry,<br /> and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive chinese fanshions through the ages.<br /> <br /> 2-Traditional clothingis the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing<br /> culture with Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> 3-Chineset traditional culture is an indispensablevsource of inspirationin fashion<br /> design.<br /> <br /> 4-Han Fu is fu means clothes in Chinese. <br /> <br /> 5-Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire inthe world today.<br /> <br /> 6-It is also called the Yat-sen Suit,it is designed byDr.SunYat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire.<br /> <br /> 7-Chinese traditional elements include: Chinese silk,cloth of brocade, hemp, blue printed fabric.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 11:56, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> 1.Jiangsu.“Influences of Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements on Modern Clothing Design”,<br /> <br /> Nanjing University of Finance and Economics,Soochow University,Published by Atlantic Press,2016.<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.Mei Hua, `Chinese Clothing´, Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building,Cambridge CB28RU,UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press,NewYork<br /> www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title:www.cambridge.org/9780521186896<br /> Originally published byChina Intercontinental Press as Cinese Clothing(9787508516615)in2010©ChinaIntercontinentalPress2010<br /> <br /> 3.https://www.topchinatravel.com/china-guide/history-of-chinese-clothing.htm<br /> <br /> 4.https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/clothing/--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 10:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br /> <br /> ===Chinese traditional dance===<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Traditional women clothing===<br /> <br /> ===1- History of Chinese clothing===<br /> <br /> History of Chinese clothing China has many ethnic groups with a long history while Han people dominate most periods in history. For thousands of years, generations of clothing designers have devoted themselves to building the Kingdom of Clothes, making the garments that cover the human body into an important component of Chinese culture. The progress of nation can be seen through its changes in clothing styles.Clothing manufacture in China dates back to prehistoric times, at least 7,000 years ago. Archaeological findings of 18,000 year-old artifacts such as bone sewing needles and stone beads and shells with holes bored in them attest to the existence of ornamentation and of sewing extremely early in Chinese civilization.<br /> <br /> ===A- Chinese Clothing during Qin and Han Dynasties (221 B.C - 220 A.D)===<br /> <br /> The Qin and Han dynasties (221 B.C. - A.D. 220) witnessed the unification of territory as well as written language. Qin Shihuang, the First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty, established many social systems, including one for uniforms to distinguish people's ranks and social positions. China's complete code of costume and trappings was established in the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD). The yarn-dyeing, embroidering and metal-processing technologies developed rapidly in the period, spurring changes in costume and adornments.<br /> <br /> ===B-Chinese Clothing during Wei,Jin, South and North Dynasties(220-589)===<br /> <br /> Chinese clothing experienced a rapid development during the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern dynasties (220-589). Before 265, the cultures and esthetic views of the peoples in north and south China merged because of the moves initiated by frequent wars. Many philosophical schools of thought influenced both people's lives and the conceptions of clothing design.<br /> <br /> ===C- Chinese Clothing during Tang Dynasty(618-907)===<br /> <br /> The Tang Dynasty (618-907) wrote the most brilliant page in the history of Chinese clothing. People's clothes were more varied than before because the state was more open to the outside world and people became more cosmopolitan in their thinking. The clothes for women could be called fashionable because they changed rapidly and were showy. Once only a new style came out, many people would be willing to take it.<br /> <br /> ===D-Chinese Clothing during Song, Yuan, Ming Dynasties===<br /> <br /> Casual wear appeared during the Song Dynasty (960-1279), and clothes were simple and elegant.During the Yuan Dynasty (1206-1368), the Mongolian ethnic group, known as the People on Horseback, was in power. The style of clothing was mainly a combination of Mongolian and Han. Clothes were luxurious for upper class yet simple and unadorned in design.Dramatic changes took place during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). A new conception came into being in clothing design, with no limitation to one style and advocating natural beauty, thus bringing vigor and vitality to the clothing culture.<br /> <br /> ===E- Chinese Clothing during Qing Dynasty===<br /> <br /> During the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), clothes became elegant, poised, and glorious. During the 200 years of the Qing Empire, the entire world witnessed dramatic changes such as the Renaissance in Italy and Columbus's discovery of the Americas, but the changes did not affect traditional Chinese clothing because China had a closed-door policy. People still wore clothes showing rank and lifestyle. The retreat from outside cultures has left a precious heritage for traditional Chinese clothes.<br /> <br /> ===F-Chinese Clothing from 1930s till Modern Era===<br /> <br /> Chinese clothing from 1930s till now, Qipao has become into fashion since then. During 1930s to 1940s, dress is further westernized, tailored to flatter body shape. During 1940s to 1960s, Qipao(Cheongsam) survives as everyday wear in Hong Kong until the late 1960s. <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions=== <br /> <br /> ===Questions=== <br /> <br /> ===References===.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 17:37, 25 November 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> ===References===--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 04:45, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Liquor Culture of China 瞿淼 Student No.202070080604==<br /> --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 08:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.The Origin of liquor in China====<br /> <br /> With a long history of liquor-making, China boasts a variety of vintage liquor, which is renowned at home and abroad. Penetrating in China’s entire history of civilization, the liquor culture plays a significant role in many aspects, such as cuisine, literature, and health care, of Chinese people’s daily life.<br /> As to the origin of Chinese liquor, opinions vary and no unanimous conclusion can be drawn, and the most widely accepted version is that Du Kang is the person who invented liquor. There are divergent views on Du Kang’s identity, so far, documents have been found which recorded his deeds in the Yellow Emperor era and Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties. And even his address is disputable. Some people think he lived in Baishui, Shaanxi province and was buried here, while others hold the opinion that he lived in Ruyang, Henan province. However, Du Kang is generally believed to be the Chinese Dionysus. According to the legend, one day it rained suddenly while Du Kang was herding the sheep. Hastily driving the sheep back to the sheepfold, he forgot some husked sorghum rice in a hollowed trunk by accident, and when he came back after a few days, the rice he left there became so fragrant that he couldn’t help tasting some. Surprisingly, it was palatable. This unexpected finding made Du Kang start to develop the liquor-brewing technique. Nowadays, Du kang has become the synonym of liquor in many places. Moreover, ancestral halls of Du Kang have been built in Baishui in Shaanxi province and Ruyang in Henan province to enshrine him. And the liquor produced in these places are called “Du Kang Liquor.”<br /> <br /> ====2.The Types of liquor in Ancient China====<br /> With constant reform and innovation of the techniques of brewing liquor, thousands types of vintage liquor have been created in China. According to the different production techniques, Chinese liquor can be divided into fermented wine and distilled liquor.<br /> <br /> Yellow rice wine is the oldest fermented wine around the world. Shaoxing Wine, a famous specialty of Shaoxing, Zhejiang province, is the representative of yellow rice wine. It has a very long history, and the wine industry in Shaoxing was prosperous early in the Warring States period. Shaoxing wine looks yellow and clear, hence sugar is added in its raw material. The most prominent of Shaoxing Wine is that it’s fragrance improves with age. In addition to Shaoxing Wine, there are other famous yellow rice wine like Jiujiang Old Seal Wine, Mellow Wine and Dongwu Rice Wine and so on.<br /> <br /> Liquor and Spirits(Baijiu), a kind of distilled liquor, is divided into the following flavor types: sauce-flavor type, light flavor type, strong flavor type and other flavour types. Kweichow Moutai is a traditional Chinese specialty liquor. It is one of the world's three major distilled liquors on par with Scotch whiskey and French cognac. It is also the originator of Daqu sauce-flavored liquor with a history of more than 800 years. The style and quality of Kweichow Moutai is characterized by &quot;prominent sauce, elegant and delicate flavour, full-bodied, long aftertaste, and lasting fragrance in an empty cup&quot;. Its special style comes from the unique traditional brewing techniques formed over the years and the brewing methods are combined with the agricultural production in the Chishui River Basin, which is affected by the environment and seasonal production, retaining some of the original traces of local life. In 1996, Moutai's craftsmanship was identified as a state secret to be protected. In 2001, the traditional craft of Moutai was included in the first batch of national material cultural heritage. In 2006, the State Council approved the inclusion of the &quot;Moutai traditional brewing process&quot; in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage lists, and declared the world intangible cultural heritage.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Types of Drinking Vessel in Ancient China====<br /> Chinese people always pay attention to the beauty and delicacy of tableware, and we stress the exquisiteness and suitability of wine vessels when drinking. Therefore, drinking vessels as part of the liquor culture also have a long history and varied appearances.<br /> <br /> In different historical periods, due to the continuous development of society and economy, the production technology, materials, and appearance of wine vessels will naturally undergo corresponding changes; therefore, a wide variety of wine vessels have been produced. As early as the Neolithic culture period, pottery with shapes similar to later wine-ware, such as the pottery of the Peiligang culture period, appeared. The development of the liquor industry and the noble identity of the drinker have made it possible for liquor utensils to be differentiated from ordinary eating utensils. The quality of wine-ware often becomes one of the symbols of the status of drinkers. Bronze ware originated in Xia Dynasty, and the earliest bronze wine ware that has been discovered is from the Xia Erlitou culture period. Bronze ware reached its heyday in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and declined in the Spring and Autumn Period. The purpose of the Shang and Zhou drinking vessels was basically specific. In the Shang Dynasty, due to the development of the liquor industry and the improvement of bronze production technology, China's wine ware reached unprecedented prosperity. The bronze wine vessels of Shang and Zhou Dynasties were divided into liquor boiling vessels, liquor serving vessels, drinking vessels and liquor storaging vessels according to their purposes. Each vessel has many styles, some are in common styles, and some take animal shapes. Take Zun as an example, there are Elephant Zun, Rhino Zun, Niu Zun, Yang Zun, Tiger Zun, etc. During the Qin and Han Dynasties, lacquered wine utensils became popular in southern China. It became the main type in the Han Dynasty, Wei and Jin Dynasties, and its shape basically inherited the shape of bronze liquor vessels. Porcelain roughly appeared around the Eastern Han Dynasty. Compared with pottery, the performance of porcelain surpassed that of pottery. The shape of liquor glasses in the Tang Dynasty was much smaller than in the past, so some people think that distilled spirits appeared in the Tang Dynasty. The Song Dynasty was the heyday of ceramic production, and there were many exquisite wine vessels. People in Song Dynasty like to warm rice wine and drink it. So the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl were invented. People placed the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and poured hot water into the bowl to warm the wine. The representative porcelain wine-ware of the Ming and Qing Dynasty is the blue-and-white porcelain wine-ware.<br /> <br /> ====4.Drinking Order====<br /> As early as the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, drinking orders appeared at banquets in the Yellow River Basin. There are many ways to make wine orders. The way the literati and the ordinary people make drinking orders are naturally very different. Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc., while ordinary people use simple ways to act without any preparation. It requires a quick, witty, artistic and talented person to do liquor orders. The drinking order is of great significance to the transformation, enrichment and development of drinking rituals. It is not only an important means to add wine to the fun and to invigorate the banquet, but also to make Chinese culture enter the wine and become the Liquor Culture&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> 1.Du Kang 杜康 <br /> 2.Chinese Dionysus 中国酒神<br /> 3.husked sorghum rice 秫米饭 <br /> 4.Baishui 白水县（陕西渭南市辖县） <br /> 5.Ruyang 汝阳县（河南省洛阳市下辖县） <br /> 6.fermented wine 发酵酒<br /> 7.Distilled liquor 蒸馏酒 <br /> 8.Yellow rice wine 黄酒<br /> 9.Shaoxing Wine 绍兴酒 <br /> 10.Jiujiang Old Seal Wine 九江成年封缸酒<br /> 11.Mellow Wine 醇香酒 <br /> 12.Dongwu Rice Wine 东吴老酒<br /> 13.Liquor and Spirits 白酒 <br /> 14.Kweichow Moutai 贵州茅台<br /> 15.sauce-flavor type 酱香型 <br /> 16.light flavor type 清香型 <br /> 17.strong flavor type 浓香型 <br /> 18.Daqu sauce-flavored liquor 大曲酱香型白酒<br /> 19.the Peiligang culture period裴李岗文化时期 <br /> 20.the Xia Erlitou culture period 夏二里头文化时期<br /> 21.Zun 樽 <br /> 22.injection vessel and bowl 注子和注碗<br /> 23.drinking order 行酒令<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.Who is generally believed to invent liquor in China? <br /> <br /> 2.What is the most prominent of Shaoxing Wine?<br /> <br /> 3.How to use the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl in the Song dynasty?<br /> <br /> 4.How do literati often make drinking orders in China?<br /> <br /> ====Answers====<br /> <br /> 1.Du Kang<br /> <br /> 2.It’s fragrance improves with age.<br /> <br /> 3.Place the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and pour hot water into the bowl to warm the wine.<br /> <br /> 4.Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc.<br /> <br /> ====Bibliography====<br /> *Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.<br /> <br /> *Li Fangzhou 李方舟. (1998) 酒令——酒文化的珍品[Liquor-a treasure of wine culture]. 质量天地Production Room.<br /> <br /> *Du Jinpeng 杜金鹏. (1995) 中国古代酒具[Ancient Chinese Wine Set]. 上海文化出版社 Shanghai Culture Publishing House.<br /> <br /> *Yang Li 杨 利. (2005) 酒文化及酒的精神文化价值探微[A Probe into Wine Culture and Spiritual Cultural Value of Wine]. 邵阳学院学报Academic Journal of Shaoyang University, 2005(02):82-83.<br /> <br /> *Xu Shaohua 徐少华. (1999) 中国酒文化研究50年[Research on 50 years of Chinese wine culture]. 酿酒科技Brewing Technology, 1999(06):15-18.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Fengqi 赵凤琦. (2014) 我国白酒产业可持续发展研究[Research on Sustainable Development of Chinese Liquor Industry]. 中国社会科学院研究生院CASS Graduate School.<br /> <br /> *Wng Jianguo&amp;Xu Liang 汪建国,徐亮.(2005)我国黄酒的特征及展望[Characteristics and Prospects of Chinese Rice Wine] 江苏调味副食品Journal of Jiangsu Seasoning Food, 2005(06):8-12.<br /> <br /> *Ding Jihua 丁季华. (1991) 中国酒文化的结构与功能[The structure and function of Chinese wine culture]. 历史教学问题History Research and Teaching, 1991(2).<br /> <br /> == China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH) - Rajabov, Anushervon student NO. 201921080005==<br /> <br /> ===China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH)===<br /> <br /> Introduction <br /> <br /> High-speed railway (HSR) in China is the longest network of high-speed railways in the world and is used most widely. The network of UNCC includes the recently built railway at the estimated speed of 200-350 km / h (120-220 miles per hour). The Chinese VSM accounts for two thirds of world high-speed railways. Almost all trains, the path and services of the HSR belong to the Chinese railway corporation under the CHINA Railway High Speed brand (CRH). The high-speed railway has developed rapidly in China over the past 15 years. CRH was put into operation in April 2007, the Intercity Line Beijing-Tianjin, which opened in August 2008, became the first HSR allocated passenger line. HSR applies to all administrative provincial levels, except Macau and Tibet. The total length of the HSR network reached 36,000 km (22,000 miles) in August 2020. The HSR construction boom continues, and the HSR network should reach 70,000 km (43,000 miles) in 2035. China's first high-speed trains were imported or built in accordance with the Technology Transfer Agreement with foreign trains manufacturers, including Alstom, Siemens, Bombardier and Kawasaki Heavy Industry Since the initial technical support, Chinese engineers have overpower the internal components of the train and built local trains produced by the CRRC State Corporation. The appearance of a rapidly accelerated railway in China has decreased in the way and changed Chinese society and the economy. The World Bank study has shown that &quot;a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality.&quot; <br /> <br /> Definition and terminology <br /> <br /> High-speed trains in China are usually belonging to passenger trades of classes G, D and C. in class G trains (高 铁; Gāotiě; &quot;High-speed rail&quot;) are commonly used trains E In class D trains (动 车; Dòngchē; &quot;Electrical multiple unit&quot;) are presented by EMU trains operating at lower speeds, whether in high-speed or low-speed ways. The actual movement speed of class D trains can vary greatly. D211 Creament train from Guyang-east to Guangzhou-South along the High Speed Railway Guang-Guangzhou, a line with an estimated speed of 250 km / h, on average, 207 km / h per trip. The sleeping train D312 EMU between South Beijing and Shanghai at a low speed Beijing - Shanghai on average passing 121 km / h. Class C (c héngjì; “intercity”) trains that run on high-speed tracks at speeds above 250 km / h are also considered high-speed trains. <br /> <br /> Influence on airlines<br /> <br /> The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights. The effect of high-speed railway on airfare is most acute when traveling for less than 500 km (310 miles). By the spring of 2011, commercial airlines were fully stopped at previously popular routes such as Wuhan Nanjing, Wuhan Nanchang, Xi'an-Zhengzhou and Chengdu Chongqing. Flights along the routes with a length of more than 1500 km (930 miles) usually do not suffer. As of October 2013, half a speed of passengers were transported monthly on high-speed rail than in the country's airlines. <br /> Technologies <br /> Chinese High Speed Railway Controls Various Electric Forms of Trains, Hexie HAO Title (Simplified Chinese: 和谐 号; Traditional Chinese: 和 諧 號; Pinyin: Héxié Hào; Harmony) is for designs which are imported from other nations and designated CRH-1 to CRH-5 and CRH380A (L), CRH380B (L) and CRH380C (L). CRH compositions are designed for fast and convenient movement between cities. The weakness of intellectual property Hexie HAO creates obstacles to China in the export of its products related to high-speed railways, which leads to the development of a fully recycled railway franchise called Fuxing Hao (Rejuvenation) that based on local technologies.<br /> <br /> 4 + 4 HSR network <br /> <br /> The network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km. Most of the lines follow existing routes and are for passenger traffic only. These are known as Passenger Lines (PDL). Several sections of the national network, especially along the southeastern coastal corridor, have been built to connect cities that previously had no rail links. These sections will carry both passenger and cargo. High-speed trains on HSR corridors can usually reach speeds of 300-350 km / h (190-220 mph). On mixed HSR lines, passenger trains can reach a maximum speed of 200–250 km / h (120–160 mph). This ambitious national grid project was slated to be built by 2020, but government incentives have significantly shortened the construction timeframe for many lines. <br /> <br /> Advantages <br /> <br /> HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances that: Increases economic productivity and long-term competitiveness by increasing rail capacity and unifying labor markets. Moving passengers onto high-speed lines frees up older railways to carry more cargo, which is more beneficial for railways than for passengers whose fares are subsidized. Boosts the economy in the short term as high-speed rail construction creates jobs and stimulates demand in the construction, steel and cement industries during the economic downturn. 110,000 workers were mobilized for the construction of the Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway. Facilitates economic integration between cities and promotes the growth of second-tier cities. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains.<br /> <br /> Wenzhou accident <br /> <br /> On July 23, 2011, two high-speed trains collided on the Ningbo-Taizhou-Wenzhou railway in the Lucheng district of Wenzhou city, Zhejiang province. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped. Signals failed, causing another train to stop a stopped train. Several carriages derailed. State Chinese media confirmed 40 deaths and at least 192 people were hospitalized, including 12 seriously injured. The train accident in Wenzhou and the lack of accountability by rail officials have generated public outcry and heightened concerns about the safety and management of China's high-speed rail system. Concerns about quality and safety have also influenced plans to export cheaper high-speed train technology to other countries. In the aftermath of the deadly disaster, the Chinese government has suspended approval of new rail projects and began security checks on existing equipment.<br /> <br /> Terms and expressions<br /> <br /> 高 铁 - High-speed rail<br /> 动 车 - Electrical multiple unit<br /> 和 諧 號 – Harmony<br /> 復興號 - Rejuvenation<br /> <br /> Questions <br /> <br /> 1. What does the World Bank research say?<br /> 2. What forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights?<br /> 3. How many high speed rail corridors are there in the 4 + 4 HSR network? What is their total length?<br /> 4. What caused the accident?<br /> 5. What are the benefits of HSR?<br /> <br /> Answers<br /> <br /> 1. The World Bank study has shown that &quot;a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality.&quot; <br /> 2. The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights.<br /> 3. The 4 + 4 HSR network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km. <br /> 4. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped.<br /> 5. HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains.<br /> <br /> References<br /> <br /> ==Language, The Chinese Language - Seydou, Sagara, Student No:201911080004==<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> China is a very big country with a large population, multi-ethnic, and multi-lingual. Each etthnic groups may have its own lingo, or dialects. There are great differences between these dialects because of pronunciation. For example, if people in different places use their dialects to talk, they may not be able to understand each other, and the situation may lead to embarrassment and understanding. Therefore, the Chinese people communicate with each other in a common language, Putonghua, also known as Mandarin in Western countries. Cheng Aimin (2019, 124)<br /> <br /> ==Putonghua and Dialects==<br /> <br /> Putonghua is the national language of China, and Chinese is the most widely spoken language in the world. More than one billion of the world's populations are Chinese speakers. The Chinese population is already one fifth of the population of the world and is rapidly expanding its presence everywhere and influence many people around the world. Cheng Aimin (2019, 25) <br /> It is the modern standard Chinese language with the Beijing pronunciation as its standard pronunciation, the northern dialect (also known as Mandarin, the official language in the past) as its basic dialect, and the modern vernacular as its grammatical norm. Therefore, the northern dialect sounds more like Putonghua than other dialects. Putonghua is a standardized language, which is legally used all over the country. In 2000, the law of the People’s Republic of China on common languages and characters established the legal status of Putonghua and standardized Chinese Characters as the national language and writing system. Putonghua is also one of the six working language of the United Nation and an important means of communication between China and foreign countries. According to statistics from ethnologist, in 2015, 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, but there were still about 400 million people who spoke dialects or minority languages. Article 19 of the constitution of the People’s Republic of China stipulates that ‘’ Putonghua is widely used by the state ‘’, and the third week of September is the national Putonghua Publicity week. We often hear some sayings like this: ‘’ Learn Putonghua well and you will have friend all over the world.’’ Chinese dialects are usually divided into seven groups: northern dialect Wu dialect, Hunan dialect, Jiangxi dialect, Hakka dialect, and Cantonese dialect and Fujian dialect. Most northern are close to Putonghua and easy to understand a non-native speaker. Cheng Aimin (2019, 126) <br /> <br /> The dialects in China differ greatly. Speaking Putonghua allows the Chinese people to communicate better with each other and promote the development of economy and culture everywhere. However, the promotion of Putonghua cannot be achieved in a short time. The Chinese government plans to enable more than 80% of Chinese people to speak Putonghua by 2020. (C.Gov art 10. 2017)<br /> Only by learning Putonghua can you communicate with people from all parts of China and event with Chinese –speaking people all over the world. While striving to promote Putonghua among the people of the whole country, China also pays special attention to the protection of dialects, which should not be lost after learning Putonghua. . Cheng Aimin (2019, 126)<br /> <br /> ==Ancient Chinese and Modern Chinese ==<br /> Over the past three thousand years, Chinese has undergone a long period of development and changes, and has been constantly interacting with the languages of other nations. Ancient Chinese and written Chinese characters are not exactly the same as they are now. When we visit Chinese historical sites, we often see couplets, poems, and inscriptions. Most of them are written in classical Chinese and traditional Chinese characters. Classical Chinese is a written language formed on the basis of the spoken language in the pre-Qin period. Cheng Aimin (2019, 127) <br /> <br /> By the time of the Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties (the 7th century to the 10th century), the spoken Chinese had changed greatly and had significant differences with the classical style of written Chinese. The pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar had changed greatly. But all the time, some people still insisted on writing in classical Chinese, while others wrote in the commonly used vernacular (spoken Chinese). The Four Classical Novels created in the Ming and Qing dynasties, The Dreams of the red Chambers, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, The Outlaws of the Marsh and the journey to the west, are all representative works of the ancient vernacular. After the May 4th movement in 1919, China launched a vernacular movement advocating ‘’my hand writes my speech’’. Since then, the vernacular has gradually been more widely used in the whole society, and modern Chinese has gradually developed and formed. Compared with ancient Chinese, modern Chinese absorbs a lot Western grammar and has added many disyllabic words. Cheng Aimin (2019 ,128)<br /> <br /> ==Idiomatic Phrases- Idioms, Proverbs, Common Sayings, and Allegorical Sayings.==<br /> Many phrases with fixed meanings in Chinese have been handed down from the ancient times. Mastering these phrases will make your language more authentic and vivid. For example, ‘’Lofty mountains and flowing rivers ‘’. Playing the lute to the cow’’ ‘’prescribing medicine according to symptoms’’, and ‘’ pleading guilty by carrying a rod on one’s back’ ’these phrases, often contain four Chinese characters each, are called idioms. They are quite formal and often originate from ancient historical stories, fables, myths and legends, or literary works. Sometimes we cannot guess the meaning of an idiom simply according to the meaning of the words. For example, 崇山峻岭，流淌的河流 ‘’lofty mountains and flowing rivers’’ means meeting someone who can really understand and appreciate them, while吹牛的长笛 ‘’ Playing the lute to the cow’’ means the casting pearls before swine. Wendy Abraham: (2018 ,115)<br /> There are also proverbs, common sayings, and allegorical sayings created and passed down by the common people in spoken language, which are quite colloquial and emotional, reflecting the unique culture of China.<br /> Proverbs are common and easy -to understand fixed phrases used orally, often explaining a truth. For example, ‘’ if you are not in charge of a home, you don’t know how expensive the firewood and rice, if you don’t have children, you don’t know kinds your parents are.’’ ‘’Seeing is better than hearing 100 times, and doing is better than seeing 100 times’’ Cheng Aimin (2019, 129)<br /> Common sayings mostly come in a three –character format, but there are also other formats. In addition to the literal meaning, there are deep metaphorical extensions. For example, 吹牛皮 ‘’blow cow skin’’ (meaning bragging or boating) ‘给某人. 穿紧身鞋 ‘’give SB . Tight shoes to wear ‘’ ( meaning making things hard for SB), ‘为外国人工作时的消磨时间‘’kill time when working for foreigners ‘’ ( loafing on the job) , 提一个黑锅 ‘’ carry a black pot’’ ( taking the blame for the fault of others ) , 钉在眼睛里 ‘’ nail in the eyes’’ ( thorn in the flesh ), 狗腿 ‘’ dog leg’’ ( hired thug) , 不管3x7 = 21 ‘’regardless of 3x7= 21’’( regardless of consequences, in the spite of anything ), 打不了八极 ‘’ can’t hit with eight poles’’ ( extremely distant or unrelated ). (Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002,232)<br /> An allegorical saying is divided into two parts. It is like a riddle: The first part is a metaphor, and the second part is an explanation. There are two types of allegorical sayings: homophonic and figurative. Example of the homophonic type ‘’ the nephew carries a lantern – to light up the uncle’’ (pronounced the same ‘’ as before ‘’ in Chinese); ‘’the monk opens an umbrella – no hair and no sky ‘’ (‘’ no hair ‘’ is pronounced similar to ‘’ lawless ‘’ in Chinese). Examples of the figurative type: ‘’ A mute person takes a dose of bitter medicine- they can’t say it is bitter ‘’; ‘’ Mice go to the street – everybody shouts and beats them.’’ Cheng Aimin (2019.130)<br /> <br /> ==Language policy==<br /> While vigorously promoting Putonghua, the Chinese government has also promulgated many policies to protect dialect and minority languages. In order to promote Putonghua, China promulgated the Chinese Pinyin Program in 1958. Pinyin (the standard Chinese sound- spelling system) is widely used in Putonghua promotion, international Chinese teaching, foreign exchange and other fields. It has become an important tool for reading Chinese characters, learning Putonghua, training and improving reading and writing ability. With the popularization of modern information technology, pinyin is widely used to input the Chinese characters on computers and mobile phones. Pinyin affects all aspects of social life. In translation, Chinese names of people, places, food, and even some cultural concept with Chinese characteristics (Such as Beijing, pingpang, Shaoling, Gongful) are directly spelled with Pinyin, which is therefore an important standard for translation and a bridge for international exchange. Minglang Zhou: (pp.71-95).<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion.== <br /> Today, an increasing number of people from other countries now want to learn Chinese language and culture and also many universities from different countries throughout the world offer Chinese language courses because Putonghua is also an open door to a huge job market in all of the countries where Putonghua is the language of commerce like Mainland China, Taiwan and Singapore. Learning Chinese can help to make a better future for everyone. Abundant opportunities for governments and business careers as well as scientific and cultural exchanges await the student of Chinese. The China market is blossoming after decades of global isolation. As China is rapidly becoming a world economic power as it opens its doors to foreign investment expands its infrastructure, those who know Chinese will be valuable to business.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> Cheng Aimin.(2019), ''中国概况'' [Understanding China]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> Minglang Zhou: Language Policy in the People’s Republic of China (p.71-95), Wendy Abraham: let’s talk Mandarin Chinese: 1,001 real-life phrases and Idioms. Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37) Article 10 Putonghua and the standardized Chinese characters shall be used as the basic language in education and teaching in schools and other institutions of education, except where otherwise provided for in laws.<br /> The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002)<br /> ===Terms and expressions===<br /> Lingo: 林戈<br /> Putonghua: 普通话<br /> Await student:等待学生<br /> Pinyin: 等待学生<br /> Lofty: 崇高：<br /> Vernacular: 白话：<br /> Swine: 猪：<br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1. Why Putonghua is spoken in United Nations Organization?<br /> 2. How many people speak Putonghua in China and around the world?<br /> 3 .Why Chinese government is promoted Putonghua among many others languages?<br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1. Because it is an important means of communication between China and foreign countries.<br /> 2. According to ethnologist 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, and according to the10 most spoken languages in the world Chinese (and all of its varieties such as Mandarin) is by far the most spoken language across the world with 1.31 billion speakers.<br /> 3. Because Putonghua is become an international language and it also facilitate understanding between different ethnic groups in China.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5&diff=111461 2020-12-13T11:48:31Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602 */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第五部分(Part 5)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Thoughts'''=<br /> ==A Study on Creative Treason of Literature Translation - 李玉 Li Yu==<br /> ==On the Analysis of Three Kinds of Beauty in ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence-林敏 Lin Min 202020080616==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;林敏 Lin Min &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation, aiming to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language in a translation. Xu Yuanchong introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties” principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book, he said that the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem. This thesis is going to use such two theories to compare and analyze the two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond in our nation --Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version with some typical and representative examples, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.This thesis is divided into five parts: the first part roughly describes the purpose, method and significant of the study; the second part introduces the general idea and two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond; The third part introduces two translation theories functional equivalence and three beauty principle; the fourth part, some typical examples are selected and two theories are used to compare study the two versions. The fifth part summarizes the whole thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Functional Equivalence, Three Kinds of Beauty<br /> <br /> === 题目===<br /> 功能对等理论指导下《荷塘月色》英译本“三美”的传达<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 功能对等论是翻译理论中最重要的理论之一。功能对等论的目的是实现源语和目标语之间的功能对等。许渊冲在《毛泽东诗词四十二首》序言中提出的译诗的“三美”原则，即音美，意美和形美。本篇文章将利用这两个基本原则，通过一些有代表性的例子对译本进行比较学习，学习研究两篇文章是否符合功能对等。本篇论文共分为五部分，第一部分介绍了本研究的目的、意义和方法；第二部分介绍了《荷塘月色》的大意和两个英译本；第三部分对两个翻译原则：功能对等论和“三美”原则做了简要地介绍；第四部分选取了有代表性的例子，运用了两个理论对两译本进行了对比学习；第五部分对全文进行了总结。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 功能对等论，三美原则<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> With the advent of globalization as well as the development of Chinese economy, more and more Chinese literary works have been introduced abroad. Prose is one of the important part of China’s literature.However there is still not enough attention to the introduction of Chinese prose, especially Chinese modern prose. <br /> <br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''，the well-known lyric prose, written by the famous author Zhu Ziqing, has made a huge influence on the development of Chinese prose. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer's depressing mood. For this prose is a typical example of Chinese modern prose, many translators have given their translations of it, such as Zhu Chunshen, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang, Li Ming and Wang Jiaosheng. A large number of scholars have analyzed its different versions making great contribution to the prose translating. <br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation. Functional equivalence theory introduced by Nida, refers to the fact that the translation does not take rigid correspondence between words and structures as the standard, but aims to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language. The theory emphasizes that“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。<br /> <br /> Here, this paper selects This thesis selects two of the most famous English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen's version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, to compare and study, based on Xu Yuanchong's “Three Beauty” principle under the guidance of functional equivalence. This thesis will compare and analyze the two English versions, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> === 2. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' and Its English Versions ===<br /> Before comparing and analyzing the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' , we need learn some necessary information about the author who wrote it and the relatively background. At present, the two famous English versions are Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version .<br /> <br /> ====2.1 ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is the classical of lyric prose written by Zhu Ziqing in Tsinghua University, Beijing on July 1927，which depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer’s depressing mood. It was published in the Novel Monthly, one of the new literary journals which enjoys the reputation of “the first journal in the China’s literary world” in the 1920s.（Han,2018 ）Since it was published, the article has received both high praise and fierce criticism. From this perspective, it has witnessed the history of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> In this prose, the author is sleepless and sits in his yard to enjoy the cool in the evening. Suddenly, it occurred to his mind that the lotus pond where he passes every day and the pond must be different at night with the moonlight. So, the author wandered lonely on a cinder footpath around the lotus pond, he feels that he is a “free man”. As he sees the pond cover with trim lotus leaves and white lotus flowers, hearing the sounds of the cicadas and the frogs, Zhu thinks that “this animation was theirs alone, I had no part in it（Yang ,1990 ）.”<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Two English Versions ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is one of Zhu Ziqing’s masterpieces and was selected into Chinese textbook. Most scholars say that the prose is “文质相称，形神俱美” which has attracted an amount of scholars and students.（Chen ,2018）The prose has been introduced to foreign countries in different languages, especially in English since the May 4th Movement. The notable translations include Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, Li Ming’s version and Wang Jiaosheng’s version. This thesis choices Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version. Both Zhu ’s version and Yang’s version are faithful to the original meaning and concise to the sentence structure and close to the original style. But Zhu prefer to employ literal translation and Yang uses the free translation, like the words “热闹” ,“冷静”, “群居”and “独处”, Zhu translated these as “a serene and peaceful life”,“a busy and active one”, “being in solitude” and “in company”, in contrast Yang’s translation is “excitement and stillness”.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Basis of Theory ===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Functional Equivalence Theory ====<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Three Kinds of Beauty ====<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===4. On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence ===<br /> Zhu Ziqing used a large number of rhetorical devices and reduplicated words to describe the beauty of the lotus pond under the moonlight at night, to express his gloomy and upset mood, which brings great difficulty to translation, in his famous prose--''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. This part is aimed at using the functional equivalence theory and Xu Yuanchong’s theory of “Three Beauties” to analyze wheatear the two English versions of such prose achieving the degree of function equivalance.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 ====<br /> Words are the basic meaning of sentences. G •Leech divided “meaning” into two categories: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(Leech,1987) The conceptual meaning is the meaning that we can find in dictionary, and the associative meaning is the actually meaning of the word in the special context. It is a truly universal acknowledge that the meaning of the sentence is not simple addition of word meaning. Thus, the translator should find the conceptual meaning and the associative meaning of the original, especially the associative meaning. Here are some typical examples:<br /> <br /> Example 1: “这几天心里颇不宁静。”（Zhu Ziqing , 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu ’s version: “I have felt quite upset recently.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang ’s version: “The last few days have found me very restless.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> This sentence is the first sentence in the first paragraph. Here “不宁静” refers to “quite uncomfortable”, which can be translated as “upset, restless, untranquil, disquieting and so on”. However, considering Zhu Ziqing’s patriotic feeling and his responsibility for his wife and kid, he cannot devote his whole life to the great revolution. Therefore “不宁静” in the context means the author is anxiety, because he want to change his condition. Zhu Chunshen translated it as“upset”which means“unhappy or disappointed because of something unpleasant that has happened”in the ''OED'', which emphasized the unhappy mood. And Yang Xianyi employed it as “restless”, which means “unable to stay still or happy where you are, because you are bored or need a change ” in the ''OED'', which stressed on one needing a change. It is clear that the word “restless” is more exactly than the word “quiet” in this sentence.<br /> <br /> However,“宁静”has an end rhyme“ing”and neither“upset”in Zhu’s translation nor“restless”in Yang’s version opted the words with the same end rhyme for they both focused on the meaning. And such sentence in original text is a 9 characters short sentence with no subject, Yang translated it into 9 words,used the“the last few day”as the subject, while Zhu’s version only has 6 words and selected “I” as the subject. Therefore, Yang’s version is expressive to the original in this sentence and it retains the beauties of form and sense in this sentence at the same time. In short, the two versions are good translation, but the Yang’s version is much better from this point. <br /> <br /> Example 2“这是一条幽僻的路；白天也少人走，夜晚更加寂寞。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: It is peaceful and secluded here, a place not frequented by pedestrians even in the daytime; now at night, it looks more solitary......”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “It is off the beaten track and few pass this way even by day, so at night it is still more quiet.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> The word “幽僻” means “安静和人迹罕至” here. Zhu rendered the word “幽僻” into “peaceful and secluded”, emphasized that there is silent and private. Yang employed it into “off the beaten track” which means no one knows here and quiet. From this perspective, both translations are very similar in understanding the writer’s meaning.<br /> <br /> However, the word “幽僻” is an adjective word with two meanings: quiet and not disturbed by other people. Zhu’ s version “peaceful and secluded” ,are two adjective words and has two similar meanings, which keep the form and sense of the original sentence. In conclusion，according to the “Three Beauties” principle, Zhu’s translation is much better than Yang’s for it retains the form of the original.<br /> <br /> Example 3: “这路上阴森森的，有些怕人。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “The foliage, which, in a moon-less night, would loom somewhat frighteningly dark.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “ On nights when there is no moon the track is almost terrifyingly dark.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> In this sentence, Zhu Ziqing uses “怕人” to describe the atmosphere of the air on the road and his feeling of walking on this path at such a night. “怕人” referred to “令人害怕的” in Chinese, it is an adjective to present his feeling. “Frightening ” means “making you feel afraid”, and “terrifying” means “to make somebody extremely frightened”in the ''OED'' , which can be regarded as synonyms. Both use the adverb to translate the adjective “怕人”. But in Zhu’s translation, “the foliage” is “frighteningly dark” and in Yang’s version, “the track” is “terrifyingly dark”. Both translators have their own understanding of the original content, but the both translations are faithful to the word “怕人”. We could say the two translations achieve the beauty in sense. However, in “Three Beauties” principle, we should consider the beauty in form and sound. As for sound ,the last sound of “怕人” is [en] in Chinese, but both “frightening” and “terrifying” has the same end sound of [en]. As for “frightening” and “terrifying”, the last sound of these are [iŋ] which could be regarded as the similar pronunciation with [en] .So, the two translations achieved beauty in sound from this aspect. In all the both versions are great from this perspective.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 ====<br /> The two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond do a good job in two aspects: “grammaticality”and “idiomaticness”. This part will analyze their features of“clarity”and “ organization”.(“stylistic adaptability” will be analyzed in the next part)<br /> The first is the“clarity”. A qualified translation should be fluent and easy to understand. Here it does not means the two versions have grammatical mistakes.Readers should not be confused by the cultural and social background of a word. In Moonlight over the Lotus Pond ,there are also some words with Chinese cultural or social characteristic. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> Example4 : “我悄悄地披了大衫，带上门出去。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “ Shrugging on an overcoat, quietly, made my way out, closing the door behind me.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang ’s version: “I quietly slipped on a long gown, and walked out leaving the door on the latch.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> The words “大衫”and“带上门” with Chinese characteristics, cannot be simply translated, the translator should carefully apt the best words owing to their traits.<br /> <br /> First of all,“大衫”is means “身长过膝的中式单衣”. Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xianyi employed this word into “overcoat” and “gown” respectively. The overcoat is a long warm coat worn in cold weather. And the gown is a long loose piece of clothing. At the beginning of the prose, the author sits in his yard to enjoy the cool. So, it is hot and the overcoat is not suit for summer. Then, the Chinese people in the later Qing Dynasty and the period of Republican, especially the men who were educated, preferred wearing the long and loose clothes. Thus, “大衫” translated into “grow” is more proper than “overcoat ”. By doing so, readers can correctly understand the meaning of the original text and draw a picture in his mind without confusion: why he wears a thick coat in summer.<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, a house with a courtyard has two doors, the gate of yard and the door of house in China, and when the owner need to go out for a short time, he will not lock the gate of yard, just as the Chinese people says “我一会就回来，别锁门”. Thus the word “带上门出去” translated as “leaving the door on the latch” in Yang’s version is more faithful to the original meaning than the word “closing the door ” in Zhu’s translation. In this sense, readers can receive more information about Chinese cultural or social background.<br /> <br /> To sum up, both two versions of this sentence are fluent without any grammatical errors and successful convey the meaning of original. However, Yang masterly selected the words “long gown” and the expression “leaving the door on the latch” .<br /> <br /> Example5 : 月光如流水一般，静静地泻在这一片叶子和花上。薄薄的青雾浮起在荷塘里。叶子和花仿佛在牛乳中洗过一样；又像笼着轻纱的梦。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: The moon sheds her liquid light silently over the leaves and flowers, which, in the floating transparency of a bluish haze from the pond, look as if they had just been bathed in milk, or like a dream wrapped in a gauzy hood.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: Moonlight cascaded like water over the lotus leaves and flowers, and a light blue mist floating up from the pool made them seem washed in milk or caught in a gauzy dream.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> In order to make the translation more authentic and smooth English, both Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xiangyi used the translation method of combination to combine the original three sentences into a long sentence, but the two versions have their different features. As for the form of the translation, Zhu Chunshen rendered his translation in three segments, short parts and long parts combined that is similar to the original sentence.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 ====<br /> Style is a difficult and hot issues of literary translation. Leech defined style as “the way in which the language is used in a given context, by a given person, for a given purpose and so on”.(Leech,2001:10) Many scholars believe that although the style is not translatable to some extent, the translation should still strive to reproduce the style of the original text. Liu Zhongde emphasized the importance of being close to the style of the original text in his the three-character principle of translation--faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness. Zhu Guanqian also believed that “对原文忠实，不仅是对表面的字义忠实，对情感，思想，风格，声音节奏等必须同时忠实。” (Zhu Guangqian,1984:447)So how should the translator reproduce the original author’s style?<br /> <br /> In the following part, the author of this thesis is going to compare the two English versions, and is based on the translation of rhetorical devices , to discuss whether or not the two versions can reproduce rhetorical effects of the original. This thesis focus on the analysis of metaphor, personification and other rhetorical devices, and selects several fragments of these rhetorical devices as the comparison of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example 6: 叶子出水很高，像亭亭的舞女的裙。层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花......正如一粒粒的明珠，又如碧天里的星星，又如刚出浴的美人。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927) <br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: ...reaching rather high above the surface, like the skirts of dancing girls in all their grace. Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms... like scattering pearls, or twinkling stars, or beauties just out of the bath. (Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: ...which rose high out of the water like the flared skirts of dancing girls. And starring these tiers of leaves were white lotus flowers... like glimmering pearls, stars in an azure sky, or beauties fresh from the bath.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)<br /> <br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing used three extremely beautiful metaphors to form a parallel construction, to enhance the language strength, to express his love of lotus, gives people endless feeling of beauty. <br /> <br /> The author uses “亭亭的舞女的裙” to describe the lotus leaves above the surface, vividly and lively depicted the lotus leaves as the skirt of the dancing girls, which is beautiful and charming. Zhu Chunshen rendered“亭亭” into “in all their grace”, though the meaning is relevant, there is an inappropriate: the metaphor here uses to focus on the dance dress rather than dancing girls, so it is not correctly using too much words to modified the dancer. Yang Xianyi added the word “flared “before the “skirts of dancing girls”, which seems out of thin air. However, “flared” referring to the cloths being “wider at the bottom edge than at the top”, the word is more appreciated and reproduces the scene of lotus leaves. In general, Yang handling of metaphor the first sentence is the most appropriate, also can best affect the beauty of sense.<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing used “一粒粒的明珠”, “碧天里的星星”and “刚出浴的美人” to describe the “白花 ”. The writer used three different things to describe the lovely lotus blooms. As for the form and sound, Zhu Chunshen employed “一粒粒的明珠” and “碧天里的星星” into two same phrases “scattering pearls” and “ twinkling stars ”which end with “-ing”, which is well-read and looks greater; while Yang translated them into two sentences in different forms, which differs from the original form for such sentence is just faithful to the literal meaning of original. As for the clause “刚出浴的美人”, Zhu’s translation is similar to Yang’s.<br /> <br /> All in all, Yang’s version is more appreciated for keeping the sense of beauty in the first sentence of this fragment. And Zhu’s version better reproduces the beauties of sound and form. <br /> <br /> Example 7: “层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花，有袅娜地开着的，有羞涩地打着朵儿的......”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms, some in demure bloom, others in shy bud ...”.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “And starring these tiers of leaves were white lotus flowers, alluringly open or bashfully in bud ...”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)<br /> <br /> “袅娜”and “羞涩”are the words used to describe people;“袅娜” uses to describe elegance posture and expression, especially women’s and girls’. Zhu Chunshen rendered “袅娜” into “demure”, which means “behaving in a way that does not attract attention to herself or her body; quiet and serious” in the OED, which seems inconsistent with the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated it into “alluringly”, which refers to attractive and exciting in a mysterious way in the dictionary. It seems much appropriate. Then as for the word “羞涩”, Zhu translated it into “shy” and Yang’s version is “bashfully”. Both the two words can use to describe people, and use to translate the word “羞涩”. However, the word “bashful” means “shy and easily embarrassed” which is more appropriate to reproduce the beauty of sense. Moreover, yang’s translation retains the beauty of form, because “羞涩” in original text is a adverb, and “bashfully” is a adverb too. Therefore, it is obvious that Therefore, it is obvious that Yang’s version is more appropriate.<br /> <br /> Example8: “微风过处，送来缕缕清香，仿佛远处高楼上渺茫的歌声似的。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “A breeze stirs, sending over breaths of fragrance, like faint singing drifting from a distant building”. (Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “The breeze carried past gusts of fragrance, like the strains of a song faintly heard from a far-off tower.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)<br /> <br /> Synaesthesia is the production of a sense impression relating to one sense or part of body by stimulation of another sense or part of the body. The author uses “歌声” to describe the fragrance of the lotus flowers. Here the fragrance of flowers is originally the sense of smell, but the author written it as a melodic song, the sense of hearing. Zhu Chunshen used “breeze...breaths...building” and “fragrance...faint...from”to describe the faint sound of the song which is vividly and close to the original text. And Zhu employed an alliteration, “drifting from a distant” to make the readers feel the dynamic beauty of lotus and achieve the same effect as the original text.In general, Zhu’s version is more appropriate for he reproducing the beauties of sense and sound .<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> We learn from the study and comparison. We develop from the study and comparison. While we are accumulating English and Chinese knowledge and practicing translation skill, we should also study others’ translations carefully. Through comparative study, we can improve ourselves.<br /> <br /> Through the comparative analysis of these two English translations, we will find that functional equivalence theory has been fully embodied. Functional equivalence theory is a bridge connecting world cultures, fully reproducing the original text through form equivalence, content equivalence，so that the readers of the target texts receive the same feeling as the readers of the original. Functional equivalence theory not only has a wide range of applications now, but in the future, functional equivalence theory will certainly play its role in promoting the exchange and development of various cultures and promoting the prosperity of the world’s culture.<br /> <br /> ===6..Reference===<br /> * Leech G N, Short M H.Style in Fiction:A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2001:10.<br /> * Chen Bohui.陈波慧(2018).汉英叠词对比及其英译——以《荷塘月色》两个英译本为例.[ Comparison of Chinese and English Reduplication and Their English Translation——Taking the Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' as an example ].海外英语.[Overseas English]. 2018.7<br /> * Han Zhengshun, Wang Jian（2008）<br /> *<br /> *<br /> *<br /> <br /> ==Lexical Gap between English and Chinese and its translation strategies 孟莹 Meng Ying==<br /> <br /> ==On Form and Spirit in Translation 文偲荇 Wen Sixing==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> translation methods，form，sprit<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译方法，翻译的形与神<br /> <br /> ===The form of translation===<br /> <br /> ===The sprit of translation===<br /> <br /> ===Discussion===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories——Taking &quot;2017 APEC Speech&quot; as sample 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing==<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Strategies'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Study on the Translation Strategies, Translation Methods and Translation Techniques in Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao==<br /> <br /> ==Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” to “Visibility” 胡百辉 Hu Baihui==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;胡百辉 Hu Baihui 202070080590&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> This chapter is on translator’s subjectivity from translator’s “invisibility” to “visibility”. As we all know, the translator is the subject of translation, by whom the meaning of the translated text is conveyed. However, the invisibility of translator has always been emphasized in the traditional theory of translation. Until 1970s, with the “cultural turn”, the translators’ role has been redefined and their subjectivity in translation has caught much attention. As a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with. Translators should give full play to their subjective initiative and deal with the relationship between them.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> translator’s subjectivity, invisibility, visibility.<br /> <br /> ==='''题目'''===<br /> <br /> 译者主体性：从“隐形”到“显性”<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 本章从译者的“隐形”到“显形”论述译者的主体性。众所周知，译者是翻译的主体，翻译文本意义的传达是通过译者实现的。然而，传统译论一直强调译者在翻译中“隐形”。直到20世纪70年代出现了翻译研究的“文化转向”，才重新定义了译者的角色，其主体性才得到关注。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点，我们不能简单说译者的角色从“隐形”转化为“显性”，而是从多个方面探讨，并且关注和解决其面临的挑战。译者要合理发挥自己的主观能动性，合理地处理二者之间的关系。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 译者主体性；“隐形”；“显性”。<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> The translator's “invisibility” and “visibility” have always been a controversial topic in the field of translation, both of which have their own theoretical basis and purpose; however, both of them are the result of the exertion of the translator's subjective initiative. These arguments are not to prove who is right and who is wrong, but to enrich the arguments in the process of proving their own views or persuading others, so as to perfect the relevant theories.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 128)<br /> <br /> For a long time, the translator's subjectivity has been one of the focuses of scholars, but we have always neglected the role of translators in translation activities. It was not until the “cultural turn” in the 1970s that translators and some scholars began to study and discuss this issue. There are some translation theories in the West that face the target culture. So with these translation theories that face the target culture, the scholars will inevitably do some research in translator’s subjectivity. At present, there are many researches on translator's subjectivity in China. This shows that the study of translator's subjectivity is deepening day by day. The translator should not continue to be invisible in the process of translation. The translator's subjectivity will directly affect the translator selecting words and sentences and the style of translation. In short, at present, the status of translator and translator's subjectivity are highly praised in the field of translation studies. However, it should be emphasized that in today's information technology era, the translator's subjectivity is not only valued, but also faced with great challenges.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> ==='''Translator's Subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional translation theories often neglect the study of translator's subjectivity, but tend to explore the linguistic level of the translated text. Therefore, translation, as a dynamic process, is often ignored and the translator's subjective factors are not paid enough attention.<br /> <br /> Actually, the traditional translation view, on the one hand, holds that translation is not creative and can not be compared with creation. On the other hand, it is against advocating the translator's subjectivity and creativity, and requires the translator to worship the original author, which also tends to the original. And the traditional role of translator was identified as the “servant” of the author, while assessing fidelity to the original text was primary. Pulled between the two poles: fidelity and treason, the translator faced the dilemma of lacking independence and subjectivity(Shufen Huang 2019, 100). Now it seems that this view of negating translator's subjectivity is unreasonable.<br /> <br /> As mentioned in the abstract, attention to the translator’s subjectivity did not arise until 1970s, when Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefevere have come up with the idea of “the cultural turn”. They stated that translation is not the simple transform between two languages, it goes in special cultural environment.<br /> <br /> And studies on the role of translators as well as the function of their subjectivity in the translating process have begun to flourish. However, the role of the translator and his subjectivity have been renewed and affirmed with the development of translation theory and translating activities. In the transitional years for translation studies, new translation theories were proposed (Shufen Huang 2019, 100). Those influential translation series, such as the polysystem theory and manipulation school have integrated researches on translator’s subjectivity into their massive system respectively (Zhiwei Gu 2017,24). At present, the study of translator's subjectivity is emerging in an endless stream.<br /> <br /> '''1. Definition of translator's subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> According to Za Mingjian and Tian Yu, translator’s subjectivity can be defined that on the premise of respecting the translation text, the translator shows his subjective initiative in order to achieve the purpose of translation. Its basic characteristics are the cultural consciousness, humanistic character, cultural and aesthetic creativity of the translator. And the essential characteristics of the translator’s subjectivity refer to the translator’s “active cultural consciousness”, “human character” and “ascetic creativeness”.(Zha MIingjian, Tian Yu 2003, 22)<br /> <br /> '''2. Related theories on translator's subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> In the 1970s, some scholars proposed the idea of “culture turn”, and since then many scholars such as Susan Bassnett (1980), Theo Hermans(1985), Andre Lefevere(1992), Tejaswini Niranjana (1992), Lawrence Venuti(1995), and Douglas Robinson (1997) have made studies on translator’s subjectivity. The issue of translator's cultural identity and subjectivity has naturally become an important research topic. While in China, some scholars studying in translation theory have conducted in-depth study in the translator’s subjectivity since 1980s. In recent years, there are many papers on the study of translator's subjectivity.<br /> <br /> In the following, the studies on translator’s subjectivity will be introduced by typical schools.<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Polysystem theory'''<br /> <br /> This theory is introduced by Tynjanov, and he argues that elements do not exist in isolation, but always in an interrelationship with other elements of other systems (Even-Zohar, Itamar 1979, 287). Actually, Tynjanov is a cultural theorist, but his polysystem theory has made the study on translator more popular. But his pioneering work continues to exert considerable influence on translation, particularly when studying translation in emerging cultures or cultures in crisis. He said, it is necessary to include translated literature in the polysystem. And through studies on the translated edition, it provides a feasible way to reconsider issues like the proper translator, suitable network on translation edition, translating adequacy and so on. This theory ushers in the cultural shift paves the way for the appearance of manipulation school (Zhiwei Gu 2017,24).<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Manipulation school'''<br /> <br /> The name of manipulation school was given by the title of a collection of essays edited by Theo Hermans(1985), The Manipulation of Literature:Studies in Literature Translation, which gathers a number of studies by scholars such as Van Gorp and Andre Lefevere. “From the point of view of the target literature, all translation implies a degree of manipulation of the source text for a certain purpose” (Hermans 1985, 30), said Hermans. They sited that &quot;translating is rewriting”, which is the foundation of the manipulation school. They have made the translation studies shift from the source-text oriented to target-text oriented. In their opinion, translators have their own feelings for the source text, and they respond to their intuitive feeling, and render the source text in the target culture.<br /> <br /> '''3. Factors influencing the translator's subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> The exertion of translator's subjectivity runs through the whole process of translation activities. When different translators read the same article, their understanding varied. Also when selecting words, choosing translation strategies, the translators would have their own opinions. Understanding the factors that influence the translator's subjectivity makes great contribution to the study of the translator's translation style and characters.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The historical background of translator'''<br /> <br /> The historical background determines the criteria of value evaluation of translation, which also leads to the trend of mainstream translation style. The era in which translators live will limit the breadth and depth of their understanding. Therefore, the former translation standards may no longer conform to the contemporary development. It took a long time for the translator's position to rise from invisibility to visibility.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu, a famous translator in China at the end of the 19th century, has put forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. At this time, China was written in classical Chinese, so the “elegance” here means that the translation should be elegant and be translated in classical Chinese. Since the May Fourth New Culture Movement, vernacular gradually replaces classical Chinese. Translators begin to translate a large number of classic works of Marxism Leninism, literary theory, progressive literary works of Soviet Union and other countries. Therefore, the translation at this time emphasizes the plainness and energy. So in 1979, Liu Zhongde, a translation theorist, has come up with a new translation criteria of “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, which is accepted by the majority now. Different background determines different criteria of translation value, and the change of criteria also leads the trend of mainstream translation style, with obvious era brand.(Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Translator's bilingual cultural competence'''<br /> <br /> The translator's bilingual cultural competence includes linguistic knowledge and cultural knowledge. When translating an article, the translator accepts the cultural influence of the original text and brings the translation into another culture. The coordination of the two cultures reflects the translator's bilingual cultural ability,which directly affects the translator's choice of translation strategies. In general, if the translator has a strong native language ability, he tends to choose the “domestication” strategy when translating the foreign language into the native language. On the contrary, when translating the native language into a foreign language, the translator often uses the strategy of “foreignization” because he can't find the corresponding foreign language expression. This is often seen in the translation of literary works and proverbs. It rains dogs and cats, which means it rains heavily. When translating into Chinese, it should be “大雨倾盆”. If this sentence is translated words by words, the target readers will not understand it. In fact, it is obvious in translation whether a translator's bilingual ability is good enough.If not, it will often make errors.(Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)<br /> <br /> '''3.3 Understanding of the original'''<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, only when the translator has a thorough understanding of the meaning of the original can he accurately convey the meaning of the original to the readers. As a saying goes,&quot; A thousand readers make a thousand Hamlets &quot;. There is a growing tendency to believe that it is the reader that decides the meaning of the literary text. Zhu Shenghao, a famous translator, has translated a lot of Shakespeare's works in his life. Shakespeare's works began to be introduced and translated in China at the beginning of last century. Zhu Shenghao is recognized as an early translator of Shakespeare's works in China, and his translation style has also been highly recognized. Different from the chronological arrangement of the Oxford edition, he divides the works into comedy, tragedy, historical drama and zaju, which are arranged in a self-contained system. Since he has a thorough understanding of the original, he could rewrite and rearrangement it and his translation text is well received at home and abroad. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 22)<br /> <br /> In a word, the process of translation is also a process of recreation. And under the new study of translation theory, the translator's subjectivity is encouraged and supported, but it needs to be limited. In the process of translation, the translator can always choose their preferred translation strategy and style, and fully develop your own style and characteristics in the translation. In this kind of recreation, it is always restricted by the original work, and can't be separated from the original meaning. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 22)<br /> <br /> ==='''The influence of translator's invisibility and visibility on translator's Subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> In literary translation, the word &quot;invisibility&quot; refers to &quot;the translator should insist on the translation in a smooth and accurate way, and can not add the translator's emotion&quot;; while &quot;apparent&quot; is put forward according to the opposite of &quot;invisibility&quot;, which means that the translator can put his own subjective feelings into literary translation, At the same time, in literary translation, translators can make use of the fact that there are some differences in the transformation of language symbol system to make reasonable and appropriate explanation of words, sentence processing, space structure reconstruction and other forms of translation through their own understanding. Cultural differences refer to different cultural styles in different cultural environments. Cultural differences also provide a more free creative environment for translators' translation. They can display their own unique styles by refining words, sending sentences and making sentences. This difference leads to the inevitable existence of the translator's &quot;appearance&quot;.(Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 71)<br /> <br /> '''1. Translator's invisibility'''<br /> <br /> The traditional translation theory focuses on the issue of language, focusing on how the ideal translator should do and what kind of requirements a perfect translation should achieve. It tries its best to eliminate the translator's traces in language and cultural transformation, and faithfully and completely convey all the information of the original work.<br /> Under the traditional translation theory, the translator should be invisible, that is, to achieve &quot;transparency&quot; and &quot;invisibility&quot;. The &quot;transparency&quot; of the translation requires the translator to strive to achieve fluenct, while the &quot;invisibility&quot; refers to that the target readers should not see the trace and influence of the translator when reading the translation text.<br /> &quot;The translator's invisibility depends on the following three conditions, which are often emphasized in the traditional translation theory: first, the translator should not incorporate his own subjective idea into the translation; second, the translator should not show his own personality in the translation; third, the translator should take the original text as the basis.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2003). In a word, &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;equivalence&quot; should be achieved in translation. The criterion of &quot;faithfulness&quot; also contributes to the tendency of traditional translation theories to neglect the translator's subjectivity.<br /> The traditional translation theories would emphasize to eliminate the differences in language, even some extreme domestication translation, even cultural differences. In domestication, the translator seems to be invisible. But the fact is that in order to meet the requirements of the target language and cultural norms, and get the recognition of the target language readers, the translator will spare no effort to exert his subjective initiative, which is the process of subject intervention. In this process, the translator should give full play to his subjectivity and bring his subjective idea into play. Therefore, on the surface, the translator seems to be &quot;invisible&quot;, but in essence, this &quot;invisibility&quot; is also the result of the translator's subjective initiative, which is the translator's conscious choice and abandonment.(Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 72)<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2. Translator's visibility'''<br /> <br /> In the 1970s, some scholars proposed the idea of “culture turn”, and since then many scholars have made studies on translator’s subjectivity. The issue of translator's cultural identity and subjectivity has naturally become an important research topic.<br /> The most familiar one is the Translator's Invisibility by American scholar Lawrence Venuti. In this book, he put forward the concepts of “foreignization” and “domestication”. According to his view, “domestication” emphasizes fluency and smoothness in order to minimize the exotic flavor in the translation and provide a natural and fluent translation for the target language readers. However, “foreignization” is intended to break through the conventions of the target language, retain the exotic flavor in the original text, and inject the linguistic and cultural differences in foreign texts into the target language. He called on translators to &quot;resist&quot; and adopt poor translation. &quot;Venuti believes that foreignization translation can not bring about the improvement of faithfulness. On the contrary, it is a misuse of faithfulness. Not only will some features of the original language be lost, but also new things will be added. As a result, the translator appears and the independent status of translation is revealed. In the actual translation process, the translator deliberately uses the &quot;resistance&quot; translation strategy to deliberately retain the expression and sentence pattern of the original text, so as to avoid the smooth translation, so that the readers can clearly feel that what they are reading is the translation, thus feeling the existence of the translator, reflecting the creativity of the translator and highlighting the role of the translator.(Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)<br /> <br /> ==='''The challenge of translator's Subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> As the focus of translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be limited to the transformation from being ignored to being valued, but should be found and faced up to the challenges it is facing from a comprehensive perspective.<br /> <br /> '''1. The challenge of modern information technology to translator's Subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of modern information technology, translation activities can be completed efficiently in a short time. In the past, translation was time-consuming and laborious, and the executor was the translator. Now, with the emergence of translation software and machines, the subject of translation activities has been increased in the traditional sense. These modern technologies have become the active elements in translation activities, which has caused a challenge to the translator's subjectivity. In some occasions where the requirements for translation are low and there is a certain tolerance for translation errors, translators have completely retired from the background. Because software and machines are supported by powerful corpora, they cover a wide range of fields, can process all kinds of texts, and can produce high-quality translations in a short time. Therefore, the target language readers can quickly get the original translation through the translation software or machine. In addition, in other occasions where translation requirements are high, translators with the help of translation software and various tools can not only shorten the translation time, but also obtain the translation with high accuracy. However, without the help of translation software and other tools, the translator needs to spend time to mobilize the initiative of all aspects, which can not be as fast and efficient as the machine assisted.<br /> There is no doubt that a series of modern information technology assisted translation work has played a positive role, which requires the translator not only to have the consciousness of language operation, cultural characteristics, artistic creation, aesthetic standards and humanistic character, but also to closely combine his own ability with modern information technology and have the ability to skillfully apply translation software and various auxiliary tools, However, the excessive dependence of translators on translation software can not be ignored.<br /> Some translators are eager for quick success and instant benefit, and make use of translation software and machines to make them become money making accelerators and produce poor quality translation works. In the mixed translation market, there are not a few translators who completely rely on machine for translation with only minor modifications. In the absence of machine translation, translation activities mainly rely on the translator's mental operation, and the translator's subjectivity can be brought into full play. But now, with the shortcut of translation, some translators can't help being lazy, which makes the most important part of the translation activities to fully display the translator's demeanor and play the translator's subjectivity lose its significance and turn into mechanical language output. In this process, the translator is satisfied with the convenience of machine translation and ignores the full play of the translator's subjectivity. Although translation tools can speed up the translation and improve the quality of translation in the process of translation activities, the excessive dependence on translation tools poses a challenge to the translator's subjectivity.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> '''2. The challenge of the era to the translator's Subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> In the past, professional translators always had to practice a lot of translation, combined with their preferences and strengths, to be able to translate works of interest to people. Many famous translations were produced at that time. Now, with the “one belt, one road” and the common destiny of mankind, the political, economic and cultural exchanges between China and other countries are becoming more frequent. More and more translators need to be served as bridges. The increasing number of translators and the professionalization of translation make translation a means of livelihood. The common existence of translation companies makes the threshold of becoming a translator too low, which reduces the requirement of translators' competence to a certain extent. From the recruitment information released by various companies, it can be found that many companies place too much emphasis on the language proficiency of interpreters, and they do not attach importance to translation experience or request to check relevant translation works, and neglect to investigate whether the translator's subjectivity, which reflects their profound skills, is fully exerted in their works. At present, the requirement of the translator's ability to survive in the field of translation has been reduced. Translation activities have become a kind of assembly line operation, and the translators participating in the assembly line have also changed from elite translators with strong translation ability to mechanical translation product producers. From this point of view, professionalization also challenges the translator's subjectivity<br /> Our times are dynamic. With the continuous updating of the information in various fields, the powerful corpus behind the translation software and machine can not be updated automatically, so it is necessary for the translator to explore the untranslated fields in order to obtain the relevant corpus to fill the corpus. From this point of view, as the subject of translation activities with individual thinking, translators must be prior to machines. If they excessively rely on modern technology, they will despise their initiative of thinking and choosing translation strategies in the process of translation, and can not give full play to the translator's subjectivity.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> '''3.The rational exertion of translator's subjective initiative'''<br /> <br /> The translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;manifestation&quot; are both the manifestation of subjectivity, and have their specific social and theoretical background. &quot;Translation is the active creative activity of the subject and the author's own language experience. Only through the translator's translation and interpretation can the text survive. The original text needs the participation of the translator's subject to help it obtain new life. The objective &quot;uncertainty&quot; needs to be filled and processed by the translator, so that the original intention of the composition can be revealed &quot;(Wang Zhengliang, Ma Tan, 2010). However, this kind of filling and processing is not random. Before translation, translators should first confirm whether their own conditions and temperament can adapt to the original text, and then translate the original composition. If the translated text is translated and interpreted at will, it will exaggerate the translator's autonomy to control the original work, and overemphasizes the translator's intervention in the work and the translator's interpretation space. Even under the banner of respecting the translator's identity and status and highlighting the translator's subjectivity, it is difficult to avoid the suspicion of &quot;overcorrection&quot;. In this process, we should pay attention to the influence of the mainstream ideology and Poetics in the historical background of the translator. When there is a conflict between the ideology of the translator and the ideology of the target culture, there are many translators in history who delete and change the original content in order to conform to the mainstream ideology and exert their subjective initiative. When the source language poetics is different from the target language poetics, the translator also needs to play an active role in mediating the differences between the two poetics, so as to make the translation get new life in the target language.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 130)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Many scholars have put forward their own views on the translator's subjectivity. However, few scholars have mentioned the challenge to the translator's subjectivity. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the challenges faced by translators' subjectivity. On the one hand, translators are required to improve their ability to exert their subjective initiative, closely integrate their own abilities with modern information technology, learn and skillfully apply various translation software, search tools, corpus and other auxiliary tools to improve the speed and quality of translation, On the other hand, the translator should be warned not to rely solely on the tool while neglecting the translator's subjectivity. The translator's subjectivity is an important support for our translation research and translation activities. We must face up to the challenges and actively deal with them.<br /> <br /> Translation is a process of gradual development and change, not a process of translating one language into another. Translators should fully understand, be familiar with and be familiar with the cultural differences in the original language in order to realize the true transmission of the original content. According to &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;manifestation&quot; in contemporary literary translation, we should know &quot;invisibility&quot; when necessary to ensure the fluency of language. According to Venuti's viewpoint of &quot;invisibility or invisibility is to make the translator invisible&quot;, we can better understand the meaning of &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator, and pay attention to the application effect of &quot;manifestation&quot; when necessary, which can not only make people pay attention to the translator, At the same time, it also reflects the cultural differences and image understanding in the process of reading. Therefore, the choice of &quot;invisible&quot; or &quot;explicit&quot; in translation is worth considering.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1] Even-Zohar, Itamar. (1979) &quot;Polysystem Theory&quot;. Poetics Today (1) 287.<br /> <br /> [2] Hermans, Theo. (1985) &quot;The Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;. London and Sydney: Croom Helm. (12) 30.<br /> <br /> [3] Lan Hongjun 蓝红军. (2017) 译者主体性困境与翻译主体性建构[J] [Translator's subjectivity dilemma and construction of translation subjectivity]. 上海翻译Shanghai Translation Journal (2) 21-27.<br /> <br /> [4] Li Hua, Li Guochao 李华,李国超. (2019) 文学翻译中译者的“隐身”与“显形”——以《第十个人》翻译中人物形象的塑造为例[J] [The translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;manifestation&quot; in Literary Translation--Taking the creation of characters in the translation of the Tenth Man as an example].智库时代 Think Tank Tines (42) 130-132.<br /> <br /> [5] Li Yingying, Lan Jie 李盈盈,兰杰.(2014) 浅谈翻译中的译者主体性[J] [On the translator's subjectivity in Translation]. 考试周刊 Weekly examination (24) 21-22.<br /> <br /> [6] Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 李铮;杨贤玉. (2011) 论译者的“隐形”和“显形”[J] [On the translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;visibility]. 邢台学院学报 Journal of Xingtai College (26) 71-72.<br /> <br /> [7] Shufen Huang. (2019) “A Study of the Translator’s Subjectivity in Literary Translation--Exemplified by the English Version of The Border Town”. Open Journal of Social Sciences(JSS) (7) 100. <br /> <br /> [8] Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 王玉,田翠芸. (2020) 从译者的“隐形”“显形”到“忘形”谈译者主体性[J] [Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” and “Visibility” to “Complacency”]. 华北理工大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of North China University of science and Technology (SOCIAL SCIENCE EDITION) (28) 128-131.<br /> <br /> [9] ZhaMingjian, Tian Yu 查明建,田雨.(2003). 论译者主体性—从译者文化的边缘化谈起[J] [On Translator's Subjectivity -- from the Marginalization of Translator's Culture]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1) 22.<br /> <br /> [10] Zhiwei Gu. (2017) &quot;On Zhang Peiji's Prose Translation from the Perspective of the Translator's Subjectivity&quot;, English Language and Literature Studies (1) 24.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 06:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s ManipulationTheory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility - 马智星 Ma Zhixing==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> '''摘要'''<br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Business Contracts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 胡瑾 Hu Jin==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization in China and the increasing frequency of modern commercial activities, commercial contracts are particularly vital in order to ensure the smooth progress of commercial activities. In a business contract, it is required to ensure that the expression of any text in the contract is accurate as far as possible, and the same is true when translating it. Contracts provide vital basis for the smooth development of business and the protection of rights. Accurate and vivid translation of contracts has an important impetus to the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations and the resolution of disputes. Therefore, it is of practical significance to study the translation of business contracts. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory, equivalence is first realized in meaning and then in form. Dynamic equivalence is used to break the static equivalence and maximize the meaning of the translation. This thesis gives a preliminary introduction to the translation of business contracts, studies the application of functional equivalence theory in contract translation, and puts forward some major translation skills and methods, which will be of some guiding significance to the future translation of business contracts, thus avoiding unnecessary disputes between the two parties.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> business contract; Functional Equivalence Theory; contract translation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中国全球化进程不断加快，现代商务活动日益频繁，为了确保商务活动的顺利进行，商务合同的签订显得尤为重要。在商务合同中，要求尽量确保合同中的每一个文字都表达准确，在对其进行翻译时也是如此。合同是确保业务开展顺利和进行权利保障的重要依托，对合同进行准确生动的翻译对业务的开展和权利、义务的保障以及出现争议时的解决等有着重要的推动力。因此，研究商务合同的翻译有一定的现实意义。根据奈达的功能对等理论，对等首先在意义上实现，然后在形式上实现，利用动态对等，打破静态对等，使译文意义最大化。此课题初步介绍了商务合同的翻译，研究了功能对等理论在合同翻译中的应用，提出了一些主要的翻译技巧和方法，对今后商务合同的翻译具有一定的指导作用，从而避免合同双方出现不必要的纠纷。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 商务合同；功能对等理论；合同翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since China promoted the Silk Road Economic Belt, China's economic exchanges with other countries in the world have been increasing day by day. China's exports volume is also increasing, and goods are exported to other countries in the world. In 2013, China overtook the United States as the world's largest trading nation. In this context, in order to ensure the smooth progress of transactions and reduce trade friction and disputes, commercial contracts, which have legal effect, have attracted more and more attention. Contract translation belongs to the category of legal translation. Accurate translation of contracts plays an important role in the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations, and the resolution of disputes. However, commercial disputes in China's foreign economic and trade business are very common, and many disputes are caused by various problems in contract translation. Therefore, they should be guided by scientific translation theories.<br /> This paper mainly includes 3 chapters. The first chapter is the introduction of business English contracts, including the definition of business contract, the categories of business contract, and the linguistic features of English business contract.<br /> The second chapter introduces the theoretical framework of functional equivalence translation, including Nida's main principles and viewpoints of functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> The third chapter is the main part of the article, including the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 General Introduction of Business Contract===<br /> <br /> This chapter first introduces the definition of business contract and the categories of business contract, and then analyzes the linguistic features of English business contract from lexical, syntactic and textual levels respectively. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> As an important link in foreign trade activities, business contracts have always been valued by people. Article 2 of The PRC Contract Law clearly stipulates that Commercial contract refers to the agreement clauses that are formally concluded according to law, notarized and must be abided by jointly in order to determine their respective rights and obligations during certain commercial cooperation between the parties concerned. It can be seen from this that a commercial contract is the result of the consensus reached by the parties and is a civil legal act. A legally established contract shall take effect from the date of its establishment and shall be legally binding. This provides a legal guarantee for effectively avoiding trade frictions. However, special attention should be paid to the fact that China's Economic Law on Foreign Contracts stipulates that commercial contracts can take many forms, such as formal contracts, letters of intent, memorandum, agreements, commissioned purchase orders, etc. But no matter what form it takes, it should be signed in writing. The oral agreement cannot be submitted to the court as evidence after the dispute occurs.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Categories and Structure of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> Based on different standards, business contracts can be divided into many categories. According to the contract maker, they can be divided into sales contract (made by the seller) and purchase contract (made by the buyer); according to the subject matter, they can be divided into technology transfer contracts, processing contracts, foreign labor contracts, and agency agreements, etc; according to the details of the contract, they can be divided into sales contract, sales confirmation letter, purchase contract and purchase confirmation letter; according to the price terms used in the contract, they can be divided into CIF contract, FOB contract and goods arrival contract, etc.<br /> Although there are many types of commercial contracts, the structure of commercial contracts is generally relatively fixed, generally including three parts: preface, text and contract end. The first part is the preface, which generally includes the name of the contract, the parties to the contract, the date of signing and the place of signing. The second part is the main body of the contract, which mainly stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties to the agreement, the specific conditions of the traded goods, such as commodity name, quantity, total value, delivery date and validity period, port of shipment and destination, insurance and confidentiality clauses, payment clauses,etc. The third part is the end, which mainly includes the signatures of all parties to the agreement, the language of the contract, the number of copies of the contract and the explanation of the validity of the contract.<br /> <br /> ====1.3 A Contrastive Analysis of Stylistic Features of Chinese and English Business Contracts====<br /> <br /> English business contract is a solemn style with the highest degree of formality among all styles of English. A comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English business contract in terms of vocabulary, syntax and discourse will be made in this chapter.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Lexical Features of Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> As the most basic semantic constituent unit, vocabulary plays the most basic and important role in the whole contract text. When reading any text, the characteristics of words can often reflect the characteristics of the whole text. Therefore, it is necessary to study the characteristics of vocabulary so as to lay a foundation for the study of the whole text.<br /> <br /> First of all, the use of archaism is the most prominent feature in international business contract English. The extensive use of archaic words in business contracts and legal styles fully reflects their solemn and serious style, which is related to the social function of English style of business contracts and the particularity of international business. The archaism most commonly used in business contract English are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中)，therein-after(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于).<br /> <br /> In contrast, some classical Chinese words are often used in Chinese business contract terms, such as“兹、若”. This is to reflect the conciseness and clarity of the Chinese contract text. However, strictly speaking, Chinese business contract terms are more straightforward, the classical Chinese vocabulary is less frequently used, and the stylistic features are not as obvious as English business contracts.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the use of synonyms is another feature of English business contracts. Two or more synonyms are often used together in English business contracts. This is to make the terms of the contract more precise and accurate, and to avoid ambiguities and omissions as much as possible, for example, by and between, sole and exclusive, make and enter into, etc. <br /> <br /> However, we must note that synonyms are not commonly used in Chinese business contracts. This is mainly because of the differences in expression habits between Chinese and English and the differences in legal and cultural traditions between countries.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, as a contractual document with legal effect, legal terms are also used in the contract. In formal English business contracts, drafters often use “convene” instead of “hold or assemble”; “dispatch” instead of “spread out or handout”; “terminate” instead of “stop”. Similarly, in Chinese business contracts, interpreters use“承诺”to indicate “commitment”;“撤销”to indicate“cancel”instead of “取消”;“裁决” to mean “decision” instead of “决定”. Finally, the contract contains many professional knowledge and terminology.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.2 Syntax Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> Besides vocabulary, the syntax of business contracts also has their own characteristics, such as common clauses, declarative sentences, passive voice, modal verbs, etc. <br /> <br /> The most obvious feature in business contracts is the use of subordinate clauses. They are in obvious positions to explain, restrict and supplement the meaning of the main sentence. The positions of these clauses are relatively flexible. For example, attributive clause can be placed together with the central word or separated from the central word. A noun can be modified by multiple attributive clauses, and an attributive clause can also modify multiple nouns. The adverbial clause of time can be placed either at the beginning of the sentence or at the middle and end of the sentence.<br /> <br /> In contrast, the positions of attributive clauses and adverbial clauses in Chinese are relatively fixed. The adverbial clause of time is usually next to the modified verb because there is no temporal change in Chinese verbs. Declarative sentences are clear in meaning, division of powers and responsibilities, objective and fair in stating facts, and conform to the requirements of business contract terms. Therefore, they are frequently used in Chinese and English business contracts, but interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences are seldom used.<br /> <br /> Passive sentences are also quite common in business contracts. The passive voice is often used when there is no need to clearly indicate the sender of the behavior and the emphasis is placed on the object of the behavior.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.3 Textual Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> The textual features of Chinese and English business contracts are mainly reflected in textual cohesion and textual structure.<br /> <br /> In business contracts, whether Chinese or English, contextual cohesion is realized by adding conjunctions or repetitions of words, which indicates the logical relationship between sentences and reflects the rigour and solemnity of business contract language.<br /> <br /> The discourse structure of Chinese and English business contracts is basically the same, with highly stylized features.<br /> <br /> This kind of consistency is not only to obtain formal uniformity, but also often mainly due to the requirements of meaning, so that readers have the impression that the contents expressed by clauses with the same sentence pattern are equivalent in the legal effect of the contract.①<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 General Study of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This chapter introduces Nida's functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida first proposed the“dynamic equivalence”theory, then further developed the theory, emphasizing the equivalence of two aspects, namely“formal equivalence”and“dynamic equivalence”.“Formal equivalence”emphasizes the form and content of the information itself and believes that the translation should be close to the original structure. “Dynamic equivalence”refers to“reproducing source language information from semantics to style with the closest (original) natural equivalent in the recipient language”.② Tan Zaixi（谭载喜） pointed out, in this definition, there are three key points: 1. Natural, the translation cannot have a translation cavity. 2. Closeness, referring to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of nature. 3. Equivalence, which is the core.<br /> <br /> After the proposal of dynamic equivalence, many disputes have arisen. It is considered as free translation or live translation. In order to change people's misunderstanding of it, Nida pointed out:“Everything in the text is meaningful, including speech forms, so forms cannot be sacrificed easily.”④ Therefore, he replaced“dynamic equivalence”with “functional equivalence”. There is no essential difference between the two, but the latter highlights the concept of“function”.<br /> <br /> On the question of which level equivalence should be reflected, Nida pointed out that in addition to content and form equivalence, style equivalence should also be considered.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida divided functional equivalence into“maximum functional equivalence”and“minimum functional equivalence”since absolute equivalence is impossible to achieve. The so-called“maximum functional equivalence”means that the target readers can understand the original text in a way consistent with the original readers and further appreciate the original text while“minimum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand how the original readers understand and appreciate the original through their understanding of the target text. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Researches on Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Abroad, Beekman(1972: 32) pointed out:“Nida's functional equivalence theory makes theorists and translators believe that a good translation must be able to convey the meaning and dynamics of the original text at the same time.”⑤ <br /> <br /> Wilss(2001: 51) stressed:“Nida's functional equivalence theory can be applied to translation practice because it can achieve effective translation.”⑥ Venuti said:<br /> Functional equivalence theory also eases the debate between translators on“domestication” and “foreignization” from the perspective of language and culture.⑦<br /> <br /> At home, Jin Di(金堤) put forward“equivalence theory”on the basis of“functional equivalence theory”, and applied it to the translation of Ulysses, which illustrates the feasibility of“functional equivalence” theory in practical translation. Tan Zaixi made a comprehensive and systematic summary of the formation process of Nida's translation theory and its profound connotation. In addition, in the CNKI database, retrieval using“functional equivalence theory” as the key word shows that there are 2444 related articles in various core journals and magazines.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Applicability of Functional Equivalence Theory to E-C Translation of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> At present, there are no authoritative translation principles and standards for commercial contract translation, but the three principles of contract translation put forward by Ma Huijuan(马会娟) are highly recognized: First, the words used are accurate and the translation is complete. The translator shall not add, delete or change any information contained in the contract at will. The language of the translation shall be accurate, complete and natural. Second, the organization is clear and the format is equivalent. The translation should correspond to the original text format as a whole and reproduce the structural features of the source language as much as possible. Third, the translation should be in line with the stylistic characteristics of the contract.<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory emphasizes content equivalence, form equivalence and style equivalence. These three requirements are consistent with the three principles above put forward by Ma Huijuan respectively. Both of them limit the translation standards from the aspects of content, form and style. Therefore, the functional equivalence theory can be fully applied to the translation practice of business contracts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Business Contract Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This part focuses on the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. Combining with actual translation cases, this chapter analyzes the common problems in contract translation and puts forward corresponding solutions. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Equivalence at the Lexical Level====<br /> <br /> Vocabulary is the basic component of sentences and chapters. In the specific translation process, if vocabulary translation is not handled well, sentence and chapter translation will be impossible.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Equivalence of Technical Terms—Literal Translation and Free Translation=====<br /> <br /> The contents of business contracts involve all trades and professions, and there are many subject matters, including many professional knowledge and terminology, which is a big obstacle for many translators who do not know the professional knowledge of the industry. Therefore, before translation, translators should understand the relevant industries involved in the contract and master the necessary knowledge in the industry so as to avoid the layman's words and semantic errors in the translation, which will affect the accuracy and formality of the contract and cannot achieve functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> Example1:The balance 80% ( Eighty percent ) of the contract value shall be paid against irrevocable L/C at 360 days sight to be accepted by both parties. <br /> 译文：合同金额的80%（百分之八十）以不可撤销信用证的方式在交单的360 天予以支付。<br /> <br /> Many words in the contract appear in the form of letter abbreviations. As shown in this example,“L/C”is the abbreviation of letter of credit, which is translated literally into“信用证”. This is a well-established translation method in the industry, which can reflect both the equivalence of meaning and the professionalism of language expression.<br /> <br /> Example2:“The seller shall present the following documents required for negotiation or collection to the banks.”<br /> 译文:“卖方应向银行提交议付或托收所需的下列文件。”<br /> <br /> In this sentence,“negotiation”and“collection”are both technical terms of the contract, they are translated into“议付”and“托收” respectively, instead of“谈判”and“收取”. The expressions not only conform to the professional expression of the economic and trade industry, but also accurately reflect the meaning of the original text and achieve the meaning and style equivalence emphasized by the functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> Example3:“UNIT PRICES: FOB Xingang, Tianjing USD 22 150.00 per unit (US Dollars twenty two thousand, one hundred and fifty only)。”<br /> 译文:“单价: FOB天津新港, 每辆22150.00美元（贰万贰仟壹佰伍拾美元）。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“FOB”is an abbreviation of “Free on board”. It can be translated into “FOB” by free translation or by shifting translation. This is mainly because the readers of business contracts themselves are professionals in the industry. They usually exchange price terms in the form of English letters and abbreviations in their daily work. Therefore, when translating such price terms, their source language expressions can be retained.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Equivalence of Archaism—Omission, Addition and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Archaisms are rarely used in modern English, but they are still common in business contracts. They can not only reflect the formal rigour of business contracts, but also highlight the conciseness and clarity of language. The archaisms most commonly used in English business contract are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中), hereinafter(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于), etc.<br /> <br /> Example1:“The parties hereto shall, first of all, settle any dispute arising from or in connection with the contract through amicable negotiation.” <br /> 译文:“合同双方首先应该通过友好协商，解决因合同而发生的或与合同相关的争议。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“hereto”means“本协议的、本合同的”. It can be translated with omission. The contract subject relationship is clear, literal translation will only lead to redundant repetition of the translation, so there is no need to translate it.<br /> <br /> Example2: Now, therefore, in consideration of the recitals set forth above and the mutual covenants, promises, and agreements contained herein, and other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged, the Parties do hereby agree as follows: <br /> 译文：因此，考虑到上述陈述和本协议中包含的共同契约、承诺和协议，以及其他良好和有价值的对价，双方特此达成如下协议，特此确认其接收和充分性。<br /> <br /> In this example, herein usually means“此中，于此”. But such translation here will confuse readers. Therefore, we can adopt addition and translate it into“此协议中”. Although this expression is not as concise as“于此”, accuracy is the first requirement in contract translation.<br /> <br /> Example3: After arrival of goods at port of destination, the buyer shall apply to China Commodity Inspection Bureau (hereinafter referred to as CCIB) for a further inspection as to the specifications and quantity/weight of the goods.<br /> 译文：货到目的港后，买方将申请中国商品检验局(以下简称商检局)对货物的规格和数量重量进行检验。<br /> <br /> In this case, the original meaning of“hereinafter”is“以下，在下文中”. Its original meaning is directly inserted into the sentence, which not only accurately expresses the original meaning, but also makes the translated language natural and smooth, meeting the requirements of functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Equivalence of Formal Words—Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> “Functional Equivalence”emphasizes the transmission of reading experience, requiring the translator to transmit not only language functions but also legal functions, so as to enable the target readers to feel the reading experience of the original readers. <br /> <br /> Example1: The agreement does not operate as an acceptance of any conflicting terms and conditions and shall prevail over any conflicting provision of any purchase order or any other instrument of Customer. <br /> 译文：本协议不接受任何与本协议产生冲突的任何条款。若在乙方订单或任何文件中出现与本协议相冲突的条款，应均以本协议为准。<br /> <br /> Example2:“Time of shipment: within 15 days after receipt of the advance payment and the L/C of balance value to be accepted by the × Bank.” <br /> 译文:“装运日期：收到预付款且剩余货款的信用证被××银行承兑后的15天内装运。”<br /> <br /> In the first example, although the basic meaning of“胜过”is also expressed, it is usually translated into“以....为准” or “效力高于”in legal texts. In the second example, the common meaning of“accept”is “接受”, but in legal translation it is usually translated as “承兑”. Formal words are usually translated according to conventions, so the difficulty in translation lies not in the choice of translation strategies, but in the grasp of semantics and the reproduction of style.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.4 Equivalence of Juxtaposition—Contracted Translation=====<br /> <br /> English business contracts often use two or more synonyms to ensure the uniqueness of words meaning. The functional equivalence theory emphasizes the equivalence of meaning and form, but in the actual translation process, the absolute equivalence between the two, that is, the “maximum functional equivalence”proposed by Nida, is impossible to realize.<br /> <br /> Example1:“The agreement is made and entered into on April 16, 2007 by and between Party A and Party B.”<br /> 译文:“此合同由甲乙双方于2007年4月16日达成。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“made and entered into”and“by and between”are juxtaposed by two pairs of synonyms. When translating, these words only need translate once, which is called contracted translation. <br /> <br /> Example2: This agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the subject matter hereof and supersedes all prior agreements, understanding, warranties, representations, negotiations and discussion, whether oral or written, of the parties except as specifically set forth herein.<br /> 译文：此合同是双方就合同主体所达成的全部协议，将取代双方过往所有口头或书面的协议、理解、声明、保证、谈判和讨论，在此明确阐明的除外。<br /> <br /> In this example, several synonyms are juxtaposed to make the terms of the contract include all relevant matters as much as possible so as to make the writing strict and clear. Here, we can adopt literal translation strategy, keeping the total number of words listed in the original text, and looking for the corresponding Chinese words to achieve the double equivalence of content and form. <br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Equivalence at the Syntactic Level====<br /> <br /> Cliches are commonly used in official document and usually have a fixed translation method. Passive sentences and subordinate clauses have long sentence patterns and complicated logical relations, which tests the translator's translation ability and logical expression ability. <br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Conventional Phrases—Imitation Translation=====<br /> <br /> There are many cliches in business contracts, which are common at the beginning and end of contracts.<br /> <br /> Example1:“In consideration of the mutual covenants contained in this agreement, the parties agree as follows:”<br /> 译文:“考虑到本协议中的共同承诺，协议双方约定如下:”<br /> <br /> Example2:This Agreement may be executed in two or more counterparts, each of which shall be deemed an original and all of which together shall constitute one instrument. <br /> 译文：本协议可签署两个或两个以上的副本，每一副本构成本协议的一份原件，所有副本构成一份法律文件。<br /> <br /> Although the original expression of each text is not the same, the basic meaning is the same. A relatively fixed translation method has been formed, so the translators should know the common expressions in advance, or look for the parallel text to imitate the translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Equivalence of Passive Sentence=====<br /> <br /> Passive voice is a typical language structure in English business contracts. It can effectively reflect the objectivity and fairness of contracts. However, unlike English, passive voice is seldom used in Chinese. Therefore, in translation, we usually use various translation strategies to convert passive voice into active voice. The most common translation strategy is conversion, that is, the object of the original text is converted into the subject, and the subject is converted into the object. <br /> <br /> Example1: This Contract is made by and between the Buyer and the Seller whereby the Buyer agree to buy and the Seller agrees to sell the commodity in attached Annex according to the terms and condition stipulated below: <br /> 译文：买卖双方同意按下述条款购买出售附件中的商品并签订本合同： <br /> <br /> Example2: Agent shall be entitled to nominate mandate other third parties to act upon behalf of Agent in generating business to the Parties, as Agent’s sole discretion. <br /> 译文：代理人有权自行指定、授权其他第三方代表代理人为缔约方带来业务。<br /> <br /> From the first example, “by and between” is used as adverbial in the sentence. The object“the Buyer and the Seller” is the originator of this sentence, which is transformed into the subject of Chinese, and the recipient of the action“this contract”is transformed into the object of Chinese, thus the passive sentence of English is transformed into the active sentence of Chinese. In addition, some passive sentences in business contracts can also be translated into active sentences without changing the subject of the original sentence, as shown in the second example.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Equivalence of Long Sentence—Combination, Division and Reconstruction=====<br /> <br /> Long sentences must contain many clauses and modifiers, and their writing ideas are quite different from those of Chinese. Therefore, how to split the sentences into several parts, how to extract the core meaning of complex logical relations and how to reorganize Chinese are the three major difficulties.<br /> <br /> Example1: Agent’s undertaking and obligation is to search, locate and refer (lead) potential and prospective clients/customers to Principal who are seriously interested, ready, willing and able to apply for the Product. <br /> 译文：代理人的责任和义务是为委托人寻找、定位和推荐（引导）潜在的、真正对本产品感兴趣、准备好且愿意申请的客户。<br /> <br /> This is a restrictive attributive clause. We often adopt a combination method, translating the subordinate clause into“...的” and putting it before the modifier in the form of adjectives. This is mainly due to the structural differences between English and Chinese. The attributive elements in Chinese are not as flexible as the attributive clauses in English. <br /> <br /> Example2: The parties may not assign or transfer this Agreement or any of its rights and obligations under this Agreement without the prior written consent of the other party, which shall not be unreasonably withheld. <br /> 译文：未经另一方事先书面同意，缔约方不得出让或转让本协议或本协议项下的各项权利和义务，此要求不得被无理拒绝。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a non-restrictive attributive clause. Since this clause and the antecedent are not closely related and generally play an explanatory role, we often use division method in E-C translation. That is to say, the two should be separated and naturally combined by repeating antecedents.<br /> <br /> Example3: Should Principal be reasonably sure that Agent violated this rule, or should any client/customer present proof of such violation, Agent will not be entitled to its omission for the particular client or group of clients and Principal may terminate this Agreement with immediate effect at its own discretion. <br /> 译文：如果委托人有理由确定代理人违反了此项规定，或如果有客户提供了其违反此项规定的证据，代理人将无权享这一客户或这一组客户的佣金，委托人可自行终止本协议，即刻生效。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a adverbial clause. The structure of“should+subject+verb”belongs to the unreal conditional sentence. But there is no such usage in Chinese. Therefore, we can reconstruct the original text according to the logical structure of the original sentence and adjust the word order appropriately to make it natural and more in line with the Chinese expression habits. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Equivalence at Textual Level====<br /> <br /> The text consists of sentences, so the following focuses on the cohesion and format of the text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Text Cohesion=====<br /> <br /> Text cohesion is realized through the use of conjunctions and lexical repetition, reflecting the rigour and solemnity of business contract language.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> Thereafter, this Agreement shall be renewed automatically for successive additional one-year terms under the same terms and conditions unless either party chooses not to continue the relationship and provides written notice 30 days prior to the natural expiration of the existing one-year term. <br /> 译文：此后，本协议应以同样的条款自动延期一年，除非任何一方选择解除合作关系，并在一年合同期满前30天提交书面通知。<br /> <br /> Here, explicit connectives,“thereafter, and, unless”are clearly translated, which is conducive to textual cohesion and indicates the logical relationship between sentences. Therefore, we can translate them into “此后、和/并、除非”, which not only realizes the formal equivalence between the translation and the original, but also achieves the semantic equivalence.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Text Format=====<br /> <br /> As one kind of legal documents, commercial contracts are highly normative and have strict writing format. Therefore, attention should be paid to the corresponding format in translation.<br /> <br /> Contract No: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Date: Aug. ××,2013 <br /> <br /> The Buyer: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Representative: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> The seller: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××<br /> <br /> Representative: ××××××<br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> 译文：合同编号：×××××× <br /> <br /> 日期：2013年8月×号 <br /> <br /> 买方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：×××××× <br /> <br /> 卖方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：××××××<br /> <br /> Here, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the contract text, and keep the format of the translation and the original text in alignment during translation. Firstly, capital words with the first letter should be emphasized in terms consistent with Chinese expression habits. Secondly, the parts marked in bold or italics in the contract shall still be marked in bold or italics in the translation.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> To sum up, according to the requirements of functional equivalence theory on translation quality, commercial contract translation should meet the following standards:<br /> <br /> In terms of content, first, the translation language should be natural and fluent and conform to Chinese expression habits. Second, pay attention to the professionalism of the language expression in the translation, avoid using colloquial expressions, and achieve the meaning equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> In terms of format, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the commercial contract text and try our best to achieve the formal equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> In terms of language style, the translation should retain the original language style as much as possible. The business contract language is professional and solemn, so the translation should reproduce the strict and formal legal style of the original text on the premise of ensuring accurate content and natural language.<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes and summarizes specific contract terms and puts forward countermeasures. Although the translation strategies given in this paper have certain universality, the research text is slightly narrower than that of the whole commercial contract text research. Due to the space limitation, the cases provided are limited. Therefore, the scope of the research text should be broadened and analyzed from a broader research perspective in future research.<br /> <br /> ===Notes===<br /> <br /> ① 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998: 310-312.<br /> <br /> ② Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986: 113-120.<br /> <br /> ③ 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2004: 23-27.<br /> <br /> ④ Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993: 119-130. <br /> <br /> ⑤ Beekman, J. &amp; C, John. Translating the word of God[M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974: 191-221.<br /> <br /> ⑥ Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001: 72-86.<br /> <br /> ⑦ Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995: 76-89.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> [1] Beekman, J. &amp; John C. Translating the word of God [M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974. <br /> <br /> [2] Catford, J. C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965. <br /> <br /> [3] Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> [4] Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986.<br /> <br /> [5] Nida, E. A., and R Taber, Charles. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. New York: E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1969.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995.<br /> <br /> [7] Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [8] Yallop, C. The construction of equivalence[A]. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2001.<br /> <br /> [9] 顿官刚. 经贸英语词汇的特点及翻译[J]. 山东外语教学, 2002, (2).<br /> <br /> [10] 廖瑛. 实用公关英语[M]. 上海: 对外经济贸易大学出版社, 2005.<br /> <br /> [11] 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998.<br /> <br /> [12] 苗锡璞. 功能对等理论指导下的商务英语翻译[J]. 内蒙古财经学院学报, 2011, (1).<br /> <br /> [13] 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> [14] 汪洋. 浅析商务合同的词汇与句法翻译技巧[J]. 科技文汇, 2009, (10).<br /> <br /> [15] 金堤. 等效翻译探索[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998.<br /> <br /> [16] 马会娟. 论商务文本翻译标准多元化[J]. 中国翻译, 2005, (3).<br /> <br /> ==The identity of translator in translation activities张毓婕 Zhang Yujie==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In translation activities, translators have freedom in the choice of texts to be translated and translation strategies. They also have freedom in the choice of ways to understand the author’s emotions and values and reproduce the connotations and cultural flavor of the text. And Only when translators truly realize what roles they should play in translation activities and play these roles well can they create high-quality translations. Therefore, the translation is deeply imprinted by the translator, and the roles of the translator have become an important issue that cannot be ignored in translation studies. And with the development of translation studies, the issue of translator's identity has received due attention. This article also discusses the issue of translator’s identity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> identity of translator, translation activities, roles of today’s translator <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 论翻译活动中译者的身份<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 翻译活动中，译者既可以在翻译文本、翻译策略的选择上发挥主观能动性，也可以在对作者情感和价值观的理解、语言的选择、文化风味的重现上发挥主观能动性。而只有译者真正认识到自己在翻译活动中应该扮演什么角色并且扮演好这种角色，他们才能创造出高质量的译作。因而译作深深地打上了译者的烙印，译者的身份角色成为翻译研究中不可忽视的一个重要问题。而随着翻译实践的发展，译者的身份问题受到了应有的重视，本文也对这一问题进行了探讨。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 译者的身份，翻译活动，当今译者的角色<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translators’ playing roles well in translation is vital to the accomplishment of high-quality translations. Therefore, the identity of translator is an important issue in translation studies and we should pay much attention to it. As for this paper, first of all, it makes an analysis of the importance and necessity of valuing the issue of translator’s identity. Then, it expounds different kinds of roles translators have played in the history. Next, it concludes the features of the changes of translator’s identity and its complexity. Finally, from the perspective of today’s translators, it shows what roles today’s translators should play with today’s development of society and technologies, so as to explain how can we make more contributions to culture and development of the world.<br /> <br /> ===1.The importance and necessity of valuing the issue of translator’s identity===<br /> Two scholars Zhong Weihe and Zhou Jing made the following overview: as the subject of translation, translators need to respect the objective translation environment and fully understand the cultural needs of the target language, and they must also show their self-consciousness through subjective initiative. For example, they can show it through language operation, cultural characteristics, artistic creation, aesthetic standards, and humanistic character. In addition, they must give full play to their autonomy, initiative, purpose, creativity, and acceptance. This is the subjectivity of translation. （Zhong and Zhou, 2006）The two scholars not only pointed out the objective conditions that translators need to consider in translation activities, but also further explained that translators need to stimulate their subjective initiative and creativity, which is very enlightening. As the subject of translation, the translator’s activity is the specific translation behavior, that is, the conversion between two different languages and cultures. He can be creative and active in the choice of the text to be translated, the order of translation and translation strategies. The translated version is also deeply imprinted by the translator. Although the translation is derived from the original, it is no longer the original and have a new life. In addition, the translator can not only give the original work a new life, but also decide which new life to give it, so that it will be presented to the target language readers in an acceptable appearance. Therefore, the identity of the translator runs through the entire translation activity and is closely linked to the original and translated work. It is an important issue worthy of our attention.<br /> <br /> ===2.Different kinds of roles translators have played in history===<br /> <br /> ====2.1The identity of translator under the source language centralism====<br /> Under the source language centralism, the purpose of translation is to reproduce the author’s original meanings and the highest standard of translation is being faithful to the original text. In these translation theories, translators’ cultural status is marginalized, and many of these translators are invisible, given various kinds of humble titles and roles.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1Translator as a servant=====<br /> There are certain common cognitions and understandings of the identity of translators in China and western countries. Due to their long-exist limitations in public awareness of translation activities and the low social status of translators, translators were once generally regarded as playing the &quot;servant role&quot; in both East and West.<br /> <br /> John Dryden compares a translator to a slave, thinking that the &quot;slave&quot; can only work in someone else's manor, manuring and pruning the grapes, while the wine produced belongs to the owner. （Tan, 1991）<br /> <br /> American modern translator Weinberger complained that although his translation works had attracted millions of readers, there was no his name on the cover of the translations, so he was merely an unsung hero.<br /> <br /> Yang Jiang also said in her book Experience of Failures-Trial Translation: At least, this is a hard job, because translators as servants have to follow the master and cannot be self-assertive. Moreover, a servant serves two masters at the same time: one is the original text, and the other is the readers of his translation. (Jin and Huang, 2019)<br /> <br /> The identity of servant requires translators to be completely faithful to the original text, adhere to the source-centered and author-centered theory, and not be affected by their own emotions and values. Playing this kind of role, the translator should only faithfully convey the connotation of the text and the author's original intention, so he just like a slave in shackles without personal freedom, and can only follow the author in anywhere. Of course, it is true that translators’ playing a role as a servant can help translators to faithfully restoring the author’s intention and not distorting his original meanings so that meet the requirements of “faithfulness” and “loyalty”, but this kind of theory ignores the translator’s subjectivity and will place translators in a very low social status. Just as an ancient craftsman did not have the right to sign his name on his carvings, a translator also doesn’t have this kind of right and is neglected in their translations. Therefore, this theory reveals various prejudices and disregard of public for translators. And even in today’s China with prosperous economy and society, most people still hold the view that translation is merely the mechanical conversion of the source language and the target language. They believe that if they understand English, they are absolutely qualified for the job of translation. At the same time, a lot of issues such as a chaotic translation market, low salary for translators, talent shortage in translation and gloomy employment prospects are very prominent. What’s more, even in the Chinese translation circles, there are long-exist serious problem of &quot;seeing things but not people&quot;. Translators have a low status in the literary world and are treated with indifference and contempt. And their fruits, that is, translations, are not valued or even recognized on many occasions.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2Translator as an invisible person=====<br /> One topic that has been heatly debated for a long time in the translation world is that whether translators should be invisible or visible in translation. The translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;visibility&quot; have their own purpose and theoretical basis respectively, but both &quot;invisibility&quot; or &quot;visibility&quot; are translators’ own choices made after deliberations.<br /> Venuti, the translation theorist of deconstruction, explained invisibility in his monograph The Translators Invisibility: A History of Translation with Norman Shapiro's words and he thought that the translation should be transparent so that it does not look like the translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass. There are only small imperfections on the glass like scratches and bubbles. Of course, the ideal is to have nothing. The translation should never cause readers to feel that they are reading the translation. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu also had similar points of view and he stated in the article The Translation of Lin Shu that: The highest standard of literary translation is &quot;sublimation&quot;. In translation, if you can not only do not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched due to the differences of language habits, but also completely preserve the original flavor, then it has met requirements of “sublimation”. In the seventeenth century, someone praised this kind of translation as &quot;the transmigration of souls&quot; of the original text, whose body was changed and the spirit remained the same. In other words, the translation should be so faithful to the original that it does not read like the translation, because the original work will never read as if it is translated from somewhere else. （Qian，1984）<br /> <br /> The French translation theorist Munin once wrote in his translation monograph Les Belles Infideles: &quot;The ideal translator, as defined by Gogol, should turn into a glass, so transparent that readers can’t even feel its existence.<br /> <br /> The &quot;invisible&quot; identity of the translator means that the translator can reproduce the spiritual essence and style of the source text naturally, so as to achieve the &quot;transparency&quot; of the translation and the &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator. The translation needs to be fluent and natural, in line with the reading habits of the target language readers, and translators should avoid obscure word choice and mechanical sentence conversion. While reading the translated text, readers should not feel the existence of the translator and the influences he exerts on the text. And when the translator is nowhere to be seen and felt in the text, we can say that the translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; has been achieved. This requires translators to pay attention to three points that are often emphasized in traditional translation theories: one is that the translator should not incorporate their own emotions and values in the translation; the second is that the translator should not show his or her own personality in the translation; the third is that in translation the author should be based on the original text and follow the author in each choice. （Xu，2003）<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Translator as a painter=====<br /> Dryden once compared the translator to a painter. He advocated the translation view of comparing translation to painting: In translation, a translator should regard the original text as a model, and use his own colors to express the power and effect of the original text. The earliest Chinese translator who used metaphor like this was Chen Xiying. He believed that: translation is the same as a painting, although imitation is the most important, the colors used in the copy of a painting and the painting itself are the same. While the languages and strategies used in the original text and the translated version are totally different. On the other hand, a person who can appreciate the original painting has the ability to appreciate the copy one, while most people who can read the original book cannot read the translated version, and most people who can read the translation cannot understand the original text. This is the first difficulty the translator will face. &quot;And Chinese are much more familiar with Fu Lei’s statement: “In terms of effect, translation should be like a painting, and what you should restore is not the form but the spirit.” This theory extracts the common characteristics of translation and painting, and vividly elaborates the process and details of translation activities.<br /> <br /> ====2.2The identity of translator under the translator centralism====<br /> In 1980s, there was a cultural turn of translation studies in western countries from language translation to cultural translation. Translation theorists began to study translation with valuable theories from other subjects such as Semiotics, Hermeneutics, Philosophy, Literature and so on, which helped them to improve the traditional translation models. The subjectivity of translators were valued at that time and there appeared various kinds of roles of translators which emphasize the creativity, imagination, and activity of translators. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1Translator as a manipulator=====<br /> The manipulator status of the translator originated from the manipulation school. Manipulation school was an important part of the cultural school of translation studies in the 1980s. It was developed in the category of comparative literature. The main representatives are Hesman and Lefevre. Hesman said: From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for a certain purpose. Lefevre combines translation studies with power, ideology, patronage, and poetics and believed: “Translation, of course, is a rewriting of the original text. Rewriting is manipulation.” （Lefevere, 2010）The manipulation school is different from those schools that put &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;faithfulness&quot; in the most important place. Its representatives believe that translation is the manipulation and rewriting of the original text, the translator is the manipulator of the text, and the translation and the original text are both important. This theory is contrary to the original work-centered theory and author-centered theory, and is subversive to the previous translation theories. It shifts the focus of translation from the original author to the translator, which is conducive to improve the status of translators. They also particularly emphasized the status of culture in translation and the significance of translation to culture. They believed that the purpose of translation is not to simply complete the conversion of words, phrases and sentences, but to achieve cultural correspondence, so that the cultural meanings conveyed by the translation is consistent with the cultural meanings in the original text. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2Translator as a writer=====<br /> Women and translation have been long connected with each other for both of them occupy very humble positions. The traditional view holds that translation is considered as a secondary work dependent on and subservient to the original text, just as women are inferior to men under patriarchal power. <br /> <br /> Feminist translation theory came into being in a wave of opposition to this kind of traditional thought. It combined feminism and translation, and its representatives put forward many translation viewpoints influenced by feminism, providing a new perspective for translation studies and subverting the traditional translation theory. The representatives of feminist translation theory include Sherry Simon, Lori Chambelain, Luise von Flotow, etc. Thus, translation studies “began to distrust the traditional hierarchical order and gender roles, and began to question the faithful rules and universal standards of meaning and value.&quot; They believed that translators should not be faithful to the original text or the author, but the identity and discourse power of women. The purpose of translation is to make language speak for women, improve their status and liberate women through language. Feminist translators revealed many sexist words and phrases in translation, re-examined the relationship between the original text and the translated version, advocated rewriting translation strategies, and required feminist intervention and rewriting of the original text. In this way, feminist translation theorists improved the status of translators and helped them to go to the front of the stage from behind the scenes, playing the role of an author.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3Translator as a conqueror=====<br /> As a social practice activity, translation is also a product of political thoughts and ideologies in a sense. When translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously affected by their political stance and ideologies, and the translator’s cultural identity and cultural attitude are always political. Therefore, the translated text is not exactly equivalent to the original, because in the process of translation, translators will add their own feelings and values to the translated version. What's more, some people think that translators are aggressors, and the purpose of translation is to impose one culture on another, such as the translations serving as a tool for the construction of subjectivity of colonialism in the process of colonization and maintaining cultural hierarchy after the end of the colonial era. This type of translation is used as a tool for political purpose and is just like a conqueror. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.4The translator's &quot;independent&quot; status=====<br /> Post-colonial research in the field of modern translation believes that translation has three functions: (1) the means of colonization (2) the lightning rod for cultural inequality (3) the tools of decolonization.(Robinson, 1997) As is mentioned above, when translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously influenced by their own political stance and ideologies, and thus become a tool for cultural expansion and maintaining cultural hierarchy in the colonial era. Similarly, this tool can also be applied to the activities of anti-colonialism. In fact, in the process of anti-colonialism, translation has also played an important role, providing a stage for anti-colonialism activities and becoming a tool used by the colonized to get rid of the colonial yoke and weaken cultural hegemony.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.5Translator as a creative rebel=====<br /> The term creative rebellion comes from French literary sociologist Robert Escarpit. He holds the view that translation is rebellious, because it puts the work in a completely unexpected reference system (referring to language); Translation is creative, because it gives the work a new look and makes it more comprehensive. So that readers can have a brand-new literary exchange. （Escarpit, 1987）That is to say, on the one hand, this theory believes that translation is creative, that is, in the process of translation, in order to restore the original contents and cultural flavor, the translator must use his creativity and imagination to find suitable words and styles in the target language to stimulate readers to have similar associations. This is a kind of creative work that can give the original work a new life in a new language. On the other hand, translation is rebellious. When using the target language to restore the connotations of the original text, the translator must discard some of the original form. Creative rebellion can be divided into three types: the creative rebellion of the translator, the creative rebellion of the recipient, and the creative rebellion of the receiving environment. The creative treason of the translator can be conscious and unconscious, such as personalized translation, mistranslation, omission, compilation, adaptation and so on.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.6Translator as a language quality controller(Li and He, 2018)=====<br /> In recent years, with the development of the world economy and Internet technology, computer-assisted translation has become more and more popular. It has overturned the traditional translation model and most of the work of language conversion is completed by computers instead of translators. However, although the computer can complete the task of translation, the translated texts usually don’t have a very high quality and need to be improved by human translators. Especially in literary translation, as we all know, when translating a literal work, translators need to have sufficient cultural background knowledge, and in the process of literal translation, they must put themselves into the author’s context and fully understand his emotions, attitudes and values in order to create translations with high quality. This is something that computer translation software are unable to achieve. Therefore, translators play the role of processing, modifying, and polishing the texts produced by computers. They are the controllers of language quality, making up for the flaws in the translation given by the computer, ensuring the fluency of the translation and choosing an appropriate style for it. This identity of the translator does not mean that the translator is marginalized again and in a low position. On the contrary, translators are playing an irreplaceable role in ensuring the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> ===3.The features of the changes of translator’s identity and its complexity===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The identity of translators changed from invisible to visible, from subordinate to dominant, from author-centered to translator-centered. ====<br /> At the beginning, due to the limitations of people’s understanding about translation activities, translators had low social status, and most of them played the roles of &quot;invisible man&quot;, &quot;slave&quot;, &quot;servant&quot; and &quot;painter&quot;. The author and the original text were the center of translation activities, while the translators were marginalized. Later, with the cultural turn of translation studies, translators gradually got rid of the shackles, moved from behind the scenes to the front stage, and became the subject of translation activities. （Yao, 1996）This feature is reflected in translation views of manipulation school, feminist translation theories, creative treason translation views and post-colonial translation views. At that time, translators played many other roles, such as &quot;manipulator&quot;, &quot;writer&quot;, &quot;creative rebel&quot;, &quot;conqueror “and so on. Nowadays, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have gained more roles such as &quot;language quality controller&quot;, &quot;learners of new technology and new knowledge&quot; and so on. Although part of the translator's work is done by a computer now, this is not a manifestation of the translator's marginalization again, but a manifestation of the translator's freedom and subjectivity. Therefore, translators today should grasp the trend of the evolution of the translator's identity, give full play to their subjective initiative in translation practice, and avoid becoming servants or slaves of the original text. At the same time, this does not mean that the translator can distort the author’s original meaning arbitrarily. Translation is just like “dancing with shackles&quot;. On the one hand, we should be faithful to the author and adhere to certain translation principles. One the other hand, we can adjust our translation strategies according to our purposes of translation and find a good way to restore the feelings, values and attitude of the original author as well as cultural flavor of the original text. In this way, the translator can present a high-quality translation to readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The identity and status of translators are closely connected with the era in which they live.==== <br /> Throughout the history of translation studies at home and abroad, the role of the translator was ignored in the early translation studies due to the limitations of the times, and translators had a low cultural and social status. It was not until the cultural turn in the 1970s that translators truly moved from behind the scenes to the foreground. We can say that the shift of the focus of translation studies and the change of the identity of translators are deeply influenced by the time and cultural backgrounds. For example, in the 1970s, the slogan &quot;women must be liberated from language, and women's liberation must start with language&quot; emerged and translation had always been in a position similar to that of &quot;women&quot; in its own hierarchical structure. Therefore, the feminist translation theory rose and its representative translation theorists revealed discriminations in the field of translation, and liberated women by liberating translation. Another example is that many translated works under colonial expansion and anti-colonial struggle have obvious ideological characteristics, and translators of that time hoped to use culture as a tool to achieve certain political goals. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation activities are complex, and so is the identity of translator.====<br /> In different times, the identity of translator is complicated. Faced with different works, the identity of translator changes, because we have different purposes and needs when translating different works. Even when the translator is only faced with one work, in many cases, the identity of the translator will not be a single one, but a combination of multiple identities. It is the integration of these identities that makes the translation more smooth and complete. For example, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have multiple identities such as &quot;learner of new knowledge and new technology&quot;, &quot;selector of the style&quot;, and &quot;controller of language quality&quot;. We can say that translators can play different roles for different translation purposes and requirements as well as in different steps of translation.<br /> <br /> ===4. The roles of today’s translators===<br /> ====4.1 Dancers in shackles. ====<br /> Historically, there are many arguments about whether translators should be visible or invisible, servant or master. From today’s point of view, translators should keep a balance between them. They should not merely follow the author’s steps, and be the “servant” of the original text, nor should they believe that they can distort and rewrite the original text arbitrarily. Instead, they should act as a dancer in shackles: He should not only be faithful to the original text, adhere to specific translation standards and principles, carefully consider the choice of words and sentences, but also give full play to his subjective initiative and choose the most appropriate, natural and easily acceptable languages to convey the connotations of the original text.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Megaphones of real problems.====<br /> Feminist translation theory combined feminism with translation, and at that time translation became a tool for women to fight for independence and liberation. This reflects that translations are instrumental in reflecting social problems and seeking appropriate solutions to them. Excellent translation theorists can not only pay attention to the text translation itself, but also pay attention to the reflecting and solving of realistic issues in the field of translation and using translation as a tool to reasonably convey their appeals to the public on behalf of a specific group.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Learners who keep up with the time.====<br /> Translation is progressing with the time developing. If you stand still, you will lose out, and so will translators. They need to continuously learn new translation theories and accumulate more experience in practice in order to create excellent translation works. In addition, they must continue to learn new technologies and other new knowledge, such as computer-assisted translation technology, so that they can not only keep the traditional translation model in mind, but also find better ways to translate. In this way, they can adapt to the society and technological development more easily, and create high-quality translated works more efficiently. What’s more, translators should also pay attention to hot issues happened around the world, because translators should not only practice their translation skills, but also learn more new culture, which is vital in translation in the future.<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Promoters of cultural communication.====<br /> Translators are the bridges between the source language and the target language, the author and the readers. Translators with profound knowledge in language skills and cultural backgrounds can accurately grasp the connotations of the original text, reproduce the original style, convey cultural messages, and bring readers to foreign authors with unique emotional attitudes and values. With the globalization, today's world is characterized by frequent economic, political, and cultural exchanges between China and the West. Translators play the role of cultural communicators of the world. But this is different from the “conqueror” in the context of colonial expansion in the past, because China has long respected the diversity of world culture and treated the culture of every country and nation equally, so the purpose of translation activities for today’s translators is not cultural aggression but spread valuable Chinese culture to other countries and receive the essence of other countries' cultures. The role of today’s translators is the promoter of communication of cultures.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The identity of translator is an important issue of translation studies. Throughout the history, translators have played various kinds of roles in translation. At the beginning, translators had a low cultural status and are given such roles as “servant” and “invisible man”. And the subjectivity and creativity of translators were ignored in translation studies. Later in 1970s, with the cultural turn in translation studies of western countries, translators got much more attention and walked from behind the scenes to the front stage, and various kinds of roles are given to them such as: “manipulator” “writer” “creative rebel”. The status of translators had been improved. Then with the development of society and technology, translators are playing more roles such as “language quality controller” “new learner” and “selector”. From the changes of the translators’ identity, we can conclude many features of it and realize what roles should today’s translators play in order to give full play to their creativity and subjectivity, so as to create wonderful translated versions.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1] Venuti (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility'': London and New York: Routledge. <br /> <br /> [2] Robinson, D (1997). Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theories Explained: Manchester: St.Jerome Publishing. <br /> <br /> [3] 埃斯卡皮，罗贝尔(1987).文学社会学-罗•埃斯卡皮文论选:杭州：浙江人民出版社. <br /> <br /> [4] Lefevere, Andre (2010). ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame'': Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> [5]仲伟合、周静（2096），译者的极限与底线-试论译者主体性与译者的天职，外语与外语教学（07）：42-46。<br /> <br /> [6]谭载喜（1991），西方翻译简史，北京：商务印书馆：153。<br /> <br /> [7]许钧（2003），翻译论，武汉：湖北教育出版社。<br /> <br /> [8]杨武能（2003），再谈文学翻译主题，中国翻译（03）。<br /> <br /> [9]李晖，郝思源（2018），计算机辅助翻译中的译者身份研究，校园英（17）。<br /> <br /> [10]钱钟书（1984），林殊的翻译，北京商务印书馆。<br /> <br /> [11]姚亚平（1996），中国当代修辞学，广州：广东教育出版社：37。<br /> <br /> [12]金圣华，黄国斌（1996），因难见巧-名家翻译经验谈，香港：三联书店有限公司。<br /> <br /> ==Study of Domestication and foreignization in Cross-cultural Translation 顾东方 Gu Dongfang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's economic globalization, international cultural exchanges are expanding, and translation as a communication tool is also crucial. As a form of cross-cultural and cross-linguistic communication, translation is a kind of communication and interaction between two cultures with very different social backgrounds and cultural traditions. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, the application and selection of translation strategies should not only reflect the translator's style, but also directly affect the audience of the translated work among the target language readers. In 1995, Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization , in The Invisibility of Translators. domestication and foreignization are both opposed and unified, i.e. there is no such thing as absolute domestication or absolute foreignization. This paper will discuss the selection and application of domestication and foreignization in cross-cultural translation, based on the two translation strategies themselves and actual translation cases, so that translators can use these two translation strategies more flexibly in translation to better convey the meaning of the original texts and make the translations reach more readers, and thus promote the communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication and foreignization; cross-cutural; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在经济全球化的今天，国际间文化交流也在不断扩大，而翻译作为一种交流工具也显得至关重要。作为一种跨文化、跨语言交际的形式，翻译是一种社会背景与文化传统很不相同的两种文化间的交流与交往。因此，在跨文化翻译中，翻译策略的运用与选择不仅仅要体现出译者的风格，也会直接影响译作在目的语读者中的受众程度。美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出了归化与异化两种翻译策略。归化与异化，既对立又统一，也即绝对的归化或者绝对的异化都是不存在的。本文将从归化与异化这两种翻译策略的本身出发，并结合实际翻译案例，来探讨归化与异化在跨文化翻译当中的选择与运用，使得译者能够在翻译中更灵活地使用这两种翻译策略，更好地传达出原作的意蕴，使译作受众于更多的读者，以此促进不同文化之间的交流。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化与异化；跨文化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> === Definitions of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Domestication is to localize the original language and focuses on the target language or readers by conveying the original text in the way target readers are familiar with. In order to close the readers of target texts.Domesticated translation requires the translator to speak like a native author, and the translation must become authentic to the native language if the original author is to speak directly to the readers. It helps the reader to better understand the translation and enhances the readability and enjoyment of the translation.<br /> Foreignization is that the translator tries not to disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader can get closer to the author&quot;. In translation, it means to accommodate the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorb foreign expressions, require the translator to approach the author, and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the original content. The purpose of the foreignization strategy is to consider about the differences in national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationalities and linguistic styles, and to preserve the exoticism of the translated text for the readers.<br /> <br /> ===The relationship between literal translation and free translation ,and domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Historically, foreignization and domestication can be seen as extensions of, but not identical to, literal and free translation. The terms &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot; are English translation version. Literal translation is a kind of method or text that keeps the original content and the form of the original text. Free translation means that it keeps only the content of the original text, not the form of the original text. Literal translation appeared during the May 4th Movement, emphasizing the need for faithfulness to the original text so that the translation can be &quot;expressive&quot; and &quot;elegant&quot;. Literal translation does not mean translating word for word in mechanical way. Since English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate them word for word. Literal translation is to fully and accurately clarify the meaning of the original work, without any distortion or random addition or deletion of the original ideas to maintain the original style. Sometimes even the original mood or emotion, such as anger or embarrassment, sarcasm or irony, joy or happiness, should not be ignored. Fu Si Nian and Zheng Zhenduo both advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, literal translation is the overriding rule. The work of Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren, The Collected Works of Extra-territorial Novels, is regarded as the representative of literal translation. The free translation, on the other hand, starts from the meaning and requires only the main idea of the original text to be expressed without excessive attention to detail, but a natural flow of the translation. In translation, if we cannot directly adopt the structure and expression of the original, we must change the sentence structure and expression to convey the meaning of the original according to the form and characteristics of the expression. Since there are many differences between the original language and the translated language in word order, grammar, changing forms and rhetoric, we can only use appropriate ways to convey the meaning of the original and reproduce the effect of the original. Mr. Jing-Shen Zhao once said, &quot;A smooth and fluent version is better than one that focuses only on fidelity to the original&quot;. Obviously, Mr. Zhao was in favor of foreignization, and so did Mr Yan Fu. Foreignization has been used in many works of Yan Fu, for example, the Evolution and Ethics is a typical example . In literal translation, faithful to the original form should be placed first, followed by faithful to the original content, again the fluency and popularity of translated language; while in free translation, faithful to the original content should be placed first, translation language fluency and popularity of the second, but free translation is not limited to the form of the original. Some scholars often discuss literal translation, free translation and domestication and foreignization together, which is understandable, but it is necessary to make a distinction. Based on the level of language and culture,domestication and foreignization focus more on the use of language from the perspective of cultural differences and are a kind of translation strategy, while literal and free translation is a translation technique, which is only at the level of language. There may be only one main translation strategy for a text or a work, but each strategy may use both literal and free translation methods, and each method serves the general direction of the translation strategy. The choice of the main translation strategy depends on the purpose of the translation, if it is to maximize the understanding of foreign cultures or cross-cultural comparative study, then the main focus is on foreignization; if it is to understand the information or story development through reading, then the domestication may be the best choice. Taking the translation of the famous work Dream of the Red Chamber as an example, there are two versions by two masters, Yang Xianyi and Hawkes, the former adopts foreignization to deal with the cultural factors in the language, that is, to keep the source culture as much as possible in the translation, while Hawkes adopts domestication in order to avoid the conflict between two different cultures, Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===National and international research on the development of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> <br /> ===3.1.The history of the development of domestication and foreignization abroad.===<br /> The German translator Schleiermacher, in his work, On the Different Methods of Translation, elaborated the need for translations to bring the reader as close as possible to the original author, and for the first time introduced the concepts of domestication and foreignization.<br /> At the same time, in the British academic circles of the time, domestication was the main translation strategy, but Francis Newman in England, when discussing the transl ation work on Homer, advocated that translators should consciously translate in the ancient language to emphasize the heterogeneity of the work.<br /> In the 1960s A.D., Nida proposed the theory of domestication for the first time in many structuralist theoretical works, and since then the climax of the debate on domestication and foreignization rose on the stage in western translation field . In Nida's view, domesticated translation does not need to stick to the form of the original text, but only needs to express the content with the closest and most natural equivalent in the translated text to achieve equivalence.<br /> The French theorist Antoinette Bellman deplored the tendency of eliminating foreignization in translation through the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot;. He said: &quot;The proper theoretical goal of the translation action is to accept heterogeneity as it is.&quot; This view seems to have an impact on Venuti's strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot; .<br /> In his book The Invisibility of the Translator, Italian scholar Venuti discusses the &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator by combining the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization for the first time. He strongly advocates foreignization and questions domestication, arguing that domestication is essentially a means of cultural colonization by Western colonizers. At the same time, he also suggests that the purpose of translation is not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express linguistic and cultural differences.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Domestic development history on domestication and foreignization===<br /> The earliest translations of Buddhist scriptures have included the debate between assimilation and dissimilation. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the translator Zhiqian pioneered the translation style of using free translation instead of transliteration, which had far-reaching significance and influence in history.<br /> At the end of the 19th century, several other great translators emerged in Chinese history, and Yan Fu was one of them. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, foreign powers invaded extensively and the Chinese nation faced an existential crisis, under such a background, Yan Fu believed that translation must be carefully chosen based on the social and historical reality of the country into which it is translated. In the translation, the translator should take the literary tradition of the nation and the specific historical and cultural purpose as the main purpose, combining the cultural and linguistic background of the readers. The translator should not focus on how to be &quot;faithful to the original&quot;, but how to adapt to the social and cultural choices of the time.<br /> With the rise of the May 4th New Culture Movement, many translators tried to learn from foreign literature in order to transform literature and society.Lu Xun's most famous dictum relating to translation was &quot;I'd rather be faithful than smooth&quot;, and advocated &quot;preserving the foreign flavor as much as possible&quot; and &quot;the need for exoticism&quot;. <br /> After the founding of New China, China's translation industry entered the third high point, and a large number of Western and Soviet works were introduced, which was connected with the spiritual needs of people at that time. After the reform and opening up, with the influx of Western translation ideas, &quot;foreignization&quot; has emerged. Many scholars have put forward the idea that &quot;Foreignization is primary while domestication is supplementary&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===4.domestication and foreignization of cultural exchange translation===<br /> <br /> ===4.1the relationship between culture and language===<br /> In a broad sense, culture refers to the material and spiritual wealth created and accumulated by human beings in the course of social development; in a narrower sense, it refers to the ideology of society and the system of organizational constructs that corresponds to it. Culture has the following four basic characteristics 1) culture is owned and shared by all members of a society; 2) culture is acquired rather than inherited; 3) culture is biologically based; and 4) culture is based on a symbolic system. The relationship between language and culture is between the part and the whole; language is a subsystem of culture, and language cannot exist apart from culture; it embodies all the beliefs and emotions of a cultural group. Language and culture interact and influence each other and are inseparable. Based on the close relationship between language and culture, more consideration should be given to cultural factors in translation research, which means that translation research should be carried out in a more macro context. Translators should be aware of enough cultural differences when dealing with the cultural differences between the original language and the target language. Due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese, many English and Chinese phrases, although literally having the same or similar meanings, are inherently different. Therefore, a word-for-word translation without considering cultural factors can lead to ambiguity.<br /> <br /> ===4.2 Translatability and untranslatability of cultures===<br /> On the one hand, the similarity of human experience worldwide contributes to the translatability of cultures. In this regard, Nida has said that &quot;all human beings eat, work, sleep and procreate, and they produce objects such as furniture, tools and vehicles. They also organize themselves into families, clans, internal and external groups, nations and inter-national organizations. They have a conscious similarity in their views of the universe, values, religion and supernatural forces. In fact, the different groups of people in the world have much more in common with each other than they do with each other.&quot; It is the similarity of the cultures of different peoples that allows people of different cultures to understand each other and makes translation possible. Nida thus states, &quot;Linguists and anthropologists have discovered that what binds human beings together far outweighs what alienates them, and this is the basis for generating communication.&quot; Many expressions that are unique to one culture can be found almost identically in a culture and become the best evidence of cultural translatability.<br /> On the other hand, each people has a culture that is distinct from the others, which hinders mutual understanding with the others and may even cause cultural shock. Due to different cultural inheritances, the languages of different nationalities have their own symbol systems and lexical, syntactical and grammatical characteristics, which often make them untranslatable. For example, the Chinese phrase &quot;客上天然居，居然天客&quot; is one of the examples of untranslatable culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.3 Factors influencing cultural translation strategies===<br /> <br /> ===4.3.1.Motives and objectives of translation===<br /> <br /> Different motivations and purposes for translation lead to different translation principles and methods<br /> <br /> ===4.3.2.Text type===<br /> <br /> Different texts influence the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord, translation can be divided into instrumental translation, which refers to the means of transferring information from the source language to the target language, and documentary translation, which refers to the means of transferring information about communication activities from the source language to the target language. This type of translation emphasizes the transmission and conveyance of information and mainly includes non-literary writing, including advertising, media writing, scientific writing, propaganda and announcements, etc. With this method of translation, which is guided by the culture of the target language, the information that needs to be conveyed can be better expressed and accessed. The other type of text is documentary translation. This type of translation refers to the presentation of real communicative activities and information to the target language readers. The term &quot;documentary translation&quot; is appropriate for translating (language-)-specific expressions, where translation of language and content are equally important. eter Newmark distinguishes between communicative and semantic translation of such texts, emphasizing the &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot; of the message. &quot; in order to achieve the same effect on the readers of the original language as on those of the target language. Although this type of translation is a subjective process, the translator will attach great importance to the effect of the translation on the reader's mind. By reorganizing and rearranging the order of sentences, the translator will eliminate obscurities and ambiguities in order to achieve &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot;. Most non-literary writing, informative articles and books, as well as textbooks, bulletins, standardized writing, and novels are suitable for this type of communicative translation; because it emphasizes the need to have the same effect on both the original and target language readers, it often uses expressions that are customary and easily understood in the language in which they are written. Thus, communicative translation is equivalent to naturalized translation, where the translator's preference for idiomatic expressions is produced or determined by the translator's preference for the target language. Semantic translation attempts to get as close as possible to the exact meaning of the original text in terms of wording. Semantic translation focuses on the expression of the exact meaning of the content in order to preserve as accurate a style of the original text as possible. This type of translation is an objective process during which the translator focuses only on whether the translation is precise and retains the flavor of the original text. In this type of translation, the translator tries to preserve the semantic and syntactic structure of the original text, as well as the tone of the original text, etc. semantic translation applies to autobiographies, private correspondence, personal emotional texts and quotations. A semantic translation is equivalent to an alien translation in an attempt to achieve the preservation of the flavour of the original, due to the translator's original language preference.<br /> <br /> ===4.3.3Acceptance by readers===<br /> In the past, traditional translation theories placed one-sided emphasis on extra-author-centred and text-centred research, neglecting the involvement of translators and target language readers. Modern reception aesthetics considers the reader not as an unimportant and unnecessary perspective, but as a historical, active and creative factor in the relationship between author, text and reader. This is why different people have different interpretations of the same text of Hamlet. Naida was influenced by the acceptance of the aesthetic sub. His theory and practice of translation are very much focused on the readers' reflection. He pointed out that &quot;Judging the validity of a translation does not stop at the comparison of word meanings, grammar and rhetoric; what is important is the extent to which the recipient is able to understand and appreciate the translation correctly.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===4.4the cultural school of translation===<br /> In 1990, the representatives of the cultural school of translation, Bassnett and Lefevere, in their co-edited book Translation, History and Culture, formally proposed the slogan of &quot;Cultural Turn of Translation&quot;, which also marked the official emergence of the cultural school of translation. In the following years, they published several monographs, individually or together, discussing about the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. In the following years, they published several monographs, either individually or jointly, to discuss the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. Unlike the literary or linguistic schools of translation in the past, the cultural school is a school with a strong &quot;revolutionary&quot; element in translation theory, and some people even consider their views to be &quot;subversive&quot; to the previous translation theories. This is mainly because they especially emphasize the status of culture in translation and the importance of translation to the spread of culture and the promotion of social and cultural progress. Other translators, such as Lambert and Robyns, argue that translation is more accurately regarded as a communication activity between two cultures than as a bilingual conversion activity. Therefore, they believe that translation activity is a cultural conversion. In recent years, Chinese scholars have done some research and reflection on the essence of translation. In the researches of many scholars, under the current globalization environment ,the importance of translation to cultural exchange and communication is getting more and more attention from people. For example, Lv Jun proposes that &quot;translation is a kind of cross-cultural information exchange activities, and its essence is dissemination. To a certain extent, the viewpoint of Chinese scholars and the Western cultural schools can be said to echo each other. Language is not only a carrier of information, but also a carrier of culture. Therefore, in essence, translation as a kind of inter-linguistic communication, it is not only the conversion of language information , but also the transplantation of cultural information. Therefore, in essence, translation is not only a language information conversion, but also a cultural communication activity.<br /> <br /> ===5. discussion domestication and foreignization from translation examples===<br /> <br /> ===5.1 Application of domestication in English-Chinese Translation===<br /> Chinese famous writer Mo Yan has won the Nobel Prize for Literature for a series of works including Fatigue of Life and Death (2006) and Frog (2009) and American sinologist Ge Haowen should also be credited , who was called “the only midwife of Mo Yan’s works”.Ge's translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out reflects his consistent principle: &quot;The author is writing for the Chinese, while I am translating for foreigners,translating is a process of rewriting”. Ge Haowen did a lot of rewriting and compilation based on respecting the original work, and in the translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out, the domesticated translation reflects his relentless pursuit of &quot;accuracy&quot;, &quot;readability&quot; and &quot;acceptability&quot;. <br /> <br /> 例一： 常言道‘螃蟹过河随大流’，‘识时务者为俊杰’，不要顽固不化，不要充当挡路的石头，不要充硬汉子。<br /> <br /> Join the commune and stop working for yourself, end your quest for independence.Stop being headstrong,and an obstructionist.<br /> <br /> “螃蟹过河随大流” is a two-part allegorical saying in Chinese folks . It means &quot;following the majority of people to speak or act&quot;. A post-slip is a short, witty phrase that can be used as a philosophical and wisdom-boosting phrase. A man who knows the times is a hero&quot; is an idiom derived from a historical allusion, meaning &quot;only those who can recognize the trend of the times can become heroes and heroines&quot;. Ge Haowen domesticated these two slang expressions: first, because they have the same meaning as the one that follows: &quot;Don't be stubborn ...... don't be a tough guy anymore&quot;, which is used to kindly advise people who are unable to see the current affairs of the day, but are still stubbornly stubborn. The deletion of these two daily phrases does not affect the main content of the narrative and the expression of ideas in the context. Secondly, there is the concern that the translation may not produce the desired effect of depth, image, and humor as the source language. And then there is the fact that the target language readers are relatively unfamiliar with Chinese slang, so it is better to delete it directly than to translate it to increase the readers' reading burden and affect their understanding and grasp of the whole text. Ge Haowen's domesticated translation method reflects his holistic view of discourse as a unit<br /> <br /> 例二：但一个二十多岁就当了县级领导干部的人，和农村姑娘结婚的可能性几乎是零，无论她貌如西施还是色比婵娟。<br /> <br /> There was no chance that a leading country-level cadre in his twenties would ever actually marry a peasant girl , no matter how pretty or fetching she might be.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaojun ,Xishi, Diao Chan and Yang Yuhuan were the main characters with unique beauty at that time in historical illusions ,named as “Four Beauties in ancient times”.In the original work, Mo Yan chose only two historical figures, &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, to contrast and emphasize the beauty of rural girls. In the process of translation, Ge did not translate &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, nor did he make any commentary, but took into account the target audience's alienation from the historical allusion to the Four Beauties. Therefore, he adopt a domesticated translation method to make a simplification, breaking the constraints of the original language and enhancing the readability of the translation, without deviating from the original meaning.<br /> In the above example, when dealing with unfamiliar allusions or common sayings and proverbs, Ge Haowen boldly rewrote and deleted them, translating the work from the reader's point of view, so that the target readers will be pleased with his translation.<br /> 5.2 The Application of Foreignization in English-Chinese Translation<br /> The nature of foreignization is such that it deals with elements of the original language that are culturally distinctive, and the result of the translation is to bring in new forms of expression that are different from the mother tongue and the cultural connotations attached to them. Language is an open system with a strong capacity for absorption and inclusion. With the deepening of communication among countries and peoples, various languages have been enriched to different degrees, and variant translation plays a more important role in this process. In Chinese, the terms &quot;internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot; are used to refer to the &quot;Internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot;. &quot;Time is money&quot;, &quot;ivory tower&quot;, &quot;washroom&quot;.... (crocodile tears), &quot;black humor&quot; , and &quot;qi gong&quot; ), &quot;taijiquan&quot; , &quot;kong fu&quot; , &quot;typhon” These words did not originally exist in the Chinese and English language systems. However, translators make a large number of words with exoticism in the way of foreignization more popular and acceptable among the massive culture . Therefore, foreignization is not only beneficial to introduce local history and culture to foreign countries, but also gives local readers the opportunity to understand foreign customs and realize the purpose of cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> 例一.打破铁饭碗<br /> <br /> Break the”iron rice bowl”<br /> <br /> &quot;Iron rice bowl&quot; is a Chinese idiom, in Chinese we compare &quot;rice bowl&quot; to an occupation, while &quot;iron rice bowl&quot; refers to a stable job, no doubt, it is difficult to convert such words with obvious Chinese characteristics into the target language through the method of &quot;domestication&quot;, but foreignization not only retains the imagery of the source language, but also introduces the unique culture of China to Western readers.<br /> 例二.下海<br /> <br /> A.to jump into the sea of business<br /> <br /> B.To turn professional<br /> <br /> In the early days of reform and opening up, the word “jumping into the sea of business” was popular, mainly meaning the trend of doing business.For this new phenomenon ,translators adopt different methods. Text A used foreignization and direct translation while the later domestication. In comparison, the former was more expressive and vivid, conveying the meaning of source language in a proper way.<br /> Domestication and foreignization is more apparent in the literary translation. Here I will take the translation of Dream of the Red Chamber as an example and compare the translations of Mr. and Mrs. Yang Xianyi ,and Mr. Hawkes. The translation of Dream of the Red Chamber by Yang Xianyi and his wife is a typical representative of foreignization, which is highly praised by domestic readers, but some scholars have conducted a survey and found that it is far inferior to the British sinologist David Hawks in terms of the number of borrowed readers, citations and reprinted editions. Why the &quot;cold shoulder&quot;? Let's find out by comparing and analyzing some examples of the two translations.<br /> <br /> 例一.刘姥姥道: “这倒不然。谋事在人，成事在天。咱们谋到了，靠菩萨的保佑，有些机会，也未可知。”<br /> <br /> A.“ Don’t be so sure,” said Granny Liu. “Man proposes, Heaven disposes. Work out a plan,trust to Buddha,and something may come of it for all you know.”<br /> <br /> B.“ I wouldn’t say that.”said Grannie Liu.”Man proposes, God disposes.It is up to us to think of something. We must leave it to the good Lord to decide whether He’ll help us or not. Who knows, he might give us the opportunity we are looking for.”<br /> <br /> Dream of the Red Chamber is a literary work full of Buddhist and Taoist thoughts. Yang Xianyi and Hawks have different approaches to the phrase“谋事在人，成事在天”， which also reflects different religious thoughts. In Yang's translation, &quot;God&quot; is replaced by &quot;Heavenly Father,&quot; which is in line with the Chinese religious belief that Heavenly Father in control of everything, while retaining the religious flavor of the source culture. However, Hawks gave priority to the religious background and acceptance of the English readers, so he adopted the English proverb directly without any modification, thus transforming the Buddhism and Taoism in the East to Christianity in the West, in accordance with western religious belief and thinking ways.<br /> The two translations have their own merits. The choice of translation strategies is based on different objectives. Mainly depending on the foreignization stategy, Mr. and Mrs. Yang tried to spread Chinese literature classics and convey Chinese traditional culture originally.However, they didn't get the desired results.One of the main reasons is that Mr. and Mrs. Yang regard faithfulness as the first priority and overemphasize the foreign culture of the translated works, neglecting to consider the reception environment and the recognition of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===6.Conclusion===<br /> With the continuous expansion of international cultural exchanges, the human cultural gap is gradually narrowing, language as an important carrier of culture has also been affected by the same, an appropriate increase in the use of &quot;foreign&quot; translation,can not only inject the new elements into domestic culture, but also promote the spread of local culture, achieve cross-cultural exchange and accelerate the process of &quot;cultural globalization&quot;. It should be pointed out foreignization is not at the expense of forgetting one's own culture, on the contrary, it is based on the familiarity with other cultures, and then carry out painstaking, creative translation work. To give more attention to &quot;alienation&quot; translation is not to deny, reject the domesticated translation method, because domestication and foreignization play an irreplaceable rol in the target language and culture.Therefore, the two translations will always co-exist and complement each other. Flexible use of foreignization and domestication is the real way of addressing the cultural conflicts.<br /> <br /> ===7.Reference===<br /> 1. 王瑛. &quot;跨文化翻译中的归化和异化.&quot; 内蒙古财经学院学报(综合版) 03(2007):83-87.<br /> <br /> 2. 周永堃. &quot;归化异化在跨文化翻译中的选择与运用——以《红楼梦》和《生死疲劳》为例.&quot; 邵阳学院学报(社会科学版) 18.01(2019):103-108.<br /> <br /> 3.王红卫. &quot;跨文化交际翻译方法:归化和异化策略.&quot; 西南民族学院学报(哲学社会科学版) 9(2002):250-253.<br /> <br /> 4.熊兵. &quot;文化交流翻译的归化与异化.&quot; 中国科技翻译 16.003(2003):5-9.<br /> <br /> 5.刘苹. &quot;中国翻译史上的归化和异化.&quot; 滨州学院学报 24.001(2008):74-75.<br />  <br /> <br /> ==The Translation Strategies of Chinese Political Discourse under the Standard of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; 高明珠 Gao Mingzhu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With the development of globalization, the political communication among countries is more and more frequent, and the translation of political terms has gradually become one of the heated topics in the translation field. Political discourse translation is challenging, because not only does it concern the relationship between countries, national status, political attitude and other important issues, but also it is developmental. Political neologisms will keep emerging, and some political terms will contain new connotations with the advancement of the times. In addition to the above characteristics, Chinese political discourse has many affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases, metaphors.In 2008, Yang Mingxing and other scholars put forward the &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; based on Eugene Nida's &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; theory for the translation of Chinese political discourse, which pointed out that the translation of political discourse should follow the three principles of &quot;political&quot;, &quot;dynamic&quot; and &quot;balanced&quot;. On the basis of some related papers, this chapter will sum up the specific strategies such as supplement, omission, keeping or converting analogical body, adding explanation and narration for translating Chinese political discourse with characteristics of having lots of affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases and metaphors following the guidance of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> political equivalence Chinese political discourse translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着全球化的发展，各国间的政治交流愈加频繁，政治话语的翻译也逐渐成为翻译界讨论热点之一。政治话语的翻译是具有挑战性的，不仅是因为它关系到国与国之间的关系、国家地位、政治态度等重要问题，而且因为政治词汇是发展性的，政治词汇中会不断有新的词汇涌进，且某些政治词汇会随着时代的发展而增加新的内涵。而中国政治话语除了具有以上特点，它还有多词缀、缩写、四字短语[1]，多用隐喻等修辞手法的特点。2008年，杨明星等学者针对中国政治话语的翻译，基于尤金·奈达的“功能对等”理论提出了“政治等效”翻译标准，该标准指出政治话语的翻译要遵循“政治性”、“动态性”、“平衡性”三大原则。本文基于相关文献，总结出在该标准下，对中国政治话语在具有多词缀、缩写、四字短语及多采用隐喻这几个特点下的翻译可采用的具体的翻译策略，如增补法、省略法[1]、喻体保留法（完全保留、部分保留）、喻体转换法、喻底补充法、喻义直叙法[2]等。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 政治等效 中国政治话语 翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction of Background===<br /> <br /> Political discourse is a communication carrier or one kind of discourse behaviors that elaborate a country's foreign policies, governance mechanisms or political ideas, including oral expression and written expression. Oral expressions includes leaders' speeches, the contents conveyed by various government agencies' press conferences, and written expressions includes diplomatic documents, white papers, legal provisions, treaties, agreements and communiques issued by relevant state agencies. With the improvement of China's comprehensive national strength and the continuous expansion of its global influence, the study of the translation standards, principles, strategies of Chinese political discourse has become an important topic in the field of translation. A study in 2019 has shown that domestic political discourse translation studies started in 2000 and entered a stage of rapid development with the convening of the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012. The current research hot spots of political discourse translation include the translation of Xi Jinping's speeches and works, the application of various translation laws and interpretive theories, the principle of political equivalence and the theory of ecological translation(Chu Xingjun 2020,36).<br /> <br /> ===2. The Significance of Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> This chapter holds that the significance of political discourse translation mainly involves two aspects----politics and linguistics. Firstly, in terms of politics, translating political discourse is to facilitate the political communication between countries, show the country's political attitude, theory and policy to the outside world. Political discourse translation plays a significant role in promoting the relationship between the countries, taking one’s stand, safeguarding one’s national interests and shaping one’s national image and so on. Secondly, in terms of linguistics, political terms are developmental. With the advance of the times and the rapid development of the world, new political terms will constantly emerge, which is also the process of language expansion. The study of the translation of new words is not only the bounden duty of translators, but also of great significance to the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Difficulties in Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> The difficulties are mainly reflected in three aspects. Firstly, the translator should correctly understand the political connotation of the source language and translate it as the target language faithfully. Secondly, different expression ways between two languages. There are rare equivalent words in both languages, so when translating the source language as the target language, the expression habits of the target language users should be taken as account, so as to facilitate the target language users to accurately understand the original meaning. Especially, Chinese political discourse often present metaphor rhetoric which may not be easy for foreigners to understand, thus when translating such words, methods that we can adopt not only include literal translation, transliteration plus explanation, but also sometimes it would be better to translate those words on the basis of the target language’s culture to make the translation more vivid and help readers understand the meaning accurately. In a word, be more flexible in adopting methods according to different cases; Finally, the same political term may have different meanings in different contexts, or it may require translators to adopt different translation methods in different contexts. In addition, the connotation of some political terms will develop with the advance of The times. Therefore, translators should keep up with current events and deal with them flexibly in translation.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Connotations of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal and connotation of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard<br /> <br /> In 2008, US Department of Defense mistranslated the term &quot;韬光养晦&quot; to propaganda &quot;China threat theory&quot;. Therefore, based on Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, a scholar, Yang Mingxing, proposed the translation concept of &quot;political equivalence&quot; for the first time from the perspective of international relations and diplomatic analysis (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). The connotation of this concept mainly involves three aspects: firstly, the translator needs to truthfully convey the political thought of the source language as well as the speaker; secondly, when translating, the translator should choose the target language according to the expression ways that the target language users get used to, so that the information and political thoughts brought by the target text to the target language users are equivalent to those brought by the source text to the source language users; Thirdly, in different contexts and historical backgrounds, the connotations of political discourse will be different. Translators' translation should keep pace with the times and be determined in accordance with the situation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). In 2012, Yang Mingxing and other scholars further proposed three prominent principles or characteristics of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; translation standard: political, balanced and dynamic (Yang Mingxing, Yan Da 2012, 35). Among them, political nature, namely accurately grasping the political connotation of the source language, is the most prominent characteristic, which is determined by the strong political color of the political terms themselves. Balance means to strike a balance among source language, target language, speaker and audience without focusing on either side, and strive to make the effect produced by the translation in the foreign readers be similar or equivalent to that produced by the original text in local readers. Dynamic means that the equivalent process mentioned above is a dynamic equivalent process. Because political terms’ connotation changes with the advance of the times and varies from different contexts, translators need to keep pace with the times, follow up the connotation development of political terms, and translate flexibly according to different situations. In 2018, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed a compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + aesthetic representation&quot; on the basis of the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; (Yang Mingxing, Qi Jingjing 2018,15). This standard was put forward in the context of the appearance of ancient poetry in political discourse. Besides meeting the requirements of &quot;political equivalence&quot; mentioned above, this standard asks to take the literary beauty of ancient poetry and prose, such as rhythm, form, artistic conception, etc as account. In January 2020, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed another compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + image representation&quot; based on the frequently used the rhetoric device metaphor in political discourse(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2018,41). The purpose of realizing &quot;image reproduction&quot; and &quot;aesthetic reproduction&quot; is basically similar, both of which are to reproduce the aesthetic experience of the original text. In October 2020, Yang Mingxing and some other scholars made a review of several major diplomatic event in the Sino-British diplomatic history and put forward that the realization of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard should not only rely on the translator's ability, but also have some connections with the national policy of translation, translation system and equal speaking rights between two countries, among which equal speaking right is the key to realize &quot;political equivalence&quot;(Yang Mingxing 2020,05).<br /> <br /> (2)The differences between “political equivalence” and “functional equivalence” put forward by Nida<br /> <br /> Firstly, the &quot;equivalence&quot; emphasized by Nida does not pay enough attention to the political connnotations of the original text in translation, ignoring the particularity of diplomatic or political discourse, and that whether the original text and translation are quite consistent in political standpoint and political connotation. Secondly, although functional equivalence pays attention to the information equivalence between the original text and the translated text, it does not pay enough attention to the real intention of the speaker or writer of the original text, because the literal meaning of the original text cannot be equal with the political standpoint and ideological connotation of the speaker or writer. Thirdly, the &quot;dynamic&quot; concept Nida proposed in “functional equivalence” theory ignores the dynamic changes in context and connotation of original text and translation. However, for diplomatic or political discourse, the connotations of the political terms do not remain unchanged. It changes constantly with the speaker's context, political tendency and historical background at that time. On the other hand, the target language is also dynamic, because the meaning and usage of the target language are constantly changing, the translator must keep track of the latest development of the target language and the domestic political and cultural background of the target audience (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> In a word, the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; is an important theory aiming at the translation of foreign affairs, diplomacy and political discourse, and provides theoretical guidance and normative requirements for the translation of political terms.<br /> <br /> ===5. Requirements of “Political Equivalence” for Translators ===<br /> <br /> First of all, pay attention to both the source language and the target language equally, and grasp the relationship between the speaker or writer and the audience or reader. The translation should not only accurately convey the meaning of the original text and the speaker or writer's real intention, but also take the language habits and the way of thinking of the target language users into consideration, so as to arise a common sense between the speaker or writer and the audience or reader. The translation of political discourse should not only aim at correctly understanding and expressing China's policy thoughts, but also fully consider the national emotions, language habits and identity psychology of the receiving country. If the translation only focuses on one side, it will be difficult to achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; and even cause political events (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;political equivalence&quot; must be dynamic. This kind of dynamic is not only related to the accurate understanding of the original text, but also involves the proper selection and use of the target language. It must always be in line with the context and political background of the speaker or writer as well as the audience or reader, which is the key to the realization of &quot;political equivalence&quot;. To translate political discourse or terms only by looking up the dictionary without considering the context is bound to make the translation be quite different from the original in meaning (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Thirdly, translation strategies should be flexible and diversified, and language form should not be confined to the original one. To achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; in political terms translation, the translation strategies cannot be single, rigid, and the translation either cannot be confined to the primitive form of the original text, the original or even the extended concepts or connotations of the words in it. Translators should make the necessary adjustment and bold choices in supplement and omission to the language form of the original text in accordance with the context and the real thoughts of the speaker or writer and the background of the political relationships between the two countries(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Fourthly, we should be familiar with the differences between English and Chinese customs, cultures, national emotions and ideologies. In the era of globalization, translation is not only the transformation of language symbols, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication behavior. The translation of political discourse is closely related to the cultural background of language. Due to the differences between China and West in way of thinking and language environment, corresponding words in English and Chinese have different national emotion and political connotation.For example, sometimes we may meet idioms, metaphors, allusions, myths and fables in the political discourse which are the quintessence of a nation's language with its own characteristics. They formed and developed on the basis of different culture and living environmnet, so it is necessary to strictly distinguish their differences in cultural connotation and political orientation which are the difficulties and key points in political discourse translation(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Fifthly, the grammatical phenomena and rules peculiar to English cannot be ignored, either. In English, there are many grammatical rules different from Chinese, such as tense, voice, subjunctive mood, singular and plural, case, article, etc. These language forms seem to have little effect, but if used improperly, they will often affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> lastly, learn the related knowledge of China's foreign policy and international relations to ensure political correctness in the translation of political discourse. Many countries have such sensitive issues as appellation, ethnicity, religion, sovereignty and territory. These are the &quot;minefields&quot; of political translation. When translating, one must handle it carefully and respect the language and cultural habits of the other party, otherwise it will easily lead to &quot;translation storm&quot; and affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> ===6. Translation Straties under The Standard of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of the standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot;, the following translation strategies are provided for reference on the characteristics of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> (1) Characteristics of Chinese political discourse<br /> <br /> Affixes are often seen in Chinese political discourse such as “化” in &quot;现代化&quot; and &quot;城镇化&quot;, so are abbreviations like &quot;‘十四五’规划&quot;, &quot;四个自信&quot;, etc., and four-character phrases such as &quot;和平共处&quot;, &quot;和而不同&quot;, etc. Besides, metaphor is also used frequently in Chinese political discourse such as &quot;‘老虎’、‘苍蝇’一起打&quot;, among which &quot;老虎(tiger)&quot; and &quot;苍蝇(flies)&quot; refer to officials accused of bribery and corruption. So, how do we translate these words that have Chinese language characteristics but need us to take their political implications as consideration? Pointing at these characteristics, some scholars have proposed specific translation strategies based on the &quot;political equivalence&quot;standard.<br /> <br /> (2) The strategies of supplement and omission for affixes, four-character phrases and abbreviations(Wu Jing 2014, 30)<br /> <br /> ① supplement<br /> <br /> The supplement strategy is to add words appropriately in the translation so as to convey the meaning of the original text accurately. In the foreign translation of Chinese political terms, this strategy is mainly applicable to two situations. Firstly, the abbreviation, which is a refined utterance of many political words for the convenience of memory. When the target language users don’t have relevant knowledge or language background about those abbreviations, supplementary explanation plays its role. Secondly, four-character phrases. Four-character phrases are typical examples of Chinese expressions. In order to conform to the expression habits of the target language, these condensed words should be supplemented and explained so that the audience can understand the meaning of the original text correctly.<br /> <br /> The strategy of supplement can be applied to the following situations: firstly, supplement relevant knowledge background. For example, “‘十四五’规划”is translated by China Daily as “the 14th Five-Year Plan(2021-25) for economic and social development”. In the translation, “十四”is translated as “the 14th” and“五” is translated as “Five-Year”, which adds category words to those numbers and time horizon as well as the nature of the plan to the content; Secondly, supplement detailed content to abbreviations. For example,“四个自信”is translated as “confidence in the path, theory, system and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics.”<br /> <br /> ②Omission<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belong to two kinds of language families, having great differences from vocabulary to the sentence structure, expression ways, etc. There are very little equivalent words in the two languages, so in order to make the translation smoother and be more in line with the expression ways of the target language, translator can use the strategy----omission, namely omitting those expressions without practical significance but hindering translation work, on the basis of being loyal to the original text.<br /> <br /> The strategy of omission is often used in the process of translation from Chinese to English, and the translation of Chinese political terms is no exception. For emphasizing, Chinese political leaders often use parallel sentences or repeated words, so we can omit those repeated words in the translation. For example, “治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字仍然在扩大。”can be translated as “Governance, trust, development and peace deficits continue to grow.” In addition, there are situations where multiple sentences express the same meaning, in which omission is also available. For example, “改善人民生活，增进人民福祉。”can be translated as “improve people’s livelihood”.<br /> <br /> (3) Translation strategies for metaphor<br /> <br /> Metaphor refers to the use of known figurative concepts to explain abstract concepts in diplomatic discourse. The translation standard and strategies of metaphor are determined by their inherent special attributes, which are not only the key factors to select their translation strategies, but also the important yardstick to test whether those strategies are applicable(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41). Metaphor is an objective phenomenon that has existed in political discourse for a long time. Its special attributes are reflected in political discourse, such as high political sensitivity, high cultural load and strong national characteristics. In view of the strong political sensitivity of diplomatic discourse, plain and direct words in political discourse is often empty of words, which is difficult to produce obvious communicative effect in foreign relations. In most cases, metaphorical discourse can be used to imply and disseminate a country's diplomatic ideas, attitudes and positions to achieve better communication effects (Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41).<br /> <br /> Through reading relevant papers, this chapter finds that the translation strategies proposed by scholars for metaphorical rhetoric in political discourse are mainly as follows(Long Xinyuan, Li Qiuxia 2020, 27):<br /> <br /> ① Literal translation of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> Although English and Chinese belong to different language families, and the cultural background and geographical area on which they live are also different, language is created by human beings, and human emotions always have something in common. At the same time, human beings live in the same world, especially in an increasingly integrated world like today, where the communication between human beings and the collision between cultures are inevitable. As a result, we are becoming more tolerant and understanding of different cultures and languages. When translating metaphorical words with cultural characteristics, we can render the metaphorical words in literal translation under the condition that the audience can understand them correctly, which is easier to arouse emotional resonance and cultural identity.<br /> <br /> For example, “新时代的长征路” is translated as &quot;Long March of the new era&quot;. The original text compares China's development path in the new era to the new Long March. In Chinese history, the Long March was a bloody road trodden by the communist party of China to save the country and the people. On the one hand, the literal translation of &quot;The Long March&quot; retains the historical allusions used in the original text, so that the audience can understand its meaning only by a simple association. On the other hand, it is more conducive to show the national spirit of China.<br /> <br /> ② Substitution of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> After all, differences are greater than similarities between different languages, so sometimes adopting literal translation in the text using metaphor does not make the audience clear, but may mislead. However, different metaphorical entities are often used to express the same abstract concept between Chinese and English. At this time, in order to make the audience better understand and accept the original metaphor, translator can replace the original metaphorical entities with those referring to same thing in the target language, which can also improve the external communication effect of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> For example, foreign ministry spokesman Hua Chunying once said:”The US wants to make China a scapegoat(对于美国的花式‘甩锅’，我们不想接也不能接。).”“甩锅”is an internet buzzword in China used to vividly express the meaning of shifting the blame onto someone else. And “scapegoat” originates from an allusion in the Bible which has the same meaning with the Chinese word “甩锅”(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41), so translator made a conversion between the two words. In this way, English readers can better understand the political connotation of the original sentence. However, if adopting literal translation, English readers won’t understand.<br /> <br /> ③literal translation+explanation<br /> <br /> In some other cases, either literally translating those metaphorical entities or using corresponding ones to substitute them cannot eliminate the language barrier caused by cultural differences, then translator can adopt the strategy of “literal translation+explanation”, which is to literally translate the metaphor entity and then add explanation to it. In this way, the translation not only keeps the cultural characteristics of the source language while making English readers be clear with the meaning of them, but also contributes to the spread of Chinese culture to the outside world.<br /> <br /> For an instance, “不能腐的笼子越扎越牢”is translated as “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption has been strengthened”. The Chinese words “笼子”refers to the strict management institutions against corruption set up by Chinese government. Comparing the institution to the cage makes the action of fighting against corruption become more vivid. However, for English readers, it is hard to understand the original political connotation according to a simple word “cage”, so translator needs to add some explanations like “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption.” As a result, the meaning is clear and vivid.<br /> <br /> ④abandoning the figurative body and translate its connotation directly<br /> <br /> Metaphor, as a figure of speech, is highly culture-loaded, while political discourse is a kind of words with high political sensitivity. These characteristics make the translation of Chinese political discourse more difficult, and it is inevitable that translators may meet the situation where they cannot easily balance and take all these characteristics into consideration. At this time, the translator should choose to abandon the figurative body and keep the metaphorical meaning, after all, it is the first important thing to convey the correct political implication.<br /> <br /> For example, “保障‘米袋子’、‘菜篮子’安全”is translated as “ensure the security of grain supply and non-staple food supply”,among which the Chinese words “米袋子(rice bag)”and“菜篮子(vegetable basket)”refer to major grain supply and non-staple food supply respectively. Because rice is the staple food in most ares of China while vegetable is the complementary food, such a metaphor is very vivid and down to earth. However, it's hard for foreigners to understand the meaning of &quot;rice bag&quot; or &quot;vegetable basket&quot; without a similar living environment, so we have to discard the original figurative body and translate its meaning directly.<br /> <br /> ===7. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the summary of the above-mentioned translation strategies pointing at different situations in translating Chinese political discourse, we can see that every strategy follows the three principles under the standard of &quot;political equivalence” ---- political, balance and dynamic. Every translation strategy takes the correct transition of the political implications of the original text as the first rule, namely being political; and then keeps the cultural or linguistic characteristics of the original text as much as possible, namely keeping balance; additionally, adopting appropriate translation strategies according to different contexts or situations, namely being dynamic. The translation of political discourse has its particularity and is of great importance, so it is necessary to be careful when choosing translation strategies. Translators should not only have high linguistic literacy and fair political standpoint, but also keep up with current events, correctly and fully understand the political meaning of the original text, and make specific analysis according to different contexts and occasions to adopt the most appropriate translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===8. References===<br /> <br /> [1]楚行军. 中国政治话语翻译研究二十年(2000—2019)[Studies on the Translation of Chinese Political Discourse over the past 20 years(2000-2019)]——基于中国知网的分析[J]. 焦作师范高等专科学校学报,2020,36(03):24-27+40.<br /> <br /> [2]吴静. 基于“政治等效”的中国政治新词翻译策略解析[An analysis of translation strategies of Chinese new political terms on the basis of &quot;political equivalence&quot;][J]. 兰州文理学院学报(社会科学版),2014,30(01):95-98.<br /> <br /> [3]龙新元,李秋霞. “政治等效+认知趋同”：认知翻译观视阈下的政治文本翻译研究[&quot;Political Equivalence + Cognitive Convergence&quot; : A Study of political Text translation from the perspective of cognitive Translation][J]. 天津外国语大学学报,2020,27(05):104-120+161.<br /> <br /> [4]杨明星. 论外交语言翻译的“政治等效”——以邓小平外交理念“韬光养晦”的译法为例[The application of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; in diplomatic Language Translation -- Taking Deng Xiaoping's diplomatic idea &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2008,(05):90-94.<br /> <br /> [5]杨明星,闫达. “政治等效”理论框架下外交语言的翻译策略——以“不折腾”的译法为例[Translation strategies of diplomatic language under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;-- Taking the translation of &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2012,35(03):73-77.<br /> <br /> [6]杨明星,齐静静. 外交修辞的复合性翻译标准:“政治等效+审美再现”——以国家领导人外交演讲古诗文为例[The composite translation standard of diplomatic rhetoric: &quot;Political equivalence + aesthetic reproduction&quot; -- taking the ancient poems and essays in diplomatic speeches of national leaders as an example][J]. 中国外语,2018,15(06):89-96+109.<br /> <br /> [7]杨明星,赵玉倩. “政治等效+”框架下中国特色外交隐喻翻译策略研究[A research on translation strategies of metaphors in diplomatic discorses with Chinese characteristics under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence plus&quot;][J]. 中国翻译,2020,41(01):151-159+190.<br /> <br /> [8]杨明星,张琰. 中英外交翻译中“政治等效”与话语平等辩证关系分析——从马戛尔尼使华到共建“一带一路”(1792-2019)[Dialectical relationship between &quot;political equivalence&quot; and discourse equality in diplomatic translation between China and Britain -- from macartney's mission period to &quot;One Belt And One Road&quot; period(1792-2019)][J]. 上海翻译,2020,(05):24-29+94.<br /> <br /> ==Classification, Chinese translation methods and Strategies of Russian Proverbs - 张虎 Zhang Hu==<br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of Liaison Interpreting from the Perspectives of Reception Aesthetics and Translator's Subjectivity 李璐伊 Li Luyi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In a time of increasing intercultural communication, the working scenes of liaison interpreters are increasingly complex, and the role of interpreters are still controversial. From the perspective of aesthetics of reception and translator-centered theory, this paper analyzes the role positioning of liaison interpreters in terms of customers' expectations on the role of interpreters and their own understanding of the role of interpreters, and develops corresponding strategies for different types of liaison interpreters.<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> Liaison Interpreting；Positioning of Interpreter；Reception Aesthetics ；Translator-Centered<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在跨文化交际日益频繁的今天，联络口译译员的工作场景日益复杂，而其角色定位还存在争议。本文拟通过接受美学和译者中心论的视角分别从客户对口译译员的角色期待以及口译译员自身角色认识两方面分析了客户对口译员的角色期待和口译员对自身的角色定位，并针对不同联络口译类型制定了相应的应对策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 联络口译；译员角色定位；接受美学；译者中心论<br /> <br /> ===I. Introduction===<br /> In a broad sense, where there is a society, there is intercultural communication, which usually refers to the communication activities carried out by people in different cultural backgrounds. With the acceleration of globalization in recent years, cross-cultural communication has become increasingly frequent and complex. Susan Bassinet once argued that translation is by no means a purely linguistic act, it is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is spoken, and that translation is the communication within or between cultures. This view is also reflected in his book ''Translation, History and Culture'' (Bassnett, Susan; Lefevre, Andre 1996,4). As an important bridge in intercultural communication, interpretation is real-time, which requires interpreters to adjust their interpretation strategies in the new era to meet the increasing demand for interpreting.<br /> Translation studies is a relatively young research field, the current translation studies work an obvious trend to written translation studies, with less attention in the study of interpreting, this is probably due to the earlier tradition of the translation studies -- In the past, people only discussed the translation strategies of literary classics. As for this point, some scholars have proposed before that &quot;in terms of translation theory research itself, only written translation theory research is paid attention to rather than interpretation research, especially the study of specific problems in the process of interpretation by interpreters&quot; (Liu 2014,141- 143). We believes that the reasons for this situation are as follows: first, the corpus of written translation recorded in the form of words are easier to preserve than the interpreted corpus, and the research is also easier to retrieve the corpus of written translation; Second, Culture-related content is more common in translation than in interpretation. In addition, at present, the entry point of interpretation studies on cultural issues in liaison interpreting is often limited to a specific interpreting scene. For example, Zhao Xiaomei makes an analysis of the role of medical liaison interpreters, and believes that interpreters should abandon the tradition of complete neutrality in the process of interpreting (Zhao 2020, 105-108). However, different interpreting scenes have different requirements for interpreters, so the study confined to a specific scene does not accord with the actual situation that interpreters must be in multiple situations to interpret. In addition, many domestic liaison interpreting studies are practice reports of MTI majors, lacking systematic theoretical discussion. Against such a background of translation studies, it is very necessary to study liaison interpretation from the perspective of receptive aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;. The value of this study lies in: first, it provides a new theoretical perspective for liaison interpretation analysis; Second, it provides coping strategies to solve the cultural barriers of interpreting in intercultural communication.<br /> Generally speaking, interpretation is divided into consecutive interpretation and simultaneous interpretation according to its working mode, while it is divided into two-way interpretation and one-way interpretation according to the direction of interpretation. The liaison interpretation we discuss here is a typical two-way interpretation. We generally believe that liaison interpretation is a kind of interpretation which is different from conference interpretation and has a variety of working scenes, and it's working mode is mainly consecutive interpretation. Henri van Hoof, when talking about liaison interpretation earlier, described it as an interpreting practice existing in business negotiations (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2004,12). This is the early propositions which business interpretation is equivalent to liaison interpretation, and in the later long period of time has been recognized and widely used, but this description has obvious limitations. With the development of society and the diversification and complexity of interpretation scenes, the connotation of liaison interpretation has been expanded to include various forms of interpretation within the society or within the community. Later, R. Bruce W. Anderson (1976/2002) generically described liaison interpreting as a &quot;tripartite communication&quot; model, which is characterized by the emphasis that liaison interpreting is an activity in which two monolingual speakers communicate through a bilingual interpreter (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2004,14). Of course, this definition is more in line with the current practical understanding of liaison interpreting, but it is also difficult to distinguish the specific forms of liaison interpreting because of the high generality of its description. According to Anderson's point of view and the definition of conference interpretation, liaison interpreting is a &quot;bilateral interpreting&quot; within the society, rather than an international conference interpreting for representatives of several countries. Therefore, not only business interpretation, but also legal interpreting and guide-interpreting should be included in liaison interpretation.<br /> Based on the &quot;reader-centered theory&quot; of reception aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; of &quot;Eco-translatology&quot;, this paper mainly adopts the method of literature research and takes liaison interpreters as the object to discuss customers' expectations on the role of interpreters and interpreters’ awareness of their own role, so as to seek interpreting strategies in different situations of liaison interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===II. Reception Aesthetics and Translator-Centered Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1、Reception Aesthetics====<br /> Reception aesthetics, also known as reader-centered theory, is a critical approach in literary studies, developed in the 1960s by H.R. Jauss and Wolfgang. Iser. This theory is different from the previous critical method which is centered on author or works. It turns to the critical method which is centered on readers' aesthetic acceptance and aesthetic experience. Phenomenology and modern hermeneutics are the theoretical basis of reader-centered theory, and the term &quot;reception aesthetics&quot; was first introduced in Hans Robert Jauss's essay ''Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory'', which is a manifesto for reception aesthetics to become an independent school (Jin 2002, 264-267). Izer once said, &quot;Reception aesthetics advocates the reader's initiative and creative ability. Reading is not a passive perception but an active creative activity. The transformation of the reader's role can be said to be an epoch-making transformation in the development of literature&quot;(Guo，1997，338-339). There are several important concepts in reception aesthetics. The first is the &quot;the horizon of expectations&quot;， which Jauss coined. Jauss believes that due to the complex reasons of individuals and society, readers who are the subject of receiving literature often have established thinking orientation and concepts in their psychology before and during the process of literature reading (Wang 2020, 198-199). The second concept is the &quot;response-inviting structure&quot;, which was proposed by Iser. Iser considers the meaning of a text to be indeterminable, so the meaning of a text would never have been generated by itself, but there is a &quot;text blank&quot; in the text that only the reader can fill (Jin 2002,274). &quot;Text blank&quot; can induce the reader to think aesthetically. Reception aesthetics in interpreting is reflected in that the success of a interpretation product largely depends on the response of the recipient to the work and whether the recipient has generated aesthetic pleasure, and the evocation of the text and the satisfaction of the recipient have become the criteria for evaluation of interpretation products. From the perspective of reception aesthetics, interpreting serves the recipient completely.<br /> <br /> ====2、Translator-Centered Theory====<br /> <br /> ===III. Positioning of liaison interpreter===<br /> <br /> ===IV. Interpreting Strategies in Different Interpreting Environments===<br /> <br /> ===V. Conclusion===<br /> In this paper，we discussed how interpreters should adapt to the interpreting environment and make correct translation strategies from the perspectives of reception aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;. The first part of this paper is an introduction, which introduced the definition of liaison interpreting, the current situation of interpreting studies in translation studies and the significance and methods of this study. The second part introduced the two perspectives of this research -- reception aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;. The third part analyzed the influence of two perspectives on the role positioning of liaison interpreters and the different types of liaison interpreters. The fourth part puts forward how to adjust translation strategies and how to use translation techniques to achieve the balance between &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;creativity&quot;.<br /> We believes that in the context similar to business interpretation, contact interpreters should adjust the translation strategies of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;creativity&quot; according to the constantly changing interpretation content. In the guide-interpretation, interpreters should pay more attention to the &quot;creativity&quot; of interpretation products on the basis of &quot;faithfulness&quot;, so as to bring tourists more relaxed and pleasant experience. In legal interpretation, due to the rigor and inviolability of the law, interpreters should try their best to interpret &quot;word by word&quot;. Only in certain circumstances can they provide necessary explanations for both sides of communication by adding interpretation content. This paper also puts forward other specific strategies. Interpreters can reduce errors in interpreting by communicating with customers in the preparation stage. In the process of interpreting, the translation strategies can be flexibly adjusted by adopting various translation techniques, such as addition and omission. After the end of interpretation, we can reflect on the mistakes and make an interpreting corpus to avoid repeating the mistakes in the future.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Appreciation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> == Study on Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden'' from the Stylistic Perspective 袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi 202020080664==<br /> &lt;center&gt;袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'' is a classic literary work of Henry David Thoreau, which has become a classic work in the Treasure house of American literature. The Chinese translator Xu Chi first translated it into China, and since then ''Walden'' has been retranslated and republished for many times. In China, the version of ''Walden'' translated by Xu Chi is the most widely spread and influential one, and has been highly regarded as a classic translation. There hve been a lot of studies on ''Walden'' both at home and abroad, such as studies on the ecology of the book, studies on birth background and living conditions of the author Henry David Thoreau, and systematic studies on Chinese translation version of ''Walden'' under different theoretical frameworks. However, there are few studies on Chinese translations of ''Walden'' from stylistic perspective. This paper will focus on the lexical, syntactic and rhetorical features of Xu Chi’s translation and analyze their stylistic effects. It is hoped that this study will be of certain value to the translation studies of ''Walden'' and the literary translation criticism from the stylistic perspective.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'', Chinese Translation of ''Walden'' by Xu Chi , Stylistics<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从文体学角度看《瓦尔登湖》徐迟译本<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》是亨利·大卫·梭罗的经典文学作品，已经成为美国文学宝库中的经典之作。中国译者徐迟首先将其译入国内，此后《瓦尔登湖》多次被重译再版。在中国，徐迟翻译的《瓦尔登湖》汉译本流传最广、影响最大，而且一直被推崇为“译文经典”。对于《瓦尔登湖》的研究，在国内和国外有很多，例如对散文涉及生态的研究，对于作者亨利·戴维·梭罗出生背景和生活状况的研究，以及不同的理论框架下对于《瓦尔登湖》中文翻译版本的系统研究。但是从文体学角度研究《瓦尔登湖》中译本的不多。本文着重探讨徐迟译本在词汇、句法、修辞层面上的特征，分析其文体效果。希望本研究对《瓦尔登湖》的翻译研究及从文体学视角开展文学翻译批评具有一定的参考价值。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》、徐迟中译本、文体学<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau and ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a collection of essays written by American writer Henry David Thoreau. Henry David Thoreau was born in 1817 and died in 1862. He was a famous writer, philosopher, representative of Transcendentalism, abolitionist of slavery and naturalist in the United States. He was deeply influenced by Emerson. He advocated returning to original mind and being close to nature. Thoreau created more than 20 first-class prose collections in his whole life. His essays are concise and powerful, simple and natural, full of thought, which hava unique style in American proses in the 19th century. In 1845, he lived in seclusion by Walden lake, two miles away from Concord. He cultivated and ate by himself and experienced a simple and close to nature life. Thoreau loved, appreciated and immersed in nature. He understood the world through nature and regarded the world as a whole for people to appreciate and enjoy. He advocated simple life, so he abandoned all material enjoyment and pursued spiritual enrichment. With a keen thinking of a philosopher and rigorous spirit of science, Thoreau put himself into the embrace of nature and explored everything around him.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a record of Thoreau's life when he lived alone by Walden lake. ''Walden'' is composed of 18 essays, which record Thoreau's hands-on life by walden lake for two months from 1845 to 1847. This book advocates simple life, appeals readers to return to nature, and expresses Thoreau's love for nature. The simple way of life in the book reflects Thoreau’s view of nature.This book has certain philosophical significance as well as artistic and aesthetic value.<br /> ''Walden'' is a Transcendentalist classic and is recognized as the most popular non-fiction work in American literature. After more than 100 years of circulation, the book has become a classic in American literature. So far, it has been published in more than 150 editions and translated into more than 40 languages. <br /> Thoreau's own practice in Walden lake and his works have a consistent proposition, that is, returning to nature. In his works, he constantly pointed out that most of modern people are trapped by family, work and various material needs, thus lost their spiritual pursuit and lived a materialistic life. Thoreau persisted in the pursuit of spiritual happiness and rejected material comforts. This is why Thoreau lived a simple life by Walden lake, enjoying a life of leisure while his neighbors pursued a life of wealth and material comforts, enslaved by their own desires.<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Xu Chi and His Translation of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi=====<br /> Xu Chi is famous for his poems, essays and reportage. He was once awarded by Mao Zedong's inscription of &quot;poetry expresses ambition&quot;, and he was known as &quot;Contemporary Chinese Goethe&quot; and &quot;Father of Reportage&quot;.<br /> Another little-known identity of this famous Chinese writer is being as a translator. He not only wrote poems, essays, reportages, novels and reviews, but also translated and introduced a large number of foreign literary works, with a total of 10 million words in his life.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden''=====<br /> In 1949, Xu translated Walden into Chinese called &quot;华尔腾&quot;, which failed to elicit widespread attention because at that time, people all over China were immersedin the joy of gaining cmancipation from feudalism and imperialism, so that ''Walden'',promoting tranquility and transcendentalism, was ignored.<br /> In 1982, Xu Chi retranslated it and titled it &quot;瓦尔登湖&quot;, which was so popular that it was republished for many times since then. Xu's version of ''Walden'' chosen in this study is its second edition, published in 1982, to which Xu Chi added a preface to present information about Thoreau and comments on ''Walden''. To some extent, readers are able to have a glimpse of Xu's own emotions and thoughts in his translation of ''Walden''. <br /> Xu Chi usually selected and translated works that were close to his own nature and could move him, because only in this way, he could have more resonance with the writers and their works, and reproduced the style of the original author. For Xu Chi, he expressed his own feelings and thoughts through translating these writers'works to a certain extent (Yao Junwei, 2005:146). Only when his soul was in harmony with Thoreau's, did Xu Chi love this book so much and rised to translating this book. It was in the summer of 1949 that Xu Chi began to translate Thoreau's ''Walden''. Because Xu Chi was extremely fond of this book, he spent lots of efforts in translating this famous work. In the first stage of translation, he tried to understand the meaning of the original work, hoping to be able to deeply understand the original work. He confessed that it was a very profound book which is full of translation challenges. He was very busy during the day, so he sometimes couldn't read it.Because this book was too difficult to understand, it seemed that this book was suddenly not so interseting and attractive to him, and it seemed that it was of no benefit to translate it. However, he found that his mood gradually became peaceful after dusk. When he read this book at this time, he suddenly felt the book quite interesting. What he saw was the chapters that could’t be seen in the daytime. The language was amazing, the words were shining, and his heart was touched. When the ningt became quiet, the book became not so obscure. Under the recitation, he could not help but be fascinated by it (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).<br /> His most successful translation is ''Walden'', which he translated first in 1949, then again in 1982 and in 1996. The masterpiece of David Thoreau, a famous American transcendentalist writer, still shines brightly in the vast Chinese translated literature. In recent ten years, there have been more than 20 new translations of ''Walden'', but Xu Chi's translation is still regarded as the best translation and is the first choice for many presses to publish as Chinese translations of ''Walden'' in recent years. Although there are many Chinese translations of ''Walden'', most of them take Xu Chi's translation as a reference (Wang Zhao 2009, 147), which indicates the authority of Xu Chi's translation.<br /> <br /> ====Style and Styllistics====<br /> =====Style=====<br /> Originated from the Latin or Greek word &quot;stile&quot; or &quot;stilus&quot;, &quot;style&quot; originally refers to a sharp instrument made of metal or bone, used as a writing tool, and later symbolizes a way of writing. At first, it was mainly used in writing. As time goes by, its application has been broadened into areas like music, dance, painting, fashion, behavior,literature, architecture and so on. As it has been mentioned in the introduction part, the research object ''Walden'' is a piece of literary work, consequently, this thesis will mainly study literary style.<br /> Since ancient times, style has always been the object of people's study. Aristotle, Cicero, Demetrius, and Quintilian all used style as an appropriate decoration for thought. This view prevailed throughout the Renaissance, when devices of style could be classified. An essayist or orator needs to construct his or her point of view by means of exemplary sentences and prescribed kinds of &quot;figures&quot; that conform to his or her mode of discourse.<br /> For a long time, the definition of style has remained varied, and different scholars have given different definitions of it. It is unnecessary and impractical here to list them all. Some definitions will be given below to help us understand what style is.<br /> One of the most successful attempts to define style in a comprehensive way is Leech and Short’s (1981). Although claiming that “unsuccessful attempts to attach a precise meaning” to the term “style” have often resulted in an impoverishment of the subject , they offer a list of the items forming the basis of their own concept of style, which can be summarized as follows:<br /> (a) Style is a way in which language is used; therefore it consists in choices made from the repertoire of the language; <br /> (b) A style is defined in terms of a domain of language use (e.g. what choices are made by a particular author, in a particular genre, or in a particular text);<br /> (c) Literary stylistics is typically concerned with explaining the relation between style and literary or aesthetic function;<br /> (d) Stylistic choice is limited to those aspects of linguistic choice which concern alternative ways of rendering the same subject matter.<br /> Nida Eugene (1982, 12) defines that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”So in translation of literary works, the author’s style should be represented through the translator’s style, and the translator’s style should depend on the style of the author. Many translators are good at representing different writers’styles and yet has its own unique translation style.<br /> The broad view of style includes the elements of linguistic style and non-linguistic style. Among them, the elements of language style mainly include the means of language style, such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structure and rhetorical devices, and the elements of non-language style include the author's emotion factor, the author's imagination factor and the author's intelligence factor. The narrow sense of style only involves the author's means of language style and rhetorical style (Lv Jun &amp; Hou Xiangqun 2001, 320).<br /> In conclude, translation (especially literary translation) as an across-culture process dose not only focus on the content of source text but also the style which is about how the writers write. Therefore, it is essential for a translator to know how to figure out the style of source text and reproduce it with target language.<br /> <br /> =====Styllistics=====<br /> Stylistics is a comprehensive frontier discipline that studies the characteristics, essence and laws of text forms, and is in the ascendant between linguistics, literature and art, aesthetics, psychology and other disciplines.<br /> It is difficult to determine when stylistics became a field of academic study. It can be argued, however, that it was not until the late 1950s that stylistics began to make significant and measurable progress. This is a young frontier discipline that is growing over time. Stylistics has developed into a well-targeted and technically effective interdisciplinary field of study, which is expected to provide useful insights for literary criticism and literature teaching. It has also been influencing translation criticism. Modern stylistics provides an important theoretical basis for translation studies. As far as the development of the subject of translation is concerned, stylistics has been recognized for its value and function. <br /> Modern stylistics uses the tools of formal linguistic analysis coupled with the methods of literary criticism; its goal is to try to isolate characteristic uses and functions of language and rhetoric rather than advance normative or prescriptive rules and patterns.<br /> <br /> =====Language Style and Stylistic Features of ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a masterpiece of prose style. It is concise, eloquent and profound in thought. Just as he pursues the simplest life, his language style of ''Walden'' can be summarized into four points: concise writing, accurate description, incisive argument, and pithy argumentation and causal narration. <br /> ''Walden'' is also a book aimed directly at the reader. Anyone who read this book feels that they are listening to and sharing Thoreau's ideals. This book is not easy for readers to understand, especially those who read it for the first time. Correspondingly, the prominent stylistic characteristics of ''Walden'' are manifested in four aspects: exquisite scenic description, complex syntax, various rhetorical devices and rich quotations．<br /> So it is helpful for the translator to understand the original text and reproduce the stylistic equivalence in the translation. Therefore, the translator should fully understand his stylistic characteristics, which is the premise of reproducing his style in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===Stylistic Features of ''Walden''===<br /> ====Lexical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Degree of Formality=====<br /> There are a lot of obsolete and old words in ''Walden''and the use of these words makes the book more flavor, solemn and elegant. However, the use of these words will also bring great trouble to the translation at the same time. It is difficult for the translators to grasp these words, so they can not use literal translation but use creative way to make readers feel what the author wants to express in this book.<br /> In ''Walden'', Thoreau uses concise words to demonstrate his own ideas, natural scenery and cultural customs of Walden Lake. Unlike official documents, regulations, or academic creations, general style of ''Walden'' suggests that Thoreau’s choice of words is less formal. This section aims to analyze the degree of formality of nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the Xu Chi’s translation. In terms of nouns, Xu Chi tends to choose words with literary charm and formal style, which are not suitable for the informal style of the original text.<br /> Example 1：<br /> …；where the washing is not put out, nor the fire, nor the mistress, and perhaps you are sometimes requested to move from off the trap—door; when the cook would descend into the cellar, and learn whether the ground is solid or hollow beneath you without stamping．(Thoreau 2012, 277—278)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：在那罩，洗瀣物不比晒在外面，炉火不熄，女主人也不会生气，也许有时要你移动一下，让厨子从地板门里走下地窖去，而你不用蹬脚就可以知道你的脚下是虚是实。 (徐迟 2009, 270)<br /> The passage describes part of Thoreau’s dream of a bigger house for more people. The original text provides a natural and causal description of the scenes and activities in Thoreau's dream house. There are five commas and a period in this 47-word sentence with employment of concrete nouns，the structure of the original is loose and casual. As can be seen from the above, &quot;washing&quot; in Xu's translation is loosely understood as “洗涤物” which means the process of eliminating unnecessary ingredients through detergent, which is formal in Chinese. Xu Chi reproduced the content of‘'the washing’’but he ignored the degree of formality in choosing word, thus falling to deliver the casualness reflected by the original text．<br /> Because ''Walden'' is full of depictions of landscape, adjectives are indispensable in Thoreau's creation of various images and pictures, as well as his insightful comments. Let us look at a example of it.<br /> Example 2：<br /> Often the poor man is not so cold and hungry as he is dirty and ragged and gross．(Thoreau 2012, 85)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：往往是那个穷人，邋遢、褴褛又粗野，但并没有途堡查选。(徐迟 2009, 83)<br /> The first adjective “poor” is used as an antecedent modifier and the other five adjectives are used as predicates. With the six adjectives being short and plain, the original text is generally of informal style. Xu transfered “cold and hungry” into a four-character noun phrase“冻馁之忧”which means “sufferings from cold and hunger.” However, this phrase is somewhat old-fashioned and is too formal to keep in line with the original style．Besides，it appears uncoordinated with three adjectives“邋遢、褴褛又粗野”being placed before the noun phrase“冻馁之忧”. So, it is not appropriate to reflect the original style.<br /> Verbs are also frequently employed in ''Walden'' to depict the fighting between animals or other activities. The degree of formality marked by verbs is the target of the study here. <br /> Example 3：<br /> I took up the chip on which the three I have particularly described were struggling, carried it into my house，and placed it under a tumbler on my window-sill，in order to see the issue．(Thoreau 2012, 262-263)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation：<br /> 我特别描写的三个战士在同一张木片上搏斗，我把这张木片拿进我的家里，放在我的窗槛上。罩在一个大杯子下面，以便考察结局。(徐迟 2009, 256)<br /> As we can see from the examples, these verbs are short and common in our everyday speech. They come mainly from Anglo-Saxon English and have informal stylistic characteristics. Therefore, the style of the original text is informal and should be preserved in Chinese translation. In this sentence, Thoreau prepared to wait and see with interest how the battle between the ants would go on after a series of arrangements. Xu Chi translated the word “see” into “考察”which sounds serious and formal, because “考察”means carefully checking certain items or situations, and is often used in formal situations, such as “考察人” or “考察情况”. So, Xu's version deviates from the original natural and informal flavor.<br /> <br /> =====Expressive Meaning=====<br /> Roman Jakobson, building on Karl Bühler (1934), coined the term expressive or emotive for one of the functions of language. He describes it as the function focused on the ADDRESSER [speaker], aims a direct expression of the speaker's attitude toward what he is speaking about (Jakobson 1960, 354) and gives interjections as the prime example of this function.<br /> It is worthy of our attention that differences between words in terms of expressive meaning are not simply equal to a matter of whether an expression of a certain attitude or evaluation is reproduced or not. The same attitude or evaluation may be expressed to widely varying degrees of forcefulness.<br /> Example 4：It is said that a flood-tide, with a westerly wind，and ice in the Neva, would sweep St. Petersburg from the face of the earth. (Thoreau 2012, 22)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：据说，涅瓦河要是涨了水，刮了西风，流来的冰块可以把圣彼得堡一下子大地的表面上冲掉的。 (徐迟 2009, 21)<br /> According to the Oxford Advanced English-Chinese Dictionary, &quot;sweeping&quot; is the act of sudden movement (of weather, fire, etc.), forcing a movement in an area or in a particular direction. In the original context, the combination of “flood tides, westerly winds, and ice” was destructive and therefore clearly detrimental to St.Petersburg. So the word &quot;sweep&quot; here reflects the speaker's negative attitude toward the possible outcome. Obviously, the word “冲掉” in Xu Chi’s translation is a neutral term and does not reflect the speaker’s attitude or feelings towards the potential disaster caused by flood tide, westerly winds and snow. Xu ignored the author’s emotional attitude, thus ignoring the influence that these forces may cause, and did not produce systematic equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====Syntactic Features of ''Walden''====<br /> Raffel (1994) points out that &quot;the syntax of prose shows the style of the author, and the reproduction of the original style is the key to prose translation which stresses not only what message says, but also how the message is said.&quot; So, the syntactic features of ''Walden'' should never be ignored.<br /> In the original text, short sentences in English have neat structure and harmonious rhythm. Xu Chi did not change the original structure in translation, but adopted literal translation. The so-called literal translation is to retain the content and language expression habits of the original text as well as the form and style of the original text under the condition that the target language allows. Since Both Chinese and English are discourse systems and they have something in common, literal translation is a good way to deal with them.<br /> Example 5:<br /> It is no dream of mine, To ornament a line; I cannot come nearer to God and Heaven, than I live to Walden even. I am its stony shore, and the breeze that passes o’er; In the hollow of my hand, are its water and its sand, and its deepest resort Lies high in my thought. (Thoreau 2012, 137) <br /> Xu Chi’s Translation:<br /> 这不是我的梦，用于装饰一行诗;我不能更接近上帝和天堂甚于我之生活在瓦尔登。我是它的圆石岸，飘拂而过的风;在我掌握的一握，是它的水，它的沙，而它的最深邃僻隐处,高高躺在我的思想中。 (Xu Chi 2012, 151)<br /> The translation of this paragraph has a neat structure, neat antithesis, and pays attention to the regularity and rhythm of the literal. The original is composed of ten verses and the translation retains the original format, which can increase the depth and appeal of the translation, thus producing artistic effect and aesthetic value.<br /> <br /> ====Rhetorical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Metaphor=====<br /> Metaphor means to &quot;shift a word from its original meaning to another word that is generally not interchangeable but similar, and to emphasize its identity, that is, the two are similar but not a simile&quot;.<br /> Example 6: <br /> Public opinion is a weak tyrant compared with our own private opinion. (Thoreau 2012， 7)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation: 和我们的自知之明相比较，公众舆论这暴戾的君主也显得微弱无力。(徐迟 2009，6）<br /> The ontology and metaphor in this sentence are &quot;public opinion&quot; and &quot;weak tyrant.&quot; There must be something similar between them. The following statement gives the reason: &quot;Compared to our own private opinions&quot;, which is quite clear. People are used to focusing on themselves in front of others, so public opinion is only slightly weak. The subtle use of metaphor shows Thoreau's wisdom and thorough understanding of human nature. Xu Chi dealt with this metaphor perfectly.<br /> <br /> =====Pun=====<br /> Puns are deliberately declared polysemous words or homonyms created with double meaning in a certain language environment, with implicit, humorous and profound effects. Newmark (2001, 217) points out that &quot;pun translation is unimportant but fascinating&quot;. The use of puns in Walden is remarkable.<br /> The basic function of pun in ''Walden'' is to express logical relations. Because puns can express two levels of meaning in a word, phrase, or sentence, they are often used as a link between the text before and after it. A key problem that haunts the reader when reading ''Walden'' is the lack of connection between the two passages. A clear logical relationship is a prerequisite for expressing other special effects, such as rhetorical and aesthetic effects. Therefore, the improper translation of puns will seriously affect logical coherence and other rhetorical devices.<br /> Example 7：<br /> If the name was not derived from that of some English locality - Saffron Walden, for instance, one might suppose that it was called originally Walled-in Pond. (Thoreau 2012, 209)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation: 如果这个湖名不是由当地一个叫萨福隆•瓦尔登的英国人的名字化出来的话，——那么，我想瓦尔登湖原来的名字可能是围而得湖。(徐迟 2009, 172)<br /> This classic example of puns has been discussed many times. Thoreau suggested that &quot;Walden&quot; might come from “Walled-in”. &quot;Walled-in Pond&quot;, as ahomophonic pun, serves as the logic link of the whole paragraph. Xu wisely translates it as “围而得”, retaining not only the similar pronunciation but also the importance of meaning. “围而得” maintains the logical relation of the whole paragraph.It is eye-catching and stimulates readers to think more about Thoreau's intentions to use this word.<br /> <br /> =====Personification=====<br /> Personification refers to &quot;the practice of representing a person, quality, or characteristic as a human being in art and literature.&quot; People subconsciously tend to reflect non-human things with their lives in order to express their feelings and thoughts. In view of the characteristics of human behavior, literary works can vividly express the feelings of the author, and make readers feel that the description of the object is more vivid and appropriate, which makes the article more vivid.<br /> Example 8：<br /> This further experience also I gained：I said to myself,1 will not plant beans and corn with so much industry another summer，but such seeds, if the seed is not lost, as sincerity, truth, simplicity, faith, innocence, and the like, and see if they will not grow in this soil，even with less toil and manurance，and sustain me, for surely it has not been exhausted for these crops. (Thoreau 2012, 186-187)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation:<br /> 我还获得了下面的更丰富的经验：我对我自己说，下一个夏天，我不要花那么大的劳力来种豆子和玉米了，我将种这样<br /> 这样一些种子像诚实、真理、纯朴、信心、天真等等，如果这些种子并没有失落，看看它们能否在这片土地上生长，能否以较少劳力和肥料；来维持我的生活，因为，地力一定还没消耗到不能种这些东西。 (徐迟 2009, 182)<br /> Thoreau here is sharing his experience in growing beans and his plans next summer with readers. As we know, words like &quot;sincerity,truth，simplicity, faith and innocence&quot; usually refer to qualities of human. But here, these words are adopted to describe the characteristics of seeds and humanize these seeds，constructing a vivid personification. Xu Chi reproduce the rhetorical feature of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The language of ''Walden'' is rich in vocabulary, complex and diverse sentence structure, the author's writing is flexible and fluent, and the use of various rhetoric makes the translation work more difficult. <br /> To sum up, Xu Chi's translation appears more formal than the original text and some words of his translation can not reflect the expressive meaning of the original one. It is found that Xu Chi tended to use words with typical features of his time which seem out of date at present. But due to the time he lived in, we believe that Xu Chi's translation satisfied the need or linguistic expectation of the target readers of his time which has its significance. We also find that sentences in Xu's translation follow the syntax of English language. Xu Chi kept the structure beauty of the original work properly, respected the original work and kept the structure orderly, directly conveying Thoreau's thoughts and feelings. And Xu Chi indeed do well in reflecting rhetorical features of the original text, which is refered by many translators later. In general, Xu Chi's translation is close to the original text in style and language characteristics and is a classic translation of ''Walden''.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Leech.G.N. &amp; M. H. Short. (1981). Style in Fiction：A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. <br /> <br /> Newmark P. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> Nida Eugene. (1982). Translating Meaning. Sandimas: English Language Institute. 12.<br /> <br /> Raffe. (1994). The Art of Translating Prose. Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press．<br /> <br /> Roman Jaobson. (1960). “Linguistics and Poetry” in Style and Language. Cambridge: MIT Press.<br /> <br /> Thoreau Henry David. (2012). Walden. New York: W. W. Norton &amp; Company, INC.<br /> <br /> Lv Jun &amp; Hou Xiangqun 吕俊,侯向群. (2001) 《英汉翻译教程》[English-chinese Translation Course].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.320.<br /> <br /> Wu Siying &amp; Li Jing 吴巳英,李靖. (2011). 外国文学翻译体例的时代演变——基于《瓦尔登湖》不同译本的比较. [The Time Evolution of Foreign Literary Translation Styles: Based on the Comparison of different versions of Walden]. 湖南农业大学学报（社会科学版) Journal of Hunan Agricultural University (Social Science edition) 12 83-87.<br /> <br /> Xu Chi 徐迟. (2009). 瓦尔登湖. [Walden].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. <br /> <br /> Yao Junwei姚君伟. (2005). 徐迟与美国文学在中国的译介[Xu Chi and the Translation of American Literature in China]. 外国文学研究 Study of Foreign Literature 4 145-149.<br /> <br /> ==A Comparison Beteewn the Translation Systems Proposed by Tan Zai and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===: The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people’s overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===: Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===：一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===：谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''==== <br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shy.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> The translation of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper Translatology must be established, which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> <br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems====<br /> <br /> =====Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> <br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000. <br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005. <br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation. 王美玲 Wang Meiling==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;王美玲 Wang Meiling&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> The Renaissance is the fourth peak in the history of Western translation and a great development in the history of Western literature. During the 16th century and the period following the Renaissance in Europe, translation reached an unprecedented climax in the fields of thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion. At that time, the German translation of the Bible by the Martin Luther is the most well-known one in the whole translation circle, and its influence is unique and long-standing in Germany as well as in the whole Europe continent. Since the Reform and Opening-up, China has gradually stepped into the center of the world arena, and its literary works bearing the quintessence of Chinese culture has become a crucial bridge connecting the rest of the world with China. Despite the rise of machine translation, it can never replace the overwhelming role of human translation in the literary translation. Luther’s translation thoughts have exerted an important influence on the development of Western translation theories, so what sparks can be drawn between his translation principles and Chinese modern culture and literary works? This paper makes a brief comment on the main translation activities of renaissance, then compares the translation thoughts of Luther and Lu Xun, and applies Luther’s detailed translation principles to the actual translation practice. Finally,some thoughts are acquired.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Renaissance; Luther; literary works; translation principles; influence;<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴运动是西方翻译史的第四次高潮，也是西方文学史上的一次大发展。文艺复兴在欧洲普遍开展的16世纪以及随后一个时期，翻译活动达到了前所未有的高峰，深入思想、政治、哲学、文学宗教等各个领域。在整个翻译界，德国马丁·路德的《圣经》德译本是该时期最负盛名的译本，其影响不论是在德国乃至整个欧洲都是独一无二且源远流长的。改革开放以来，中国日益走进世界舞台中央，承载着中华文化精髓的文学作品成为了中国连接世界的重要桥梁。纵然机器翻译兴起，但绝不能替代人工翻译在文学翻译领域的绝对性地位。路德的翻译思想对西方翻译理论的发展产生了重要影响，那么其翻译思想和理论原则与中国当代文化及文学作品又能擦出什么样的火花呢？本文将通过对文艺复兴时期的主要翻译活动进行简评，再对比路德与鲁迅的翻译思想，接着将路德的翻译细则运用到实际的翻译实践中，最后得出一些思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴；路德；文学作品；翻译原则；影响；<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The Protestant Reformation Movement in Germany in the 16th century ushered in a new era of translation and dissemination of Bible. Under the protection of Protestantism, Martin Luther devoted himself to the German translation of the Bible. By the time of 1544 Luther’s death, 430 versions of his Bible translation had been published. In order to make common people more directly understand the meaning of the Bible, Martin Luther translated it in national language. He insisted on his translation thought and fought against the church power and his opponents. He made unremitting efforts in the great project of the Bible translation, which promoted the unification of German language and created a graceful literary language.His translation thoughts are still of great significance to the current translation theory and practice.&quot;First of all, from a historical point of view, translation has two main functions in promoting the birth and development of national culture and the transformation of national culture into world culture: one is to promote cultural exchange; the other is to disseminate ideas.&quot;（Tan Zaixi，2004：10）<br /> <br /> Since the beginning of reform and opening-up, China has gradually stepped onto the world arena. China persists in its cultural development geared to the needs of the world and actively promotes cultural development to the world. Literary works bear the essence of Chinese culture, whose export is an crucial way to spread Chinese culture to the world. Over the years, despite the rise of machine translation, which has a certain practical role, it can not replace the overwhelming role of manual translation in literary translation. So what significance does Luther’s translation thoughts and principles have in guiding modern translation theory and practice, especially in the field of literary translation?<br /> <br /> ===2.Brief comments on translation thoughts in the period of Renaissance===<br /> <br /> Translations must respect the original text and combine content and form, free translation and literal translation in the translation process. &quot;In the high tide of translation in 16th century France, there were two outstanding contributors, one is Amyot, the King of Translation, and the other is Dolet, the translation theorist.&quot; Amyot believed that the translator must understand the original text thoroughly, and that the translator's task was not only to restore the author's meaning, but also to imitate and reflect the author's style and mood to some extent. He also emphasized the unity of content and form, and of free translation and literal translation; in France, the important figure in translation theory is Dolet. He believed that translators should avoid word-for-word translation because it was detrimental to the conveyance of the original meaning and to the beauty of the language. As we can see, Dolet's translation ideas were quite modern and involved the basic principles and problems of translation commonly raised by later European translation theorists. Holland of England was the most outstanding English translator in the 16th century and was regarded as the &quot;Chief Translator&quot; of the Elizabethan era, and he also advocated that the style of the original text must be reflected in the translation in order to make the translation authentic and without foreign accent. Thus, it can be seen that translators from various European countries actively explored new literary fields and brought new ideas to their own countries, inspiring the national consciousness and humanistic thoughts of their own people while trying to explore classical literature.<br /> <br /> Translation must convey new ideas on the basis of respecting the original work, that is, being innovative, and seek the style of translation.In his translation of ancient Greek and Roman masterpieces, Amyot put forward the idea of &quot;trying to be comparable to the original work&quot;, and blended the language of the people with the language of scholars, forming a unique style of translation. Thus, some people commented that Amyot adopted the creative meaning; Dolet advocated that translators should not do translations word by word, but must choose the words and adjust the word order as well as use various rhetorical devices to make the style of translation consistent with that of the original text, giving readers a &quot;feeling of beauty&quot;. The English translator North, who had little knowledge of the classical language and whose translations were not translated from the original text of Greek, was able to bring the translation style into full play. The prose style used in his translation of Biography of a Celebrity was new and elegant, which has become an immortal model in the history of English translation. There was another famous English translator, Florio, whose translation of The Tempest was the first to show English readers that prose could exist as a literary genre. From this, we can see that translators not only respected the cultural works of the classical period, but also gave full play to their own initiative in the translation process and injected humanistic thoughts and spirits into their translations during the Renaissance. Liu Junping said: &quot;In the past years, translators were servants attached to God, but now they have shifted from God to the translator as the center, and their personal developments have become the goal and value of life. &quot;（liu Junping,2009:76）<br /> <br /> Translators focus on the practical spirit of translation.Emphasizing the needs of translations to serve reality, Holland compared his translations to the fruits of conquest and once asked Queen Elizabeth to protect his translations with the hope that his translations would benefit the country. &quot;The translators, with the idea of serving their country, introduced the wisdom of the ancients to their own people through their translations, providing not only serious lessons for the Queen and the statesmen, but also story plots and materials for the dramatists and readers.&quot; This word profoundly reflects the dialectical relationship among culture, politics,and economy in Marxism: a certain culture is determined by certain economy and politics, and culture，in turn，acts on politics and economy with great influence on politics and economy. The above-mentioned translation ideas indicate the practicality and practical spirit of the practice of translation culture, which originated from the specific social and cultural contexts of the time. Under the guidance of these translation ideas, the translation culture and cultural practice of translators promoted the political and economic development, and laid the ideological foundation for the political and cultural needs of Western European countries.<br /> <br /> In the practice of translation, translation of all national languages achieved parallel and independent development when Latin gradually receded into a tributary.<br /> During the Renaissance, national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and linguists recognized the unique style and expressive ability of their own languages, and began to shift the emphasis of translation from the original language to the translated language. Finally, Latin was no longer prevalent. These phenomenon were especially prominent in Germany. Under the pressure of the national language and the Reformation, the German translator Luther adopted the language of the people to translate the great work of the Bible, that is, to translate the original text into the authentic German one. Luther's German translation of the Bible not only had a profound influence on German life and religion, but also created a literary language form accepted by the German people, which played an immeasurable role in the development of the unified German language and shook the absolute and unshakable position of Latin in the European language system.<br /> <br /> ===3.Comparison Between Luther’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Thoughts===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction to Luther and Lu Xun====<br /> <br /> Lu Xun was the greatest literary scholar, thinker and revolutionary of modern China, an important participant in the New Culture Movement, who was regarded as &quot;the writer who occupied the largest territory on the cultural map of East Asia in the twentieth century&quot;. Lu Xun also had outstanding achievements in translation, and made a series of superb remarks on translation issues, which had great influence on the whole translation circle at that time and established a monument in the history of Chinese translation theory.<br /> <br /> Martin Luther was a German religious reformer and translator in the 16th century. In his translations, Luther followed the principles of being popular, clear, and acceptable to the public. His translation of the Bible is known as the &quot;first Bible of the common people”and enjoyed the highest reputation in the entire translation community. Luther was a leader in the Reformation movement in the 16th century in Europe, so his translation had a significant impact on Germany and Europe as a whole.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Different Translation Thoughts====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Lu Xun's &quot;Foreignization&quot;=====<br /> <br /> Lu Xun lived in the period of the May Fourth New Culture Movement，whose translation thoughts and activities were closely connected with his political life. In the period of transition between the old culture and the new one, literary translation was also at its climax. In this regard, Lu Xun put forward the translation concept of &quot;Foreignization&quot; , which preserved the &quot;exoticism&quot;. Moreover,he insisted that the translation should be consistent with the original text as much as possible and put fidelity in the first place and fluency in the second, and exchanged unfluent translation for fidelity. He believed that the translation method of &quot;Foreignization&quot; could introduce foreign sentences to enrich Chinese language and culture. Lu Xun said bluntly, &quot;Like carrying arms for the uprising slaves, translation is directly aimd at servicing the revolution.&quot;（Chen Fukang,2000;286）<br /> With regard to his translation concept of &quot;Foreignization&quot;, he had such remarks :<br /> <br /> “还是翻译《死灵魂》的事情。……动笔之前，就先得解决一个问题:竭力使它归化，还是尽量保存洋气昵?日本文的译者上田进君，是主张用前一法的。……所以他的疑问，有时就化一句为数句，很近于解释。我的意见却两样的。只求易懂，小如创作，或者改作，将事改为中国事，人也化为中国人。如果还是翻译，那么，首先的目的，就在博览外国的作品，小但移情，也要益智，至少是知道何地何时，有这等事，和旅行外国，是很相像的:它必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也小会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌介神离，从严辨别起来，它算小得翻译。……(Lu Xun,1935:4th Volume)<br /> <br /> From this, we can see that Lu Xun engaged in translation work with the aim to &quot;conveying feelings&quot; and &quot;improving education&quot;, and his translations could facilitate readers to experience foreign customs, history, language and culture, as well as advanced ideology. Lu Xun would enrich these at a deeper level, so as to subvert the outlook on life and values of the whole society at that time and to inspire and educate the young generation to achieve the purpose of saving the country, thus promoting the revolutionary cause.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Luther's &quot;Domesticization&quot;=====<br /> <br /> In the context of the Reformation, Martin Luther embarked on the translation of the Bible. As the leader of the German Reformation movement, he could only ensure the eventual victory of the Reformation cause by quickly establishing and growing the Protestantism . Under the pressure of the Reformation and the national language, Luther had to translate the Bible in a way that served a specific audience, not priests and pastors, but the common people. It required that Luther had to do translations in people’s language and that &quot; Translation had to adopt authentic German instead of Latinized German.&quot;<br /> In the A Short History of Translation in the West, Tan zaixi made summary about Luther's translation thoughts：(Tan Zaixi,2004:64-67)<br /> <br /> &quot;Translation must employ the vernacular language; translation must pay attention to the connection between grammar and meaning; translation must follow seven principles (translators can change the word order of the original text; one can make reasonable use of intonation auxiliaries; translators can add necessary conjunctions; translator may omit word in the original that was not equivalent word in the target language;translator may use phrase to translate a single word;translator may translate metaphorical usage into non-metaphorical usage and vice versa; translator should pay attention to variation from usage and accurate explanation of a word (Wen Jun, 2004:39);Translation must be a brainstorming exercise.&quot;<br /> <br /> Luther insisted on these principles in order to translate the Bible from the reader's point of view on the basis of a grasp of the original meaning and to achieve the greatest possible approximation to the reader's level for the purpose of &quot;naturalization. Generally speaking, Luther advocated translation based on a grasp of the meaning of the sentence. When the original meaning of a sentence could not be well expressed in words, Luther used illustrations to represent it. Luther's German translation of the Bible enabled the common people of Germany to directly quote from the Bible to defend their own class interests, which played an invaluable role in the unification and development of the German language.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Lu Xun's translation principle of &quot;Foreignization&quot;, which preserved &quot;exoticism&quot;, satisfied Chinese readers' curiosity and appreciation of foreign culture and made them experience exoticism, which, to a certain, awakened the thought of common thoughts and stimulated the patriotic consciousness and revolutionary enthusiasm of some youth groups. That was the aim and purpose of Lu Xun's translations, and was also what that volatile age longed for.<br /> <br /> Luther's “Domesticization” thought was based on his recognition that the German people began to value their own national language as a counter to the Church's forced use of Latin. Luther translated the Bible in the language of common people, so that readers who knew neither Hebrew, Greek, nor Latin and had a low level of literacy could understand the Bible in German.<br /> <br /> Translation thoughts between Luther and Lu Xun are rather different, but their translations equally made profound implications and were recognized by the two peoples of their respective countries. Moreover, their audience were both the common people, and they took into full consideration the receptiveness of their readers in the process of translation. Therefore, the dichotomy in translation is only relative, and finitude and infinitude are dialectically unified.<br /> <br /> ===4.The Application of Luther's Translation Principles and Thoughts for Modern Literary Translation Practice===<br /> <br /> Engels praised Luther:&quot;Luther not only cleared the church's Ogias, but also cleared the German language of the Ogis, created modern German prose, and wrote the words and songs of the hymns of the Marseilles with victory and confidence into the 16th century.&quot; (Tan Zaixi，2004:64）In his translation of the Bible, Luther came up with systematic translation thoughts and principles, followed the principles of being popular, clear and acceptable to the public, and created modern German prose. Thus, his translation thoughts and principles have certain significance for us to translate literary works whose language style is “grounded”.<br /> <br /> '''Example one '''<br /> <br /> “You can translate metaphor usage into non-metaphorical usage.”<br /> <br /> “The translator can change the word order of the original text”<br /> <br /> “严闭的心幕，慢慢的拉开了，涌出五年前的一个印象。” （《笑》—— 冰心）<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the original text, the translator finds that this sentence uses metaphor,because the action of &quot;拉开&quot; can only be issued by human beings, and the &quot;心幕&quot; is not a physical object which cannot be &quot;pulled open&quot;. In the process of translation, we find that the action of &quot;拉开&quot; does not have a subject, and the predicate-object pairing of &quot;拉开&quot; and &quot;心幕&quot; is unreasonable, not to mention translated into the passive voice. Therefore, it is not feasible to translate the metaphor usage. The translator chooses to omit this metaphor and the verb &quot;拉开&quot;, which is in line with Luther's sixth principle of translation. The translator finds that the emphasis of the original text is on the second half of the sentence, so we changes the order of the whole sentence and choose&quot;涌出&quot; as the predicate and translated it into the intransitive verb &quot;unveil&quot;. Naturally, the phrase &quot;五年前的一个印象&quot; becomes the subject. scene of five years ago&quot;, and the word &quot;before&quot; was used to show the relationship between “印象” and “心幕”. It is in line with language habit of English, that is, to express the main content clearly and put it in the important position as an important component. Here comes the translation &quot;A scene of five years ago slowly unveiled before my mind's eye.&quot; It is consistent with the first principle of Luther's translation. If translated according to the original word order, it would be translated to &quot;The tight mind's eye was opened slowly, and a scene of five years ago slowly unveiled.”Although its meaning is complete, the sentence structure is incoherent and the relationship between the &quot;心幕&quot; and the &quot;印象&quot; is not highlighted. As a translator, we need to read the original text carefully and then relate it to the context in order to get close to the original style and to achieve the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot;, meanwhile, we should take into account the reading feelings of the audience.<br /> <br /> '''Example Two'''<br /> <br /> “The necessary conjunctions can be added.”<br /> <br /> “作为一个中国人，经书不可不读。我年过三十才知道读书自修的重要。” （《时间即生命》—— 梁实秋）<br /> <br /> After reading the original text, we find that the original text is composed of two sentences. If we do not read it carefully, we will not grasp the key point, that is, the relationship between the two sentences: transition. The translation is“The reading of Chinese classics is a must for all chinese. But it was not until I was over 30 that I came to realize the importance of self-study.”We all know that Chinese sentences are short with more punctuation marks, and that Chinese is a formative language with few conjunctions between sentences. Therefore, when doing translation, translators should carefully search for the hidden logical relationship between sentences and fit the language habits of the readers in order to accurately convey the ideas that the author wants to convey and to arouse the emotional resonance between the author and the readers. During the Renaissance, Luther found the characteristics of the readers, German citizens, and grasped their aesthetics. Then he made certain degree of stylistic shaping with the Bible as a benchmark and focused on integrating the spirit of humanism into the translation.<br /> <br /> '''Example Three'''<br /> <br /> The translator can use a phrase to translate a single word.”<br /> <br /> “不过，花草自己会奋斗，我若置之不理，任其自生自灭，它们多数还是会死了的。” （《养花》——老舍）<br /> <br /> Translator find that the original text is inclined to be colloquial and its literal meaning is easy to understand. But for the readers, if they only saw the literal meaning, the central idea of the original text would be not well conveyed,leading to their losing interest in reading the work, then the translator was not much of doing a good translation job. In the original text, the word &quot;奋斗&quot; may be a confusing point for readers, they may wonder how flowers and plants could struggle? When it comes to &quot;奋斗&quot;, the first word that comes to the translator's mind may be &quot;struggle&quot;, &quot;fight&quot;, and &quot;strive&quot;, one of which most translators would choose if they wouldn’t look deeper into the original text and take into account the characteristics and writing style of the original text. The theme of the original text is &quot;raising flowers&quot;, which tells the story of the author and his inner feelings in the process of raising flowers. We should relate to the reality that the &quot;奋斗&quot; of flowers and plants is to resist the wind, rain and sun. Therefore, a good translator will choose to enrich the word &quot;struggle&quot; by using such phrases as &quot;weather through&quot;, &quot;carry on the struggle for existence&quot; to express the real experience of plants and flowers. It is in line with Luther's fifth principle. In translation, the translator should pay attention to the language habits of the readers, because different people of various countries will have rather different interpretations of the same literary work. Although the literal meaning of modern Chinese literature is easy to understand, the literary ideas are between the lines. If the translation does not convey the meaning of the original text properly, readers will not feel the meaning conveyed by the author. This is just as Luther took into account when he translated the Bible, he would create a literary form of language acceptable to the German citizens according to their language habits.<br /> <br /> '''Example Four'''<br /> <br /> “Translation must be a brainstorming exercise”<br /> <br /> In addition to translation principles, Luther also placed great importance on team cooperation. Luther believed that doing a translation on one's own was not enough, especially for a masterpiece like the Bible.As Luther said, &quot;One cannot go it alone in the matter of translation, for the correct and proper translation words won’t always occur to the only him.&quot;（zecher, 1993:12-13) Thus, Luther's later revisions of his New Testament, as well as his translations of the Old Testament and the Apocrypha, were done with the assistance of the Collegium biblicum, an academic translation committee.<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, the professor who teaching me the course Introduction to Translation Studies, also worked with a team in the translation of the great work, Dream of the Red Chamber. It is the first complete German translation of Dream of the Red Chamber. In 2000, Professor Wu set up a workshop consisting of 57 translators, and this team was so strong that the average annual translation volume increases considerably. According to Martina Ulrike Hasse, only 11 new works by Chinese authors were published in Germany in 2011. In recent years, thanks to the efforts of the team, the number of Chinese literature translated into German has increased to 17 per year, which has greatly contributed to the translation and dissemination of Chinese literature in the German-speaking world.<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> In conclusion, the Renaissance saw the independent and parallel development of national languages and the promotion of social changes, thanks largely to the extensive literary translation activities undertaken by key advocates, especially Martin Luther's German translation of the Bible, which ushered in a new era in the development of the German language. Luther's translation principles and thoughts were so influential due to the great success of his German translation of the Bible . When Wlliam Tyndale in England and Reina and Valera in Spain later translated the Bible into English and Spanish respectively, they both referred to and partially adopted the translation principles and thoughts proposed by Luther.<br /> After carefully reading Tan Zaixi's A Short History of Translation in the West and Chen Fukang's A History of Translation Theory In China, the author has gained a better understanding of Luther's and Lu Xun's translation thoughts and principles, and has gained two insights: first, even though their countries, political environments,translation thoughts are rather different, the nature of translation determines that there must be certain similarities in their translation thoughts; second, even though the age between Luther and the author is so long, his translation thoughts and principles still have implications for the author and other translation learners of her time.<br /> <br /> As an interdisciplinary student, the author lacked a systematic understanding of many translation thoughts and principles at the beginning of this term. After studying in this semester and reading related professional books,the author have benefited a lot and formed her own translation habits and thinking implicitly, and she hopes to improve her translation quality by practicing a lot more.<br /> <br /> ===6.References===<br /> <br /> [1]谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M].北京:商务印书馆,2004.<br /> <br /> [2]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史[M]．武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> <br /> [3]陈福康，《中国译学理论史稿》，上海:上海外语教育出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> [4]鲁迅.且介亭杂文二集.“题未定”草(二、三),《鲁迅全集》,第六卷;二心集.“硬译”与“文学的阶级性,《鲁迅全集》.第四卷.1935.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M].北京:商务印书馆,2004.<br /> <br /> [6] Eric. W.Gritsch.Luther as Bible translator [J] in Donald K. Mckim ed., The Cambridge Companion of Martin Luther (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2003),62-63.<br /> <br /> ==Study on Interpreter's Memory and Translation Memory in Interpreting 康浩宇 Kang Haoyu 202070080638==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康浩宇 Kang Haoyu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In interpreting, the translator's memory plays an important role, and the level of memory even determines the quality of interpreting and affects the interpretation results. Memory cognitive ability is one of the comprehensive qualities of interpreters. The exertion of journalists' memory ability is closely related to memory principles, types and mechanisms. With the development of science and technology, translation memory, as a new type of &quot;memory&quot;, appears in front of the public and is widely used in translation field. In the field of interpretation, some interpreters are also doing interpreting with the help of such tools. This paper aims to explore the translator's memory ability and the application of translation memory in the interpretation industry from the principle of memory.<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Memory; Translation Memory; Interpreting<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 在口译中，译者的记忆里发挥着举足轻重的作用，记忆水平的高低甚至决定了口译质量的好坏，影响口译结果。记忆认知能力是口译员的综合素质能力之一。记者记忆能力的发挥与提升和记忆原理，类型，机制等因素息息相关。 随着科学技术的发展，翻译记忆作为一种新型的“记忆”出现在大众面前并在翻译领域广泛使用。 而在口译领域，一些译员也在通过这类工具来协作口译。本文旨在从记忆的原理出发探究译者记忆能力以及翻译记忆在口译行业的运用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 记忆； 翻译记忆； 口译<br /> <br /> ===1 Introduction===<br /> <br /> '''1.1 Background'''<br /> <br /> Memory plays an important role in interpreting and it is a kind of interpreting competence. The information processing in interpreting is complicated. When the information is input, interpreter first recognize and keep the information, which will then be analyzed, encoded, stored and retrieved. And the interpreter finally decode the information into target language.Because of the fast input of information and limited time for pausing, great memory is required for interpreters. Whether a good or poor memory has a direct effect on the quality of interpreting(Wang Jianhua, 2019）. <br /> With the development of science and technology, machine translation and computer aided translation, which is also called CAT, was invented as two effective and efficient ways for translation. In CAT, there is a concept called translation memory. Different from human beings’ memory, translation memory is more likely a database. Nowadays, translation memory of CAT has been put into wide use in translation. And in recent years, translation memory has also been applied as a tool in interpreting. As the technology is not yet mature, there are still some limitation and weakness(Su Mingyang, 2007, 73).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Significance of the Study'''<br /> <br /> There are some studies on the memory of interpreters. But most of them focus on its practical aspects such as how to improve interpreters’ memory or how to make the best of memory in interpreting, instead of substantial facts. The nature of memory and mechanism of memory is also worthy to be studied, so readers can have better understanding and cognition of what is memory and how it works. Therefore, readers can better address our problems in memory of interpreting. The study will fully analyze memory from the aspect of psychology and science. And then it will study on memory of interpreting in details including systems, mechanism, coding and theories(Li Jun, 2020, 127). <br /> <br /> Translation memory is quite a novel topic as it belongs to a sort of science and technology. As the world stepped into information era, digital era and even Artificial Intelligence era, translation memory has been used more widely than ever before. It really facilitates the translators as it both saves a lot of time and greatly improved the translation efficiency. However, there are few studies on the translation memory application in interpreting field. Actually, in many situations, interpreters also uses this kind of technology to help their interpreting. They study will research on the fact of translation memory in interpreting(Li Jun, 2020, 127).<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Structure of the Study'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be developed in five chapters. <br /> Chapter 1, the introduction part, is initiated by introducing the background, research problems, and significance of the study.<br /> Chapter 2 is functioned to define and categorize the memory.<br /> Chapter 3 will present the memory mechanism and related theories in interpreting.<br /> Chapter 4 will mainly focus on the translation memory technology at present and its application in interpreting.<br /> The concluding chapter generalizes the content of the study and put forward the limitations.<br /> <br /> ===2 Study on Memory===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 The definition of the Memory'''<br /> <br /> Memory has different definitions in different fields. Generally speaking, human memory is a reflection of what the brain has experienced. From the perspective of psychology, memory is the recognition, maintenance, reappearance of experienced things by the human brain, and it is the basis of advanced psychological activities such as thinking and imagination. It is the retention and extraction of past experience by human brain. It is a psychological process in which individual experience is accumulated and preserved in the mind. All things that have been perceived can be kept in people's minds, and can be reproduced when necessary. This refers to the process in which the human brain encodes, stores and extracts meaningful information input from the outside world. From the perspective of neurology, human memory is closely related to the changes of chemical composition in hippocampus and brain. All memory that exists in the brain depends on various nerve cells of the brain, which are called neurons. According to information processing theory, memory process is the process of encoding, storing and extracting input information. Only coded information can be remembered. Coding is the process of processing and transforming the input information, and coding is the key stage of the whole memory process(Che Wenbo, 1987, 403).<br /> <br /> '''2.2. Memory Systems'''<br /> <br /> Based on the structure, memory can be categorized into three systems. There are sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. The later two systems are also often referred as STM and LTM. The three memory systems are different from each other but closely related(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1 Sensory Memory'''<br /> <br /> As the shortest memory system, sensory memory is the first channel for human brain to get the information. It has some capacity. According the research in Cognitive Psychology(Wang Su, Wang Ansheng, 1992), People’s visual sensory capacity is more than 9 chunk while their auditory sensory memory capacity has less capacity, which is about chunk. chunk here are memory units, and the size of chunk varies with people's knowledge and experience. A chunk can be a word, a number, a phrase, a sentence, a word list, etc. Sensory memory works as temporary storage for sensory information. It depends on the physical nature of external stimulus to code the information and it is the real copy and transcription of the external stimulus. Most sensory memory can stay for one to two seconds and then disappear. Only with more attention and focus can the sensory memory be processed and then become short term memory(Bao Gang, 2005). People’s visual sensory memory can just keep for less than one second while their auditory sensory memory can keep for 4 seconds. It is inevitable that information will lose with the disappearance of sensory memory(Bao Gang, 2005, 150). <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2 Short Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Short term memory is the second memory system. Short term memory is based on the neuron network in hippocampus. It keeps the information that has been selected in the hippocampus of human brain. In some cases, part of information will move from the short memory in hippocampus to long term memory in cerebral cortex. In psychology, short term memory can keep for about one minute with the capacity of about 7 chunks. That means that people can memorize seven unrelated numbers or phonemes for about one minute with their short term memory. However, the capacity of short term memory is not decided by the amount of stimulus but by the modes of chunk and coding. Chunks can effectively expand the capacity of short-term memory. When processing information, people can use the knowledge and experience stored in long-term memory to combine several single stimuli into larger information units, which can effectively expand and increase short-term memory span and improve memory efficiency. Moreover, the coding of short-term memory is mainly auditory coding, and there are also visual coding and semantic coding. Instead of chunk and information unit, people can also use retelling to transfer short term memory to long term memory. Retelling refers to the psychological operation process of repeating the materials just memorized by language to consolidate memory. In the case of retelling, the learning materials kept in short-term memory will transfer to long-term memory. The content of short-term memory can be transformed into long-term memory by retelling(Bao Gang, 2005, 150). <br /> <br /> There is a special type of short term memory, working memory. The concept working memory was first proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. It is used to describe the process of a person temporarily memorizing the fact and thoughts when addressing problems or working(Baddeley, 2006, 22). In spite of limited resources and storage time, working memory is still different from short term memory in temporary storage of information(Hitch, 2012, 266). Compared with short term memory which store information passively, the working memory process is more dynamic. Generally speaking, there are three differences. First, working memory emphasizes storing and processing information at the same time, while short-term memory only focuses on information storage. Secondly, working memory is a multi-factor system, while short-term memory is a single system. Third, working memory is more important than short-term memory for many advanced brain functions and even almost all human cognitive work(Wang Jianhua, 2019， 76). The disappear of short term memory is often due to the interruption.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3 Long Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Different from short term memory, long term memory is stored in human’s cerebral cortex where there is more room for storage. Long term memory is very important in keeping information for long time. It can keep information for more than one minute and even for a whole life. Its capacity is unlimited. All the information kept by long term memory has been selected and filtered.According to Tulving, long term memory is stored mainly as two types(Tulving, 1974). They are episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory is about one’s experience of some specific situations. Semantic memory refers to knowledge such as words, concepts, rules and other abstract things.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Memory Mechanism'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, the process of memory includes three key steps. They are memorizing, keeping and recalling. In interpreting, memorizing is related to interpreters’ listening and understanding to what the speaker says, keeping is related to the storage of original information and recalling refers to the output of interpreting(Tulving, 1972, 36).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 Memorizing'''<br /> <br /> Memorizing refers to the process of distinguishing and recognizing the characteristics of things and leaving a certain impression in the mind. Some things can be remembered after one perception, while most of the contents need to be perceived repeatedly, so that the new information can be connected with the existing knowledge structure. As the first step in the memory process, memorization has a very important influence on the memory effect. Therefore, understanding and mastering the rules of memorization will help improve memory(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997, 23).<br /> <br /> According to whether memorization has a purpose or not, memorization can be divided into unconscious memorization and conscious memorization(Ma Zhengyu, 2013, 26).<br /> Unconscious memorization refers to memorization that happens naturally without a predetermined purpose and without a certain effort of will. When they are perceived, there is no intention to memorize them, but these contents can reappear in people’s mind in the future naturally. And this is unconscious memorization. The content of unconscious memorization is an important part of experience, and it has great effect on people’s psychological activities and behaviors. Inadvertent experience can do as much help as existing experiences when people consciously face certain situations and deal with certain problems. In daily life, the environment, contact and work will influence people unconsciously in psychology and behavior. Generally speaking, there are two characteristics of unconscious memorization. First, the stimulation acts on people's sensory organs which is of great significance and attracts people's attention. For example, people will never forget new and different things; Second, it is in people's needs, interests and content so that it can produce deeper emotional experience. Unconsciousness plays a positive role in people's acquisition of knowledge and experience(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004, 173).<br /> <br /> Conscious memorization refers to memorizing with a predetermined purpose, which requires a certain amount of will and effort in the process of memorizing. The process of conscious memorization is controlled by the purpose of memorization. The purpose of memorization determines that memorizing process is an active coding process for memorizing content. This coding includes &quot;what to remember&quot; and &quot;how to remember&quot;. &quot;What to memorize&quot; determines the direction and content of memorization, and &quot;how to memorize&quot; is the method to better memorize the content. All people's knowledge and experience are acquired through conscious memorization and unconscious memorization. However, in terms of memorizing effect, conscious memorizing is better than unconscious memorizing(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004, 173).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 Keeping'''<br /> <br /> Keeping refers to the process of remaining and consolidating the memorized materials in brain. It is the process of information storage. Keeping is the middle step which is between memorizing and recalling and it is closely related the quality and effect of recalling(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).<br /> <br /> The effect of keeping is related to whether the materials to be memorized are vivid or not. When brains memorize verbal materials, if the materials are vivid, they can leave a deep impression on people, while the materials with empty contents are easy to be forgotten quickly. Many psychological experiments have also proved the important role of the &quot;image&quot; in the memory of human brain. The memory effect of image materials is generally better than that of words materials, and similarly, the effect of visual memory is generally better than that of auditory memory. This suggests that if interpreters make full use of the image carrier of the source language in interpreting memory, it is possible to improve their information storage of the source language(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).<br /> <br /> Keeping is a dynamic process during which the amount and nature of the stored information could be changed. In the aspect of amount change, the amount of stored information will decrease with time. In other words, this is forgetting. Forgetting is a very natural phenomenon that experienced by every person. Although forgetting is a complex psychological phenomenon, its occurrence and development have certain rules. Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, was the first to do this research. He used meaningless syllables as experimental materials and himself as experimental object. After memorizing the materials, he relearned them at regular intervals, and drew the forgetting curve with the time and times saved by heavy school as the index. Forgetting curve reflects the relationship between forgetting variables and time variables. This curve shows the rule of forgetting: the process of forgetting is unbalanced, and the amount of forgetting is relatively large in the initial period after memorization, and then gradually decreases. That is, the speed of forgetting is fast at first and then slow. After Ebbinghaus, many people have studied the forgetting process and confirmed that Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve is basically correct(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997, 26). <br /> <br /> Keeping is the process of consolidating what have been memorized in people's minds, and it is also the process of storing information. It is not a static and solidified process, but a process of reconstruction(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 Recalling'''<br /> <br /> The final step of memory is recalling. It is the process of retrieving the information that has been stored in people’s brain(Zhang Wei, 2011, 33). <br /> Recalling is the reappearance process of past experiences in the mind under the action of certain inducement. Memories can be divided into two categories: intentional memories and unintentional memories. Intentional recalling is the recalling of past experience under the action of intended purpose. Unintentional memories are memories that happen naturally without a predetermined purpose. Memories can be divided into direct recalling and indirect recalling according to whether there are intermediary factors involved in the recalling process. Direct recalling is the recollection of old experiences directly aroused by current things. Indirect recalling is a kind of recalling with the help of intermediary factors. In terms of difficulty, indirect recalling is more difficult than direct recalling(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 72).<br /> <br /> '''2.4 Primacy Effect and Recency effect'''<br /> <br /> Primacy effect and recency effect are two famous phenomena related to people’s memory. And both of them play a very important role in interpreting(Bao Gang, 2005, 166).<br /> <br /> '''2.4.1 Primacy Effect'''<br /> <br /> The concept “primacy effect” was first proposed by A. S. Lochins, an American psychologist. It refers to the fact that the first impression has a huge effect. Although the first impression may not always be right, but it is most vivid and solid. In primacy effect, information input plays a key role. Experimental psychology research shows that the order of external information input is important in determining the cognitive effect. The first input information plays the most important role, and the last input information also plays a great role. This feature of brain processing information is the internal cause of the primacy effect. When different information is combined, people always tend to attach importance to the former information. Even if people pay attention to the following information, they will think that the following information is non-essential and accidental. More importantly, even if the following information is inconsistent with the former information, people will succumb to the former information.<br /> <br /> '''2.4.2 Recency Effect'''<br /> <br /> Recency effect, also put forward by American psychologist Lochins, refers to the phenomenon that when people memorize a series of things, the memory effect of the last part is better than that of the middle part. The reason is that the previous information is gradually blurred in memory, while the recent information clearer in short-term memory. Recency effect is contrary to the primacy effect, and recency effect emphasizes that the last received information has the greatest effect. In people's perception, when the information obtained before and after is different, if there is irrelevant work in the middle to separate them, then the latter information plays a greater role in forming the total impression(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 81).<br /> <br /> Obviously, the primacy effect and recency effect are different, or even opposite. The primacy effect emphasizes the information received initially, while recency effect pays more attention to the information that comes into contact later. However, the primary effect and recency effect exist in our society and play their respective functions. Through a large number of experiments, it is found that the primacy effect and recency effect depend on people themselves. Generally speaking, people with relatively simple cognitive structure are prone to produce the primacy effect, while those with complex cognitive structure are prone to produce recency effect(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 82).<br /> <br /> Although the primacy effect and recency effect are different form each other, both of the effects are extremely beneficial to the memory of interpreters, and they can be used in different interpreting situations(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 82).<br /> <br /> ===3 Memory in Interpreting===<br /> <br /> In interpreting, time is very limited for interpreters to do the work and the information of original language is transient. Thus, interpreters are required ton have a good memory. The memory in interpreting is not mechanical. It refers to the processing and coding of original language, and then storage and retrieval of the coded information. The process of language understanding in translation is based on the information stored in memory such as pronunciation, grammar and speech structure(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Memory Mechanism in Interpreting'''<br /> <br /> When interpreters listen to what the speakers says, their brains are receiving stimulus. That means their brains begin to process these information. In interpreting, when the language area of the brain is stimulated, the interpreter will use the brain to process the existing related information by identifying, explaining, inferring and analyzing the pronunciation, and then stores the results in the form of internal speech, thus completing the information processing in a short time(Xu Han, 2007, 124).<br /> <br /> Only through sensory memory can people obtain external information. Therefore, in a broader sense, the initial stage of memory is sensory memory, not short-term memory. Once the recipient's cells are activated, the information is retained in the sensory storage. Attention should be paid to selecting certain information as pattern cognition, and changing it from sensory memory to short-term memory to obtain its meaning. Therefore, when interpreters listen to the content, they first store all the information in their sensory memory. Then their brain begins to identify which is the important information and pay more attention to it in order to store it in short term memory. For those unnecessary information, it will be forgotten naturally as sensory memory can just be kept for less than one second(Wang Jianhua, 2019,77).<br /> <br /> Short-term memory is the link between sensory memory and long-term memory. On the one hand, it directly accepts the information filtered by sensory memory; On the other hand, through a certain retrieval method, the relevant knowledge can be extracted from the long-term memory, and then combine the two to process and store the discourse information. Short-term memory plays a key role in connecting sensory memory and long-term memory, and functions as a central processing unit. When the information stored in sensory memory has been filtered by interpreters’ brain, then it is stored in short term memory. When interpreters start to interpret, they recall all those information that has been encoded in their short term memory and decode it into target languages. In most cases, these information become useless after the interpreting is finished, so it will soon be forgotten naturally by interpreters as short term memory also has a limitation of time. If there is some necessary and important information such as words or expression that could be useful in the future, interpreters can give it more attention and memorize it repeatedly to encode the information into long term memory(Han Xiaoming, 2004, 156).<br /> <br /> Long-term memory is like an knowledge base of experiences, and the stored information needs to be activated before it can be decoded into short-term memory to participate in the processing of new information. When the speech chain is released, the brain will quickly activate the long-term memory, extract the relevant knowledge stored before, and start the sensory memory and short-term memory to analyze and process the information , so as to fully understand the meaning carried by the speech, thus making the communication proceed effectively. Long-term memory is the basis of interpretation(Ma Yingmai, Sun Changyan, 2004, 78). In the whole process of interpretation, long-term memory has four functions. The first one is information confirmation. That is to identify information consistent with interpretation long-term memory. The second function is information understanding. If the new information to be processed is consistent with the existing old information in long-term memory, its meaning will be accepted. The third function is information anticipation. The activation of knowledge system will bring about the anticipation of future information. The last one is information expression. When the interpreters understands what the original text conveys, they must look for appropriate words or expressions in long-term memory to express their meanings in the target language(Wang Jianhua, 2019,77). Long-term memory, like a database, stores a large amount of information that can be extracted at any time. More importantly, it also has great influence on sensory memory and short-term memory. If there is no information in long-term memory, the receiver will not be able to recognize familiar stimuli, and short-term memory will not be able to encode and store information in chunks, so information will not be able to change from short-term memory to long-term memory. Therefore, long term memory plays a decisive role when interpreters store the content of original language(Bao Gang, 2005, 160).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Deverbalization Mode'''<br /> <br /> In the field of translation, as for the understanding of interpreting thinking process and interpreting memory mechanism, there are four different schools of translation theories, namely, information theory school, cognitive psychology school, neural network school and hermeneutic school. Among them, the most authoritative and influential interpretation theory is the &quot;Deverbalization Mode&quot; theory put forward by the French hermeneutics school(Liu Guiying, 2006, 117).<br /> <br /> &quot;Deverbalization Mode&quot; theory was proposed by the French hermeneutics school, which is represented by French interpreting theorist Seleskovitch. In a language, sense is the content while words and linguistic signs are the shell. In this mode, what the interpreter needs to do is “shell” the language by coding the information. That is to only keep the sense of the language in memory and remove all the other things(Seleskovitch, 1978). According to the theory, the whole process of interpreting is divided into three stages. They are listening, understanding and expressing respectively. Understanding is considered to be the most important part in the process of interpreting(Seleskovitch, Lederer 2003, 41). <br /> <br /> In interpreting, interpreters should first listen to and make clear these linguistic signs and find out the sense and content they express through analysis and understanding. Then the interpreters need to remove the “shell” of the language and forget the linguistic signs and their structure. Only the sense needs to be memorized. The final step for interpreters is to reconstruct the information of original language. They need to decode these sense with the linguistic signs of target language(Xu Ming, 2010, 6).<br /> <br /> Deverbalization is not just a coding process from original language to target language but also a dynamic process of understanding and expressing. The central idea is that the interpreters should memorize the pure sense of content instead of the language shells. And they then should process these information with the language shell of target language(Xu Han, 2007, 124).<br /> From the perspective of the theory, interpreters’ memory is not mechanical memory of isolated phonetic codes and information symbols of the source language, but the memory of the main meaning and key words of the source language information on the basis of understanding. Moreover, interpreters’ memory is not simply recalling of information stored in the brain, but a storage and extraction of input information after analyzing, screening, processing and coding. Interpreters must extract the relevant background knowledge stored in the brain by means of &quot;semantic retrieval&quot;, identify, interpret and reason the speech chain, then store the textual meaning in the form of internal speech, and complete the information restoration process in a short time(Xu Han, 2007, 124).<br /> <br /> '''3.3 Memory Strategies for Interpreters'''<br /> <br /> '''3.3.1 Logical Memory''' <br /> <br /> Logical memory means that when the interpreters receive new information, they can fully stimulate the existing schema in their mind according to the main content of the information, get rid of the limitations of the source language, better remember the newly acquired information, and truly achieve the combination of &quot;recalling&quot; and &quot;interpreting&quot;. In interpreting, interpreters use discourse knowledge to logically sort out the internal relations of the source language content and list the framework. In this process, the interpreters’ notes should mainly include the logical relationship between key words and information, and what the interpreters memorize in his brain is the main meaning and connection of the source material, rather than isolated phrases and sentences. In the interpreting stage, the interpreter uses the newly acquired information to activate the related schema in the brain to summarize and edit, so that the known information can reduce the memory burden. This memory method is suitable for interpreting materials with organized contents and clear priorities(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).<br /> <br /> '''3.3.2 Visual Memory'''<br /> <br /> Visual memory refers to a method in which an interpreter can quickly visualize the source language content in his mind, combine the existing background knowledge schema, and use the imagery thinking established in his brain to remember when he or she hears the interpretation content. Visual information storage tends to be more complete, and its retention time is relatively long. If images can be formed in the brain, it will definitely reduce the memory burden and produce better translations. Using visual memory of information in descriptive or introductory interpreting materials will produce very good results(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).<br /> <br /> For examples, the following is part of President Xi’s, state leader of People’s Republic of China, speech at the 12th BRICS Summit.<br /> <br /> “同时，我们坚信，和平与发展的时代主题没有改变，世界多极化和经济全球化的时代潮流也不可能逆转。我们要为人民福祉着想，秉持人类命运共同体理念，用实际行动为建设美好世界作出应有贡献。”(Xi jinPing, 2020)<br /> <br /> The official translation is given as fallowed from XinHua News Agency.<br /> <br /> “Despite all this, we remain convinced that the theme of our times, peace and development, has not changed, and that the trend toward multi-polarity and economic globalization cannot be turned around. We must keep people’ s welfare close to heart and pursue the vision of a community with a shared future for mankind. Through concrete actions, we will contribute our share to making the world a better place for everyone.”<br /> <br /> From president Xi’s speech, he mentioned the theme of times, world and peace, multi-polarity and economic globalization, people’s well being. Thus interpreters can use visual memory here to imagine peace as a peace bird, globalization as a the picture of earth and people’s well being as a picture of a happy family(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).<br /> <br /> '''3.3.3 Chunk Memory'''<br /> <br /> In the process of memory, individual information is often grouped into larger units, that is, recombined or recoded, which is called chunks. Although people's short-term memory capacity is only about 7 chunks, the information storage capacity of each chunk can be extended to a certain extent. People can reorganize the information of short-term memory by using the related schema in their minds, and form familiar larger meaning units. Therefore, in interpreting memory training, the translator should actively use the schema in his mind to make information memorized in chunks efficiently. Interpreters should reconstruct the information they hear, get rid of the language form of the original text, and transform it into meaningful information chunks. With the help of schema theory and interpretive theory, several single sentences can be condensed into several meaningful information chunks, thus reducing the memory pressure in interpretation and greatly improving the interpretation effect. Materials with poor logic and consistency are more suitable for this memory method(Miller, 1956, 63).<br /> <br /> There is also a part from President Xi’s speech at the 12th BRICS Summit as followed.<br /> <br /> “环顾全球，疫情使各国人民生命安全和身体健康遭受巨大威胁，全球公共卫生体系面临严峻考验，人类社会正在经历百年来最严重的传染病大流行。国际贸易和投资急剧萎缩，人员、货物流动严重受阻，不稳定不确定因素层出不穷，世界经济正在经历上世纪30年代大萧条以来最严重的衰退。单边主义、保护主义、霸凌行径愈演愈烈，治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字有增无减。”(Xi jinPing, 2020)<br /> <br /> And the official translation is given as followed. <br /> <br /> “Around the world, COVID-19 is posing a grave threat to people’s life and well-being. The global public health system is facing a severe test. Human society is going through the most serious pandemic in the past century. International trade and investment have shrunk considerably. The flow of goods and personnel has been impeded. Factors for uncertainty and instability are numerous. The world economy is witnessing the worst recession since the Great Depression in the 1930s. Unilateralism, protectionism and acts of bullying are becoming rampant, and the deficit in governance, trust, development and peace is widening instead of narrowing.”<br /> <br /> In this part, president Xi mentioned many aspects. They are current situation, public heath, people’s health, economy and politics. Each aspect can function as a chunk. When interpreters hear these information, they can memorize these information in these chunks(Chen Weihong, 2014, 87).<br /> <br /> ===4 Translation Memory in Interpreting===<br /> <br /> '''4.1 Translation Memory'''<br /> <br /> With development of science and technology, translation technology become widely use in translation field such as computer aided translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translators. And translation memory is a tool used in computer aided translation(Shi Yuntao, 2000, 36).<br /> <br /> '''4.1.1 Definition'''<br /> <br /> Translation memory is also called TM. It is different from the psychological memory that has been well elaborated. It is a kind of database to aid the translation. The principle of Translation Memory (TM) technology is that users build one or more translation memories by using existing original texts and translations. In the process of translation, the system will automatically search the same or similar translation resources such as sentences and paragraphs in the translation memories, and give reference translations, so that users can avoid unnecessary repetitive work and only focus on the translation of new content. At the same time, the translation memory keeps learning and automatically storing new translations in the background, which becomes more and more &quot;smart&quot; and more efficient(Lv Lisong, Mu Lei, 2007,36).<br /> <br /> '''4.1.2 Mechanism'''<br /> <br /> The translator first provides a source text to the translation memory, and the program will analyze this text first, and try to find out whether the existing translation section is consistent with the translated text in the past in the database. If matching translation pairs are found, they will be presented to the translator for reference. Translators can choose to accept the old translation, reject it or modify it. If it is modified, the modified version will also be recorded and stored in the database(Wang Jinquan, 2004, 14).<br /> <br /> Some translation memory systems only search for 100% matching words, which means that only the new source that is accurately compared with the database and completely matching data will be presented. There are also other systems that use the fuzzy comparison principle to find similar segments, and present them to translators with special marks to make them easy to recognize. It is very important that the general translation memory system only searches the source language from its database. Text segments that have no match at all will have to be translated manually by the translator. These newly translated text segments will be stored in the database, and future translations may be adopted immediately because the source text appears repeatedly. Translation memory will work well when the repetition of articles is quite high, such as some technical documents or manuals. Translation memory is also very helpful for translating a situation where existing documents are gradually added and revised from the past. Generally speaking, translation memory will not be considered in literature or creative documents, mainly because these types of articles have low repeatability. However, some people think that these words with extremely low repeatability are still worth collecting, for example, they can be used in the search of concordance. Other help collected from translation memory can also be helpful in quality verification and proofreading. When the translation memory is continuously used on appropriate words for a period of time, it will save a lot of workload for translators.(Wang Jinquan, 2004, 14)<br /> <br /> '''4.2 Application of Translation Memory in Interpreting'''<br /> <br /> '''4.2.1 Current Situation '''<br /> <br /> Although most translation memory is used in the work of translation, it is also used in interpreting widely in recent years. Translation memory is also used in three stages of a interpreting(Li Jun, 2020, 127). <br /> <br /> The first stage is pre-interpreting period when interpreters make preparation for the interpreting. If there is script or some new terms and expressions, interpreters can first resort to machine translation to learn how to translate these content and then store these results in translation memory for future use(Li Jun, 2020, 128).<br /> <br /> The second stage is when the interpreters are doing the interpreting. There is a very important technology called voice recognition. The technology can recognize what the speakers said and transcribe it into words. One the one hand, these words can show as subtitles on the screen. Listeners can choose to watch the subtitles or listen to interpreters by themselves. Ont the other hand, these recognized words can also show to interpreters for them to refer to. Thus, it can reduce their stress and burden to some extend. And if the speakers said the terms or words that have been stored in translation memory, they can soon be translated into target languages. The voice recognition technology can transfer speech into words. And then translation plays its role to help interpreters do their interpreting as it saves interpreters a lot of time to remember these words(Li Jun, 2020, 128).<br /> <br /> The third stage is after the interpreting. Interpreters can have a review on their on interpreting by voice recognizing their record. If there is any new words that could appear again in the future, interpreters can store them in their own translation memory. If there are words that have benn stored in translation memory but needs modifying, interpreters can also upgrade them(Li Jun, 2020, 128).<br /> <br /> '''4.2.2 Limitations'''<br /> <br /> Although translation memory has been adapted in interpreting, its has still some limitations. There are mainly two aspects of limitation. They are translation memory and voice recognition.<br /> <br /> As for translation memory, the limitation is that what stored in translation memory are words and phrases. In most cases, people needs to translate a whole paragraph or text, so the cohesion is very important. Common translation memory uses a sentence as a Translation Unit or a Translation Segment, which makes it easy to translate multiple sentences separately and then combine them. And this makes the translation not as coherent as it’s required. Besides, translation memory is not compatible to all file formats such as words, the one most frequently used(Su Mingyang, 2007, 73).<br /> <br /> As for voice recognition, when there are more than one language in the speech, the effectiveness of the technology could be affected. Besides, it sometimes fails to recognize conditional adverbials and adverbial clause induced by words such as If, every and although is not good. The reason is that the clauses caused by these words can be placed before or after the main sentence, which makes it difficult to recognize and automatically add punctuation marks. Moreover, the results of recognition is greatly affected by the pronunciation and intonation of the speaker and the environment(Li Jun, 2020, 129).<br /> <br /> ===5 Conclusion===<br /> <br /> A good interpreter is required to have a good memory. It doesn’t only mean the ability to memorize many things but also knowing how to use different memory systems and modes of coding to optimize their memory. Moreover, with the development of technology, interpreters should also learn how to use these technology such as translation memory to help them do the interpreting. However, although translation memory is used in interpreting now, it is still not mature and needs to be improved. Interpreters can use these technology but not rely on it. They must rely on their own memory.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Baddeley, A. D. Working Memory : an Overview[A]. 2006.<br /> <br /> [2]Hitch, G.J. Working Memory[A]. 2012.<br /> <br /> [3]Miller, A. George. The Magic Number Seven Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information[J]. 1956. The Psychological Review, 63(2).<br /> <br /> [4]Seleskovitch, D. &amp; Lederer, M. Pédagogie Raisonnée de l , Interprétation (3 e édition) [M]. Paris: Didier Erudition, 2003.<br /> <br /> [5]Tulving, Organism of Memory[C], New York: Academic Press, 1972.<br /> <br /> [6]鲍刚, 翻译理论概述[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,2005.<br /> <br /> [7]车文博, 心理学原理[M]. 黑龙江：黑龙江人民出版社, 1986.<br /> <br /> [8]陈卫红. 论心理认知和口译记忆[J]. 外语教学理论与实践, 2014: 85-95.<br /> <br /> [9]韩小明. 从记忆机制看口译教学中记忆能力的培养[J]. 重庆工学院学报, 2004: 156-15.<br /> <br /> [10]李俊. 计算机翻译辅助技术在同传中的应用及对同传生态系统的影响[J]. 中国翻译, 2020(4): 127-132.<br /> <br /> [11]刘桂英. 口译的记忆心理学基础[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2006: 116-118.<br /> <br /> [12]刘颖, 苏巧玲. 医学心理学[M]. 北京：中国华侨出版社, 1997.<br /> <br /> [13]吕立松, 穆雷. 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[J]. 外语世界, 2007: 35-43.<br /> <br /> [14]马英迈, 孙长彦, 口译中的记忆与理解[J]. 宁夏大学学报, 2004: 78-79.<br /> <br /> [15]施韵涛. 全新翻译解决方案 ——翻译记忆[J]. 中国科技翻译, 2000.<br /> <br /> [16]苏明阳. 翻译记忆系统的现状及其启示[J]. 外语研究, 2007: 70-74.<br /> <br /> [17]王建华. 口译过程认知研究[M]. 北京：中国人民大学出版社, 2019.<br /> <br /> [18]王金铨. 翻译记忆 ( TM)—— 计算机翻译技术的新发展[J]. 现代图书情报技术, 2004: 13-16.<br /> <br /> [19]徐翰. 口译记忆认知与记忆策略探索[J]. 南昌大学学报(人文社会科学版), 2007: 124-126.<br /> <br /> [20]许明. 口译认知过程中“deverbalization”的认知诠释[J]. 译论研究, 2010: 5-11<br /> <br /> [21]张威. 口译认知研究：同声传译和工作记忆的关系[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 2011.<br /> <br /> == The Subtile Translation of Movie from the Perspective of Multimodal Discourse Analysis 王轩 Wang Xuan==<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> Mankind has entered the era of multimedia, so the language as a mono-modal form has been unable to fully express the meaning of communication. Thus we need some other modals to enhance, in order to fully express the meaning and reach the aim of communication, such as sound, visual image, color and so on. Thus the term Multimodality aroused linguist’s interest and attention. <br /> <br /> They conducted a lot of research and exploration in Multimodal Discourse Analysis. Multimodal Discourse Analysis is based on Halliday’s systemic functional linguistics as the foundation, Professor Zhang Delu points out that the Multimodal Discourse is a phenomenon which means use auditory, visual, tactile and other sensory and communicate through language, image, sound, movement and other symbolic resources. <br /> <br /> Martin points out that Multimodal Discourse Analysis is composed of five levels, they are: (1) cultural level (2) context level (3) significance level (4) form level (5) media level. By discussing the combination between the subtitle translation of “Benjamin Button” and Multimodal, the thesis is to analyze that how does the Multimodal Discourse Analysis affect the subtitle translation of movies. <br /> <br /> The thesis is based on the Multimodal Discourse Analysis theory as the foundation, aims to analyze the following three areas under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis: 1. The embodiment of Multimodality in the film “Benjamin Button”, then aims to analyze how does the subtitle and Multimodality combining to constructed the whole meaning under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis.2. The second goal is to discuss the relationship between the movie’s subtitles and other modals, and the relationship between different modals. 3. By discussing the analysis of the movie subtitle expression function in the process of overall significance, this thesis attempts to put forward some suggestions on the movie subtitle translation. <br /> Keywords: Multimodal Discourse Analysis；Audio-visual Product；Subtitle Translation<br /> <br /> === Chapter One Multimodal Discourse Analysis Theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 1.1 The Emergence And Development Of Multimodality '''<br /> <br /> At present, experts and scholars have entered the stage of multimodal discourse analysis. This is not an accidental phenomenon, but inevitable, because they think that discourse or discourse is a unit of meaning, but the expression of meaning is not only through a single language, on the contrary, it can be constructed by many other symbol systems besides language. <br /> <br /> Therefore, it is not comprehensive and specific to analyze discourse or discourse from the linguistic level, so multimodal discourse analysis comes into being. Multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in foreign countries, and has been widely studied and explored. However, it is still in its infancy in China, and has attracted much attention in recent years. <br /> <br /> In the early 1950s, American linguist Harris put forward the theory of discourse analysis for the first time. Since then, discourse analysts all over the world have been working hard to analyze and study, and have put forward many theories and methods of discourse analysis, and analyzed them through a large number of examples. <br /> <br /> However, almost all the theories and methods of discourse analysis focus on language and ignore other forms of meaning expression, such as image, music, color and so on. Therefore, the research on discourse analysis at that time was not comprehensive and had great limitations. In the 1990s, multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in western countries, which overcomes the limitations of discourse analysis to a certain extent. Therefore, once multimodal discourse analysis was proposed, it immediately attracted the attention of linguists and once became a hot topic. Especially in recent years, linguists at home and abroad have carried out extensive research and Exploration on multimodal discourse analysis. <br /> <br /> In foreign countries, R. Barthes is the first French scholar to systematically analyze multimodality. As a famous semiotician, R. Barthes adopts the semiotic perspective to study multimodality. Therefore, multimodal discourse has been analyzed with semiotics from the very beginning. Multimodal discourse analysis breaks through the shackles of traditional single language information, and integrates more research in other fields, such as psychology, cognitive science and sociology. R. Barthes discussed the interaction and relationship between image and language in the expression of meaning. Based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed a relatively perfect grammatical framework for the analysis of visual images, thus providing theoretical basis and analytical methods for multimodal discourse analysis. They believe that multimodality is a major feature of various discourses in modern society. In the digital age, these different modes play the same role in meaning reproduction. In addition, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed an image analysis framework based on three pure functions in image reading, namely reproduction, interaction and composition.. In a word, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen's multimodal communication theory mainly focuses on the symbolic resources and their use. <br /> <br /> In China, there are also in-depth and extensive research on multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Li Zhanzi analyzes multimodal discourse from the perspective of social semiotics, while Hu Zhuanglin, a professor of Peking University, studies multimodal semiotics in theory and practice, and proposes multimodal language teaching and research in social semiotics. Zhu Yongsheng has made an in-depth study on multimodality and summarized the theoretical basis and research methods of multimodal discourse analysis. Zhang Delu made a preliminary exploration on the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Zhang Delu pointed out that multimodal discourse refers to the use of hearing, vision, touch and other senses, through language, images, sounds, movements and other means and symbol resources for communication. This phenomenon is very common, which is mainly reflected in the following aspects. For example, in order to better understand poetry, people find that it can be attached with pictures, that is, it is attractive People's interest has reached the purpose of helping people understand. In addition, people can often add some auxiliary gestures or actions, and use different tone and tone when speaking, which is also a form of multimodality. However, multimodal discourse analysis has not been paid enough attention. Only in the study of modern linguistics, some linguists have paid attention to multimodality and started to study it from the perspective of non-verbal features and linguistic features. However, it is only studied as an auxiliary expression system of language, but not as a mode of meaning expression. Although multimedia discourse analysis came into being, it was not until recent years that scholars gradually realized the importance of multimedia discourse analysis. It can be seen that multimodality has attracted a large number of linguists in China and achieved fruitful results.<br /> <br /> ''' 1.2 The Theoretical Framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis '''<br /> <br /> Linguists have found that systemic functional linguistics can be used as the basic theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. The five levels are: (1) cultural level, including ideology as the main form of culture and genre as the potential choice of discourse mode. (2) The context level includes the context configuration composed of discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. (3) The meaning level includes discourse meaning and conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning. (4) At the formal level, there are different formal systems to realize meaning, including lexical grammar system of language, visual ideographic form and visual grammar system, auditory ideographic form and auditory grammar system, tactile ideographic form and tactile grammar system, etc., as well as the relationship between the grammar of various modes. (5) Media level is the material form of discourse in the material world, including linguistic and non-verbal. Systemic functional linguistics provides a relatively ready-made theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis. On this basis, Professor Zhang Delu proposed a comprehensive theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis: (1) cultural level, (2) context level, (3) content level, (4) expression level<br /> <br /> ''' 1.3 The Forms and Relations of Multimodal Discourse '''<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse forms include: language, picture sense, sound sense and feeling. The typical multimodal discourse mode is a kind of modal discourse, which can not fully express its meaning, or can not express its full meaning. It needs to be supplemented by another one. The relationship between these modes is called &quot;complementary relationship&quot;, while the other is called non complementary relationship. <br /> <br /> Complementary relationship can be divided into strengthening relationship and non strengthening relationship. Reinforcement relationship means that one mode is the main form of communication, while another or more forms strengthen it. For example, when expressing meaning, if language is the main form of communication, then other body movements such as gestures will strengthen the language. On the contrary, language may also be a reinforcement to other ways of communication. Strengthening relationship includes three kinds of relations: prominent, primary and secondary, and expanding. Non reinforcement refers to the relationship between two modes which are indispensable and complementary to each other. For example, in the process of watching a movie, the visual and auditory modes are combined with each other. There are also three forms of non strengthening relations: coordination, union and intersection. In the coordination relationship, different modes construct the whole meaning together, and the lack of any mode will be incomplete. Play the video at the same time, for example. The two modes of image and sound are both necessary and difficult to understand without one communication. In this case, the relationship between image and sound is harmonious. The joint relationship refers to the combination of different types of media in the same mode to express the meaning. For example, in the typical multimodal discourse form of film, the sound matched with the scene animation and the voice of interpretation are combined to reflect the meaning of auditory construction. The last one is the phenomenon of cross embodiment of meaning. For example, teachers do experiments while they are in the experimental class. At this time, the text is still unimodal. However, if you are talking with your friends about whether the weather is snowing, the size and shape of snow, and so on, the scene of snow, including the process and mode of snow, will directly participate in the overall meaning you want to express. At this time, your discourse has a strong situational dependence. A large part of the meaning of your speech is reflected by the situation, although the scene does not actively participate in it In your verbal communication. Therefore, context dependent discourse communication is multimodal.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Two Film subtitle translation theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 2.1 Film Works and Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> With the advent of the multimedia digital era, foreign film and television works continue to flow into China, so subtitle translation is becoming more and more important. More and more people use subtitles to obtain foreign related information, understand foreign cultures and even learn foreign languages. Subtitling affects people's cognition of things, and subtitle translation has become a professional auxiliary form to facilitate the audience to understand multimedia works. Gottlieb defines subtitle translation as &quot;a kind of written, additional and synchronous translation type for instantaneous and multi symbolic texts&quot;. (Gottlieb, 1997:309) in China, film and television translation started relatively late, and large-scale film and television translation began after the 1980s. <br /> <br /> Although the number of mass media translation has greatly increased, subtitle translation has not attracted enough attention of the academic community, and the research results on subtitle translation are few. In recent years, subtitle translation, as a field of translation, has attracted more and more attention from experts and scholars all over the world. Subtitles have two major functions: first, to deepen the audience's impression of some film content; second, to assist the lack of listening. There are two kinds of subtitles: the first is intralingual subtitle, the second is interlingual subtitle. Intralingual subtitle translation does not need to translate one language into another, but only converts the discourse into text. &quot;Interlingual subtitle refers to the translation of the source language into the target language and superimposed on the bottom of the screen while retaining the original sound of the film and television, which is commonly referred to as subtitle translation.&quot; (Li Yunxing, 2001:38)<br /> <br /> ''' 2.2 The Characteristics Of Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> Film subtitles are an important part of the film, and together with the visual image to construct the meaning, film subtitles can help the audience to understand the characteristics of the characters in the film, to master the character's character and to be familiar with the plot of the film. Film subtitle translation has the following characteristics: <br /> <br /> Firstly, colloquialism. Subtitle translation in movies is mainly the translation of dialogues between the characters in the film. Therefore, subtitle translation should be as colloquial as possible and conform to the expression characteristics of the characters. On the premise of ensuring the coherence and smoothness of the context, the subtitle translation should be as close to life as possible so as to achieve natural and realistic effect. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the characters in the film have their own unique personalities, which are often reflected by different language styles. Therefore, the second feature of film subtitle translation is to conform to the characters' personalities. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, emotional, emotional help the audience better understand the plot, so the film subtitle translation should reflect the true feelings, the translation should be able to put oneself in the position and into the role, to achieve the artistic effect of sincere.<br /> <br /> Fourthly, oral form is a typical feature of film subtitle translation, which is also the most obvious difference between film subtitle translation and literature translation. The basic task of translation is to provide a blueprint for dubbing. Therefore, the translation of subtitles should be consistent with the mouth shape of the characters as much as possible, and the accuracy and vividness of the translation should be guaranteed. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, popularization means popularization. Popularization means that the translation can be understood by the audience on the premise of smoothness, so as to achieve the purpose of clear understanding and appreciation of both refined and popular tastes. The ultimate goal of popularization is to serve the audience and make the translation a bridge for effective communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3 Strategies Of Film Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.1 Pay Attention To The Artistry Of Language '''<br /> <br /> It is said that film is the seventh art after literature, music, dance, drama, painting and sculpture. As a young art, the only one who knows his birthday, film appeared as a popular art from the very beginning. Film is an art form with unique means of expression, and the artistry of its language is the basic element of film. Although Goethe once said: art should never be the same as reality, and it is impossible to embody art. But it turns out that film is not only a popular art, and it is the most popular art, which is called a kind of popular culture. From the point of view of the film itself, most of the films are for people to watch, and the audience of the film comes from different social strata, so their education level is also different. Therefore, the language in the subtitle of film translation must be in line with the audience's acceptance ability and actual level, so as to make the translation understood by the audience, more clearly, and achieve both refined and popular tastes. However, the vulgarization and popularization of the target language does not mean the vulgarization and generalization of the language. The language of film is rich in expressive force, and the language of subtitle translation must be accurate, natural and vivid. Therefore, in the film subtitle translation, we should not only retain the language characteristics of the source language and absorb the characteristics of foreign language expression, but also abide by the language tradition of our own culture, and use words with cultural color of the target language to translate the original text, so as to truly achieve the purpose of translation.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.2 Literal Translation And Free Translation Should Be Audience-Centered '''<br /> <br /> The characteristics of film subtitle translation, i.e. instantaneity and popularity, determine its translation strategies. Subtitle translation must refer to the picture and sound of the film and television. Usually, the subtitle appears in front of the audience together with the original picture, so that the audience can not only enjoy the picture, but also have time to read the subtitle. This is the duality of subtitle translation. When the audience accepts the sound, picture and subtitle information of the original text, they are integrated, complementary and contradictory. Therefore, subtitle translation must consider that subtitle is not an independent mode, it includes the creation process and the reception process. In a word, both literal translation and free translation should focus on the audience. Literal translation can absorb new foreign factors and information, and can reflect foreign culture and sentiment. Free translation is easier to be accepted by the target language audience. Film subtitle translation must take into account the audience's language level and education, and take the audience of the target language as the center and adopt correct translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.3 Processing Of Cultural Information '''<br /> <br /> As an intermediary of cultural exchange, the translator's main purpose is to promote the exchange of different cultures and reduce the cultural gap. Because the film subtitle in the process of translation is subject to many restrictions, for example, there are a large number of words with strong cultural color and some special language forms, and there are many gaps in the culture of different languages and nations and can not be replaced, so it increases the difficulty of film translation. For example, when translating puns, word games and proverbs, translators usually have to give up, which is actually a treason to the original film. <br /> <br /> There are three strategies to deal with cultural information in Subtitle Translation: first, the principle of cultural compensation. The principle of cultural compensation aims to preserve and introduce the cultural characteristics of foreign countries, so that the audience can understand the films of different languages and cultures. Second, adopt the principle of cultural transplantation. This principle can make subtitles more vivid, authentic and vivid. Translators need to discard the cultural characteristics of the source language and abide by the native language, so that subtitles can be easily understood and accepted by the target language audience. When neither of the two strategies is desirable, we can only use the third strategy, namely the principle of cultural coordination, which inevitably leads to the loss of cultural information in the source language and the target language. When dealing with the cultural information in subtitle translation, translators should pay attention to the combination of these three strategies with the film picture, and give full play to the illustrative and explanatory nature of the pictures, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Three Subtitle Translation Of &quot;Rejuvenation&quot; From The Perspective Of Multimodal Discourse Analysis ===<br /> <br /> ''' 3.1 A Brief Introduction of 'Benjamind Button' '''<br /> <br /> 'Benjamin Button', directed by the famous director David Finch is adapted from Fitzgerald's novel of the same name; the film tells the story of a strange Benjamin Barton who violates the laws of nature and is born in the image of an ancient and rare old man. As time goes by, he even lives more and more young. It is a story about the reversal of life.<br /> <br /> The following part will analyze the characteristics of subtitles and the translation strategies that should be adopted in the expression of the film from the cultural level, context level, content level and expression level of the multimodal theoretical framework.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2 Multimodal Translation in Movie Subtiles '''<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.1 On Cultural Level '''<br /> <br /> Under the influence of thinking patterns and habits, people have gradually formed a specific form of expression in which language can understand each other in communication. Therefore, it is particularly important whether the cultural factors in films are properly translated. Zhang Delu believes that &quot;the cultural level is the key level to make communication possible&quot;. In some cases, the source language and the target language can not be translated literally. Therefore, in the process of translating movie subtitles, we should not only keep the original features, that is, faithfulness, but also take into account the habitual language awareness of the target audience, that is, free translation strategies should be adopted to make the translation smooth and consistent Cultural characteristics of the target language.<br /> <br /> The English title of the film is ‘The Curious Case of Benjamin Button’, and a version is ‘本杰明·巴顿奇事’, but the translation of ‘返老还童’ has a larger audience. First of all, there is an English name in the title of Benjamin Button, which makes people feel the obscurity of the literal translation of foreign words. In Chinese, four character idioms or five or seven character quatrains or metrical poems are more catchy and easy to be accepted; Secondly, the title of &quot;rejuvenate&quot; is very suitable for the protagonist's inverted and retrograde life trajectory. In a word, it is very brilliant; Finally, the idiom ‘返老还童’ comes from ancient legends, which expresses people's desire for immortality and rejuvenation. Although it is a legend, modern people also want to be young and energetic, so the title of ‘返老还童’ can attract more audiences.<br /> In this film, there are many translation notes added to the translation, which will explain the cross-cultural ambiguity clearly. Although there are many translations, it is the best way to make the audience accept accurate information.<br /> <br /> When Daisy, the heroine, is old, she lies on the hospital bed and introduces the name of the Watchmaker: “they had the best clock maker in all of the south to build that glorious clock. His name was Mr. gateau Mr. Cake.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “还请来整个南方最好的钟表匠建了那座雄伟的大钟。那人叫盖图先生……蛋糕先生” (盖图/Gateau 在法语中是蛋糕之意)<br /> <br /> There is such a narration at the foundation laying ceremony of clocks and clocks: “Papa said there were people everywhere. Even Teddy · Roosevelt came.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “爸爸说，那天人山人海。连泰迪·罗斯福也来了( 西奥多·罗斯福，昵称泰迪美国第26 任总统)”<br /> <br /> In the above two examples, the comments added to the translation itself are in brackets. In the former example, &quot;Mr. cake&quot; suddenly appears. In the latter example, how President Roosevelt called &quot;Teddy Roosevelt&quot; will make the target language audience very puzzled. Although the use of annotations makes translation numerous, it is the best way for the audience to quickly obtain accurate information. The audience knows that gateau means &quot;cake&quot; in French, and Roosevelt has a nickname of &quot;Teddy&quot;.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.2 On Context Level '''<br /> <br /> In a specific context, communication is constrained by contextual factors (Zhang Delu, 2009). The context level elaborated by Zhang Delu includes discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. In order to express meaning or transmit information, subtitle and context jointly promote the development of film plot. Subtitle translation should be subject to context. In order to make subtitle translation not appear fault phenomenon, the film plot will advance naturally, and subtitle translation should also play a role of connecting the preceding and the following. In this way, in the process of translation, the translator should consider the contextual factors and pay attention to the smoothness and coherence of the translation within the sentence itself and between the sentences in the text.<br /> <br /> When describing Queenie's fertility problem, Queenie sees Benjamin's heart full of love. Her husband, Mr. Weathers, said: I know you ain't got all the parts it takes to make one of your own, but this ain't your to keep. At first it was certainly hard to understand the meaning of this sentence, but as the plot developed, Queenie prayed to the pastor for a son. After her pregnancy, she announced happily: “I had a miracle happen. The Lord saw fit to answer my prayer.” <br /> <br /> Little Daisy explained here: “ ‘I had a miracle happen’ means pregnancy.” （她有孩子了） In this way, the words said by Mr. Weathers was interpreted as: “我知道你没法有自己的孩子，可你也不能抚养这个。” Using free translation strategy, it is clear and faithful to the meaning of the source language, which makes the target language audience quickly know that Queenie likes children's characteristics and cares for Benjamin, an ugly ‘monster’.<br /> <br /> When Benjamin and Daisy are reunited in New York, Benjamin said: “I thought I'd come here and sweet you off your feet or something.” The phrase &quot;sweep you off your feet&quot; means &quot;to make you fall suddenly and deeply in love with you&quot;（让你倾倒）. Benjamin and Daisy were separated from each other for many years at that time. Daisy, who was living in the dance circle, was popular and desirable there. Benjamin went to New York to find daisy after burying his father. He was in a mixed mood. In fact, he wanted to find a friend to express his melancholy. Therefore, Benjamin did not go to find Daisy to &quot;fall in love&quot; with her but &quot;I thought I'd give you a big surprise when I came suddenly&quot;(我本以为我突然过来找你会给你一个大惊喜), which is very brilliant. This sentence is more suitable for the protagonist's situation by using free translation strategy.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.3 On Content Level '''<br /> <br /> The content level of Zhang Delu's expression includes discourse meaning level and form level. Discourse meaning is the conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning conveyed in language expression. In the film, subtitle is the narrator's narration and dialogue content. Film discourse requires the translator to accurately express the subtitle meaning to the audience. In the process of subtitle translation, some gas words, names and address terms can be omitted, which still does not affect the expression of discourse meaning.<br /> <br /> “Well, I know I don't have much to show for myself.”（我知道自己没有什么才能。） The omission of &quot;well&quot; does not affect the translation, but is more concise and can be understood more quickly.<br /> <br /> “You know, you may've got a few more years out of it, but you choose to do something so special and unique that there were only a short window of time you could do it.” Daisy was in the dance business, but she had an accident later. Some expressions here such as “a few more years out of it” ( 跳几年舞), “something so special and unique”( 事业太与众不同), “a short window of time” （几年黄金时间) have been dealt more concrete, so the whole sentence is translated as: “也许，你能多跳几年舞，可你的事业太与众不同了，只有几年的黄金时间可以发展。” <br /> <br /> As for its form, the formal features of different modes are interrelated and reflect the discourse meaning together (Zhang Fulu, 2009). The film system includes animation, pictures, music, language and other auditory and visual modes. Therefore, subtitles, together with listening and visual modes, work together to promote the expression of film meaning.<br /> <br /> For example, Benjamin and Daisy finally met and got together. They whispered in the yellow-glowed room:<br /> Daisy: “Will you still love me when my skin grows old and saggy?” ( 我要是成了黄脸婆你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> Benjamin: “Will you still love me when I have acne? When I wet the bed? When I'm afraid of what's under the stairs?” ( 等我老到脸上长满青春痘，老到尿床，老到连楼梯下有什么都怕，你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> The pictures, music and language all revealed the happy and loving life of the two people. In general, the film is based on the narration of a diary. In the film, the dialogue between the present and the narration in the diary is carried out alternately. In addition, the old pictures, the statement of time and the voice change of the narrator are used to make the past and the present change clearly and naturally, and they are applied in the formal level.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.4 On Expression Level '''<br /> <br /> Zhang Fulu believes that the expression level can be divided into language media and non-verbal media. In the language media level, he thinks that the main forms of meaning communication are sound symbols and writing symbols. For films, subtitles and subtitle translation belong to writing symbols. In the process of translating subtitles, translators should fully consider the media characteristics such as voice size, intonation strength, tone, font size and layout, which play a very important role in the expression of films. The subtitles of the film are at the bottom of the screen. Except for the notes, the translation takes up a little bit more space, and most of the subtitles in the source language and the target language occupy one line, which ensures that the audience has enough time to read the information. Non verbal media include communicators' body and nonverbal means (mainly tools and environment). Nowadays, with the progress of science and technology, movies can be played in cinemas, networks and various electronic media, and the media for appreciation is rich.<br /> <br /> Throughout the film, the dying old Daisy's tone is slow and strenuous on the bed. With the development of the story, light or heavy, a TV beside the bed broadcast the change of Hurricane weather activity, and the weather change also reflects Daisy's condition at that time.<br /> Finally, Daisy hugged Benjamin, a baby in her arms, and watched him invert the end of her life. The dying Daisy dictated in a low voice and intermittent tone: &quot;he looked at me and Iknow that he knew who I was.&quot;. (他看着我，那一刻，我知道他认出来了) The sound of the hurricane alarm suddenly sounded, sharp and obvious, and the picture of the staff of the hospital of traditional Chinese medicine was flustered, symbolizing that Benjamin's reversal clock was also washed away, and Daisy finally passed away. The sound, picture and words of the whole film are closely linked. It tells the story of eternal love, though limited in time, which is extremely shocking and thought-provoking.<br /> <br /> The translator of the film tries his best to translate various modes such as discourse, picture, sound and music. The translation strategy is mainly free translation, and the subtitle processing is simple and appropriate, so that the audience can have a good understanding of the limited time in the film, only the eternal knowledge of love. Taking the film subtitle of &quot;rejuvenation&quot; as an example, this paper analyzes the characteristics of subtitle translation from the aspects of culture, context, content and expression, hoping to better understand multimodal discourse analysis and free translation strategies in film subtitle translation.<br /> <br /> ='''Machine Translation'''=<br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory - A Case Study of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈永相 Chen Yongxiang&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine (hereinafter referred to as TCM), the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, boasts the favorable curative effect and a good reputation across the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative” and national economy, TCM has been playing an increasingly significant role in international trade, attracting more attention of foreign medical experts and consumers. As the essential attachment of a medicine, medicine instructions belong to the genre of practical writing, characterized by the unique language structure and stylistic features, guiding doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicines, such as usage and dosage, actions and indications, contraindication, etc. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. Due to the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, however, plenty of problems appear on the C-E translation of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> According to Adaptation Theory proposed by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. Translation is a cross-cultural communication activity, which involves language usage and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so on between source language and target language, and to adapt with different contexts, mentalities, cultures, etc. so as to achieve the ideal goal, from which the Adaptation Theory can be applied exactly into the study of translation. This paper will apply Adaptation Theory, therefore, as the theoretical framework, to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. Employing the core concepts and investigating aspects of Adaptation Theory, the author tries to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine instruction translation, Adaptation Theory, Yulin Pharmaceutical Company <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 中药是我国医药文化的瑰宝，有着良好的疗效和口碑。随着“一带一路倡议”的稳步推进和中国经济的平稳发展，中药药品在国际贸易中所占比重日益增加，得到了国外许多医疗专家和消费者的关注。药品说明书作为药品的重要附件，是一种实用文体，有其自身的语言结构和文体特点，能够指导医生与患者了解和熟悉药品作用、用法用量、适应症和禁忌等。而中医药品说明书英译作为中医英译的一个重要组成部分，其英译质量决定了药品能否被医生和患者正确理解和使用，以及中医药产品的国际贸易繁荣。然而，由于英语和汉语之间存在着不可避免的语言和文化差异，中医药品说明书英译依然存在着较大问题。<br /> <br /> 比利时语用学家维索尔伦提出的语言顺应论认为，语言的使用是一个不断作出选择和顺应的动态过程。翻译作为一项跨文化交际活动，需要在源语与目的语之间，就用词、翻译策略等方面进行选择，对不同语境、心理、文化等层面作出顺应。可见顺应论适用于翻译研究。因此本文以顺应论作为理论依据，通过对广西玉林制药公司中医药品说明书英译进行分析研究，运用顺应论的核心概念和研究视角，进一步探讨如何更好地翻译中医药品说明书。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 中医药品说明书翻译，顺应论，玉林制药公司<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''1.Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''1.1 Research Background of the Study'''====<br /> <br /> As the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, TCM has been through a profound history in China. Since “The Belt and Road Initiative” proposed for the first time, as an indispensable part in medical industry, TCM has tapped the potential of development opportunity to boost its reform so as to better make inroads into the international market. Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a renowned TCM pharmacy enterprise mainly engaged in R&amp;D, production and sales of Chinese medicines, one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties. In 2015, Consun Pharmaceutical Group Lt. has successfully brought partial share of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, which, in return, brought opportunities for the IPO and industrialization of the company. As the essential attachment of TCM medicine, the instructions guide doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicine correctly, which closely relates to consumer safety and are of great significance. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. The high quality translation versions of TCM instructions will accelerate TCM to enter into the international market, to occupy more competitive market share, and to better popularize the excellent TCM culture. <br /> <br /> ===='''1.2 Significance and Purpose of the Study'''==== <br /> <br /> It is noticed that studies and researches on TCM at home and abroad have boomed since the ancient Silk Road period. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from experts. Because of the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, a lot of problems appear on the translation of TCM instructions. And against such a backdrop, there are still no settled rules or translation standards to be applied and favored in the translation of TCM instructions, hence it’s quite essential to touch upon the area of C-E translation of TCM instructions in a more comprehensive and systematic way so as to find out more effective methods and strategies for the instruction translation. Adaptation Theory is proposed by Jef Verschueren, he thinks that language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation is a type of language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so forth between source language and target language. A good translation version of TCM instructions can appropriately guide both doctors and patients to understand the pharmacological functions, usage and dosage, actions and indications and contraindications of medicines. Therefore, the quality of instruction translation has a direct impact on whether TCM can be favored and obtained a good reputation among overseas medical industry and consumers. This paper studies the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, trying to take the Company as a case study to further discuss how to translate TCM instructions in a better way. <br /> <br /> ==='''2.Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 Features of TCM Instructions'''====<br /> <br /> Being the essential attachment of a medicine, the instruction contains important information that explains what the medicine is, how to take it and the effects after taking it, guiding doctors and patients to understand and use medicines properly. It closely relates to consumers’ safety. Thus, TCM instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. However, the information covered in most TCM instructions is drug name, ingredients, actions and indications, usage and dosage, while adverse effects, precautions, pharmacological effects, drug interaction, contraindications etc. are quite simple, even without any description of these items, failing to meet the requirement of international standards. <br /> <br /> Besides, due to the profound history of TCM developed in China, most of the unique TCM languages derived from the abstract philosophical concepts of ancient times remain being used until now, say, classical style and semi-classical style, which are accepted and favored by the TCM community, causing difficulties in translating them into English. And hence four-character structure, vagueness and ambiguity of the language, and no equivalence between Chinese and English are the main features of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> The four-character structure is concise but comprehensive in meaning, implying the extensive and abstract medical concepts of TCM. The tradition of using it to describe the symptoms and ways of treatment in TCM hasn’t been changed over time but continued to be applied and advocated in modern society. The TCM instructions are difficult to understand and translate, for the peculiar traits of TCM language, as well as the technical terms coming, directly or indirectly, from the abstract medical concepts of TCM, characterized by the unique treatment method as a whole in human body, and seeking to find answers and balance principles in nature to explain the causes and treatments of diseases, which is usually not the literal one but beyond cognition. In addition, there are gaps and non-equivalence between TCM and Western Medicine. Most TCM instruction translations apply technical terms from Latin in terms of ingredients, but adopt simple words and phrases for describing actions and indications, since the TCM language with Chinese characteristics finds no match in English. Ordinary people, as well as translators, who do not have the professional knowledge may have great difficulty in understanding and translating them. <br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Studies of TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine wasn’t legal once in the United States until 1975, as many scholars and experts were skeptical about its medical theory and way of treatment. Since the establishment of China, the government has been devoting great efforts to the recognition and popularization of TCM across the world. And from then on, a lot of studies and researches based on the translation of TCM have been published at home and abroad. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from the experts. In view of the special wording and the abstract theory of TCM, the translation of TCM instructions is of great difficulty and complexity. <br /> <br /> Currently, the translation of TCM instructions on the market, to a large extent, lacks readability and translation standards. Against such a backdrop, some scholars have striven to make some breakthroughs yet. Nigel Wiseman (2000) systematically elaborates the concept of “oriented by the source” in his dissertation, Translation of Chinese Medicine Terms: A Source Oriented Approach, in terms of the translation of TCM language, believing that the translation of TCM, as well as the instructions, should respect the original style and keep it in the target text as much as possible. In 2002, Translation of TCM Directions (《中医药说明书的英译》) written by Ouyang Lifeng (2002) put forward some practical methods for the translation of TCM instructions. He advocates “naturalization” and “readjustment”, namely, adaptation strategy, should be applied in translation, and if necessary, some additions and deletions are acceptable on the basis of faithfulness to the original text. Guided by Professor Ouyang, his student, Xiaoqiong, applies Peter Newmark’s Communicative Approach in her master’s thesis, On the Translation of TCM Booklets of Direction-The Communicative Approach (2008) to study the features of TCM instructions, suggesting that different approaches should be adopted regarding to different parts of the instructions. On translation Strategies of Chinese Medicine Instruction from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches written by Luo Haiyan (2009) conducts a relatively profound research under the guidance of Functionalist Approach in terms of each part of TCM instructions. She finds out the translation of TCM instructions is not very identical and comprehensible. Cao Qing’s thesis, A Study on Translation of Chinese Pharmaceutical Instruction (2011) states the common problems of translation instructions and advises three translation methods, namely literal translation, conversion and free translation under the Skopos Theory. There are still other scholars aiming at one aspect or another to further study the translation of TCM instructions, all of which exert a significant impact for references in translating TCM instructions. From the perspectives of Zhang Mengjing (1995), Ning Zhishou and Liu Cuiwei (1997), and Fu Wei (2006), the current TCM instruction translation lacks faithfulness, readability and incompatibility with conventional norms, suggesting that more attention should be paid in this field. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn from the above literature that studies on TCM instruction translation can be conducted from a wide scope. For the great distinction between western and Chinese culture, and the abstract medical principles of TCM, much has to be done to make the translation of TCM instructions more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> ==='''3.Adaptation Theory Applied in Traditional Chinese Medicine Instruction Translation of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company'''===<br /> <br /> From what has been mentioned above, as the important attachment of TCM, the instructions provide the correct and detailed medical information to doctors and consumers, guiding them to take medicine scientifically and properly, and hence the medicine instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. As one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a famous brand in the whole country, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties, and the buyout also boosts the process of IPO and reform. Through observation of the C-E translation instructions of TCM for foreigners and export, hence there are some certain instructive significance for the translation of TCM instructions. Because of the special characteristics of TCM instructions and the limited information included in the instructions of the company, this part tries to analyze the C-E translation instructions from the perspective of Adaptation Theory, mainly employing the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Contextual Correlates of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> As introduced earlier, according to Verschueren, the ingredients of contextual correlates of adaptability largely include the physical world, social world, and mental world. However, the author will mainly concentrates on the adaptation to the mental world and social world due to the limited materials collected. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.1 Adaptation to the Mental World'''=====<br /> <br /> Regarding the mental world, it involves the personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations, intentions and so on of both sides of language users. In the translation process, translators should take target readers’ mind into account, not just concentrating on personal mental world or literally translating the original text from one language to another language without any adaptation. <br /> <br /> Basically, consumers of drugs tend to rely on more renowned brands when facing a bunch of medicines displayed on the shelves. The key to attract their attention not only counts on the high quality of TCM, but also on the instructions with rigorous standards, concise specification and overall comprehensibility, delivering a sense of authority and credibility. <br /> <br /> To begin with, the name of drugs is the most direct information delivered to the consumers. Thus, a good name of the TCM can catch the eyes of buyers in the very beginning. “正骨水” is the most famous and important product of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, however, the translation of its name in the instruction simply applies transliteration and Chinese Pinyin, namely, “Zheng Gu Shui” , which fails to adapt with the mental world of target readers. Apparently, Pinyin isn’t the way of expression that they are familiar with. Translators should consider their mental expectation and make adaptation with their familiar ways of expression. In that point, “Bone-setting Liquor” would be a better name for the medicine. “Bone-setting” means the medicine is effective for the symptoms of bone problems, and “liquor” implies the ingredients involved alcohol and other irritating ingredients so that consumers can be aware of the precautions and avoid using it on fragile mucous membranes and anabrotic wounds. Also, the same type of medicine can apply the same way of translation, such as, “金装正骨水” can be translated to “Golden Bone-setting Liquor”, and “极品正骨水” is rendered as “Superb Bone-setting Liquor”. Such a name conveys the correct medical information to consumers and better adapt to their thinking patterns. <br /> <br /> Another example is “睡安胶囊”, the translation version is “Shui’an Jiaonang” . Obviously, it will confuse foreigners since they don’t recognize Chinese Pinyin in their cognitive levels. Translators should at least use “capsule” to indicate the medicine is some type of capsules effective for the sleeping problems. A well-recognized name will arouse attention and interest among consumers, attracting them to purchase the medicine. In order to adapt with their mental expectation and intention, as Ouyang (2002) advocates, naturalization or domesticating translation can be applied in translation. “Sleep Mate” or “Insomnia Killer” can better attract their attention and adapt with their beliefs and cognitive levels. In English, “mate” is a common word, which will be more acceptable and natural in such combination, and “killer” combined with “insomnia” implies the meaning of solving the insomnia problems, which is also more suitable and adaptable with their emotions and motivations. <br /> <br /> A good name of the medicine can not only imply the function of the medicine, conveying the essential information to customers, but also can draw their attention and arouse their desires to purchase the medicine. Meeting the demand and preference with the mental world of target people is also one of the requirements of medicine instructions. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, if transliteration or simply adopting Chinese Pinyin to translate the names of medicines will confuse customers and cause misunderstanding, adaptation is required, and not just words, but also translation strategies should be taken consideration when making adaptation. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.2 Adaptation to the Social World'''=====<br /> <br /> Verschueren (2000:91) states that there is no principled limit to the range of social factors that linguistic choices are inter-adaptable with. Basically, social settings and culture play a significant role in the process of translation. What distinguishes TCM from Western Medicine mainly lies on the cultural differences. Language is the carrier of culture, and the cultural differences can be embodied in different languages, and then shown and reflected in society. Instruction translation, as the cross-cultural communication activity, is influenced largely by cultural differences in different social worlds. Followings are the very typical translation examples to illustrate the point:<br /> <br /> Example 1(感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> Source Text (ST): 用于感冒或流感发热，头痛鼻塞, 伤风咳嗽，咽痛，肢痛<br /> <br /> Target Text (TT): Used for the treatment of cold, flu and fever, headache and nasal congestion, wind damage cough, angina and melalgia<br /> <br /> Revised Text (RT): Used for cold, flu, fever, headache, snuffle, cough, sore throat and pain in muscles<br /> <br /> Traditionally, “伤风” in Chinese means getting cold because of the invasion of “风” into the human body. “风” is actually one of the six exogenous pathogenic factors according to the medical theory of TCM, which cannot be explained from the perspective of Western Medicine. In western society, people have no concept that the natural phenomenon, say, “风” or “火”, will cause diseases in the human body. So the revised text deletes this term with TCM characteristics to avoid ambiguity and makes it more natural and understandable in English. In addition, most common patients who seek to buy medicines in pharmacies might not have the specific knowledge of medical field due to different social settings and backgrounds, thus, “angina” and “melalgia” might be beyond recognition and acceptance. Western world highlights the importance of brevity and conciseness in their society, and they place emphasis on simplification and efficiency, seldom using the very technical terms in their lives. Such social settings and cultural differences must be considered so as to make adaptation when translating. Besides, “nasal congestion” is the word-for-word translation and may cause misunderstanding among foreigners. So the revised text adopts “snuffle” and “sore throat” to indicate the meaning of “鼻塞” and “咽痛”, applying these simple words to make adaptation with cultural differences in different social worlds, and renders “melalgia” into “pain in muscles” to better deliver the meaning of “肢痛”. <br /> <br /> Example 2 (治咳枇杷露)<br /> <br /> ST: 治疗儿童伤风呃逆，咳嗽痰盛<br /> <br /> TT: Used for children’s wind-damage hiccup, cough and exuberant phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Used for cold, hiccup, cough and sputum in children<br /> <br /> Similarly, example 2 also translates “ 伤风” into “ wind damage”, which is not appropriate in such description. As mentioned above, additions and deletions, if necessary, can be applied to make adaptation in translation. So the revised text deletes “wind damage” and “exuberant phlegm”, adopting noun coordination and making it more readable and adaptable to the social world of target readers. <br /> <br /> Literal translation of instructions is not always the first option in the C-E translation of instructions. For translators, the first thing they should consider is to be faithful to the original meaning of the text, not the text itself. They need to make adaptation to the target readers’ social world, for instance, social status, social settings, social background, cultural differences, etc., striving to make the translation concise and easy to understand in their society. Amid such different social worlds, translators must bear in mind to render localization of different cultures to make adaptation without causing ambiguity and misunderstanding while successfully keeping and delivering the implied meanings as much as possible.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:26, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 Structural Objects of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translationn'''====<br /> <br /> According to Verschueren, linguistic choice-making takes place at all levels of structure that shows variability of any kind (2000:15). As indicated in Part two, for the reason of limited information covered in the TCM instructions, the materials collected from the company would be more meaningful if concentrating on the lexical level of the actions and indications of the instructions, which exactly features the typical four-character structure and language traits of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.1 Adaptation to the Lexical Level'''=====<br /> <br /> Differences in lexical level between TCM and Western Medicine largely reflect on terminologies and descriptions of diseases. The four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning. Currently, most translation versions of instructions are literally word-for-word translation and transliteration, failing to deliver the correct meanings implied in those TCM terminologies and words and lacking readability and authenticity. Here are some typical translation examples of the actions and indications of the medicines in Yulin Pharmaceutical Company:<br /> <br /> Example 3(蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 小便频数<br /> <br /> TT: Frequent urination<br /> <br /> Example 4 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 祛风除湿 <br /> <br /> TT: Dispel wind and eliminated dampness<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve rheumatic pain<br /> <br /> Example 5 (珍黄丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 消肿止痛<br /> <br /> TT: Ease a swelling and relieve pain<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve swelling pain<br /> <br /> Chinese four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning, and most of them are the causal relationship. &quot;祛风除湿&quot; is a typical example. “风湿” is a disease caused by the invasion of “风” into the human body, if &quot;风邪&quot; cannot be removed from the body soon, &quot;湿&quot; will appear and gather together near the joints, causing diseases and pains in joints according to the medical theory of TCM. So, &quot;祛风&quot; is actually the result of &quot;除湿&quot;, and vice versa. And the example of “消肿止痛”, it is usually can be explained that pain is caused by swelling as the result of illness or injury. Once the swelling disappears, so does the pain. According to the example 3, &quot;小便频数&quot; is translated into “Frequent urination”, using the structure of &quot;adjective+noun&quot; in English, which is concise in form and easy to understand. So the revised text of example 4 and 5 can also adopt such structure and translate into &quot;Relieve rheumatic pain&quot; and &quot;Relieve swelling pain&quot;, not only implying the causal relationship between the lines, concise and simple, but also avoiding translating repetitive meaning. <br /> <br /> Example 6 (感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> ST: 止咳化痰<br /> <br /> TT: Suppress cough and transform phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve cough and sputum<br /> <br /> Example 7 (乌军治胆片)<br /> <br /> ST: 疏肝解郁 <br /> <br /> TT: To course the liver and resolve depression<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve Qi stagnation in liver<br /> <br /> From the above two examples, &quot;止咳化痰&quot; is translated into &quot;Suppress cough and transform phlegm&quot;, and &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is “To course the liver and resolve depression”. It is noticed that simply employing the literal meaning of words to translate TCM instructions doesn’t work, especially in such medical context. Translators cannot ignore the relationship between the words and the context then make translation of words in isolation. &quot;化痰' means the symptom of sputum would be relieved and cured soon after taking the medicine, and hence here, the key words are &quot;咳&quot; and &quot;痰&quot;, not the verbs. So the translation of &quot;Relieve cough and sputum&quot; would be more comprehensible and readable. And the example of &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is actually another one that can be evidenced the casual relationship in TCM language. &quot;疏&quot; and &quot;解&quot; deliver the same meaning in such context, and &quot;肝郁&quot; is not the meaning of &quot;depression of liver&quot; but the irregular circulation and stagnation of the abstract &quot;Qi&quot; in liver from the perspective of TCM. So translating into &quot;Relieve Qi stagnation in liver&quot; retains the original meaning of Chinese and makes it more acceptable. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.2 Summary'''=====<br /> <br /> Despite of the characteristics of four-character structure in TCM language, the phenomenon of repetitive meaning implied between the lines is quite common. For translators, they should fully understand what meanings indicated between those words and phrases prior to translating them into another language. According to Adaptation Theory, language has the properties of variability, negotiability and adaptability. Facing abundant choices of words in English, translators should choose the most appropriate words and expressions after negotiation to make adaptation to the lexical level, the structure, the context, etc. preferred in English.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, translators should make linguistic choices not just at the lexical level, but also the syntactic level, textual level, rhetorical level etc. literally all levels of linguistic structures. Due to the limited information contained in TCM instructions of the company, this part mainly develops from the adaptation of lexical level, finding out that most translations apply literal translation with abusive usage of words, failing to deliver the correct meaning implied in TCM language and lacking readability and authenticity.<br /> <br /> With the great progresses of TCM over years, Yin(阴) and Yang(阳), Wuxing(五行) and Qi(气), these basic concepts in TCM have been accepted and recognized among foreigners. It can be adopted directly when translating the TCM instructions. With regard to the verbs in TCM language, literal translation sometimes might arouse skepticism and confusion of target readers and fail to deliver the correct meaning and the effectiveness of medicines. Translators should adapt the wording preference in target language and try to naturalize the translation but avoid abusive usage of words. Thus translators in this field should be equipped with excellent bilingual ability, sufficient background knowledge of TCM and Western Medicine, and the understanding of linguistics.<br /> <br /> ===='''3.3 Dynamics of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> As stated above, translation is a process of dynamic adaptation and involves the process of structural reconstruction and meaning regeneration. According to Verschueren (2000:157) “...strategies are always involved in any type of communication.” It means not just linguistic choices, but also translation strategies are dynamic because of different time, context and structure of both sides of language usage and each of them varies in line with relative factors when language users make choices. <br /> <br /> The dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation can be embodied from different words, phrases and translation strategies, even different languages applied in the medicine instructions. As for the part of ingredients, the instructions of the company employ Latin to indicate each TCM, for instance: Radix Notoginseng (三七), Herba Artemisiae Scopariae (茵陈), Fructus Lycii (枸杞), Poria (茯苓), Radix Codonopsis (党参), Rhizoma Dioscoreae (山药). It is usually the part where doctors and experts who have the specific knowledge of this field would be interested in, and using Latin to translate the TCM is the international standard of naming medicines, hence it is a way of adaptation. While next to the part of actions and indications, it resorts to different words and phrases in English to describe the indications of each medicine. English is apparently a better option for its universality and compatibility that common people can easily understand what the medicine is, and how to take it. Such adaptation to each part of the instruction in language shows the dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation. Following are some examples to show the dynamics of adaptability in translation: <br /> <br /> Example 8 (正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To remove obstruction from collateralls and channels and relieve muscular contracture<br /> <br /> Example 9 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To relax and activate tendons<br /> <br /> As for the translation of “舒筋活络”, example 8 and example 9 employ different words to deliver the meaning. The former is detailed and elaborated, delivering the original meaning implied in the lines while the latter is relatively simple, only using “tendons” to express the meaning of “筋络”. Besides the different specifications of “正骨水” and “金装正骨水”, the ingredients of these two medicines also show a wide difference, contributing to the different words and methods adopted in the same description of indications. From the above examples, it can be noticed, to some extent, that translators go through negotiation and then make dynamic adaptation with regard to different medicines. <br /> <br /> Example 10 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 旺盛局部血液循环, 增强细胞活力<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen partial blood circulation and improve vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 11 (筋骨王)<br /> <br /> ST: 改善局部血液循环，增强细胞活力。<br /> <br /> TT: To accelerate local blood circulation, increase vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 10 and example 11 are actually delivering the same meaning, but they change the words and phrases to adapt with two different medicines. With the variability and adaptability of language, the meaning of “增强” can be expressed by “improve” and “increase”, and translators employs “partial” and “local” to express the meaning of “局部”. As for the similar actions and indications, the translations of which vary in different medicines, demonstrating that translation is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. <br /> <br /> Example 12 (睡安胶囊)<br /> <br /> ST: 清心除烦<br /> <br /> TT: To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation<br /> <br /> Example 13 (蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 壮阳益肾<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney<br /> <br /> Example 12 and example 13 apply free translation to deliver the meaning of actions and indications of these two medicines. “清心除烦” is rendered into “To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation”, and “To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney” is more like the paraphrase of “壮阳益肾”. Both the translations are much easier to understand and adapt to consumers’ mind in a better way. Unlike the others, the above translations avoid literal translation, which will be too demanding and abstract for both sides of translators and target people, and they resort to free translation to convey the correct pharmacological actions, simplifying the instructions and making adaptation with the translation strategies to better resolve the cultural differences. <br /> <br /> Translating a TCM instruction can never be a mechanical activity of making translation from one language to another; rather, it entails dynamic adaptation to the differences between source language and target language. According to the Adaptation Theory, language use is a dynamic process of linguistic choice-making, which should adapt to contextual correlates and structural objects of language. As a type of more complex language use related to different languages, C-E translation of TCM instructions is a dynamic process of adaptation to different contexts and linguistic structures. However, the dynamic linguistic choices require language users to go through negotiation with themselves when facing abundant choices to eventually choose the most appropriate forms and strategies in accordance with different contexts and linguistic structures so as to fulfill the communicative intention. In other words, translators should avoid abusive usage of variability and adaptability of language, being faithful to the original meaning of texts to meet the standard of translation as much as possible.<br /> <br /> ==='''4.Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Being a significant carrier of TCM information, the instruction is a bridge that links the excellent TCM theories and effectiveness to the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative”, TCM will be learned and used across the world at a much larger scale. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, this paper employs the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, mainly concentrating on the adaptation to the mental world, social world, and the adaptation to the lexical level to study the C-E translation of the TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn that the C-E translation of TCM instructions of the Company is not that satisfactory after research. It doesn’t deal with the cultural differences between TCM and Western Medicine properly. Literal translation and abusive usage of words frequently appear in the C-E translation of instructions, failing to deliver the correct meaning and lacking readability and credibility, having a bad impact on the brand image. While at same time, there are some places worthy to be praised from the perspective of Adaptation Theory. It shows the dynamics of adaptability in the C-E translation of TCM instructions, which can be demonstrated through the various words, phrases, strategies applied in the process of translation. Still, much work has to be done to improve the quality of translation and make it more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, as a way of language use, translation involves the continuous making of linguistic choices. Not only words, language forms and structures, but also strategies should be taken into consideration when translating. Translators should adapt with the differences between English and Chinese, and meanwhile, pay attention to the features of TCM instructions, avoiding some obvious mistakes to achieve the ultimate goal of keeping the original meaning of TCM while delivering the accurate and rigorous medical information to foreigners. So the author advocates that adaptation is required during the process of translation, combined with transliteration and literal translation for some simple and basic concepts in TCM that have been well-recognized by foreigners, free translation and domesticating translation should be adopted with regard to the cultural differences in translation, if necessary, additions and deletions are also appreciated on the basis of being faithful to the original meaning of texts. <br /> <br /> Unfortunately, due to the limited materials collected and the incompetence of the author, the analysis of this paper only applies the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability of Adaptation Theory, failing to study in a more comprehensive way. In addition, this paper only conducts the research in studying the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, failing to reach at a larger scale. Last but not least, there are still some drawbacks and imperfections in Adaptation Theory, which the author fails to touch upon for lacking of knowledge and experience. Still, the author is willing to take all comment and advice.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1] As Homby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [Z]. The Commercial Press, Oxford University, extended eighth edition, 2014. <br /> <br /> [2] Bhatia, V. K. Analyzing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings [M]. London: Longman, 1993. <br /> <br /> [3] Carl James. Error in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [4] Fischbach, Henry. Translation and Medicine [M]. American Translators Association Scholarly Monograph Series, 1998. <br /> <br /> [5] Nigel Wiseman. Translation of Chinese medicine terms: A source oriented approach [D].University of Exeter, 2000. <br /> <br /> [6] Verschueren J. 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London: Edward Arnold Ltd., 1999;Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000. <br /> <br /> [8] 曹情. 中文药品说明书的翻译[D]. 湖南：南华大学, 2011. <br /> <br /> [9] 傅微. 语篇视点理论在中药说明书翻译中的运用[D]. 广西：广西大学外国语学院,2006. <br /> <br /> [10] 罗海燕. 功能主义翻译理论关照下的中药说明书的翻译[D]. 江苏：南京中医药大学, 2009. <br /> <br /> [11] 李照国. 中医基本名词术语英译国际标准化研究[M]. 上海科学技术出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> [12] 马邦新. 英文药品说明书的翻译[J]. 中国科技翻译, 1998(3): 16-18. <br /> <br /> [13] 宁之寿, 刘翠微. 也谈药品说明书的翻译[J]. 上海科技翻译, 1997(2): 31-33. <br /> <br /> [14] 欧阳利锋. 中医药说明书的英译[J]. 中国科技翻译, 2002, 15(2): 17-20. <br /> <br /> [15] 宋志平. 翻译:选择与顺应——语用顺应论视角下的翻译研究[J]. 中国翻译,2004(2): 21-25. <br /> <br /> [16] 肖琼. 中医药说明书的翻译[D]. 广东：广东外语外贸大学, 2008.<br /> <br /> [17] 袁斌业. 语言顺应论对翻译的启示[J]. 四川外国语学院院报, 2009(9), 111-113. <br /> <br /> [18] 张梦井. 药品说明书的英译问题[J]. 中国科技翻译, 1995(2): 6-9. <br /> <br /> [19] 周书梅. 顺应论视角下的翻译研究[J]. 山东省农业管理干部学院学报, 2013, 30(5): 138-140. <br /> <br /> --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602==<br /> &lt;center&gt;莫玲 Mo Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Science and technology constitutes a primary productive force. In the contemporary era, with the continuous development of science and technology, artificial intelligence has shown more and more mighty strength, and machine translation has also been derived in the field of translation. In this regard, many people are beginning to worry that machine translation will one day replace human translation. When it comes to me, science and technology is people-oriented, and the continuous development of it aims at servimg mankind in a better standard. Therefore, it is not realistic to separate science and technology from humanities. The appropriate way to solve this dilemma is to integrate the two to achieve the perfectly qualitative change of &quot;1 + 1 &gt; 2&quot;. This paper will first analyze the cons and pros of human translation and machine translation, and then explore the development of computer-aided translation based on the combination of the two types above and the progress should be made in different sectors among our society.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Human Translation, Machine Translation, CAT, Compatibility<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 机器翻译会取代人工翻译吗？<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 科技是第一生产力。在当代，随着科学技术的不断发展，人工智能展现出越来越强大的实力，在翻译领域也相应地衍生出了机器翻译。对此许多人都开始担心机器翻译终有一天会取代人工翻译。在笔者看来，科技以人为本，科学技术的不断发展是为了更好的为人类服务。因而将科技与人文割裂开来的观点是并不现实的，最好的解决办法应是将二者结合起来，实现1+1＞2的完美质变。本文将分析人工翻译与机器翻译各自的优势和劣势，进而探讨二者相结合的后的计算机辅助翻译的发展和社会各个层面应该做出的改进。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 人工翻译，机器翻译，计算机辅助翻译，融合<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> In these years, artificial intelligence has experienced a skipping development and more and more advanced technologies have been applied in our daily life. For example, many factories have introduced some robots to replace the repetitive works done by ordinary workers before. In addition, some restaurants have adopted robots to send the dishes to guests, etc. More and more cases in our life demonstrate the gigantic strength of science and technology. Panicked by this reality, a constantly growing number of people are worrying that they will lose their job one day when the artificial intelligence are more practical than them. This anxiety is also quite common in translation industry. In this field , human translation and machine translation are the two main kinds of translation methods. The former merely relies on the single person to do tranlation, while the latter is based on the vast corpus and developed technique. Since this enormous contrast, some people put forward a question that “Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation?” The answer is absolutely “no”. Actually, these two approaches are not incompatible. Instead, they both have their own advantages and disadvantages and through analysis,we can find that they can remedy their shortbacks by learning the valuable aspects from the other so as to form a “perfect pitch”. In other words,they are complementary to each other. <br /> <br /> Based on these viewpoints, first of all , the pros and cons of human translation and machine translation will be displayed one by one and then the new type of translation---computer-aided translation will be analyzed in detail. At last,confronted with the constantly changing world there are somes personal suggestions for those who work in the translation industry or those who are preparing to march into this field as well as government, colleges and universities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Pros and Cons of Human Translation and Machine Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Human Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 The Advantages =====<br /> <br /> As the traditional main force of translation, mankind own some irreplaceable edges. <br /> <br /> Firstly, they master a sordid foundation about the translation work, including extensive vocabularies, complex grammars, the construction of sentences and so on and so forth. Therefore, it’s hardly for them to make such mistakes.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)<br /> <br /> Secondly, due to the advanced education they have received, a great number of them has an encyclopedic knowledge about many fields. Furthmore, during the years of learning foreign languages, they have acquired not only the language knowledge but also the histories and cultures of these countries so that they are able to handle with the problems of cultural differences in translation very well.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, people have an capacity of rich emotion and thoughtful mind. When facing with some obscure translation materials, at the beginning they will make a transformation about it and then translate it with their understanding yet maintaining the main idea of the original texts.(Zhu Chaowei 2018,103)<br /> <br /> What is more, people are able to summarize the experiences and lessons in the process of translation and then form their own theory. Until now, there have existed a bunch of translation theories to guide the subsequent translators. Such as “faithfulness”(translation should convey the content of the original faithfully and accurately), “expressiveness”(smooth and fluent translation) and “elegance”(the translation should be exquisite) by Yanfu, &quot;functional equivalence&quot; by Eugene Nida, skopos theory by Hans Vermeer, etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Disadvantages=====<br /> <br /> However, the volume of brain is limited and it is impossible for mankind to memorize all the things in the world. Sometimes, they may forget what they have translated and in result cause a repetition of the same work they have done before.<br /> <br /> It is showed from some data that the output of human translation is 2000 words per person in eight hours. Actually that speed is a little bit slow especially when there are strenuous tasks waiting for them. Besides, editors have to check and revise their translations which is quite time-wasting.(Chen Yi 2018,30)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most translators work for governments, institutions, companies or some rich indivuduals. And right now in the translation market ,the standard price are several hundred Yuan per thousand characters. And the wage of intepreting is even more expensive. As a result, ordinary people won’t bother to hire a private translator. Under some circumstances, human translation can’t give a hand to the needed immediately. For instance, when Chinese people are travelling in the foreign countries, they can’t understand the words of those foreigners. At that time, an opportune and cheap translation tool is more desirable.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Machine Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Superiorities=====<br /> <br /> In the condition mentioned above, machine translation can meet tourists' needs perfectly. There are many translation applications in the app store, just like Baidu Translation, Google Translation, Youdao Translation, Hujiang Translation and so on. All of them are free for using and able to translate the language you input in just 1 second. And these applications have covered dozens of foreign languages so as to be the optimizing choice for many people. <br /> <br /> Besides the adoptation in daily life, machine translation has also been utilized in some important conferences. &quot;Translation headset&quot; is one of the most popular translation tools. It is usually combined with a smartphone application to translate the foreign language it heard to users. &quot;After decades of research, we have created an algorithmic framework to recognize language patterns in the same way as the human brain (neural network),&quot; said Andrew Ochoa, CEO of Waverly labs. By combining it with speech recognition technology, we have greatly improved the accuracy of translation. &quot; Therefore, Wearable translation machines made by companies like Waverly labs are really popular at conferences(Global Collections 2020,17).<br /> <br /> With the development of science and technology as well as the artificial intelligence, the system of machine translation has been polished step by step. Nowadays, it has built a huge corpus which contains tens of millions of storations, and translation with high accuracy can be available in some non-literary texts. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 The Inferiorities=====<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, a lot of noticeable defects still remain in machine translation. When it comes to the literary genres just like proses, poems and ancient essays, machine translation is not familiar with the language habits of these genres so as to incline to a failure in comprehending the latent meaning of the words thus nor it can work out an outstanding translation. In most cases it will adopt the method of literal translation, which is a confusing version, which can not express the idea of source language and the images in it can be missed. Take the following poem for example:<br /> <br /> 江雪<br /> <br /> 唐 柳宗元<br /> <br /> 千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br /> <br /> 孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。<br /> <br /> '''Version of Baidu Translation'''<br /> <br /> River Snow<br /> <br /> Birds flying away,<br /> <br /> The trail of thousands of people;<br /> <br /> A lone boat with a straw hat,<br /> <br /> Fishing alone in cold river snow.<br /> <br /> '''Version of Xu Yuanchong'''<br /> <br /> Fishing in snow<br /> <br /> From hill to hill no bird in flight,<br /> <br /> From path to path no man in sight;<br /> <br /> A lonely fisherman afloat<br /> <br /> Is fishing snow in lonely boat.<br /> <br /> Between these two versions, we can easily identify which one is better. In Xu’s translation, he translates “鸟飞绝” &amp;“人踪灭”into “no bird in flight” and “no man in sight”, which get rid of the form of the original text, not only expressing the deep meaning, but also conforming to the English expression habit. In addition, due to the repetition of two sentences in the same pattern, readers can feel a strong sense of monotony. And The most splendid point is the rhyme of first two sentences and last two sentences, which makes the whole poem cathy and add the musical beauty of the translation. On the contrast, the first version by machine is inferior in that it fails to express the artistic conception of the poem. People can’t feel the beauty descriped in the poem. What’s worse, some readers may puzzle about its imcomplete images and incoherent sentences!(Dong Wugang &amp; Xue Jiabao 1996, 56)<br /> <br /> Nor is this all, machines can’t grasp the rich emotions of mankind. Thus they incline to misundersand of tone and deep meaning of the words(Liang Jie 2020,18). Nay, China has a broad and profound civilization and there are numerous of polysemous words in Chinese.Just like “意思”and “方便”.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> <br /> When Zhang San send money to his leader, an interesting dialogue occurs between them. Please explain the different meanings of “意思”in the following sentences.<br /> <br /> 领导(leader)：“你这是什么意思？”(Why do you send me money?)<br /> <br /> 张三(Zhang San)：“没什么意思，意思意思。”(No special purpose, just a small gift.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这就不够意思了。” (Why don’t you tell me your true purpose?)<br /> <br /> 张三：“小意思，小意思。”(Not a big deal.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这人真有意思。” (It’s so interesting of you.)<br /> <br /> 张三：“其实也没有别的意思。”(I don’t have other special intentions on you.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“那我就不好意思了。”(Well, since that, I will accept your money.)<br /> <br /> Apparently, it may even be difficult for some people to get the deep meaning behind this dialogue let alone the senseless machine. Machine translation derived from science and technology are always under the control of human beings, they are always working under the manipulation of humanbeings. Mankind possess an intelligible brain and they can cteate new things according to their needs and imaginations. While machine can not achieve the rich creativity as human brain.<br /> <br /> From all the analysis above, it can be easily seen that human translation and machine translation are strongly complementary. Thus, the best way is to combine them together to learn from the other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies.<br /> <br /> ====3. Computer-Aided Translation====<br /> <br /> To meet the constantly-increasing demand of the market, a new type of translation method named Computer-aided translation (CAT) emerges at the right moment. It is the combination of the two translation methods mentioned above and can help translators complete the translation work with high quality, efficiency and ease. Different from the previous machine translation software, it does not rely on the automatic translation of the computer, but accomplishes the whole translation process with the participation of human beings. Besides, its translation speed can be twice of the human translation, with the quality being the same standard or better. CAT makes a change from the arduous human translation to an automatic process, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Preponderance of This Method====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Translation Memory=====<br /> <br /> Translation memory system, the main tool of computer-aided translation, is a &quot;language database storing the original text and its translation&quot;. During the time when people are working out a translation, CAT are also constructing a translation memory corpus in the backstage. The corpus can automatically store all the translated content. What contributes to our great convenience is that the translation memory system will automatically search the contents in the translation memory database in the later translation. The system will automatically output the translation results if the contents are the same as the sentences and language fragments in the memory corpus; and if the structures or vocabularies of the materials are similar to the sentences in the translation memory database, it will also show corresponding translation references and suggestions. In a word, translation memory system can benifit translators to utilize the contents of previous translation effectively and avoid repeated work, thus greatly improving the speed and quality of translation and saving translation time. According to the statistics, the application of translation memory system can increase the average productivity by 30%, and reduce the translation cost by 15-30%(Chen Yi 2018,31).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Terminology Database=====<br /> <br /> When stepping into the translation industry and becoming a professional translator. It is inevitable that people will be confronted with materials from various fields, just like iatrology, law and science. All of these industries have a great number of terminologies. While human’s brain are limited that they can’t remember all the terms. Under this condition, a ready-made terminology database can be extremely helpful.<br /> <br /> Terminology management system provides a shortcut for translators to automatically search for terms appearing in the translation materials by displaying terms in the interface window of translation memory database or using hotkeys to search the entries in terminology database. Some programs have other hotkey combinations that enable translators to add new terms to the terminology database at the same time during translation. Some more advanced systems allow translators to check interactively or in batch if the correct source / target word combination is used within and between translation memory fragments of a given project. There is also an independent term management system, which can provide workflow functions, visual taxonomy, and be used as a term Checker (similar to a spelling checker to mark terms that are not used correctly), and can also support other types of multilingual term categories, such as pictures, videos or sounds(Global Encyclopedia).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Revise and Automatic Alignment=====<br /> <br /> After translators finish their task on CAT system, it will scan the translation and figure out the numbers of mistakes including spelling, punctuation and so on. This proofeading can make one’s translation more accurate. In addition, the aligner can divide the source text and the target text into multiple fragments and make sure the right match of them so as to build a translation memory database or other reference resources. Many aligners also enable translators to manually realign mismatched fragments (Global Encyclopedia).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Current Situation====<br /> <br /> Right now, due to the tremendous market demand, CAT steps into the golden era of development. There are several popular CAT softwares such as Trados、Déjà V、TransStar、IBM Translation Manager、WordFisher、Wordfast，OmegaT, among which the most famous is the first one. Theses softwares have experienced a long period of development and are relatively mature. They make the translation progress much more convenient than before. However, CAT is not yet a consummate system right now. It has a few drawbacks to be solved. To begin with, CAT is insufficient in the construction of the corpus. Right now, most domestic CAT softwares only restore hundreds of thousands of entries in the database, which is far from enough to meet the needs of translators. In a result, many people gradually emerge the idea that CAT is not workable. People still have to rely on themselves to search the complicated documents and their work are not able to decrease as they want. Nor is this all, sometimes it can be hard for people to extract the terms they need becauese of the failure of identification and although some easy mistakes can be found out, it may be difficult for the system to check out the sophisticated errors, thus people have to spend more time to tackle with the problems in person. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Prospect====<br /> <br /> Despite of the insufficiency of CAT right now, the defects can’t obscure the virtues. CAT has greatly emancipated the productivity of translation industry. Not only that, it has played an important role in reducing translation time, cutting down labor costs, standardizing translation documents, maintaining terminology consistency and ensuring translation quality, etc. In the near future, it is bound to become the main trend of translation development with its wide application all over the world and the functional improvement of various translation software. And the problems mentioned above can be effectively polished with the advancement of science and technology.(Chen Yi 2018,32)<br /> <br /> ===4. Suggestions===<br /> <br /> Facing with the unstoppable trend of artificial intelligence and CAT, should mankind repulse it or accept it? Apparently, the second attitude is more reasonable. For one thing, we can’t hinder the inexorable trend. For another thing, this is a good opportunity for people to utilize the tool to improve themselves.<br /> <br /> So, first and foremost, people should set up an open attitude, accepting CAT with an embracing mentality. It is no need to be afraid that machine will surpass human. Instead mankind is always the master of science and technology. Putting oneself on a pedestal is not a good way to make progress. And holding fast to one’s established ideas will eventually be sifted out by the era. In Qing Dynasty(1636-1912), the emperor and even the whole country praised the nation as the great kingdom. Since ancient time, China was abundant in natural resources and they were self-sufficient and self-contained. Thus the government constantly puesued a policy of “cutting off the country from the outside world”. At that time, the Western countries were going on an unprececedentedly industrial revolution. Through the renovation, the westerners immensely improved their productive forces and their countries got a rapid development. When the trend were heard by the Chinese emperor, they disdained to learn from the technology and regarded it as a diabolic trick. In this way, the gap between the East and the West was larger and larger. It was not until the breaking of the Opium War that Chinese people realized they have lagged behind a lot. Once a country was backward, it would be insulted by anyone else. After that, the Qing government was constantly forced to sign treaties of humiliating the country and forfeiting its sovereignty. The citizens were plunged into dire suffering. Under this circumstance, social conflicts intensified. Finally, the revolution of 1911 broke out and overthrew the Qing Dynasty. A feudal dynasty of more than 200 years fell down. Since the principle that lagging behind leaves one vulnerable to attacks is even applicable to a country, let alone the ordinary people. There is an old saying that “He who goes with the tide prospers, and he who goes against it dies”. The power of science and technology should never be looked down upon. The original purpose of this is to benifit the mankind rather than overthrow us. It is a powerful tool to help us scale new heights. If tranlators refuse to acquire the new skill, they will one day be weeded out by the industry.<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of market, the quality of translation talents should be improved accordingly. The span for talent training of translation majors in China is relatively short that it has only been 10 years since the establishment of Bachelor of Translation and Interpreting(BTI) and Master of Translation and Interpreting(MTI) in Colleges and universities across the country. The current situation of translation technology education in the cultivation of translation professionals is not optimistic either. First of all, compared with foreign universities and domestic universities in Hongkong, Macao and Taiwan, there is still a long way to open translation technology courses in domestic universities. According to the research by Lv Lisong and Mu Lei(2007,37), universities in Hong Kong and Taiwan of China work closely with translation companies to provide translation technology teaching for students. However, Manchester, London University, Ottawa University of Canada and other foreign universities have established a developed system in terms of machine translation, terminology management, translation technology training curriculum, personnel training mode and translation testing, and formed an effective model. On the contrary, many domestic colleges and universities still do not pay enough attention to translation technology education, which leads to the failure of translation technology education courses in some colleges and universities. A survey of 12 universities in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Chongqing, Liaoning, Jilin, Henan, Hebei, Hubei, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Sichuan and other provinces and universities found that 11 of the 43 universities (a large part of which are &quot;985&quot; universities and &quot;211&quot; universities) with MTI have not yet opened translation technology courses, accounting for 25%. If the scope of the survey is extended to the secondary and tertiary institutions, the situation may be even worse(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106).<br /> <br /> In this regard, the education of Chinese mainland is a little bit backward. There are several reasons for this phenomenon. To begin with, the perception of the educators and education system are rather outdated. The existing education system pay much attention to the translation and interpreting ability of students. This is a common pattern in many middle schools, high schools and even colleges and universities. As an English major student, the writer has the personal experience. During the university period. The most courses still focus on the cultivation of the basic skills of students. Although there are translation and interpreting classes every week, the normal model is that at first teachers will teach some translation theories or techniques, and then there will be some exercises for students to practice. Students are almost inaccessible to computing courses. This may resulted from the short of appropriate funds for education. China is a nation with a great number of population, and its population growth rate is also fast. As a result, the pressure on education has been relatively high. The commonly used index to measure whether a country's financial education funds are sufficient or not is the proportion of financial education funds in Gross Domestic Product(GDP). In China, this proportion has been at a low level for a long time. Although the education funds have been increasing with the continuous development of China's economy after the Reform and Opening up, yet the fact is that “There are too many monks and too little gruel.”---the funds allocated to each school are still far from enough. Take Hunan province as an example. In the year of 2000, China's financial education funds accounted for 2.87% of GDP, which failed to reach the target of 4% of GDP in 2000 as proposed in the outline of China's education reform and development. In 2003, the GDP of Hunan Province was 463.4 billion yuan, and the national financial expenditure on education was 11.179 billion yuan, accounting for 2.44% of GDP, an increase of 0.01 percentage points over the previous year. However, in 2004, the proportion of national financial education expenditure in GDP decreased to 2.34%, which is still far from the target of 4%.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15).<br /> <br /> Besides the deficiency of educational funds, the allocation of it is also a cause. Usually, colleges and universities tend to use the fund to ameliorate the living condition and the construction of infrastructures, and then stuents’ scholarship and subsideies are indispensible. What is more, the salaries of teachers and all the staffs are also a big expenditure. Besides these, many colleges and universities attaches great importance to the scientific research items so that more money will be involved in these projects. Opposely, the development of the liberal arts may be less highlighted. In response to this problem, the writer deems that government and universities should both make some changes. As for government, they should carry out a policy that encourage the cultivation of computer skills; when it comes to the colleges and universities, they are supposed to enlarge the investment in the multimedia intelligent classrooms, and more techers who are sufficient in the operation of CAT should be enrolled. So far, Peking University has open a major named CAT, which is aimed to cultivate the professional talents to meet the needs of market.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Will machine translation replace human translation or not? Toward this question, the answer is an absolute “No”. As far as I am concerned, both the human tranlation and machine translation have their pros and cons. Human are able to comprehend the complex emotions in the texts and handle it with flexible expressions. In this aspect, machine can’t reach the human standard just like examples of “《江雪》”and “意思”mentioned above. Besides, mankind are familiar with the differences between various of countries so as to minimize the rate of committing a blunder, while the machine doesn’t have a brain like human’s. Their work is to translate the materials according to the superficial meanings. However, machine owns a huge volume (much more larger than human brain)which can store numerous materials and its working speed is hundreds of times of human’s(Pang Yingyu 2019,165). In the contemporary era, translators should first of all polish their translation skills and improve their ability to flexibly use various translation strategies and skills(Yao Li 2020,201-202). The old saying goes that “It takes a good blacksmith to make steel.” By the time, people are still the main force in the translation industry and machine translation stays in an auxiliary position. Human should not rely on machine to do all the works. The translators should improve their competitiveness through sordid multi-lingual knowledge, translation practice as well as stronger learning capacity and so on and so forth. At the same time, translators are also supposed to adopt an embracing attitude to acquire the comouter-aided translation skills. After all, with the further advancement of science and technology, the trend is inevitable. Actually, human translation and machine translation are highly compatible, which can greatly improve the translation efficiency and reduce people’s workload. Thus, the combination of the two methods is highly appreciated and the new type of CAT is bound to become the tide of the future.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Yi,Fan Jiaolian. 陈谊,范姣莲.(2018). 计算机辅助翻译——新世纪翻译的趋势[Computer-Aided Translation-the Trend of Translation in the New Era] 中国现代教育装备[China mordern educational equipment] 30-32.<br /> <br /> Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao. 董务刚,薛家宝.(1996). 评许渊冲诗《江雪》[Appreciation of Xu Yuanchong's Translation &quot;Fishing in Snow&quot;] 盐城师专学报[Journal of Yancheng Normal School] 56.<br /> <br /> 计算机翻译会取代人工翻译吗？[Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not?] (2020) 环球采风[Globe Collections] 17.<br /> <br /> Liang Jie. 梁洁.(2020). 人工智能对翻译行业的影响[The Influence of Artificial Intelligence on Translation Industry] 家庭科技[Family Science and Technology] 17-18.<br /> <br /> Lv Lisong,Mu Lei. 吕立松,穆雷.(2007) 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[Technique of Translation-Aided Translation and Translation Education] 外语界[The Field of Foreign Language] 37.<br /> <br /> Pang Yingyu. 庞盈羽. (2019) 谈机器翻译与人工翻译的关系—从机器翻译与计算机辅助翻译的发展角度[Analysis of the Relationship Between Machine Translation and Human Translation--From the Perspective of the Development of Machine Translation and Computer-Aided Translation]. 科学大众·科学教育[Scientific Masses·Scientific Education] 164-165.<br /> <br /> 计算机辅助翻译[Computer-aided translation].(2020). 全球百科[Global Encyclopedia] https://vibaike.com/.<br /> <br /> Wu Sheng. 吴晟.(2016) 湖南省省属普通高校财政拨款体制研究[Research on the Financial Allocation System of Provincial Colleges and Universities in Hunan Province] 湖南师范大学[Hunnu Normal University] 14-16.<br /> <br /> Yaoli. 姚莉.(2020) 机器翻译时代,译者应该坚持技能与技术的融合[Translators Should Keep the Compatibility Between Skills and Technique in the Era of Machine Translation]. 科技经济导刊[Technology and Economic Guide] 201-202.<br /> <br /> Zhu Chaowei. 祝朝伟.（2018）机器翻译要取代作为人的译者了吗？—兼谈翻译人才培养中科技与人文的关系[Is Machine Translation Going to Replace Human Translators? -On the relationship between science and technology and Humanities in the cultivation of translation talents]. 外国语文[Foreign Literature] 106-108.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation 袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi==<br /> <br /> '''浅析汉语公示语的英译'''<br /> <br /> 英语笔译 袁天翼<br /> <br /> 摘 要：在这个经济全球化、政治多极化、文化全球化、科技现代化、信息共享化的时代，全球经济纵深发展，人类命运共同体日趋形成，人与人、国家与国家间的联系日益密切，这时，汉语公示语的英译问题便被提上了议程。尽管中国汉语公示语的英译翻译员越来越多，但是汉语公示语的英译问题层出不穷。本文简析了汉语公示语定义，例举了生活中常见的一些汉语公示语的英译典型问题，并针对此给出了一些翻译方法与策略，并进行了未来展望。<br /> <br /> 关键词：汉英翻译；公示语；翻译策略<br /> <br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': In this economic globalization, political polarization, cultural globalization, technological modernization and informative sharing age, the global economy is deeply developing, and the human community with a shared future is coming into shape day by day. The relations among people and among countries are increasing day by day. At this time, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation become the topic of us. Though the number of Chinese-English public sign translators in China grows daily, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation emerge endlessly. This passage offers a brief analysis of the definition of Chinese-English public sign, points out some typical problems in Chinese-English public sign translation we see in daily life, analyzes some methods and strategies of Chinese-English public sign translation, and gives some outlooks on the future of Chinese-English public sign translation. <br /> <br /> '''Key Words''': Chinese-English translation; public sign; translation strategies<br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> '''I. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> &quot;The public sign is a specially applied literary form that was formed in modern times, which has a long history. It is used in public places and seen by the masses thus realizing unique communicative purposes. The public sign has become a crucial link in the communication between China and other countries in the international community. In the meantime, there are increasingly more experts and scholars paying attention to the translation of Chinese public signs into English.&quot; (Reiss 2004,12). <br /> <br /> &quot;As an important tool for international communication, Chinese-English public sign translation plays an extremely important role in foreign friends’ understanding of Chinese culture&quot;.（Wang Huili 2019,31） Its applied range is so wide that nearly covers every aspect of our daily life, including: Introductions of tourism trips, propaganda languages, warning languages, road signs, shop signs and advertising boards. It is mostly used on public infrastructure: Subway, airport, taxi, pier, tourist spot, park, street, community, shop, supermarket, restaurant, bank, hotel, cinema, hospital and etc. It uses simple words or sentences, or pictures only, or combines words and pictures to pass useful information to the masses, which not only serves Chinese people, but also is shown to the foreigners, which can help foreigners in China study, work and live. <br /> <br /> '''II. The Current Situation of Chinese-English Public Sign'''<br /> <br /> Public signs are an art of convincing others through effective verbal means, which are also components of language activities. They, in essence, belong to a special kind of communication. However, it is not a kind of face-to-face communication that takes place in a specific period of time, and none of the participants will appear as individuals. The object is for all the people with social behaviors in the place, regardless of gender, age, class or education level. Public signs belong to “one-way communication”, and its binding force or influence will not be as big as direct communication, but it is also used to act with words and deeds, and affects the behavior of the audience with a clear purpose. &quot;Public signs have become a natural window for Chinese and other languages in various economic, trade and cultural activities.&quot;（Yang Yang 2020, 34）<br /> <br /> Public signs are everywhere, so what are their functions? &quot;Their functions can be divided into showing, warning, profiting, encouraging and eulogizing such five functions. (Zhou Shuxia 2017,239)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the public sign that has showing function offers all-round information about service, order, or informing service. Such as “Car Rental” and “Children and Senior Citizens Free”.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the public sign that has warning function comes up with restrictive or obligatory demands to typical people, which is often used through order, ban, information or persuasion tones. Such as: “Stand in Line” , and “Thieves Beware”. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the public sign that has profiting function promotes consumption, thus realizing enterprises’ economic profits. Such as: “Daily Special”, “Daily Service”. <br /> <br /> Fourthly, the public sign that has encouraging function calls for or encourages people to take actions for certain goals or tasks. Such as: “One Family, One Child”, and “Working together, we can make a world of difference”. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, the public sign that has eulogizing function gives wishes and chants to certain events or people to reach the goals of propaganda or education. Such as: “One World, One Dream”. &quot;<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (Eugene Nida 2004, 15) said, &quot;Chinese-English translation of public signs embraces the conversion of two different languages and two different cultures, which is not only to achieve the language equivalence, cultural equivalence, but also to enhance the possibility of understanding and the reading of Chinese-English translation of public signs.&quot;<br /> <br /> However, there are many problems in Chinese-English public sign translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In 2003, Clive W. J. Granger, a Nobel Economics Prize Winner talked of the settings and problems of public signs in Beijing when he was interviewed by a program of Beijing TV Station. He said: “Foreigners will feel a little bit nervous when they come to China, because they can not understand public signs in China. ” Clive’s comment extremely shows current problems in Chinese-English public sign translation .&quot;(Lv Hefa 2005,38)<br /> <br /> On June 20th, 2017, a national standard conference of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service was held in Beijing. The Vice Minister of the Education Ministry and Director of the National Language Commission stressed in the meeting: “The language and character industry of China is expanding from ‘striving to promote and normally use the national common language, scientifically protecting every nation’s language and character’ to ‘managing social foreign language use and improving foreign language service quality’. ” The national standard of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service is the standard of English translation and writing quality in public service fields, which stipulates the English translation principles, methods and requirements of transportation, tourism, culture, entertainment, physical exercise, education, medical health, postal service, telecommunication, catering, accommodation, commerce and finance these thirteen service fields. &quot;Nowadays, public signs are often bilingual to meet the needs of international communication.&quot;(Wang Xunian 2020,69)<br /> <br /> To sum up, there are still many major problems in China’s public sign translation, common and ubiquitous, which make foreign experts comment like that and the government use national force to normalize translation standards. &quot;Whether the translation of public signs in scenic spots into English is harmonious and unified has a great influence on cross-cultural communication &quot;.(Pinkham John 2000, 156)<br /> <br /> '''III. The Causes of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> '''3. 1 The Basic Linguistic Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> To be a proficient Chinese-English public sign translator, one must, fundamentally, grasp basic linguistic rules of English and Chinese, otherwise he or she must make stupid mistakes, and some even primary learners will not make. &quot;There are many problems in the translation of public signs from English to Chinese, which should not be limited to the translation of the original text, but should pay attention to the context of public signs.&quot;(Chen Daobin 2020, 9)<br /> <br /> [[File:No.1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.1<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3684466622,1422277554&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.1 is a public sign put on a glass wall in a mall, the Chinese reads“全年无休(QUAN NIAN WU XIU)”, and it tries to use English to express that “This business runs the whole year”, so the precise translation should be “NO REST DAY ALL YEAR”. But there, we can see it was translated as“365DAY SA TEAR”, which does not belong to the grammatical law of English. So this is a big mistake. Only one who understands Chinese can understand. But for ordinary foreigners, they can not. So, when translating Chinese-English public sign, the translator must be clear about the target language, and know the basic grammatical venation, then begin to translate, instead of randomly putting some letters together and finishing. Otherwise, the translator will make a big mistake like this picture.<br /> <br /> A public sign in Haichang Ocean Park of Chengdu City, Sichuan Province reads &quot;Jellyfish Museum, the 2th floor&quot;. More specifically, it is a floor direction sign. Here, the correct English for the second floor should be “2nd”, not “2th”. Apparently that the translator has poor knowledge of English vocabulary, which led he or she to make such a ridiculous mistake. Actually, in English language, if there is a number contains “11”, “12”or “13”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “11th”, “12th” or “13th” respectively; And if there is a number contains“1”, “2”or “3”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “1st”, “2nd” or “3rd” respectively. For example, “101st”, “111th”, “201st”, “211th” and etc. <br /> <br /> No.3 is a warning sign of a tourist spot, reads &quot;The rockery danger, pleases no climb&quot;, whose Chinese meaning is “There stands a rockery, it is dangerous to climb, every one is forbidden from climbing it. ” The Chinese meaning is alright. But, when it was translated into English, a big mistake occurred: “The rockery danger Pleases no climb.”<br /> <br /> First, there should be “climbing” after “no”, not “climb”, this is just English grammar knowledge that can be learned in primary school; And the “Please” is followed by a “s”, why does the translator use third person singular at the top of a imperative sentence? Second, if the translator wants to tell the tourists that the rockery is dangerous and mustn’t be climbed, he or she should write: “The rockery is dangerous. Please don’t climb” or “Dangerous rockery. No climbing” or just “No climbing”. Unless the foreigners who see this sign have supreme understanding ability, they will not easily make sense of it. <br /> <br /> 3. 2 The Tendency Towards Chinglish and Mechanical Translation<br /> <br /> Knowing a little about English, then begin to translate public sign. This is ridiculous, which is definitely going to cause obvious mistakes. Especially when translating, there is a high probability that the translator will make Chinglish errors, or tend to seek for mechanical translation, which are the most common public sign translation problems in mainland China. With regard to the tendency towards Chinglish, it only proves that the translator’s basic skills of English are not so proficient, and he or she does not fit for translation work. For the tendency towards mechanical translation, on the one hand, it demonstrates that the translator is lazy, who is not willing to think about how to translate. On the other hand, it reveals his or her lack of basic English language knowledge. In fact, these two both can be easily avoided, only if the translator pays a little more attention to it or is earnest and dedicated to their work. All those mistakes should not have been made. &quot;To understand the language style of Public signs in English, it is imperative to carry out idiomatic and standardized translation of public signs in Chinese.&quot;(Pang Yan 2020, 34)<br /> <br /> No.4, this is a sign that is hung in an Internet celebrity milk tea shop: Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province. It reads &quot;out of the cup area&quot;. It originally means that the customers should queue here to get their milk tea after finishing paying. The translator should have easily translated “出杯区（CHU BEI QU）”into “FETCH AREA”, but it was translated as “OUT OF THE CUP AREA”, what a joke! Purely it was translated word-for-word. The translator did not understand its true meaning. Probably it was translated by a machine. As an Internet celebrity milk tea shop runner, when dealing with such kind of cultural issues, he or she should be extremely careful, earnest and cautious, instead of casually simply copying the contents given by a machine or hiring a third-rate translator and asking him or her to randomly translate. Large scale milk tea shops must shoulder their required obligations, and undertake necessary responsibilities and duties on public sign translation. Imagine that a foreigner, who can not understand it, stand there and think: What? Standing here is standing outside the cup? Maybe something interesting would happen. Let me try!<br /> All those will bring big and standing jokes. <br /> <br /> No.5 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province. It reads&quot; tourists get off area&quot;. Its Chinese meaning is: This is the place that tourists get off from a bus. But, it was translated as “Tourists get off area”, which fully shows the ignorance and lack of English language knowledge of the translators. People may can not help doubting whether it is copied from the translation given by a machine. Famous tourist spots like this, especially this kind of 5A tourist spot, can not even shoulder the cultural obligations, let alone developing in the long run. They should make big mistakes in such a little public sign translation! Do they only want to serve Chinese well while ignoring foreigners?<br /> <br /> Similarly, No.6 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province, and it reads &quot;up the mountain&quot;. The Chinese meaning is “This is the passage that leads tourists to climb the mountain”. The translation should have been a very easy and fun job, but when the sign is showed to tourists, a big big joke was born: “Up the mountain”. We can say “uphill way” or “uphill passage”, but, the translator obviously did not realize it. What’s more, when “up” is used as a verb, it is completely another meaning. It is also the symbol of such irresponsible spot management. <br /> <br /> No.7, it is a napkin given by an Internet celebrity milk tea shop (Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province ) for free after buying its milk tea. It reads &quot;more China, more fashion&quot;. At first glance, everything seems okay. But more carefully, we can find the mistake. The Chinese meaning is “If there are more elements with Chinese characteristics, it will be more fashionable.” But when translating, maybe with the aid of machine, or lack of a solid English knowledge foundation, it becomes “More China, more fashion”. If the customer is a Chinese, it does not matter, for he or she can understand it, and just shows a smile. But if foreigners see, they will be pretty shocked by the sight: What the hell is this? They will think that this shop lacks money to hire a good translator, and the managers are stupid. Furthermore, the Chinese national image will be badly affected. In fact, this sentence can be translated as “The more sinicization there is, the more fashion there will be” or “With greater Chinese characteristics come more fashion”. Easier? It can be “More sinicization breeds more fashion”. Translated like these, won’t it be much more correct and intelligible?<br /> <br /> '''3. 3 The Misunderstanding of the Public Sign Translators'''<br /> <br /> It is the little knowledge of English of the translators that makes them can not even spell a basic word correctly; Or due to carelessness, they make mistakes on public sign translation, thus causing mistakes on the meaning of the sign. All these are significant reasons why there are so many mistakes in Chinese-English public signs. &quot;Errors and ambiguities in public signs are not allowed, as they can lead to disorientation, confusion, and lessening of the force of the warning.&quot;(Pan Xutong 2020, 251)<br /> <br /> [[File:No.8.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.8<br /> [https://www.sinaimg.cn/edu/cr/2015/0316/3124267229.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.8. The Chinese meaning of it is “The door or passage that leads you to the outside”, in short, “EXIT”. But the public sign was translated as“EXPORT”, so, what is “EXPORT”? In a word, it means trade among different countries. The commercial goods pass through the customs, being transported from one country to another country. Distinctly, the maker was careless, who has mixed the meaning of “出口（Chu Kou）”in Chinese, thus resulting in an obvious translation error. As for public sign translation, translators must weigh every word, and think over and over and over again, not just search online, and grab all the words you “discover”, which is a highly irresponsible behavior, an extremely irresponsible behavior to the society and the country . <br /> <br /> [[File:No.9.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.9<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4069547043,45136776&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.9 is from a hospital department. Its Chinese meaning is: Here is neurology emergency department. It uses a special logogram in Chinese. But, the maker was misled, so, he or she translated it as “God Medical”. If a person has a little common sense, he or she will be made to laugh wildly. It is completely the “Understanding of a sentence simply by a word”! That should be translated as “ Department of Emergency Neurology”. Such a casual translation will make Christians think that they can see God for real. Whether can he see death here or a way to heaven with a passionate God serving you? To some extent, this is disrespect for Christians, which can even cause disputes. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.10.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.10<br /> [https://ss0.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4055489075,1169617432&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.10 is photographed in a company building. Here, the Chinese means: this is the place where you can get boiled water. However, the translator of this public <br /> sign made a huge mistake, because he or she disintegrated the three Chinese words one by one, and thus translating them one by one, which can not be understood as a whole, let alone enable foreigners to understand the meaning of this public sign, and as a result, foreigners may not receive the service that they deserve. What’s worse, many people, including intelligent Chinese, when seeing this disqualified translation, will definitely be amused, and feel funny: What is this guy’s literate level?<br /> <br /> As a matter of fact, this public sign can be translated as “Boiled Water Room”. “开水”means “boiled water” in English. Certainly, the translator treated the “开”as a verb “open”, which is absolutely wrong. <br /> <br /> Further, this is a single room, not two or more, so we must use “room”, which is the plural form, instead of the singular form “rooms”. <br /> <br /> 3. 4 The Falsification and Loss of Information<br /> <br /> Originally, the managers want to use signs to warn people, but due to mistranslation, the information is tampered and missed, resulting in an opposite consequence, and producing big jokes.&quot;Standardized translation of public signs can improve the international language environment of cities, on the other hand, it is responsible for improving the level of urban opening to the outside world.&quot;(Liu Peiyu 2020, 67)<br /> <br /> No.11 is a public warning sign in Liuxiang Barbecue Restaurant. It reads &quot; carefully hot&quot;. Is it a true warning? In the foreigners’ opinion, it is not. People who speak Chinese can realize that this sign was designed to warn customers not to be burned by the hot oven. However, the English translation is far from what it originally means. The correct translation can be “Careful! Hot!” or “Be Careful of the Hot Oven!” But according to the translation on the sign, it means “Carefully burn yourself”. Luckily, this is a small scale restaurant, if it were a large one, its reputation would be badly affected. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.12.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.12<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3765137851,1011242048&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.12 is a public sign in a large shopping center. As we all know, modern shopping centers now always use smooth and shiny tile floor as the ground, which makes the shopping centers look beautiful and attractive. However, smooth though it is, one big safety problem then comes into shape: The ground is too smooth to make shoppers slide and fall. Later, the managers made public signs like No.12 to warn people not to fall. The Chinese warning is okay, Chinese shoppers can understand, but when foreigners see this, he or she will burst out laughing: What? You order me to slide on the floor with care? What on earth do you mean? I have even seen an Internet celebrity girl posting an video clip that tells us a story that satirizes this mistranslation: The girl and her father slide joyfully on the ground in a shopping center while murmuring “Carefully slide! Carefully slide!” As a matter of fact, The correct Chinese-English translation should be “Caution! Slippery!” or “Beware of Wet Floor” or “Caution! Wet Floor”. Each one of the three is okay. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.13.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.13<br /> [https://ss2.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=461657809,3986868053&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.13 is a public sign that is put on the ceiling of a restaurant’s stair. Here, the translator wanted to pass such information by Chinese and English: Watch <br /> your head, do not hit the low ceiling of the stair. Be careful. Though the Chinese information is okay, the English, however, can not by understood by others, especially foreigners. <br /> <br /> Here, the makers wanted to warn the danger of the low ceiling, not to ask people to purposely hit the ceiling. So we can correct it as: “Watch Your Head”, or “Be Careful”. Both are okay. <br /> <br /> Here, the translator made a mistranslation, which reversed the original meaning when translating, thus producing a huge laughingstock. First, “碰”is not “meet”, but “hit”, according to this specific environment. It does not mean “meet someone”. Second, “小心碰头” means not to hit the ceiling, not to “meet carefully”. <br /> <br /> Throughout so many examples, every one can see that the mistakes of public sign translation are ubiquitous and common in daily life, which you can even randomly pick up one from any store you meet. Pervasive errors like these in public signs will negatively affect China’s reform and opening-up and the integration into international community, which will not only make foreigners misunderstand the meaning, but also seriously damage China’s national image. Therefore, the study of the public sign translation is extremely urgent and imperative. At present, translators must start from basic demand of Chinese-English public sign translation, endeavor to learn English well, cultivate a good sense of utilizing English and a great mindset of English utilization, proactively take part in English translation practice, and be highly alert and form a sense of “Using English language in a proper, correct, suitable and decent way”. Only then will the situation of Chinese-English public sign translation turn better. &quot;Due to the specific role of public signs, their translation is different from literary translation and has powerful functional characteristics.&quot;(Liu Hui 2020, 43)<br /> <br /> IV. Public Sign Translation Methods<br /> <br /> There is a saying goes: “Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards. ” So is the Chinese-English public sign translation. Zhang Yan (Zhang Yan 2015,44) maintains in her paper that, &quot;the public sign translation methods can be summarized as four kinds. <br /> <br /> '''4. 1 Amplification'''<br /> <br /> Many new words that are with Chinese characteristics, especially combined with numbers, need using amplification to introduce to foreign readers. For example, in the past, “五讲四美三热爱(Wu Jiang Si Mei San Re Ai）”was translated as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves”. Many foreigners said that they could not understand it. Later, it was revised as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves” with the notation “ stress on decorum, manners, hygiene, discipline and morals; beauty of the mind, language, behavior and the environment; love of the motherland, socialism and the Communist Party”. Hence, foreigners can easily understand its connotation. Public signs are information-type and calling-type texts, which should focus on the information transmission of the original text in translation. Therefore, communicative translation can be regarded as a good theoretical basis.(Shen Jianwen 2020, 69)<br /> <br /> '''4. 2 Ellipsis'''<br /> <br /> To make sure that the translation is concise and intelligible, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators must properly delete unnecessary words according to English expressing habits to achieve overall generalization. Such as: “Food Paradise”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 3 Re-translation'''<br /> <br /> Due to cultural differences, many folk adages with Chinese characteristics will not be understood by readers once simply read literally. So translators can moderately reorganize those sentences that can not be translated or understood. Such as: “Drinking and Driving Costs Your Life”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 4 Backward Translation'''<br /> <br /> There are two cases: Translating the cultural expressions that are borrowed from translation back into their original forms in the target language; Translating the expressions with obvious cultural characteristics into the idiomatic expressions in the target language. Such as: “Venus Florist”. <br /> The English public sign has its own cultural and pragmatic meanings. When doing the Chinese-English public sign translation, translators should consider about the cultural differences and avoid any form of ambiguity, misunderstanding or mistranslation, and offer high quality information service, thus making public sign translation advance with the times. &quot;<br /> <br /> '''V. Public Sign Translation Strategies'''<br /> <br /> He Xueyun (He Xueyun, 2006) holds in her thesis that, &quot;theoretically, semantic translation and communicative translation differ much. Semantic translation strives to keep the language specialty and unique express method of the original work, in order to express the original work’s thinking process; However, communicative translation’s key point lies in spreading information and enabling people to think, feel and act, giving play to the function of information that language conveys and the consequences it causes. &quot;Public sign translation must focus on results, and put readers first, only by this can we improve the current situation of public sign translation, thus achieving the purposes of public sign translation. <br /> <br /> Before beginning to do anything, we all need a world view and methodology to guide us to behave well. Likewise, when doing Chinese-English public sign translation, we also need guiding ideology to direct us. Here, I will show you four Chinese-English public sign translation strategies, which act as guiding ideology, which are definitely going to be a powerful weapon for you. Just remember them and practice them, you will gain a lot. &quot;To strengthen the research on the Translation of public signs into English, improve the translation quality of bilingual public signs and improve the translation of bilingual public signs are the urgent tasks to promote the cross-cultural communication of city image.&quot;(Niu Haihua 2020, 118)<br /> <br /> '''5.1 No Grammatical, Semantic and Logical Error'''<br /> <br /> The most basic prerequisite of public sign translation is that there is no language error: No grammatical error, no vocabulary spelling error, no language context error, no Chinglish or machine-aided translation error. <br /> <br /> “This is office area, tourists mustn’t enter” can be translated as “Staff Only”, not “OFFICE AREA PLEASE DON’T COMING”, or you will make a grammatical and redundant error. “Be careful, don’t slip into water” can be translated as “Caution! Deep Water!” instead of “TAKE CARE! FALL INTO WATER CAREFULLY!” Otherwise, people will can not help laughing. <br /> <br /> One translator was not able to translate “The grass is so beautiful, are you sure you wan to walk on it?” into English public sign, so here comes <br /> “Fangcaoqiqi riding the Heren”. What a laughingstock! This is a combination between Chinese and English, without any grammar structure. Not to translate it will be a much better choice. We can concisely translate it as “Don’t Walk on the Beautiful Grass!”<br /> <br /> '''5. 2 Concise and Intelligible Translation'''<br /> <br /> One prominent character of public sign is conciseness. It asks people to ensure the translation is crystal clear and precise, without any compound or obscure sentence. Only by achieving this can the signs become popularized, instead of making people think over and over and over again to discover their cryptic meaning. <br /> <br /> The public sign translation must be concise and intelligible, which means that you not only need to precisely convey what the maker means to people, but also must be concise. People can understand it immediately without comprehension deviation or ambiguity. <br /> <br /> '''5. 3 Understanding of Cultural Background Differences'''<br /> <br /> When translating, every translator must thoroughly understand the culture of the targeted language. Translators must comprehensively understand each specific use of the targeted language under different cultural backgrounds. If not doing so, it may cause severe disputes, and even cause irresistible outcomes. Here are several examples. <br /> <br /> “Dragon” is a legendary animal in traditional Chinese culture. Chinese people often view themselves as “dragon”, and even say that they are “Descendants of the Dragon”. Thus, “Dragon” means holy and sacred thing in Chinese culture. But in English speaking countries, the meaning of “dragon” is not so. In these countries, “dragon” means something evil like Satan, sometimes it is even used to describe thugs, scoundrels or other bad behaviorists. Therefore, invariably coping the icon of “dragon” and using it in other cultures is a definite mistake. In a word, a public sign language translator must totally comprehend the cultural background differences. <br /> <br /> '''5. 4 Obedience to Certain Norms and Standards'''<br /> <br /> As long as someone is translating, he or she must obey certain rules, norms and standards. He mustn’t translate according to his will. This is a truth. <br /> For example, according to China’s first set of standards on how to regulate the use of foreign languages in China, which was jointly issued by the State Standards Commission and the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine on November 20, 2017 and officially implemented on December 1, 2017, some of the standards have been specified in detail. <br /> <br /> Names of tourist spots: Names of mountains, rivers and lakes should be written in Chinese pinyin. Translations of names of temples should vary according to different situations, so are the towers’ names. In line with external service needs, English explanations can be added. <br /> <br /> '''VI. The Future of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> China is a major powerful country, and is the country with the second highest Gross Domestic Product in the world, which is why China should keep close economic and cultural relationships with other countries. &quot;In order to integrate China with international community in a better way, there must be high quality public sign translation. To optimize the translation quality of public signs, the most important way is to realize the standardization of the translation of public signs.&quot;(Ding Ying 2020,78)<br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation must improve the China’s influence power in international community. High quality public sign translation represents that China is rich in translators and intellects, and shows that China can fulfill obligations and shoulder responsibilities as a major country. Achieving this means China not only takes responsibilities for Chinese people, but also for all human beings. Good quality public sign translation is definitely going to significantly synergize the course of reform and opening-up. High quality public sign translation is obliged to facilitate foreigners to travel in China, boost domestic consumption demand, form a new growth point for economy, promote the rise of Gross Domestic Product, and accelerate the comprehensive, coordinated and sustainable development. High quality public sign translation is also an integral part of the New Development Philosophy: Innovation, coordination, green, open and share. High quality public sign translation corresponds to the New Normal of Chinese economy. At present, the economy of China has been changing from developing at a high speed to develop at high quality, and is at the stage of changing economic development mode, transforming driving forces of economic development and optimizing the economic structure, so high quality public sign translation is badly needed. Thus, considering the big change of Chinese economy, achieving high quality public sign translation is an urgent affair. &quot;Public signs have a strong linguistic function and social value. Pragmatic or social pragmatic failures caused by cultural differences often occur in the translation of public signs. Therefore, it is necessary to fully understand the cultural connotation of the original text in translation.&quot;(Li Jing 2020, 229)<br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation has the duty to embody a city’s humanism spirit, cultural speciality and charm, which is the inevitable requirement of core socialist values and system. It also promotes the spreading of Chinese culture, and improves the influence power of Chinese culture. High quality public sign translation also levels up Chinese people and overseas Chinese’s sense of identity and belonging. What’s more, it can narrow the gap between Chinese and foreigners, and acquire more recognition from them towards China. Domestically, high quality public sign translation can strengthen national cohesion; Externally, it will strengthen China’s soft power, and increase China’s international speaking right while creating national radiation power. <br /> &quot;It is an important measure to improve China’s public service and governance capability by establishing an evaluation mechanism and promoting the standardization of English translation. It is of great benefit to further improve China’s service level of opening to the outside world, demonstrate its cultural soft power and enhance its international image&quot; .(Guo Jinghong 2019, 154)<br /> <br /> In short, looking forward to the future of Chinese-English public sign translation from a strategic perspective, translators must remain true to their original aspiration and keep their mission firmly in mind, which is: To be devoted to the future of socialism with Chinese characteristics, to be dedicated to the landscape of translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and to be committed to the sustainable development of Chinese-English public sign translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics. &quot;The translation of public signs from Chinese to English needs to consider the actual situation of English speakers and abide by international uniform rules, so that foreign friends can directly understand the contents of public signs.&quot;(Song Yanbei 2020,64)<br /> <br /> The English translation of public signs of tourist attractions belongs to the category of cross-cultural communication, and the translator should have certain cross-cultural knowledge and awareness, so that the English translation can be more understood and accepted by the audience and truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication&quot;. (Yang Hongyu, 2019) Since reform and opening-up, China has been integrating into the international community day by day. To fully achieve this, as regards of Chinese-English public sign translation, we still have a long way to go. There is no time for us to delay the work of strengthening, proceeding, and improving public sign translation. The rising level of quality of Chinese-English public sign translation will improve both city image and urbanization level. He Xueyun contends in her article that, many people take it for granted that if one knows a foreign language, he then can translate. As a matter of fact, basic skills of public sign translation not only includes foreign language level, but also the knowledge of foreign cultures. <br /> <br /> '''VII. Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> So, how to facilitate the overall development of Chinese-English public sign translation？Firstly, we need to keep pace with the times. Language is constantly changing, so are many words and idioms, and so are public signs. In order to accurately convey information to the audience, it is essential to integrate the latest, most reliable and most accepted language into public signs. Secondly, it is necessary to fully understand the idiomatic usage of public signs, because public signs are mainly aimed at English speakers, so it is necessary to strengthen the accumulation of words, phrases and idioms, which is also the basis of translation. Thirdly, the translators of Chinese-English public signs should use accurate words and phrases in combination with specific environment and objects, and should not fail to convey the meaning or deviate from the original meaning, which otherwise will result in misunderstanding. Of course, only achieving the above is not enough. In order to do a good job in the translation of Chinese-English public signs, we need to keep improving our translation attitude and spirit of study, and constantly improve and summarize and innovate on the basis of the original, so as to make the translation of Chinese-English public signs more perfect and recognized by the international audience. &quot;It is very important for the academic community and people from all walks of life to analyze the problems in the application of public signs and put forward corresponding improvement countermeasures&quot;. (Liu Xiaoping, 2019) A Chinese-English public sign translator must fully realize and shoulder the responsibilities that translators must carry, form a sense of community of a shared future, fully acknowledge the current situation of Chinese-English public sign translation, completely learn lessons from the predecessors who have made mistakes in Chinese-English public sign translation, totally implement the four public sign translation strategies I mentioned before, to make Chinese-English public sign translation serve the construction of a moderately prosperous society in all respect, the construction of modern powerful socialist country, the construction of building China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and the realization of the great Chinese dream, that is: the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> [1]Eugene Nida &amp; Charles Taber.（2004） [The Theory and Practice of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [2]Gutt &amp; Ernst, Agust. （1991）[Translation and Relevance: Cognition and Context] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> [3]Newmark, Peter. （2001）[Textbook of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [4]Pinkham, John.（2000） [The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br /> <br /> [5]Reiss. （2004）[Translation Criticism: the Potentials and Limitations] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [6]陈道彬.（2020） 规范公示语双语标识 营造高品质横琴国际休闲旅游岛环境 珠海特区报,2020-11-09(009).<br /> <br /> [7]国家标准委.（2017） 公共服务领域英文译写规范<br /> <br /> [8]郭京红.（2019）公示语英译中的错误观点与评价方式 海外英语(23)154-155. <br /> <br /> [9]贺学耘. （2006）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略外语与外语教学,(03)57-59. <br /> <br /> [10]刘小平. （2019）公示语翻译中存在的问题及对策. 凯里学院学报, (04)72-74.<br /> <br /> [11]刘慧.（2020）公示语的汉译英翻译研究 海外英语,(16):43-44.<br /> <br /> [12]刘培钰,殷嘉媛,翟晓琳,张美琪,谢慧英.（2020）公示语英文译写与城市国际形象构建 百科知识 (27):26-27.<br /> <br /> [13]吕和发. （2005）公示语汉英翻译研究——以2012年奥运会主办城市伦敦为例 北京:中国翻译,(06)38. <br /> <br /> [14]牛海花.（2020）公示语翻译质量的提高对促进齐齐哈尔市旅游城市形象的跨文化传播的意义 理论观察 (07):118-120.<br /> <br /> [15]潘栩童,郭亚卿.（2020）交通公示语英译现状分析及策略研究 农家参谋,(21):251-252+262<br /> <br /> [16]庞燕.（2020）从语言风格谈公示语规范化翻译 海外英语,(20):34-35+41.<br /> <br /> [17]田国民. （2019）谈汉语公示语的英译英语教师(22)110-113. <br /> <br /> [18]王回力. （2019）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略 延边教育学院学报(05)31-33. <br /> <br /> [19]王旭年.（2020）社会符号学翻译法视域下西安高校公示语英译研究 渭南师范学院学报35(11):69-76.<br /> <br /> [20]杨洪玉.（2019） 旅游景点公共标识语的英文翻译 北京工业职业技术学院学报(04)122-126. <br /> <br /> [21]杨阳.（2020）“一带一路”战略视域下公示语翻译现状及策略研究 公关世界(22):34-35.<br /> <br /> [22]张焱. （2015）汉英翻译过程中的难译现象处理 北京:中国社会科学出版社(16)44-46<br /> <br /> [23]周树霞. （2017）浅析公示语的汉英翻译 校园英语(42)239-239.<br /> <br /> == A Study of Translation of Movie Titles in the Light of Venuti's Theory 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan==</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5&diff=111449 2020-12-13T11:39:26Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* 2.1.1 The Advantages */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第五部分(Part 5)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Thoughts'''=<br /> ==A Study on Creative Treason of Literature Translation - 李玉 Li Yu==<br /> ==On the Analysis of Three Kinds of Beauty in ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence-林敏 Lin Min 202020080616==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;林敏 Lin Min &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation, aiming to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language in a translation. Xu Yuanchong introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties” principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book, he said that the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem. This thesis is going to use such two theories to compare and analyze the two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond in our nation --Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version with some typical and representative examples, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.This thesis is divided into five parts: the first part roughly describes the purpose, method and significant of the study; the second part introduces the general idea and two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond; The third part introduces two translation theories functional equivalence and three beauty principle; the fourth part, some typical examples are selected and two theories are used to compare study the two versions. The fifth part summarizes the whole thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Functional Equivalence, Three Kinds of Beauty<br /> <br /> === 题目===<br /> 功能对等理论指导下《荷塘月色》英译本“三美”的传达<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 功能对等论是翻译理论中最重要的理论之一。功能对等论的目的是实现源语和目标语之间的功能对等。许渊冲在《毛泽东诗词四十二首》序言中提出的译诗的“三美”原则，即音美，意美和形美。本篇文章将利用这两个基本原则，通过一些有代表性的例子对译本进行比较学习，学习研究两篇文章是否符合功能对等。本篇论文共分为五部分，第一部分介绍了本研究的目的、意义和方法；第二部分介绍了《荷塘月色》的大意和两个英译本；第三部分对两个翻译原则：功能对等论和“三美”原则做了简要地介绍；第四部分选取了有代表性的例子，运用了两个理论对两译本进行了对比学习；第五部分对全文进行了总结。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 功能对等论，三美原则<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> With the advent of globalization as well as the development of Chinese economy, more and more Chinese literary works have been introduced abroad. Prose is one of the important part of China’s literature.However there is still not enough attention to the introduction of Chinese prose, especially Chinese modern prose. <br /> <br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''，the well-known lyric prose, written by the famous author Zhu Ziqing, has made a huge influence on the development of Chinese prose. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer's depressing mood. For this prose is a typical example of Chinese modern prose, many translators have given their translations of it, such as Zhu Chunshen, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang, Li Ming and Wang Jiaosheng. A large number of scholars have analyzed its different versions making great contribution to the prose translating. <br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation. Functional equivalence theory introduced by Nida, refers to the fact that the translation does not take rigid correspondence between words and structures as the standard, but aims to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language. The theory emphasizes that“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。<br /> <br /> Here, this paper selects This thesis selects two of the most famous English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen's version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, to compare and study, based on Xu Yuanchong's “Three Beauty” principle under the guidance of functional equivalence. This thesis will compare and analyze the two English versions, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> === 2. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' and Its English Versions ===<br /> Before comparing and analyzing the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' , we need learn some necessary information about the author who wrote it and the relatively background. At present, the two famous English versions are Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version .<br /> <br /> ====2.1 ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is the classical of lyric prose written by Zhu Ziqing in Tsinghua University, Beijing on July 1927，which depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer’s depressing mood. It was published in the Novel Monthly, one of the new literary journals which enjoys the reputation of “the first journal in the China’s literary world” in the 1920s.（Han,2018 ）Since it was published, the article has received both high praise and fierce criticism. From this perspective, it has witnessed the history of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> In this prose, the author is sleepless and sits in his yard to enjoy the cool in the evening. Suddenly, it occurred to his mind that the lotus pond where he passes every day and the pond must be different at night with the moonlight. So, the author wandered lonely on a cinder footpath around the lotus pond, he feels that he is a “free man”. As he sees the pond cover with trim lotus leaves and white lotus flowers, hearing the sounds of the cicadas and the frogs, Zhu thinks that “this animation was theirs alone, I had no part in it（Yang ,1990 ）.”<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Two English Versions ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is one of Zhu Ziqing’s masterpieces and was selected into Chinese textbook. Most scholars say that the prose is “文质相称，形神俱美” which has attracted an amount of scholars and students.（Chen ,2018）The prose has been introduced to foreign countries in different languages, especially in English since the May 4th Movement. The notable translations include Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, Li Ming’s version and Wang Jiaosheng’s version. This thesis choices Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version. Both Zhu ’s version and Yang’s version are faithful to the original meaning and concise to the sentence structure and close to the original style. But Zhu prefer to employ literal translation and Yang uses the free translation, like the words “热闹” ,“冷静”, “群居”and “独处”, Zhu translated these as “a serene and peaceful life”,“a busy and active one”, “being in solitude” and “in company”, in contrast Yang’s translation is “excitement and stillness”.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Basis of Theory ===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Functional Equivalence Theory ====<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Three Kinds of Beauty ====<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===4. On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence ===<br /> Zhu Ziqing used a large number of rhetorical devices and reduplicated words to describe the beauty of the lotus pond under the moonlight at night, to express his gloomy and upset mood, which brings great difficulty to translation, in his famous prose--''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. This part is aimed at using the functional equivalence theory and Xu Yuanchong’s theory of “Three Beauties” to analyze wheatear the two English versions of such prose achieving the degree of function equivalance.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 ====<br /> Words are the basic meaning of sentences. G •Leech divided “meaning” into two categories: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(Leech,1987) The conceptual meaning is the meaning that we can find in dictionary, and the associative meaning is the actually meaning of the word in the special context. It is a truly universal acknowledge that the meaning of the sentence is not simple addition of word meaning. Thus, the translator should find the conceptual meaning and the associative meaning of the original, especially the associative meaning. Here are some typical examples:<br /> <br /> Example 1: “这几天心里颇不宁静。”（Zhu Ziqing , 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu ’s version: “I have felt quite upset recently.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang ’s version: “The last few days have found me very restless.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> This sentence is the first sentence in the first paragraph. Here “不宁静” refers to “quite uncomfortable”, which can be translated as “upset, restless, untranquil, disquieting and so on”. However, considering Zhu Ziqing’s patriotic feeling and his responsibility for his wife and kid, he cannot devote his whole life to the great revolution. Therefore “不宁静” in the context means the author is anxiety, because he want to change his condition. Zhu Chunshen translated it as“upset”which means“unhappy or disappointed because of something unpleasant that has happened”in the ''OED'', which emphasized the unhappy mood. And Yang Xianyi employed it as “restless”, which means “unable to stay still or happy where you are, because you are bored or need a change ” in the ''OED'', which stressed on one needing a change. It is clear that the word “restless” is more exactly than the word “quiet” in this sentence.<br /> <br /> However,“宁静”has an end rhyme“ing”and neither“upset”in Zhu’s translation nor“restless”in Yang’s version opted the words with the same end rhyme for they both focused on the meaning. And such sentence in original text is a 9 characters short sentence with no subject, Yang translated it into 9 words,used the“the last few day”as the subject, while Zhu’s version only has 6 words and selected “I” as the subject. Therefore, Yang’s version is expressive to the original in this sentence and it retains the beauties of form and sense in this sentence at the same time. In short, the two versions are good translation, but the Yang’s version is much better from this point. <br /> <br /> Example 2“这是一条幽僻的路；白天也少人走，夜晚更加寂寞。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: It is peaceful and secluded here, a place not frequented by pedestrians even in the daytime; now at night, it looks more solitary......”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “It is off the beaten track and few pass this way even by day, so at night it is still more quiet.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> The word “幽僻” means “安静和人迹罕至” here. Zhu rendered the word “幽僻” into “peaceful and secluded”, emphasized that there is silent and private. Yang employed it into “off the beaten track” which means no one knows here and quiet. From this perspective, both translations are very similar in understanding the writer’s meaning.<br /> <br /> However, the word “幽僻” is an adjective word with two meanings: quiet and not disturbed by other people. Zhu’ s version “peaceful and secluded” ,are two adjective words and has two similar meanings, which keep the form and sense of the original sentence. In conclusion，according to the “Three Beauties” principle, Zhu’s translation is much better than Yang’s for it retains the form of the original.<br /> <br /> Example 3: “这路上阴森森的，有些怕人。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “The foliage, which, in a moon-less night, would loom somewhat frighteningly dark.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “ On nights when there is no moon the track is almost terrifyingly dark.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> In this sentence, Zhu Ziqing uses “怕人” to describe the atmosphere of the air on the road and his feeling of walking on this path at such a night. “怕人” referred to “令人害怕的” in Chinese, it is an adjective to present his feeling. “Frightening ” means “making you feel afraid”, and “terrifying” means “to make somebody extremely frightened”in the ''OED'' , which can be regarded as synonyms. Both use the adverb to translate the adjective “怕人”. But in Zhu’s translation, “the foliage” is “frighteningly dark” and in Yang’s version, “the track” is “terrifyingly dark”. Both translators have their own understanding of the original content, but the both translations are faithful to the word “怕人”. We could say the two translations achieve the beauty in sense. However, in “Three Beauties” principle, we should consider the beauty in form and sound. As for sound ,the last sound of “怕人” is [en] in Chinese, but both “frightening” and “terrifying” has the same end sound of [en]. As for “frightening” and “terrifying”, the last sound of these are [iŋ] which could be regarded as the similar pronunciation with [en] .So, the two translations achieved beauty in sound from this aspect. In all the both versions are great from this perspective.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 ====<br /> The two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond do a good job in two aspects: “grammaticality”and “idiomaticness”. This part will analyze their features of“clarity”and “ organization”.(“stylistic adaptability” will be analyzed in the next part)<br /> The first is the“clarity”. A qualified translation should be fluent and easy to understand. Here it does not means the two versions have grammatical mistakes.Readers should not be confused by the cultural and social background of a word. In Moonlight over the Lotus Pond ,there are also some words with Chinese cultural or social characteristic. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> Example4 : “我悄悄地披了大衫，带上门出去。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “ Shrugging on an overcoat, quietly, made my way out, closing the door behind me.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang ’s version: “I quietly slipped on a long gown, and walked out leaving the door on the latch.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> The words “大衫”and“带上门” with Chinese characteristics, cannot be simply translated, the translator should carefully apt the best words owing to their traits.<br /> <br /> First of all,“大衫”is means “身长过膝的中式单衣”. Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xianyi employed this word into “overcoat” and “gown” respectively. The overcoat is a long warm coat worn in cold weather. And the gown is a long loose piece of clothing. At the beginning of the prose, the author sits in his yard to enjoy the cool. So, it is hot and the overcoat is not suit for summer. Then, the Chinese people in the later Qing Dynasty and the period of Republican, especially the men who were educated, preferred wearing the long and loose clothes. Thus, “大衫” translated into “grow” is more proper than “overcoat ”. By doing so, readers can correctly understand the meaning of the original text and draw a picture in his mind without confusion: why he wears a thick coat in summer.<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, a house with a courtyard has two doors, the gate of yard and the door of house in China, and when the owner need to go out for a short time, he will not lock the gate of yard, just as the Chinese people says “我一会就回来，别锁门”. Thus the word “带上门出去” translated as “leaving the door on the latch” in Yang’s version is more faithful to the original meaning than the word “closing the door ” in Zhu’s translation. In this sense, readers can receive more information about Chinese cultural or social background.<br /> <br /> To sum up, both two versions of this sentence are fluent without any grammatical errors and successful convey the meaning of original. However, Yang masterly selected the words “long gown” and the expression “leaving the door on the latch” .<br /> <br /> Example5 : 月光如流水一般，静静地泻在这一片叶子和花上。薄薄的青雾浮起在荷塘里。叶子和花仿佛在牛乳中洗过一样；又像笼着轻纱的梦。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: The moon sheds her liquid light silently over the leaves and flowers, which, in the floating transparency of a bluish haze from the pond, look as if they had just been bathed in milk, or like a dream wrapped in a gauzy hood.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: Moonlight cascaded like water over the lotus leaves and flowers, and a light blue mist floating up from the pool made them seem washed in milk or caught in a gauzy dream.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> In order to make the translation more authentic and smooth English, both Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xiangyi used the translation method of combination to combine the original three sentences into a long sentence, but the two versions have their different features. As for the form of the translation, Zhu Chunshen rendered his translation in three segments, short parts and long parts combined that is similar to the original sentence.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 ====<br /> Style is a difficult and hot issues of literary translation. Leech defined style as “the way in which the language is used in a given context, by a given person, for a given purpose and so on”.(Leech,2001:10) Many scholars believe that although the style is not translatable to some extent, the translation should still strive to reproduce the style of the original text. Liu Zhongde emphasized the importance of being close to the style of the original text in his the three-character principle of translation--faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness. Zhu Guanqian also believed that “对原文忠实，不仅是对表面的字义忠实，对情感，思想，风格，声音节奏等必须同时忠实。” (Zhu Guangqian,1984:447)So how should the translator reproduce the original author’s style?<br /> <br /> In the following part, the author of this thesis is going to compare the two English versions, and is based on the translation of rhetorical devices , to discuss whether or not the two versions can reproduce rhetorical effects of the original. This thesis focus on the analysis of metaphor, personification and other rhetorical devices, and selects several fragments of these rhetorical devices as the comparison of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example 6: 叶子出水很高，像亭亭的舞女的裙。层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花......正如一粒粒的明珠，又如碧天里的星星，又如刚出浴的美人。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927) <br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: ...reaching rather high above the surface, like the skirts of dancing girls in all their grace. Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms... like scattering pearls, or twinkling stars, or beauties just out of the bath. (Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: ...which rose high out of the water like the flared skirts of dancing girls. And starring these tiers of leaves were white lotus flowers... like glimmering pearls, stars in an azure sky, or beauties fresh from the bath.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)<br /> <br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing used three extremely beautiful metaphors to form a parallel construction, to enhance the language strength, to express his love of lotus, gives people endless feeling of beauty. <br /> <br /> The author uses “亭亭的舞女的裙” to describe the lotus leaves above the surface, vividly and lively depicted the lotus leaves as the skirt of the dancing girls, which is beautiful and charming. Zhu Chunshen rendered“亭亭” into “in all their grace”, though the meaning is relevant, there is an inappropriate: the metaphor here uses to focus on the dance dress rather than dancing girls, so it is not correctly using too much words to modified the dancer. Yang Xianyi added the word “flared “before the “skirts of dancing girls”, which seems out of thin air. However, “flared” referring to the cloths being “wider at the bottom edge than at the top”, the word is more appreciated and reproduces the scene of lotus leaves. In general, Yang handling of metaphor the first sentence is the most appropriate, also can best affect the beauty of sense.<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing used “一粒粒的明珠”, “碧天里的星星”and “刚出浴的美人” to describe the “白花 ”. The writer used three different things to describe the lovely lotus blooms. As for the form and sound, Zhu Chunshen employed “一粒粒的明珠” and “碧天里的星星” into two same phrases “scattering pearls” and “ twinkling stars ”which end with “-ing”, which is well-read and looks greater; while Yang translated them into two sentences in different forms, which differs from the original form for such sentence is just faithful to the literal meaning of original. As for the clause “刚出浴的美人”, Zhu’s translation is similar to Yang’s.<br /> <br /> All in all, Yang’s version is more appreciated for keeping the sense of beauty in the first sentence of this fragment. And Zhu’s version better reproduces the beauties of sound and form. <br /> <br /> Example 7: “层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花，有袅娜地开着的，有羞涩地打着朵儿的......”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms, some in demure bloom, others in shy bud ...”.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “And starring these tiers of leaves were white lotus flowers, alluringly open or bashfully in bud ...”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)<br /> <br /> “袅娜”and “羞涩”are the words used to describe people;“袅娜” uses to describe elegance posture and expression, especially women’s and girls’. Zhu Chunshen rendered “袅娜” into “demure”, which means “behaving in a way that does not attract attention to herself or her body; quiet and serious” in the OED, which seems inconsistent with the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated it into “alluringly”, which refers to attractive and exciting in a mysterious way in the dictionary. It seems much appropriate. Then as for the word “羞涩”, Zhu translated it into “shy” and Yang’s version is “bashfully”. Both the two words can use to describe people, and use to translate the word “羞涩”. However, the word “bashful” means “shy and easily embarrassed” which is more appropriate to reproduce the beauty of sense. Moreover, yang’s translation retains the beauty of form, because “羞涩” in original text is a adverb, and “bashfully” is a adverb too. Therefore, it is obvious that Therefore, it is obvious that Yang’s version is more appropriate.<br /> <br /> Example8: “微风过处，送来缕缕清香，仿佛远处高楼上渺茫的歌声似的。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “A breeze stirs, sending over breaths of fragrance, like faint singing drifting from a distant building”. (Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “The breeze carried past gusts of fragrance, like the strains of a song faintly heard from a far-off tower.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)<br /> <br /> Synaesthesia is the production of a sense impression relating to one sense or part of body by stimulation of another sense or part of the body. The author uses “歌声” to describe the fragrance of the lotus flowers. Here the fragrance of flowers is originally the sense of smell, but the author written it as a melodic song, the sense of hearing. Zhu Chunshen used “breeze...breaths...building” and “fragrance...faint...from”to describe the faint sound of the song which is vividly and close to the original text. And Zhu employed an alliteration, “drifting from a distant” to make the readers feel the dynamic beauty of lotus and achieve the same effect as the original text.In general, Zhu’s version is more appropriate for he reproducing the beauties of sense and sound .<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> We learn from the study and comparison. We develop from the study and comparison. While we are accumulating English and Chinese knowledge and practicing translation skill, we should also study others’ translations carefully. Through comparative study, we can improve ourselves.<br /> <br /> Through the comparative analysis of these two English translations, we will find that functional equivalence theory has been fully embodied. Functional equivalence theory is a bridge connecting world cultures, fully reproducing the original text through form equivalence, content equivalence，so that the readers of the target texts receive the same feeling as the readers of the original. Functional equivalence theory not only has a wide range of applications now, but in the future, functional equivalence theory will certainly play its role in promoting the exchange and development of various cultures and promoting the prosperity of the world’s culture.<br /> <br /> ===6..Reference===<br /> * Leech G N, Short M H.Style in Fiction:A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2001:10.<br /> * Chen Bohui.陈波慧(2018).汉英叠词对比及其英译——以《荷塘月色》两个英译本为例.[ Comparison of Chinese and English Reduplication and Their English Translation——Taking the Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' as an example ].海外英语.[Overseas English]. 2018.7<br /> * Han Zhengshun, Wang Jian（2008）<br /> *<br /> *<br /> *<br /> <br /> ==Lexical Gap between English and Chinese and its translation strategies 孟莹 Meng Ying==<br /> <br /> ==On Form and Spirit in Translation 文偲荇 Wen Sixing==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> translation methods，form，sprit<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译方法，翻译的形与神<br /> <br /> ===The form of translation===<br /> <br /> ===The sprit of translation===<br /> <br /> ===Discussion===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories——Taking &quot;2017 APEC Speech&quot; as sample 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing==<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Strategies'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Study on the Translation Strategies, Translation Methods and Translation Techniques in Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao==<br /> <br /> ==Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” to “Visibility” 胡百辉 Hu Baihui==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;胡百辉 Hu Baihui 202070080590&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> This chapter is on translator’s subjectivity from translator’s “invisibility” to “visibility”. As we all know, the translator is the subject of translation, by whom the meaning of the translated text is conveyed. However, the invisibility of translator has always been emphasized in the traditional theory of translation. Until 1970s, with the “cultural turn”, the translators’ role has been redefined and their subjectivity in translation has caught much attention. As a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with. Translators should give full play to their subjective initiative and deal with the relationship between them.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> translator’s subjectivity, invisibility, visibility.<br /> <br /> ==='''题目'''===<br /> <br /> 译者主体性：从“隐形”到“显性”<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 本章从译者的“隐形”到“显形”论述译者的主体性。众所周知，译者是翻译的主体，翻译文本意义的传达是通过译者实现的。然而，传统译论一直强调译者在翻译中“隐形”。直到20世纪70年代出现了翻译研究的“文化转向”，才重新定义了译者的角色，其主体性才得到关注。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点，我们不能简单说译者的角色从“隐形”转化为“显性”，而是从多个方面探讨，并且关注和解决其面临的挑战。译者要合理发挥自己的主观能动性，合理地处理二者之间的关系。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 译者主体性；“隐形”；“显性”。<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> The translator's “invisibility” and “visibility” have always been a controversial topic in the field of translation, both of which have their own theoretical basis and purpose; however, both of them are the result of the exertion of the translator's subjective initiative. These arguments are not to prove who is right and who is wrong, but to enrich the arguments in the process of proving their own views or persuading others, so as to perfect the relevant theories.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 128)<br /> <br /> For a long time, the translator's subjectivity has been one of the focuses of scholars, but we have always neglected the role of translators in translation activities. It was not until the “cultural turn” in the 1970s that translators and some scholars began to study and discuss this issue. There are some translation theories in the West that face the target culture. So with these translation theories that face the target culture, the scholars will inevitably do some research in translator’s subjectivity. At present, there are many researches on translator's subjectivity in China. This shows that the study of translator's subjectivity is deepening day by day. The translator should not continue to be invisible in the process of translation. The translator's subjectivity will directly affect the translator selecting words and sentences and the style of translation. In short, at present, the status of translator and translator's subjectivity are highly praised in the field of translation studies. However, it should be emphasized that in today's information technology era, the translator's subjectivity is not only valued, but also faced with great challenges.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> ==='''Translator's Subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional translation theories often neglect the study of translator's subjectivity, but tend to explore the linguistic level of the translated text. Therefore, translation, as a dynamic process, is often ignored and the translator's subjective factors are not paid enough attention.<br /> <br /> Actually, the traditional translation view, on the one hand, holds that translation is not creative and can not be compared with creation. On the other hand, it is against advocating the translator's subjectivity and creativity, and requires the translator to worship the original author, which also tends to the original. And the traditional role of translator was identified as the “servant” of the author, while assessing fidelity to the original text was primary. Pulled between the two poles: fidelity and treason, the translator faced the dilemma of lacking independence and subjectivity(Shufen Huang 2019, 100). Now it seems that this view of negating translator's subjectivity is unreasonable.<br /> <br /> As mentioned in the abstract, attention to the translator’s subjectivity did not arise until 1970s, when Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefevere have come up with the idea of “the cultural turn”. They stated that translation is not the simple transform between two languages, it goes in special cultural environment.<br /> <br /> And studies on the role of translators as well as the function of their subjectivity in the translating process have begun to flourish. However, the role of the translator and his subjectivity have been renewed and affirmed with the development of translation theory and translating activities. In the transitional years for translation studies, new translation theories were proposed (Shufen Huang 2019, 100). Those influential translation series, such as the polysystem theory and manipulation school have integrated researches on translator’s subjectivity into their massive system respectively (Zhiwei Gu 2017,24). At present, the study of translator's subjectivity is emerging in an endless stream.<br /> <br /> '''1. Definition of translator's subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> According to Za Mingjian and Tian Yu, translator’s subjectivity can be defined that on the premise of respecting the translation text, the translator shows his subjective initiative in order to achieve the purpose of translation. Its basic characteristics are the cultural consciousness, humanistic character, cultural and aesthetic creativity of the translator. And the essential characteristics of the translator’s subjectivity refer to the translator’s “active cultural consciousness”, “human character” and “ascetic creativeness”.(Zha MIingjian, Tian Yu 2003, 22)<br /> <br /> '''2. Related theories on translator's subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> In the 1970s, some scholars proposed the idea of “culture turn”, and since then many scholars such as Susan Bassnett (1980), Theo Hermans(1985), Andre Lefevere(1992), Tejaswini Niranjana (1992), Lawrence Venuti(1995), and Douglas Robinson (1997) have made studies on translator’s subjectivity. The issue of translator's cultural identity and subjectivity has naturally become an important research topic. While in China, some scholars studying in translation theory have conducted in-depth study in the translator’s subjectivity since 1980s. In recent years, there are many papers on the study of translator's subjectivity.<br /> <br /> In the following, the studies on translator’s subjectivity will be introduced by typical schools.<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Polysystem theory'''<br /> <br /> This theory is introduced by Tynjanov, and he argues that elements do not exist in isolation, but always in an interrelationship with other elements of other systems (Even-Zohar, Itamar 1979, 287). Actually, Tynjanov is a cultural theorist, but his polysystem theory has made the study on translator more popular. But his pioneering work continues to exert considerable influence on translation, particularly when studying translation in emerging cultures or cultures in crisis. He said, it is necessary to include translated literature in the polysystem. And through studies on the translated edition, it provides a feasible way to reconsider issues like the proper translator, suitable network on translation edition, translating adequacy and so on. This theory ushers in the cultural shift paves the way for the appearance of manipulation school (Zhiwei Gu 2017,24).<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Manipulation school'''<br /> <br /> The name of manipulation school was given by the title of a collection of essays edited by Theo Hermans(1985), The Manipulation of Literature:Studies in Literature Translation, which gathers a number of studies by scholars such as Van Gorp and Andre Lefevere. “From the point of view of the target literature, all translation implies a degree of manipulation of the source text for a certain purpose” (Hermans 1985, 30), said Hermans. They sited that &quot;translating is rewriting”, which is the foundation of the manipulation school. They have made the translation studies shift from the source-text oriented to target-text oriented. In their opinion, translators have their own feelings for the source text, and they respond to their intuitive feeling, and render the source text in the target culture.<br /> <br /> '''3. Factors influencing the translator's subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> The exertion of translator's subjectivity runs through the whole process of translation activities. When different translators read the same article, their understanding varied. Also when selecting words, choosing translation strategies, the translators would have their own opinions. Understanding the factors that influence the translator's subjectivity makes great contribution to the study of the translator's translation style and characters.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The historical background of translator'''<br /> <br /> The historical background determines the criteria of value evaluation of translation, which also leads to the trend of mainstream translation style. The era in which translators live will limit the breadth and depth of their understanding. Therefore, the former translation standards may no longer conform to the contemporary development. It took a long time for the translator's position to rise from invisibility to visibility.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu, a famous translator in China at the end of the 19th century, has put forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. At this time, China was written in classical Chinese, so the “elegance” here means that the translation should be elegant and be translated in classical Chinese. Since the May Fourth New Culture Movement, vernacular gradually replaces classical Chinese. Translators begin to translate a large number of classic works of Marxism Leninism, literary theory, progressive literary works of Soviet Union and other countries. Therefore, the translation at this time emphasizes the plainness and energy. So in 1979, Liu Zhongde, a translation theorist, has come up with a new translation criteria of “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, which is accepted by the majority now. Different background determines different criteria of translation value, and the change of criteria also leads the trend of mainstream translation style, with obvious era brand.(Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Translator's bilingual cultural competence'''<br /> <br /> The translator's bilingual cultural competence includes linguistic knowledge and cultural knowledge. When translating an article, the translator accepts the cultural influence of the original text and brings the translation into another culture. The coordination of the two cultures reflects the translator's bilingual cultural ability,which directly affects the translator's choice of translation strategies. In general, if the translator has a strong native language ability, he tends to choose the “domestication” strategy when translating the foreign language into the native language. On the contrary, when translating the native language into a foreign language, the translator often uses the strategy of “foreignization” because he can't find the corresponding foreign language expression. This is often seen in the translation of literary works and proverbs. It rains dogs and cats, which means it rains heavily. When translating into Chinese, it should be “大雨倾盆”. If this sentence is translated words by words, the target readers will not understand it. In fact, it is obvious in translation whether a translator's bilingual ability is good enough.If not, it will often make errors.(Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)<br /> <br /> '''3.3 Understanding of the original'''<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, only when the translator has a thorough understanding of the meaning of the original can he accurately convey the meaning of the original to the readers. As a saying goes,&quot; A thousand readers make a thousand Hamlets &quot;. There is a growing tendency to believe that it is the reader that decides the meaning of the literary text. Zhu Shenghao, a famous translator, has translated a lot of Shakespeare's works in his life. Shakespeare's works began to be introduced and translated in China at the beginning of last century. Zhu Shenghao is recognized as an early translator of Shakespeare's works in China, and his translation style has also been highly recognized. Different from the chronological arrangement of the Oxford edition, he divides the works into comedy, tragedy, historical drama and zaju, which are arranged in a self-contained system. Since he has a thorough understanding of the original, he could rewrite and rearrangement it and his translation text is well received at home and abroad. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 22)<br /> <br /> In a word, the process of translation is also a process of recreation. And under the new study of translation theory, the translator's subjectivity is encouraged and supported, but it needs to be limited. In the process of translation, the translator can always choose their preferred translation strategy and style, and fully develop your own style and characteristics in the translation. In this kind of recreation, it is always restricted by the original work, and can't be separated from the original meaning. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 22)<br /> <br /> ==='''The influence of translator's invisibility and visibility on translator's Subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> In literary translation, the word &quot;invisibility&quot; refers to &quot;the translator should insist on the translation in a smooth and accurate way, and can not add the translator's emotion&quot;; while &quot;apparent&quot; is put forward according to the opposite of &quot;invisibility&quot;, which means that the translator can put his own subjective feelings into literary translation, At the same time, in literary translation, translators can make use of the fact that there are some differences in the transformation of language symbol system to make reasonable and appropriate explanation of words, sentence processing, space structure reconstruction and other forms of translation through their own understanding. Cultural differences refer to different cultural styles in different cultural environments. Cultural differences also provide a more free creative environment for translators' translation. They can display their own unique styles by refining words, sending sentences and making sentences. This difference leads to the inevitable existence of the translator's &quot;appearance&quot;.(Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 71)<br /> <br /> '''1. Translator's invisibility'''<br /> <br /> The traditional translation theory focuses on the issue of language, focusing on how the ideal translator should do and what kind of requirements a perfect translation should achieve. It tries its best to eliminate the translator's traces in language and cultural transformation, and faithfully and completely convey all the information of the original work.<br /> Under the traditional translation theory, the translator should be invisible, that is, to achieve &quot;transparency&quot; and &quot;invisibility&quot;. The &quot;transparency&quot; of the translation requires the translator to strive to achieve fluenct, while the &quot;invisibility&quot; refers to that the target readers should not see the trace and influence of the translator when reading the translation text.<br /> &quot;The translator's invisibility depends on the following three conditions, which are often emphasized in the traditional translation theory: first, the translator should not incorporate his own subjective idea into the translation; second, the translator should not show his own personality in the translation; third, the translator should take the original text as the basis.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2003). In a word, &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;equivalence&quot; should be achieved in translation. The criterion of &quot;faithfulness&quot; also contributes to the tendency of traditional translation theories to neglect the translator's subjectivity.<br /> The traditional translation theories would emphasize to eliminate the differences in language, even some extreme domestication translation, even cultural differences. In domestication, the translator seems to be invisible. But the fact is that in order to meet the requirements of the target language and cultural norms, and get the recognition of the target language readers, the translator will spare no effort to exert his subjective initiative, which is the process of subject intervention. In this process, the translator should give full play to his subjectivity and bring his subjective idea into play. Therefore, on the surface, the translator seems to be &quot;invisible&quot;, but in essence, this &quot;invisibility&quot; is also the result of the translator's subjective initiative, which is the translator's conscious choice and abandonment.(Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 72)<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2. Translator's visibility'''<br /> <br /> In the 1970s, some scholars proposed the idea of “culture turn”, and since then many scholars have made studies on translator’s subjectivity. The issue of translator's cultural identity and subjectivity has naturally become an important research topic.<br /> The most familiar one is the Translator's Invisibility by American scholar Lawrence Venuti. In this book, he put forward the concepts of “foreignization” and “domestication”. According to his view, “domestication” emphasizes fluency and smoothness in order to minimize the exotic flavor in the translation and provide a natural and fluent translation for the target language readers. However, “foreignization” is intended to break through the conventions of the target language, retain the exotic flavor in the original text, and inject the linguistic and cultural differences in foreign texts into the target language. He called on translators to &quot;resist&quot; and adopt poor translation. &quot;Venuti believes that foreignization translation can not bring about the improvement of faithfulness. On the contrary, it is a misuse of faithfulness. Not only will some features of the original language be lost, but also new things will be added. As a result, the translator appears and the independent status of translation is revealed. In the actual translation process, the translator deliberately uses the &quot;resistance&quot; translation strategy to deliberately retain the expression and sentence pattern of the original text, so as to avoid the smooth translation, so that the readers can clearly feel that what they are reading is the translation, thus feeling the existence of the translator, reflecting the creativity of the translator and highlighting the role of the translator.(Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)<br /> <br /> ==='''The challenge of translator's Subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> As the focus of translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be limited to the transformation from being ignored to being valued, but should be found and faced up to the challenges it is facing from a comprehensive perspective.<br /> <br /> '''1. The challenge of modern information technology to translator's Subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of modern information technology, translation activities can be completed efficiently in a short time. In the past, translation was time-consuming and laborious, and the executor was the translator. Now, with the emergence of translation software and machines, the subject of translation activities has been increased in the traditional sense. These modern technologies have become the active elements in translation activities, which has caused a challenge to the translator's subjectivity. In some occasions where the requirements for translation are low and there is a certain tolerance for translation errors, translators have completely retired from the background. Because software and machines are supported by powerful corpora, they cover a wide range of fields, can process all kinds of texts, and can produce high-quality translations in a short time. Therefore, the target language readers can quickly get the original translation through the translation software or machine. In addition, in other occasions where translation requirements are high, translators with the help of translation software and various tools can not only shorten the translation time, but also obtain the translation with high accuracy. However, without the help of translation software and other tools, the translator needs to spend time to mobilize the initiative of all aspects, which can not be as fast and efficient as the machine assisted.<br /> There is no doubt that a series of modern information technology assisted translation work has played a positive role, which requires the translator not only to have the consciousness of language operation, cultural characteristics, artistic creation, aesthetic standards and humanistic character, but also to closely combine his own ability with modern information technology and have the ability to skillfully apply translation software and various auxiliary tools, However, the excessive dependence of translators on translation software can not be ignored.<br /> Some translators are eager for quick success and instant benefit, and make use of translation software and machines to make them become money making accelerators and produce poor quality translation works. In the mixed translation market, there are not a few translators who completely rely on machine for translation with only minor modifications. In the absence of machine translation, translation activities mainly rely on the translator's mental operation, and the translator's subjectivity can be brought into full play. But now, with the shortcut of translation, some translators can't help being lazy, which makes the most important part of the translation activities to fully display the translator's demeanor and play the translator's subjectivity lose its significance and turn into mechanical language output. In this process, the translator is satisfied with the convenience of machine translation and ignores the full play of the translator's subjectivity. Although translation tools can speed up the translation and improve the quality of translation in the process of translation activities, the excessive dependence on translation tools poses a challenge to the translator's subjectivity.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> '''2. The challenge of the era to the translator's Subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> In the past, professional translators always had to practice a lot of translation, combined with their preferences and strengths, to be able to translate works of interest to people. Many famous translations were produced at that time. Now, with the “one belt, one road” and the common destiny of mankind, the political, economic and cultural exchanges between China and other countries are becoming more frequent. More and more translators need to be served as bridges. The increasing number of translators and the professionalization of translation make translation a means of livelihood. The common existence of translation companies makes the threshold of becoming a translator too low, which reduces the requirement of translators' competence to a certain extent. From the recruitment information released by various companies, it can be found that many companies place too much emphasis on the language proficiency of interpreters, and they do not attach importance to translation experience or request to check relevant translation works, and neglect to investigate whether the translator's subjectivity, which reflects their profound skills, is fully exerted in their works. At present, the requirement of the translator's ability to survive in the field of translation has been reduced. Translation activities have become a kind of assembly line operation, and the translators participating in the assembly line have also changed from elite translators with strong translation ability to mechanical translation product producers. From this point of view, professionalization also challenges the translator's subjectivity<br /> Our times are dynamic. With the continuous updating of the information in various fields, the powerful corpus behind the translation software and machine can not be updated automatically, so it is necessary for the translator to explore the untranslated fields in order to obtain the relevant corpus to fill the corpus. From this point of view, as the subject of translation activities with individual thinking, translators must be prior to machines. If they excessively rely on modern technology, they will despise their initiative of thinking and choosing translation strategies in the process of translation, and can not give full play to the translator's subjectivity.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> '''3.The rational exertion of translator's subjective initiative'''<br /> <br /> The translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;manifestation&quot; are both the manifestation of subjectivity, and have their specific social and theoretical background. &quot;Translation is the active creative activity of the subject and the author's own language experience. Only through the translator's translation and interpretation can the text survive. The original text needs the participation of the translator's subject to help it obtain new life. The objective &quot;uncertainty&quot; needs to be filled and processed by the translator, so that the original intention of the composition can be revealed &quot;(Wang Zhengliang, Ma Tan, 2010). However, this kind of filling and processing is not random. Before translation, translators should first confirm whether their own conditions and temperament can adapt to the original text, and then translate the original composition. If the translated text is translated and interpreted at will, it will exaggerate the translator's autonomy to control the original work, and overemphasizes the translator's intervention in the work and the translator's interpretation space. Even under the banner of respecting the translator's identity and status and highlighting the translator's subjectivity, it is difficult to avoid the suspicion of &quot;overcorrection&quot;. In this process, we should pay attention to the influence of the mainstream ideology and Poetics in the historical background of the translator. When there is a conflict between the ideology of the translator and the ideology of the target culture, there are many translators in history who delete and change the original content in order to conform to the mainstream ideology and exert their subjective initiative. When the source language poetics is different from the target language poetics, the translator also needs to play an active role in mediating the differences between the two poetics, so as to make the translation get new life in the target language.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 130)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Many scholars have put forward their own views on the translator's subjectivity. However, few scholars have mentioned the challenge to the translator's subjectivity. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the challenges faced by translators' subjectivity. On the one hand, translators are required to improve their ability to exert their subjective initiative, closely integrate their own abilities with modern information technology, learn and skillfully apply various translation software, search tools, corpus and other auxiliary tools to improve the speed and quality of translation, On the other hand, the translator should be warned not to rely solely on the tool while neglecting the translator's subjectivity. The translator's subjectivity is an important support for our translation research and translation activities. We must face up to the challenges and actively deal with them.<br /> <br /> Translation is a process of gradual development and change, not a process of translating one language into another. Translators should fully understand, be familiar with and be familiar with the cultural differences in the original language in order to realize the true transmission of the original content. According to &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;manifestation&quot; in contemporary literary translation, we should know &quot;invisibility&quot; when necessary to ensure the fluency of language. According to Venuti's viewpoint of &quot;invisibility or invisibility is to make the translator invisible&quot;, we can better understand the meaning of &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator, and pay attention to the application effect of &quot;manifestation&quot; when necessary, which can not only make people pay attention to the translator, At the same time, it also reflects the cultural differences and image understanding in the process of reading. Therefore, the choice of &quot;invisible&quot; or &quot;explicit&quot; in translation is worth considering.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1] Even-Zohar, Itamar. (1979) &quot;Polysystem Theory&quot;. Poetics Today (1) 287.<br /> <br /> [2] Hermans, Theo. (1985) &quot;The Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;. London and Sydney: Croom Helm. (12) 30.<br /> <br /> [3] Lan Hongjun 蓝红军. (2017) 译者主体性困境与翻译主体性建构[J] [Translator's subjectivity dilemma and construction of translation subjectivity]. 上海翻译Shanghai Translation Journal (2) 21-27.<br /> <br /> [4] Li Hua, Li Guochao 李华,李国超. (2019) 文学翻译中译者的“隐身”与“显形”——以《第十个人》翻译中人物形象的塑造为例[J] [The translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;manifestation&quot; in Literary Translation--Taking the creation of characters in the translation of the Tenth Man as an example].智库时代 Think Tank Tines (42) 130-132.<br /> <br /> [5] Li Yingying, Lan Jie 李盈盈,兰杰.(2014) 浅谈翻译中的译者主体性[J] [On the translator's subjectivity in Translation]. 考试周刊 Weekly examination (24) 21-22.<br /> <br /> [6] Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 李铮;杨贤玉. (2011) 论译者的“隐形”和“显形”[J] [On the translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;visibility]. 邢台学院学报 Journal of Xingtai College (26) 71-72.<br /> <br /> [7] Shufen Huang. (2019) “A Study of the Translator’s Subjectivity in Literary Translation--Exemplified by the English Version of The Border Town”. Open Journal of Social Sciences(JSS) (7) 100. <br /> <br /> [8] Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 王玉,田翠芸. (2020) 从译者的“隐形”“显形”到“忘形”谈译者主体性[J] [Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” and “Visibility” to “Complacency”]. 华北理工大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of North China University of science and Technology (SOCIAL SCIENCE EDITION) (28) 128-131.<br /> <br /> [9] ZhaMingjian, Tian Yu 查明建,田雨.(2003). 论译者主体性—从译者文化的边缘化谈起[J] [On Translator's Subjectivity -- from the Marginalization of Translator's Culture]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1) 22.<br /> <br /> [10] Zhiwei Gu. (2017) &quot;On Zhang Peiji's Prose Translation from the Perspective of the Translator's Subjectivity&quot;, English Language and Literature Studies (1) 24.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 06:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s ManipulationTheory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility - 马智星 Ma Zhixing==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> '''摘要'''<br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Business Contracts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 胡瑾 Hu Jin==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization in China and the increasing frequency of modern commercial activities, commercial contracts are particularly vital in order to ensure the smooth progress of commercial activities. In a business contract, it is required to ensure that the expression of any text in the contract is accurate as far as possible, and the same is true when translating it. Contracts provide vital basis for the smooth development of business and the protection of rights. Accurate and vivid translation of contracts has an important impetus to the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations and the resolution of disputes. Therefore, it is of practical significance to study the translation of business contracts. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory, equivalence is first realized in meaning and then in form. Dynamic equivalence is used to break the static equivalence and maximize the meaning of the translation. This thesis gives a preliminary introduction to the translation of business contracts, studies the application of functional equivalence theory in contract translation, and puts forward some major translation skills and methods, which will be of some guiding significance to the future translation of business contracts, thus avoiding unnecessary disputes between the two parties.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> business contract; Functional Equivalence Theory; contract translation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中国全球化进程不断加快，现代商务活动日益频繁，为了确保商务活动的顺利进行，商务合同的签订显得尤为重要。在商务合同中，要求尽量确保合同中的每一个文字都表达准确，在对其进行翻译时也是如此。合同是确保业务开展顺利和进行权利保障的重要依托，对合同进行准确生动的翻译对业务的开展和权利、义务的保障以及出现争议时的解决等有着重要的推动力。因此，研究商务合同的翻译有一定的现实意义。根据奈达的功能对等理论，对等首先在意义上实现，然后在形式上实现，利用动态对等，打破静态对等，使译文意义最大化。此课题初步介绍了商务合同的翻译，研究了功能对等理论在合同翻译中的应用，提出了一些主要的翻译技巧和方法，对今后商务合同的翻译具有一定的指导作用，从而避免合同双方出现不必要的纠纷。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 商务合同；功能对等理论；合同翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since China promoted the Silk Road Economic Belt, China's economic exchanges with other countries in the world have been increasing day by day. China's exports volume is also increasing, and goods are exported to other countries in the world. In 2013, China overtook the United States as the world's largest trading nation. In this context, in order to ensure the smooth progress of transactions and reduce trade friction and disputes, commercial contracts, which have legal effect, have attracted more and more attention. Contract translation belongs to the category of legal translation. Accurate translation of contracts plays an important role in the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations, and the resolution of disputes. However, commercial disputes in China's foreign economic and trade business are very common, and many disputes are caused by various problems in contract translation. Therefore, they should be guided by scientific translation theories.<br /> This paper mainly includes 3 chapters. The first chapter is the introduction of business English contracts, including the definition of business contract, the categories of business contract, and the linguistic features of English business contract.<br /> The second chapter introduces the theoretical framework of functional equivalence translation, including Nida's main principles and viewpoints of functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> The third chapter is the main part of the article, including the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 General Introduction of Business Contract===<br /> <br /> This chapter first introduces the definition of business contract and the categories of business contract, and then analyzes the linguistic features of English business contract from lexical, syntactic and textual levels respectively. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> As an important link in foreign trade activities, business contracts have always been valued by people. Article 2 of The PRC Contract Law clearly stipulates that Commercial contract refers to the agreement clauses that are formally concluded according to law, notarized and must be abided by jointly in order to determine their respective rights and obligations during certain commercial cooperation between the parties concerned. It can be seen from this that a commercial contract is the result of the consensus reached by the parties and is a civil legal act. A legally established contract shall take effect from the date of its establishment and shall be legally binding. This provides a legal guarantee for effectively avoiding trade frictions. However, special attention should be paid to the fact that China's Economic Law on Foreign Contracts stipulates that commercial contracts can take many forms, such as formal contracts, letters of intent, memorandum, agreements, commissioned purchase orders, etc. But no matter what form it takes, it should be signed in writing. The oral agreement cannot be submitted to the court as evidence after the dispute occurs.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Categories and Structure of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> Based on different standards, business contracts can be divided into many categories. According to the contract maker, they can be divided into sales contract (made by the seller) and purchase contract (made by the buyer); according to the subject matter, they can be divided into technology transfer contracts, processing contracts, foreign labor contracts, and agency agreements, etc; according to the details of the contract, they can be divided into sales contract, sales confirmation letter, purchase contract and purchase confirmation letter; according to the price terms used in the contract, they can be divided into CIF contract, FOB contract and goods arrival contract, etc.<br /> Although there are many types of commercial contracts, the structure of commercial contracts is generally relatively fixed, generally including three parts: preface, text and contract end. The first part is the preface, which generally includes the name of the contract, the parties to the contract, the date of signing and the place of signing. The second part is the main body of the contract, which mainly stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties to the agreement, the specific conditions of the traded goods, such as commodity name, quantity, total value, delivery date and validity period, port of shipment and destination, insurance and confidentiality clauses, payment clauses,etc. The third part is the end, which mainly includes the signatures of all parties to the agreement, the language of the contract, the number of copies of the contract and the explanation of the validity of the contract.<br /> <br /> ====1.3 A Contrastive Analysis of Stylistic Features of Chinese and English Business Contracts====<br /> <br /> English business contract is a solemn style with the highest degree of formality among all styles of English. A comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English business contract in terms of vocabulary, syntax and discourse will be made in this chapter.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Lexical Features of Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> As the most basic semantic constituent unit, vocabulary plays the most basic and important role in the whole contract text. When reading any text, the characteristics of words can often reflect the characteristics of the whole text. Therefore, it is necessary to study the characteristics of vocabulary so as to lay a foundation for the study of the whole text.<br /> <br /> First of all, the use of archaism is the most prominent feature in international business contract English. The extensive use of archaic words in business contracts and legal styles fully reflects their solemn and serious style, which is related to the social function of English style of business contracts and the particularity of international business. The archaism most commonly used in business contract English are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中)，therein-after(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于).<br /> <br /> In contrast, some classical Chinese words are often used in Chinese business contract terms, such as“兹、若”. This is to reflect the conciseness and clarity of the Chinese contract text. However, strictly speaking, Chinese business contract terms are more straightforward, the classical Chinese vocabulary is less frequently used, and the stylistic features are not as obvious as English business contracts.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the use of synonyms is another feature of English business contracts. Two or more synonyms are often used together in English business contracts. This is to make the terms of the contract more precise and accurate, and to avoid ambiguities and omissions as much as possible, for example, by and between, sole and exclusive, make and enter into, etc. <br /> <br /> However, we must note that synonyms are not commonly used in Chinese business contracts. This is mainly because of the differences in expression habits between Chinese and English and the differences in legal and cultural traditions between countries.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, as a contractual document with legal effect, legal terms are also used in the contract. In formal English business contracts, drafters often use “convene” instead of “hold or assemble”; “dispatch” instead of “spread out or handout”; “terminate” instead of “stop”. Similarly, in Chinese business contracts, interpreters use“承诺”to indicate “commitment”;“撤销”to indicate“cancel”instead of “取消”;“裁决” to mean “decision” instead of “决定”. Finally, the contract contains many professional knowledge and terminology.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.2 Syntax Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> Besides vocabulary, the syntax of business contracts also has their own characteristics, such as common clauses, declarative sentences, passive voice, modal verbs, etc. <br /> <br /> The most obvious feature in business contracts is the use of subordinate clauses. They are in obvious positions to explain, restrict and supplement the meaning of the main sentence. The positions of these clauses are relatively flexible. For example, attributive clause can be placed together with the central word or separated from the central word. A noun can be modified by multiple attributive clauses, and an attributive clause can also modify multiple nouns. The adverbial clause of time can be placed either at the beginning of the sentence or at the middle and end of the sentence.<br /> <br /> In contrast, the positions of attributive clauses and adverbial clauses in Chinese are relatively fixed. The adverbial clause of time is usually next to the modified verb because there is no temporal change in Chinese verbs. Declarative sentences are clear in meaning, division of powers and responsibilities, objective and fair in stating facts, and conform to the requirements of business contract terms. Therefore, they are frequently used in Chinese and English business contracts, but interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences are seldom used.<br /> <br /> Passive sentences are also quite common in business contracts. The passive voice is often used when there is no need to clearly indicate the sender of the behavior and the emphasis is placed on the object of the behavior.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.3 Textual Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> The textual features of Chinese and English business contracts are mainly reflected in textual cohesion and textual structure.<br /> <br /> In business contracts, whether Chinese or English, contextual cohesion is realized by adding conjunctions or repetitions of words, which indicates the logical relationship between sentences and reflects the rigour and solemnity of business contract language.<br /> <br /> The discourse structure of Chinese and English business contracts is basically the same, with highly stylized features.<br /> <br /> This kind of consistency is not only to obtain formal uniformity, but also often mainly due to the requirements of meaning, so that readers have the impression that the contents expressed by clauses with the same sentence pattern are equivalent in the legal effect of the contract.①<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 General Study of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This chapter introduces Nida's functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida first proposed the“dynamic equivalence”theory, then further developed the theory, emphasizing the equivalence of two aspects, namely“formal equivalence”and“dynamic equivalence”.“Formal equivalence”emphasizes the form and content of the information itself and believes that the translation should be close to the original structure. “Dynamic equivalence”refers to“reproducing source language information from semantics to style with the closest (original) natural equivalent in the recipient language”.② Tan Zaixi（谭载喜） pointed out, in this definition, there are three key points: 1. Natural, the translation cannot have a translation cavity. 2. Closeness, referring to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of nature. 3. Equivalence, which is the core.<br /> <br /> After the proposal of dynamic equivalence, many disputes have arisen. It is considered as free translation or live translation. In order to change people's misunderstanding of it, Nida pointed out:“Everything in the text is meaningful, including speech forms, so forms cannot be sacrificed easily.”④ Therefore, he replaced“dynamic equivalence”with “functional equivalence”. There is no essential difference between the two, but the latter highlights the concept of“function”.<br /> <br /> On the question of which level equivalence should be reflected, Nida pointed out that in addition to content and form equivalence, style equivalence should also be considered.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida divided functional equivalence into“maximum functional equivalence”and“minimum functional equivalence”since absolute equivalence is impossible to achieve. The so-called“maximum functional equivalence”means that the target readers can understand the original text in a way consistent with the original readers and further appreciate the original text while“minimum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand how the original readers understand and appreciate the original through their understanding of the target text. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Researches on Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Abroad, Beekman(1972: 32) pointed out:“Nida's functional equivalence theory makes theorists and translators believe that a good translation must be able to convey the meaning and dynamics of the original text at the same time.”⑤ <br /> <br /> Wilss(2001: 51) stressed:“Nida's functional equivalence theory can be applied to translation practice because it can achieve effective translation.”⑥ Venuti said:<br /> Functional equivalence theory also eases the debate between translators on“domestication” and “foreignization” from the perspective of language and culture.⑦<br /> <br /> At home, Jin Di(金堤) put forward“equivalence theory”on the basis of“functional equivalence theory”, and applied it to the translation of Ulysses, which illustrates the feasibility of“functional equivalence” theory in practical translation. Tan Zaixi made a comprehensive and systematic summary of the formation process of Nida's translation theory and its profound connotation. In addition, in the CNKI database, retrieval using“functional equivalence theory” as the key word shows that there are 2444 related articles in various core journals and magazines.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Applicability of Functional Equivalence Theory to E-C Translation of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> At present, there are no authoritative translation principles and standards for commercial contract translation, but the three principles of contract translation put forward by Ma Huijuan(马会娟) are highly recognized: First, the words used are accurate and the translation is complete. The translator shall not add, delete or change any information contained in the contract at will. The language of the translation shall be accurate, complete and natural. Second, the organization is clear and the format is equivalent. The translation should correspond to the original text format as a whole and reproduce the structural features of the source language as much as possible. Third, the translation should be in line with the stylistic characteristics of the contract.<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory emphasizes content equivalence, form equivalence and style equivalence. These three requirements are consistent with the three principles above put forward by Ma Huijuan respectively. Both of them limit the translation standards from the aspects of content, form and style. Therefore, the functional equivalence theory can be fully applied to the translation practice of business contracts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Business Contract Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This part focuses on the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. Combining with actual translation cases, this chapter analyzes the common problems in contract translation and puts forward corresponding solutions. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Equivalence at the Lexical Level====<br /> <br /> Vocabulary is the basic component of sentences and chapters. In the specific translation process, if vocabulary translation is not handled well, sentence and chapter translation will be impossible.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Equivalence of Technical Terms—Literal Translation and Free Translation=====<br /> <br /> The contents of business contracts involve all trades and professions, and there are many subject matters, including many professional knowledge and terminology, which is a big obstacle for many translators who do not know the professional knowledge of the industry. Therefore, before translation, translators should understand the relevant industries involved in the contract and master the necessary knowledge in the industry so as to avoid the layman's words and semantic errors in the translation, which will affect the accuracy and formality of the contract and cannot achieve functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> Example1:The balance 80% ( Eighty percent ) of the contract value shall be paid against irrevocable L/C at 360 days sight to be accepted by both parties. <br /> 译文：合同金额的80%（百分之八十）以不可撤销信用证的方式在交单的360 天予以支付。<br /> <br /> Many words in the contract appear in the form of letter abbreviations. As shown in this example,“L/C”is the abbreviation of letter of credit, which is translated literally into“信用证”. This is a well-established translation method in the industry, which can reflect both the equivalence of meaning and the professionalism of language expression.<br /> <br /> Example2:“The seller shall present the following documents required for negotiation or collection to the banks.”<br /> 译文:“卖方应向银行提交议付或托收所需的下列文件。”<br /> <br /> In this sentence,“negotiation”and“collection”are both technical terms of the contract, they are translated into“议付”and“托收” respectively, instead of“谈判”and“收取”. The expressions not only conform to the professional expression of the economic and trade industry, but also accurately reflect the meaning of the original text and achieve the meaning and style equivalence emphasized by the functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> Example3:“UNIT PRICES: FOB Xingang, Tianjing USD 22 150.00 per unit (US Dollars twenty two thousand, one hundred and fifty only)。”<br /> 译文:“单价: FOB天津新港, 每辆22150.00美元（贰万贰仟壹佰伍拾美元）。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“FOB”is an abbreviation of “Free on board”. It can be translated into “FOB” by free translation or by shifting translation. This is mainly because the readers of business contracts themselves are professionals in the industry. They usually exchange price terms in the form of English letters and abbreviations in their daily work. Therefore, when translating such price terms, their source language expressions can be retained.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Equivalence of Archaism—Omission, Addition and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Archaisms are rarely used in modern English, but they are still common in business contracts. They can not only reflect the formal rigour of business contracts, but also highlight the conciseness and clarity of language. The archaisms most commonly used in English business contract are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中), hereinafter(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于), etc.<br /> <br /> Example1:“The parties hereto shall, first of all, settle any dispute arising from or in connection with the contract through amicable negotiation.” <br /> 译文:“合同双方首先应该通过友好协商，解决因合同而发生的或与合同相关的争议。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“hereto”means“本协议的、本合同的”. It can be translated with omission. The contract subject relationship is clear, literal translation will only lead to redundant repetition of the translation, so there is no need to translate it.<br /> <br /> Example2: Now, therefore, in consideration of the recitals set forth above and the mutual covenants, promises, and agreements contained herein, and other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged, the Parties do hereby agree as follows: <br /> 译文：因此，考虑到上述陈述和本协议中包含的共同契约、承诺和协议，以及其他良好和有价值的对价，双方特此达成如下协议，特此确认其接收和充分性。<br /> <br /> In this example, herein usually means“此中，于此”. But such translation here will confuse readers. Therefore, we can adopt addition and translate it into“此协议中”. Although this expression is not as concise as“于此”, accuracy is the first requirement in contract translation.<br /> <br /> Example3: After arrival of goods at port of destination, the buyer shall apply to China Commodity Inspection Bureau (hereinafter referred to as CCIB) for a further inspection as to the specifications and quantity/weight of the goods.<br /> 译文：货到目的港后，买方将申请中国商品检验局(以下简称商检局)对货物的规格和数量重量进行检验。<br /> <br /> In this case, the original meaning of“hereinafter”is“以下，在下文中”. Its original meaning is directly inserted into the sentence, which not only accurately expresses the original meaning, but also makes the translated language natural and smooth, meeting the requirements of functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Equivalence of Formal Words—Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> “Functional Equivalence”emphasizes the transmission of reading experience, requiring the translator to transmit not only language functions but also legal functions, so as to enable the target readers to feel the reading experience of the original readers. <br /> <br /> Example1: The agreement does not operate as an acceptance of any conflicting terms and conditions and shall prevail over any conflicting provision of any purchase order or any other instrument of Customer. <br /> 译文：本协议不接受任何与本协议产生冲突的任何条款。若在乙方订单或任何文件中出现与本协议相冲突的条款，应均以本协议为准。<br /> <br /> Example2:“Time of shipment: within 15 days after receipt of the advance payment and the L/C of balance value to be accepted by the × Bank.” <br /> 译文:“装运日期：收到预付款且剩余货款的信用证被××银行承兑后的15天内装运。”<br /> <br /> In the first example, although the basic meaning of“胜过”is also expressed, it is usually translated into“以....为准” or “效力高于”in legal texts. In the second example, the common meaning of“accept”is “接受”, but in legal translation it is usually translated as “承兑”. Formal words are usually translated according to conventions, so the difficulty in translation lies not in the choice of translation strategies, but in the grasp of semantics and the reproduction of style.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.4 Equivalence of Juxtaposition—Contracted Translation=====<br /> <br /> English business contracts often use two or more synonyms to ensure the uniqueness of words meaning. The functional equivalence theory emphasizes the equivalence of meaning and form, but in the actual translation process, the absolute equivalence between the two, that is, the “maximum functional equivalence”proposed by Nida, is impossible to realize.<br /> <br /> Example1:“The agreement is made and entered into on April 16, 2007 by and between Party A and Party B.”<br /> 译文:“此合同由甲乙双方于2007年4月16日达成。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“made and entered into”and“by and between”are juxtaposed by two pairs of synonyms. When translating, these words only need translate once, which is called contracted translation. <br /> <br /> Example2: This agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the subject matter hereof and supersedes all prior agreements, understanding, warranties, representations, negotiations and discussion, whether oral or written, of the parties except as specifically set forth herein.<br /> 译文：此合同是双方就合同主体所达成的全部协议，将取代双方过往所有口头或书面的协议、理解、声明、保证、谈判和讨论，在此明确阐明的除外。<br /> <br /> In this example, several synonyms are juxtaposed to make the terms of the contract include all relevant matters as much as possible so as to make the writing strict and clear. Here, we can adopt literal translation strategy, keeping the total number of words listed in the original text, and looking for the corresponding Chinese words to achieve the double equivalence of content and form. <br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Equivalence at the Syntactic Level====<br /> <br /> Cliches are commonly used in official document and usually have a fixed translation method. Passive sentences and subordinate clauses have long sentence patterns and complicated logical relations, which tests the translator's translation ability and logical expression ability. <br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Conventional Phrases—Imitation Translation=====<br /> <br /> There are many cliches in business contracts, which are common at the beginning and end of contracts.<br /> <br /> Example1:“In consideration of the mutual covenants contained in this agreement, the parties agree as follows:”<br /> 译文:“考虑到本协议中的共同承诺，协议双方约定如下:”<br /> <br /> Example2:This Agreement may be executed in two or more counterparts, each of which shall be deemed an original and all of which together shall constitute one instrument. <br /> 译文：本协议可签署两个或两个以上的副本，每一副本构成本协议的一份原件，所有副本构成一份法律文件。<br /> <br /> Although the original expression of each text is not the same, the basic meaning is the same. A relatively fixed translation method has been formed, so the translators should know the common expressions in advance, or look for the parallel text to imitate the translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Equivalence of Passive Sentence=====<br /> <br /> Passive voice is a typical language structure in English business contracts. It can effectively reflect the objectivity and fairness of contracts. However, unlike English, passive voice is seldom used in Chinese. Therefore, in translation, we usually use various translation strategies to convert passive voice into active voice. The most common translation strategy is conversion, that is, the object of the original text is converted into the subject, and the subject is converted into the object. <br /> <br /> Example1: This Contract is made by and between the Buyer and the Seller whereby the Buyer agree to buy and the Seller agrees to sell the commodity in attached Annex according to the terms and condition stipulated below: <br /> 译文：买卖双方同意按下述条款购买出售附件中的商品并签订本合同： <br /> <br /> Example2: Agent shall be entitled to nominate mandate other third parties to act upon behalf of Agent in generating business to the Parties, as Agent’s sole discretion. <br /> 译文：代理人有权自行指定、授权其他第三方代表代理人为缔约方带来业务。<br /> <br /> From the first example, “by and between” is used as adverbial in the sentence. The object“the Buyer and the Seller” is the originator of this sentence, which is transformed into the subject of Chinese, and the recipient of the action“this contract”is transformed into the object of Chinese, thus the passive sentence of English is transformed into the active sentence of Chinese. In addition, some passive sentences in business contracts can also be translated into active sentences without changing the subject of the original sentence, as shown in the second example.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Equivalence of Long Sentence—Combination, Division and Reconstruction=====<br /> <br /> Long sentences must contain many clauses and modifiers, and their writing ideas are quite different from those of Chinese. Therefore, how to split the sentences into several parts, how to extract the core meaning of complex logical relations and how to reorganize Chinese are the three major difficulties.<br /> <br /> Example1: Agent’s undertaking and obligation is to search, locate and refer (lead) potential and prospective clients/customers to Principal who are seriously interested, ready, willing and able to apply for the Product. <br /> 译文：代理人的责任和义务是为委托人寻找、定位和推荐（引导）潜在的、真正对本产品感兴趣、准备好且愿意申请的客户。<br /> <br /> This is a restrictive attributive clause. We often adopt a combination method, translating the subordinate clause into“...的” and putting it before the modifier in the form of adjectives. This is mainly due to the structural differences between English and Chinese. The attributive elements in Chinese are not as flexible as the attributive clauses in English. <br /> <br /> Example2: The parties may not assign or transfer this Agreement or any of its rights and obligations under this Agreement without the prior written consent of the other party, which shall not be unreasonably withheld. <br /> 译文：未经另一方事先书面同意，缔约方不得出让或转让本协议或本协议项下的各项权利和义务，此要求不得被无理拒绝。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a non-restrictive attributive clause. Since this clause and the antecedent are not closely related and generally play an explanatory role, we often use division method in E-C translation. That is to say, the two should be separated and naturally combined by repeating antecedents.<br /> <br /> Example3: Should Principal be reasonably sure that Agent violated this rule, or should any client/customer present proof of such violation, Agent will not be entitled to its omission for the particular client or group of clients and Principal may terminate this Agreement with immediate effect at its own discretion. <br /> 译文：如果委托人有理由确定代理人违反了此项规定，或如果有客户提供了其违反此项规定的证据，代理人将无权享这一客户或这一组客户的佣金，委托人可自行终止本协议，即刻生效。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a adverbial clause. The structure of“should+subject+verb”belongs to the unreal conditional sentence. But there is no such usage in Chinese. Therefore, we can reconstruct the original text according to the logical structure of the original sentence and adjust the word order appropriately to make it natural and more in line with the Chinese expression habits. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Equivalence at Textual Level====<br /> <br /> The text consists of sentences, so the following focuses on the cohesion and format of the text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Text Cohesion=====<br /> <br /> Text cohesion is realized through the use of conjunctions and lexical repetition, reflecting the rigour and solemnity of business contract language.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> Thereafter, this Agreement shall be renewed automatically for successive additional one-year terms under the same terms and conditions unless either party chooses not to continue the relationship and provides written notice 30 days prior to the natural expiration of the existing one-year term. <br /> 译文：此后，本协议应以同样的条款自动延期一年，除非任何一方选择解除合作关系，并在一年合同期满前30天提交书面通知。<br /> <br /> Here, explicit connectives,“thereafter, and, unless”are clearly translated, which is conducive to textual cohesion and indicates the logical relationship between sentences. Therefore, we can translate them into “此后、和/并、除非”, which not only realizes the formal equivalence between the translation and the original, but also achieves the semantic equivalence.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Text Format=====<br /> <br /> As one kind of legal documents, commercial contracts are highly normative and have strict writing format. Therefore, attention should be paid to the corresponding format in translation.<br /> <br /> Contract No: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Date: Aug. ××,2013 <br /> <br /> The Buyer: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Representative: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> The seller: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××<br /> <br /> Representative: ××××××<br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> 译文：合同编号：×××××× <br /> <br /> 日期：2013年8月×号 <br /> <br /> 买方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：×××××× <br /> <br /> 卖方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：××××××<br /> <br /> Here, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the contract text, and keep the format of the translation and the original text in alignment during translation. Firstly, capital words with the first letter should be emphasized in terms consistent with Chinese expression habits. Secondly, the parts marked in bold or italics in the contract shall still be marked in bold or italics in the translation.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> To sum up, according to the requirements of functional equivalence theory on translation quality, commercial contract translation should meet the following standards:<br /> <br /> In terms of content, first, the translation language should be natural and fluent and conform to Chinese expression habits. Second, pay attention to the professionalism of the language expression in the translation, avoid using colloquial expressions, and achieve the meaning equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> In terms of format, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the commercial contract text and try our best to achieve the formal equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> In terms of language style, the translation should retain the original language style as much as possible. The business contract language is professional and solemn, so the translation should reproduce the strict and formal legal style of the original text on the premise of ensuring accurate content and natural language.<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes and summarizes specific contract terms and puts forward countermeasures. Although the translation strategies given in this paper have certain universality, the research text is slightly narrower than that of the whole commercial contract text research. Due to the space limitation, the cases provided are limited. Therefore, the scope of the research text should be broadened and analyzed from a broader research perspective in future research.<br /> <br /> ===Notes===<br /> <br /> ① 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998: 310-312.<br /> <br /> ② Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986: 113-120.<br /> <br /> ③ 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2004: 23-27.<br /> <br /> ④ Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993: 119-130. <br /> <br /> ⑤ Beekman, J. &amp; C, John. Translating the word of God[M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974: 191-221.<br /> <br /> ⑥ Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001: 72-86.<br /> <br /> ⑦ Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995: 76-89.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> [1] Beekman, J. &amp; John C. Translating the word of God [M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974. <br /> <br /> [2] Catford, J. C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965. <br /> <br /> [3] Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> [4] Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986.<br /> <br /> [5] Nida, E. A., and R Taber, Charles. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. New York: E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1969.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995.<br /> <br /> [7] Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [8] Yallop, C. The construction of equivalence[A]. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2001.<br /> <br /> [9] 顿官刚. 经贸英语词汇的特点及翻译[J]. 山东外语教学, 2002, (2).<br /> <br /> [10] 廖瑛. 实用公关英语[M]. 上海: 对外经济贸易大学出版社, 2005.<br /> <br /> [11] 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998.<br /> <br /> [12] 苗锡璞. 功能对等理论指导下的商务英语翻译[J]. 内蒙古财经学院学报, 2011, (1).<br /> <br /> [13] 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> [14] 汪洋. 浅析商务合同的词汇与句法翻译技巧[J]. 科技文汇, 2009, (10).<br /> <br /> [15] 金堤. 等效翻译探索[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998.<br /> <br /> [16] 马会娟. 论商务文本翻译标准多元化[J]. 中国翻译, 2005, (3).<br /> <br /> ==The identity of translator in translation activities张毓婕 Zhang Yujie==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In translation activities, translators have freedom in the choice of texts to be translated and translation strategies. They also have freedom in the choice of ways to understand the author’s emotions and values and reproduce the connotations and cultural flavor of the text. And Only when translators truly realize what roles they should play in translation activities and play these roles well can they create high-quality translations. Therefore, the translation is deeply imprinted by the translator, and the roles of the translator have become an important issue that cannot be ignored in translation studies. And with the development of translation studies, the issue of translator's identity has received due attention. This article also discusses the issue of translator’s identity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> identity of translator, translation activities, roles of today’s translator <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 论翻译活动中译者的身份<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 翻译活动中，译者既可以在翻译文本、翻译策略的选择上发挥主观能动性，也可以在对作者情感和价值观的理解、语言的选择、文化风味的重现上发挥主观能动性。而只有译者真正认识到自己在翻译活动中应该扮演什么角色并且扮演好这种角色，他们才能创造出高质量的译作。因而译作深深地打上了译者的烙印，译者的身份角色成为翻译研究中不可忽视的一个重要问题。而随着翻译实践的发展，译者的身份问题受到了应有的重视，本文也对这一问题进行了探讨。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 译者的身份，翻译活动，当今译者的角色<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translators’ playing roles well in translation is vital to the accomplishment of high-quality translations. Therefore, the identity of translator is an important issue in translation studies and we should pay much attention to it. As for this paper, first of all, it makes an analysis of the importance and necessity of valuing the issue of translator’s identity. Then, it expounds different kinds of roles translators have played in the history. Next, it concludes the features of the changes of translator’s identity and its complexity. Finally, from the perspective of today’s translators, it shows what roles today’s translators should play with today’s development of society and technologies, so as to explain how can we make more contributions to culture and development of the world.<br /> <br /> ===1.The importance and necessity of valuing the issue of translator’s identity===<br /> Two scholars Zhong Weihe and Zhou Jing made the following overview: as the subject of translation, translators need to respect the objective translation environment and fully understand the cultural needs of the target language, and they must also show their self-consciousness through subjective initiative. For example, they can show it through language operation, cultural characteristics, artistic creation, aesthetic standards, and humanistic character. In addition, they must give full play to their autonomy, initiative, purpose, creativity, and acceptance. This is the subjectivity of translation. （Zhong and Zhou, 2006）The two scholars not only pointed out the objective conditions that translators need to consider in translation activities, but also further explained that translators need to stimulate their subjective initiative and creativity, which is very enlightening. As the subject of translation, the translator’s activity is the specific translation behavior, that is, the conversion between two different languages and cultures. He can be creative and active in the choice of the text to be translated, the order of translation and translation strategies. The translated version is also deeply imprinted by the translator. Although the translation is derived from the original, it is no longer the original and have a new life. In addition, the translator can not only give the original work a new life, but also decide which new life to give it, so that it will be presented to the target language readers in an acceptable appearance. Therefore, the identity of the translator runs through the entire translation activity and is closely linked to the original and translated work. It is an important issue worthy of our attention.<br /> <br /> ===2.Different kinds of roles translators have played in history===<br /> <br /> ====2.1The identity of translator under the source language centralism====<br /> Under the source language centralism, the purpose of translation is to reproduce the author’s original meanings and the highest standard of translation is being faithful to the original text. In these translation theories, translators’ cultural status is marginalized, and many of these translators are invisible, given various kinds of humble titles and roles.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1Translator as a servant=====<br /> There are certain common cognitions and understandings of the identity of translators in China and western countries. Due to their long-exist limitations in public awareness of translation activities and the low social status of translators, translators were once generally regarded as playing the &quot;servant role&quot; in both East and West.<br /> <br /> John Dryden compares a translator to a slave, thinking that the &quot;slave&quot; can only work in someone else's manor, manuring and pruning the grapes, while the wine produced belongs to the owner. （Tan, 1991）<br /> <br /> American modern translator Weinberger complained that although his translation works had attracted millions of readers, there was no his name on the cover of the translations, so he was merely an unsung hero.<br /> <br /> Yang Jiang also said in her book Experience of Failures-Trial Translation: At least, this is a hard job, because translators as servants have to follow the master and cannot be self-assertive. Moreover, a servant serves two masters at the same time: one is the original text, and the other is the readers of his translation. (Jin and Huang, 2019)<br /> <br /> The identity of servant requires translators to be completely faithful to the original text, adhere to the source-centered and author-centered theory, and not be affected by their own emotions and values. Playing this kind of role, the translator should only faithfully convey the connotation of the text and the author's original intention, so he just like a slave in shackles without personal freedom, and can only follow the author in anywhere. Of course, it is true that translators’ playing a role as a servant can help translators to faithfully restoring the author’s intention and not distorting his original meanings so that meet the requirements of “faithfulness” and “loyalty”, but this kind of theory ignores the translator’s subjectivity and will place translators in a very low social status. Just as an ancient craftsman did not have the right to sign his name on his carvings, a translator also doesn’t have this kind of right and is neglected in their translations. Therefore, this theory reveals various prejudices and disregard of public for translators. And even in today’s China with prosperous economy and society, most people still hold the view that translation is merely the mechanical conversion of the source language and the target language. They believe that if they understand English, they are absolutely qualified for the job of translation. At the same time, a lot of issues such as a chaotic translation market, low salary for translators, talent shortage in translation and gloomy employment prospects are very prominent. What’s more, even in the Chinese translation circles, there are long-exist serious problem of &quot;seeing things but not people&quot;. Translators have a low status in the literary world and are treated with indifference and contempt. And their fruits, that is, translations, are not valued or even recognized on many occasions.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2Translator as an invisible person=====<br /> One topic that has been heatly debated for a long time in the translation world is that whether translators should be invisible or visible in translation. The translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;visibility&quot; have their own purpose and theoretical basis respectively, but both &quot;invisibility&quot; or &quot;visibility&quot; are translators’ own choices made after deliberations.<br /> Venuti, the translation theorist of deconstruction, explained invisibility in his monograph The Translators Invisibility: A History of Translation with Norman Shapiro's words and he thought that the translation should be transparent so that it does not look like the translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass. There are only small imperfections on the glass like scratches and bubbles. Of course, the ideal is to have nothing. The translation should never cause readers to feel that they are reading the translation. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu also had similar points of view and he stated in the article The Translation of Lin Shu that: The highest standard of literary translation is &quot;sublimation&quot;. In translation, if you can not only do not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched due to the differences of language habits, but also completely preserve the original flavor, then it has met requirements of “sublimation”. In the seventeenth century, someone praised this kind of translation as &quot;the transmigration of souls&quot; of the original text, whose body was changed and the spirit remained the same. In other words, the translation should be so faithful to the original that it does not read like the translation, because the original work will never read as if it is translated from somewhere else. （Qian，1984）<br /> <br /> The French translation theorist Munin once wrote in his translation monograph Les Belles Infideles: &quot;The ideal translator, as defined by Gogol, should turn into a glass, so transparent that readers can’t even feel its existence.<br /> <br /> The &quot;invisible&quot; identity of the translator means that the translator can reproduce the spiritual essence and style of the source text naturally, so as to achieve the &quot;transparency&quot; of the translation and the &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator. The translation needs to be fluent and natural, in line with the reading habits of the target language readers, and translators should avoid obscure word choice and mechanical sentence conversion. While reading the translated text, readers should not feel the existence of the translator and the influences he exerts on the text. And when the translator is nowhere to be seen and felt in the text, we can say that the translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; has been achieved. This requires translators to pay attention to three points that are often emphasized in traditional translation theories: one is that the translator should not incorporate their own emotions and values in the translation; the second is that the translator should not show his or her own personality in the translation; the third is that in translation the author should be based on the original text and follow the author in each choice. （Xu，2003）<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Translator as a painter=====<br /> Dryden once compared the translator to a painter. He advocated the translation view of comparing translation to painting: In translation, a translator should regard the original text as a model, and use his own colors to express the power and effect of the original text. The earliest Chinese translator who used metaphor like this was Chen Xiying. He believed that: translation is the same as a painting, although imitation is the most important, the colors used in the copy of a painting and the painting itself are the same. While the languages and strategies used in the original text and the translated version are totally different. On the other hand, a person who can appreciate the original painting has the ability to appreciate the copy one, while most people who can read the original book cannot read the translated version, and most people who can read the translation cannot understand the original text. This is the first difficulty the translator will face. &quot;And Chinese are much more familiar with Fu Lei’s statement: “In terms of effect, translation should be like a painting, and what you should restore is not the form but the spirit.” This theory extracts the common characteristics of translation and painting, and vividly elaborates the process and details of translation activities.<br /> <br /> ====2.2The identity of translator under the translator centralism====<br /> In 1980s, there was a cultural turn of translation studies in western countries from language translation to cultural translation. Translation theorists began to study translation with valuable theories from other subjects such as Semiotics, Hermeneutics, Philosophy, Literature and so on, which helped them to improve the traditional translation models. The subjectivity of translators were valued at that time and there appeared various kinds of roles of translators which emphasize the creativity, imagination, and activity of translators. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1Translator as a manipulator=====<br /> The manipulator status of the translator originated from the manipulation school. Manipulation school was an important part of the cultural school of translation studies in the 1980s. It was developed in the category of comparative literature. The main representatives are Hesman and Lefevre. Hesman said: From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for a certain purpose. Lefevre combines translation studies with power, ideology, patronage, and poetics and believed: “Translation, of course, is a rewriting of the original text. Rewriting is manipulation.” （Lefevere, 2010）The manipulation school is different from those schools that put &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;faithfulness&quot; in the most important place. Its representatives believe that translation is the manipulation and rewriting of the original text, the translator is the manipulator of the text, and the translation and the original text are both important. This theory is contrary to the original work-centered theory and author-centered theory, and is subversive to the previous translation theories. It shifts the focus of translation from the original author to the translator, which is conducive to improve the status of translators. They also particularly emphasized the status of culture in translation and the significance of translation to culture. They believed that the purpose of translation is not to simply complete the conversion of words, phrases and sentences, but to achieve cultural correspondence, so that the cultural meanings conveyed by the translation is consistent with the cultural meanings in the original text. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2Translator as a writer=====<br /> Women and translation have been long connected with each other for both of them occupy very humble positions. The traditional view holds that translation is considered as a secondary work dependent on and subservient to the original text, just as women are inferior to men under patriarchal power. <br /> <br /> Feminist translation theory came into being in a wave of opposition to this kind of traditional thought. It combined feminism and translation, and its representatives put forward many translation viewpoints influenced by feminism, providing a new perspective for translation studies and subverting the traditional translation theory. The representatives of feminist translation theory include Sherry Simon, Lori Chambelain, Luise von Flotow, etc. Thus, translation studies “began to distrust the traditional hierarchical order and gender roles, and began to question the faithful rules and universal standards of meaning and value.&quot; They believed that translators should not be faithful to the original text or the author, but the identity and discourse power of women. The purpose of translation is to make language speak for women, improve their status and liberate women through language. Feminist translators revealed many sexist words and phrases in translation, re-examined the relationship between the original text and the translated version, advocated rewriting translation strategies, and required feminist intervention and rewriting of the original text. In this way, feminist translation theorists improved the status of translators and helped them to go to the front of the stage from behind the scenes, playing the role of an author.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3Translator as a conqueror=====<br /> As a social practice activity, translation is also a product of political thoughts and ideologies in a sense. When translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously affected by their political stance and ideologies, and the translator’s cultural identity and cultural attitude are always political. Therefore, the translated text is not exactly equivalent to the original, because in the process of translation, translators will add their own feelings and values to the translated version. What's more, some people think that translators are aggressors, and the purpose of translation is to impose one culture on another, such as the translations serving as a tool for the construction of subjectivity of colonialism in the process of colonization and maintaining cultural hierarchy after the end of the colonial era. This type of translation is used as a tool for political purpose and is just like a conqueror. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.4The translator's &quot;independent&quot; status=====<br /> Post-colonial research in the field of modern translation believes that translation has three functions: (1) the means of colonization (2) the lightning rod for cultural inequality (3) the tools of decolonization.(Robinson, 1997) As is mentioned above, when translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously influenced by their own political stance and ideologies, and thus become a tool for cultural expansion and maintaining cultural hierarchy in the colonial era. Similarly, this tool can also be applied to the activities of anti-colonialism. In fact, in the process of anti-colonialism, translation has also played an important role, providing a stage for anti-colonialism activities and becoming a tool used by the colonized to get rid of the colonial yoke and weaken cultural hegemony.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.5Translator as a creative rebel=====<br /> The term creative rebellion comes from French literary sociologist Robert Escarpit. He holds the view that translation is rebellious, because it puts the work in a completely unexpected reference system (referring to language); Translation is creative, because it gives the work a new look and makes it more comprehensive. So that readers can have a brand-new literary exchange. （Escarpit, 1987）That is to say, on the one hand, this theory believes that translation is creative, that is, in the process of translation, in order to restore the original contents and cultural flavor, the translator must use his creativity and imagination to find suitable words and styles in the target language to stimulate readers to have similar associations. This is a kind of creative work that can give the original work a new life in a new language. On the other hand, translation is rebellious. When using the target language to restore the connotations of the original text, the translator must discard some of the original form. Creative rebellion can be divided into three types: the creative rebellion of the translator, the creative rebellion of the recipient, and the creative rebellion of the receiving environment. The creative treason of the translator can be conscious and unconscious, such as personalized translation, mistranslation, omission, compilation, adaptation and so on.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.6Translator as a language quality controller(Li and He, 2018)=====<br /> In recent years, with the development of the world economy and Internet technology, computer-assisted translation has become more and more popular. It has overturned the traditional translation model and most of the work of language conversion is completed by computers instead of translators. However, although the computer can complete the task of translation, the translated texts usually don’t have a very high quality and need to be improved by human translators. Especially in literary translation, as we all know, when translating a literal work, translators need to have sufficient cultural background knowledge, and in the process of literal translation, they must put themselves into the author’s context and fully understand his emotions, attitudes and values in order to create translations with high quality. This is something that computer translation software are unable to achieve. Therefore, translators play the role of processing, modifying, and polishing the texts produced by computers. They are the controllers of language quality, making up for the flaws in the translation given by the computer, ensuring the fluency of the translation and choosing an appropriate style for it. This identity of the translator does not mean that the translator is marginalized again and in a low position. On the contrary, translators are playing an irreplaceable role in ensuring the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> ===3.The features of the changes of translator’s identity and its complexity===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The identity of translators changed from invisible to visible, from subordinate to dominant, from author-centered to translator-centered. ====<br /> At the beginning, due to the limitations of people’s understanding about translation activities, translators had low social status, and most of them played the roles of &quot;invisible man&quot;, &quot;slave&quot;, &quot;servant&quot; and &quot;painter&quot;. The author and the original text were the center of translation activities, while the translators were marginalized. Later, with the cultural turn of translation studies, translators gradually got rid of the shackles, moved from behind the scenes to the front stage, and became the subject of translation activities. （Yao, 1996）This feature is reflected in translation views of manipulation school, feminist translation theories, creative treason translation views and post-colonial translation views. At that time, translators played many other roles, such as &quot;manipulator&quot;, &quot;writer&quot;, &quot;creative rebel&quot;, &quot;conqueror “and so on. Nowadays, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have gained more roles such as &quot;language quality controller&quot;, &quot;learners of new technology and new knowledge&quot; and so on. Although part of the translator's work is done by a computer now, this is not a manifestation of the translator's marginalization again, but a manifestation of the translator's freedom and subjectivity. Therefore, translators today should grasp the trend of the evolution of the translator's identity, give full play to their subjective initiative in translation practice, and avoid becoming servants or slaves of the original text. At the same time, this does not mean that the translator can distort the author’s original meaning arbitrarily. Translation is just like “dancing with shackles&quot;. On the one hand, we should be faithful to the author and adhere to certain translation principles. One the other hand, we can adjust our translation strategies according to our purposes of translation and find a good way to restore the feelings, values and attitude of the original author as well as cultural flavor of the original text. In this way, the translator can present a high-quality translation to readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The identity and status of translators are closely connected with the era in which they live.==== <br /> Throughout the history of translation studies at home and abroad, the role of the translator was ignored in the early translation studies due to the limitations of the times, and translators had a low cultural and social status. It was not until the cultural turn in the 1970s that translators truly moved from behind the scenes to the foreground. We can say that the shift of the focus of translation studies and the change of the identity of translators are deeply influenced by the time and cultural backgrounds. For example, in the 1970s, the slogan &quot;women must be liberated from language, and women's liberation must start with language&quot; emerged and translation had always been in a position similar to that of &quot;women&quot; in its own hierarchical structure. Therefore, the feminist translation theory rose and its representative translation theorists revealed discriminations in the field of translation, and liberated women by liberating translation. Another example is that many translated works under colonial expansion and anti-colonial struggle have obvious ideological characteristics, and translators of that time hoped to use culture as a tool to achieve certain political goals. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation activities are complex, and so is the identity of translator.====<br /> In different times, the identity of translator is complicated. Faced with different works, the identity of translator changes, because we have different purposes and needs when translating different works. Even when the translator is only faced with one work, in many cases, the identity of the translator will not be a single one, but a combination of multiple identities. It is the integration of these identities that makes the translation more smooth and complete. For example, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have multiple identities such as &quot;learner of new knowledge and new technology&quot;, &quot;selector of the style&quot;, and &quot;controller of language quality&quot;. We can say that translators can play different roles for different translation purposes and requirements as well as in different steps of translation.<br /> <br /> ===4. The roles of today’s translators===<br /> ====4.1 Dancers in shackles. ====<br /> Historically, there are many arguments about whether translators should be visible or invisible, servant or master. From today’s point of view, translators should keep a balance between them. They should not merely follow the author’s steps, and be the “servant” of the original text, nor should they believe that they can distort and rewrite the original text arbitrarily. Instead, they should act as a dancer in shackles: He should not only be faithful to the original text, adhere to specific translation standards and principles, carefully consider the choice of words and sentences, but also give full play to his subjective initiative and choose the most appropriate, natural and easily acceptable languages to convey the connotations of the original text.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Megaphones of real problems.====<br /> Feminist translation theory combined feminism with translation, and at that time translation became a tool for women to fight for independence and liberation. This reflects that translations are instrumental in reflecting social problems and seeking appropriate solutions to them. Excellent translation theorists can not only pay attention to the text translation itself, but also pay attention to the reflecting and solving of realistic issues in the field of translation and using translation as a tool to reasonably convey their appeals to the public on behalf of a specific group.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Learners who keep up with the time.====<br /> Translation is progressing with the time developing. If you stand still, you will lose out, and so will translators. They need to continuously learn new translation theories and accumulate more experience in practice in order to create excellent translation works. In addition, they must continue to learn new technologies and other new knowledge, such as computer-assisted translation technology, so that they can not only keep the traditional translation model in mind, but also find better ways to translate. In this way, they can adapt to the society and technological development more easily, and create high-quality translated works more efficiently. What’s more, translators should also pay attention to hot issues happened around the world, because translators should not only practice their translation skills, but also learn more new culture, which is vital in translation in the future.<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Promoters of cultural communication.====<br /> Translators are the bridges between the source language and the target language, the author and the readers. Translators with profound knowledge in language skills and cultural backgrounds can accurately grasp the connotations of the original text, reproduce the original style, convey cultural messages, and bring readers to foreign authors with unique emotional attitudes and values. With the globalization, today's world is characterized by frequent economic, political, and cultural exchanges between China and the West. Translators play the role of cultural communicators of the world. But this is different from the “conqueror” in the context of colonial expansion in the past, because China has long respected the diversity of world culture and treated the culture of every country and nation equally, so the purpose of translation activities for today’s translators is not cultural aggression but spread valuable Chinese culture to other countries and receive the essence of other countries' cultures. The role of today’s translators is the promoter of communication of cultures.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The identity of translator is an important issue of translation studies. Throughout the history, translators have played various kinds of roles in translation. At the beginning, translators had a low cultural status and are given such roles as “servant” and “invisible man”. And the subjectivity and creativity of translators were ignored in translation studies. Later in 1970s, with the cultural turn in translation studies of western countries, translators got much more attention and walked from behind the scenes to the front stage, and various kinds of roles are given to them such as: “manipulator” “writer” “creative rebel”. The status of translators had been improved. Then with the development of society and technology, translators are playing more roles such as “language quality controller” “new learner” and “selector”. From the changes of the translators’ identity, we can conclude many features of it and realize what roles should today’s translators play in order to give full play to their creativity and subjectivity, so as to create wonderful translated versions.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1] Venuti (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility'': London and New York: Routledge. <br /> <br /> [2] Robinson, D (1997). Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theories Explained: Manchester: St.Jerome Publishing. <br /> <br /> [3] 埃斯卡皮，罗贝尔(1987).文学社会学-罗•埃斯卡皮文论选:杭州：浙江人民出版社. <br /> <br /> [4] Lefevere, Andre (2010). ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame'': Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> [5]仲伟合、周静（2096），译者的极限与底线-试论译者主体性与译者的天职，外语与外语教学（07）：42-46。<br /> <br /> [6]谭载喜（1991），西方翻译简史，北京：商务印书馆：153。<br /> <br /> [7]许钧（2003），翻译论，武汉：湖北教育出版社。<br /> <br /> [8]杨武能（2003），再谈文学翻译主题，中国翻译（03）。<br /> <br /> [9]李晖，郝思源（2018），计算机辅助翻译中的译者身份研究，校园英（17）。<br /> <br /> [10]钱钟书（1984），林殊的翻译，北京商务印书馆。<br /> <br /> [11]姚亚平（1996），中国当代修辞学，广州：广东教育出版社：37。<br /> <br /> [12]金圣华，黄国斌（1996），因难见巧-名家翻译经验谈，香港：三联书店有限公司。<br /> <br /> ==Study of Domestication and foreignization in Cross-cultural Translation 顾东方 Gu Dongfang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's economic globalization, international cultural exchanges are expanding, and translation as a communication tool is also crucial. As a form of cross-cultural and cross-linguistic communication, translation is a kind of communication and interaction between two cultures with very different social backgrounds and cultural traditions. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, the application and selection of translation strategies should not only reflect the translator's style, but also directly affect the audience of the translated work among the target language readers. In 1995, Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization , in The Invisibility of Translators. domestication and foreignization are both opposed and unified, i.e. there is no such thing as absolute domestication or absolute foreignization. This paper will discuss the selection and application of domestication and foreignization in cross-cultural translation, based on the two translation strategies themselves and actual translation cases, so that translators can use these two translation strategies more flexibly in translation to better convey the meaning of the original texts and make the translations reach more readers, and thus promote the communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication and foreignization; cross-cutural; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在经济全球化的今天，国际间文化交流也在不断扩大，而翻译作为一种交流工具也显得至关重要。作为一种跨文化、跨语言交际的形式，翻译是一种社会背景与文化传统很不相同的两种文化间的交流与交往。因此，在跨文化翻译中，翻译策略的运用与选择不仅仅要体现出译者的风格，也会直接影响译作在目的语读者中的受众程度。美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出了归化与异化两种翻译策略。归化与异化，既对立又统一，也即绝对的归化或者绝对的异化都是不存在的。本文将从归化与异化这两种翻译策略的本身出发，并结合实际翻译案例，来探讨归化与异化在跨文化翻译当中的选择与运用，使得译者能够在翻译中更灵活地使用这两种翻译策略，更好地传达出原作的意蕴，使译作受众于更多的读者，以此促进不同文化之间的交流。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化与异化；跨文化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> === Definitions of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Domestication is to localize the original language and focuses on the target language or readers by conveying the original text in the way target readers are familiar with. In order to close the readers of target texts.Domesticated translation requires the translator to speak like a native author, and the translation must become authentic to the native language if the original author is to speak directly to the readers. It helps the reader to better understand the translation and enhances the readability and enjoyment of the translation.<br /> Foreignization is that the translator tries not to disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader can get closer to the author&quot;. In translation, it means to accommodate the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorb foreign expressions, require the translator to approach the author, and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the original content. The purpose of the foreignization strategy is to consider about the differences in national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationalities and linguistic styles, and to preserve the exoticism of the translated text for the readers.<br /> <br /> ===The relationship between literal translation and free translation ,and domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Historically, foreignization and domestication can be seen as extensions of, but not identical to, literal and free translation. The terms &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot; are English translation version. Literal translation is a kind of method or text that keeps the original content and the form of the original text. Free translation means that it keeps only the content of the original text, not the form of the original text. Literal translation appeared during the May 4th Movement, emphasizing the need for faithfulness to the original text so that the translation can be &quot;expressive&quot; and &quot;elegant&quot;. Literal translation does not mean translating word for word in mechanical way. Since English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate them word for word. Literal translation is to fully and accurately clarify the meaning of the original work, without any distortion or random addition or deletion of the original ideas to maintain the original style. Sometimes even the original mood or emotion, such as anger or embarrassment, sarcasm or irony, joy or happiness, should not be ignored. Fu Si Nian and Zheng Zhenduo both advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, literal translation is the overriding rule. The work of Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren, The Collected Works of Extra-territorial Novels, is regarded as the representative of literal translation. The free translation, on the other hand, starts from the meaning and requires only the main idea of the original text to be expressed without excessive attention to detail, but a natural flow of the translation. In translation, if we cannot directly adopt the structure and expression of the original, we must change the sentence structure and expression to convey the meaning of the original according to the form and characteristics of the expression. Since there are many differences between the original language and the translated language in word order, grammar, changing forms and rhetoric, we can only use appropriate ways to convey the meaning of the original and reproduce the effect of the original. Mr. Jing-Shen Zhao once said, &quot;A smooth and fluent version is better than one that focuses only on fidelity to the original&quot;. Obviously, Mr. Zhao was in favor of foreignization, and so did Mr Yan Fu. Foreignization has been used in many works of Yan Fu, for example, the Evolution and Ethics is a typical example . In literal translation, faithful to the original form should be placed first, followed by faithful to the original content, again the fluency and popularity of translated language; while in free translation, faithful to the original content should be placed first, translation language fluency and popularity of the second, but free translation is not limited to the form of the original. Some scholars often discuss literal translation, free translation and domestication and foreignization together, which is understandable, but it is necessary to make a distinction. Based on the level of language and culture,domestication and foreignization focus more on the use of language from the perspective of cultural differences and are a kind of translation strategy, while literal and free translation is a translation technique, which is only at the level of language. There may be only one main translation strategy for a text or a work, but each strategy may use both literal and free translation methods, and each method serves the general direction of the translation strategy. The choice of the main translation strategy depends on the purpose of the translation, if it is to maximize the understanding of foreign cultures or cross-cultural comparative study, then the main focus is on foreignization; if it is to understand the information or story development through reading, then the domestication may be the best choice. Taking the translation of the famous work Dream of the Red Chamber as an example, there are two versions by two masters, Yang Xianyi and Hawkes, the former adopts foreignization to deal with the cultural factors in the language, that is, to keep the source culture as much as possible in the translation, while Hawkes adopts domestication in order to avoid the conflict between two different cultures, Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===National and international research on the development of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> <br /> ===3.1.The history of the development of domestication and foreignization abroad.===<br /> The German translator Schleiermacher, in his work, On the Different Methods of Translation, elaborated the need for translations to bring the reader as close as possible to the original author, and for the first time introduced the concepts of domestication and foreignization.<br /> At the same time, in the British academic circles of the time, domestication was the main translation strategy, but Francis Newman in England, when discussing the transl ation work on Homer, advocated that translators should consciously translate in the ancient language to emphasize the heterogeneity of the work.<br /> In the 1960s A.D., Nida proposed the theory of domestication for the first time in many structuralist theoretical works, and since then the climax of the debate on domestication and foreignization rose on the stage in western translation field . In Nida's view, domesticated translation does not need to stick to the form of the original text, but only needs to express the content with the closest and most natural equivalent in the translated text to achieve equivalence.<br /> The French theorist Antoinette Bellman deplored the tendency of eliminating foreignization in translation through the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot;. He said: &quot;The proper theoretical goal of the translation action is to accept heterogeneity as it is.&quot; This view seems to have an impact on Venuti's strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot; .<br /> In his book The Invisibility of the Translator, Italian scholar Venuti discusses the &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator by combining the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization for the first time. He strongly advocates foreignization and questions domestication, arguing that domestication is essentially a means of cultural colonization by Western colonizers. At the same time, he also suggests that the purpose of translation is not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express linguistic and cultural differences.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Domestic development history on domestication and foreignization===<br /> The earliest translations of Buddhist scriptures have included the debate between assimilation and dissimilation. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the translator Zhiqian pioneered the translation style of using free translation instead of transliteration, which had far-reaching significance and influence in history.<br /> At the end of the 19th century, several other great translators emerged in Chinese history, and Yan Fu was one of them. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, foreign powers invaded extensively and the Chinese nation faced an existential crisis, under such a background, Yan Fu believed that translation must be carefully chosen based on the social and historical reality of the country into which it is translated. In the translation, the translator should take the literary tradition of the nation and the specific historical and cultural purpose as the main purpose, combining the cultural and linguistic background of the readers. The translator should not focus on how to be &quot;faithful to the original&quot;, but how to adapt to the social and cultural choices of the time.<br /> With the rise of the May 4th New Culture Movement, many translators tried to learn from foreign literature in order to transform literature and society.Lu Xun's most famous dictum relating to translation was &quot;I'd rather be faithful than smooth&quot;, and advocated &quot;preserving the foreign flavor as much as possible&quot; and &quot;the need for exoticism&quot;. <br /> After the founding of New China, China's translation industry entered the third high point, and a large number of Western and Soviet works were introduced, which was connected with the spiritual needs of people at that time. After the reform and opening up, with the influx of Western translation ideas, &quot;foreignization&quot; has emerged. Many scholars have put forward the idea that &quot;Foreignization is primary while domestication is supplementary&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===4.domestication and foreignization of cultural exchange translation===<br /> <br /> ===4.1the relationship between culture and language===<br /> In a broad sense, culture refers to the material and spiritual wealth created and accumulated by human beings in the course of social development; in a narrower sense, it refers to the ideology of society and the system of organizational constructs that corresponds to it. Culture has the following four basic characteristics 1) culture is owned and shared by all members of a society; 2) culture is acquired rather than inherited; 3) culture is biologically based; and 4) culture is based on a symbolic system. The relationship between language and culture is between the part and the whole; language is a subsystem of culture, and language cannot exist apart from culture; it embodies all the beliefs and emotions of a cultural group. Language and culture interact and influence each other and are inseparable. Based on the close relationship between language and culture, more consideration should be given to cultural factors in translation research, which means that translation research should be carried out in a more macro context. Translators should be aware of enough cultural differences when dealing with the cultural differences between the original language and the target language. Due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese, many English and Chinese phrases, although literally having the same or similar meanings, are inherently different. Therefore, a word-for-word translation without considering cultural factors can lead to ambiguity.<br /> <br /> ===4.2 Translatability and untranslatability of cultures===<br /> On the one hand, the similarity of human experience worldwide contributes to the translatability of cultures. In this regard, Nida has said that &quot;all human beings eat, work, sleep and procreate, and they produce objects such as furniture, tools and vehicles. They also organize themselves into families, clans, internal and external groups, nations and inter-national organizations. They have a conscious similarity in their views of the universe, values, religion and supernatural forces. In fact, the different groups of people in the world have much more in common with each other than they do with each other.&quot; It is the similarity of the cultures of different peoples that allows people of different cultures to understand each other and makes translation possible. Nida thus states, &quot;Linguists and anthropologists have discovered that what binds human beings together far outweighs what alienates them, and this is the basis for generating communication.&quot; Many expressions that are unique to one culture can be found almost identically in a culture and become the best evidence of cultural translatability.<br /> On the other hand, each people has a culture that is distinct from the others, which hinders mutual understanding with the others and may even cause cultural shock. Due to different cultural inheritances, the languages of different nationalities have their own symbol systems and lexical, syntactical and grammatical characteristics, which often make them untranslatable. For example, the Chinese phrase &quot;客上天然居，居然天客&quot; is one of the examples of untranslatable culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.3 Factors influencing cultural translation strategies===<br /> <br /> ===4.3.1.Motives and objectives of translation===<br /> <br /> Different motivations and purposes for translation lead to different translation principles and methods<br /> <br /> ===4.3.2.Text type===<br /> <br /> Different texts influence the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord, translation can be divided into instrumental translation, which refers to the means of transferring information from the source language to the target language, and documentary translation, which refers to the means of transferring information about communication activities from the source language to the target language. This type of translation emphasizes the transmission and conveyance of information and mainly includes non-literary writing, including advertising, media writing, scientific writing, propaganda and announcements, etc. With this method of translation, which is guided by the culture of the target language, the information that needs to be conveyed can be better expressed and accessed. The other type of text is documentary translation. This type of translation refers to the presentation of real communicative activities and information to the target language readers. The term &quot;documentary translation&quot; is appropriate for translating (language-)-specific expressions, where translation of language and content are equally important. eter Newmark distinguishes between communicative and semantic translation of such texts, emphasizing the &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot; of the message. &quot; in order to achieve the same effect on the readers of the original language as on those of the target language. Although this type of translation is a subjective process, the translator will attach great importance to the effect of the translation on the reader's mind. By reorganizing and rearranging the order of sentences, the translator will eliminate obscurities and ambiguities in order to achieve &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot;. Most non-literary writing, informative articles and books, as well as textbooks, bulletins, standardized writing, and novels are suitable for this type of communicative translation; because it emphasizes the need to have the same effect on both the original and target language readers, it often uses expressions that are customary and easily understood in the language in which they are written. Thus, communicative translation is equivalent to naturalized translation, where the translator's preference for idiomatic expressions is produced or determined by the translator's preference for the target language. Semantic translation attempts to get as close as possible to the exact meaning of the original text in terms of wording. Semantic translation focuses on the expression of the exact meaning of the content in order to preserve as accurate a style of the original text as possible. This type of translation is an objective process during which the translator focuses only on whether the translation is precise and retains the flavor of the original text. In this type of translation, the translator tries to preserve the semantic and syntactic structure of the original text, as well as the tone of the original text, etc. semantic translation applies to autobiographies, private correspondence, personal emotional texts and quotations. A semantic translation is equivalent to an alien translation in an attempt to achieve the preservation of the flavour of the original, due to the translator's original language preference.<br /> <br /> ===4.3.3Acceptance by readers===<br /> In the past, traditional translation theories placed one-sided emphasis on extra-author-centred and text-centred research, neglecting the involvement of translators and target language readers. Modern reception aesthetics considers the reader not as an unimportant and unnecessary perspective, but as a historical, active and creative factor in the relationship between author, text and reader. This is why different people have different interpretations of the same text of Hamlet. Naida was influenced by the acceptance of the aesthetic sub. His theory and practice of translation are very much focused on the readers' reflection. He pointed out that &quot;Judging the validity of a translation does not stop at the comparison of word meanings, grammar and rhetoric; what is important is the extent to which the recipient is able to understand and appreciate the translation correctly.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===4.4the cultural school of translation===<br /> In 1990, the representatives of the cultural school of translation, Bassnett and Lefevere, in their co-edited book Translation, History and Culture, formally proposed the slogan of &quot;Cultural Turn of Translation&quot;, which also marked the official emergence of the cultural school of translation. In the following years, they published several monographs, individually or together, discussing about the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. In the following years, they published several monographs, either individually or jointly, to discuss the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. Unlike the literary or linguistic schools of translation in the past, the cultural school is a school with a strong &quot;revolutionary&quot; element in translation theory, and some people even consider their views to be &quot;subversive&quot; to the previous translation theories. This is mainly because they especially emphasize the status of culture in translation and the importance of translation to the spread of culture and the promotion of social and cultural progress. Other translators, such as Lambert and Robyns, argue that translation is more accurately regarded as a communication activity between two cultures than as a bilingual conversion activity. Therefore, they believe that translation activity is a cultural conversion. In recent years, Chinese scholars have done some research and reflection on the essence of translation. In the researches of many scholars, under the current globalization environment ,the importance of translation to cultural exchange and communication is getting more and more attention from people. For example, Lv Jun proposes that &quot;translation is a kind of cross-cultural information exchange activities, and its essence is dissemination. To a certain extent, the viewpoint of Chinese scholars and the Western cultural schools can be said to echo each other. Language is not only a carrier of information, but also a carrier of culture. Therefore, in essence, translation as a kind of inter-linguistic communication, it is not only the conversion of language information , but also the transplantation of cultural information. Therefore, in essence, translation is not only a language information conversion, but also a cultural communication activity.<br /> <br /> ===5. discussion domestication and foreignization from translation examples===<br /> <br /> ===5.1 Application of domestication in English-Chinese Translation===<br /> Chinese famous writer Mo Yan has won the Nobel Prize for Literature for a series of works including Fatigue of Life and Death (2006) and Frog (2009) and American sinologist Ge Haowen should also be credited , who was called “the only midwife of Mo Yan’s works”.Ge's translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out reflects his consistent principle: &quot;The author is writing for the Chinese, while I am translating for foreigners,translating is a process of rewriting”. Ge Haowen did a lot of rewriting and compilation based on respecting the original work, and in the translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out, the domesticated translation reflects his relentless pursuit of &quot;accuracy&quot;, &quot;readability&quot; and &quot;acceptability&quot;. <br /> <br /> 例一： 常言道‘螃蟹过河随大流’，‘识时务者为俊杰’，不要顽固不化，不要充当挡路的石头，不要充硬汉子。<br /> <br /> Join the commune and stop working for yourself, end your quest for independence.Stop being headstrong,and an obstructionist.<br /> <br /> “螃蟹过河随大流” is a two-part allegorical saying in Chinese folks . It means &quot;following the majority of people to speak or act&quot;. A post-slip is a short, witty phrase that can be used as a philosophical and wisdom-boosting phrase. A man who knows the times is a hero&quot; is an idiom derived from a historical allusion, meaning &quot;only those who can recognize the trend of the times can become heroes and heroines&quot;. Ge Haowen domesticated these two slang expressions: first, because they have the same meaning as the one that follows: &quot;Don't be stubborn ...... don't be a tough guy anymore&quot;, which is used to kindly advise people who are unable to see the current affairs of the day, but are still stubbornly stubborn. The deletion of these two daily phrases does not affect the main content of the narrative and the expression of ideas in the context. Secondly, there is the concern that the translation may not produce the desired effect of depth, image, and humor as the source language. And then there is the fact that the target language readers are relatively unfamiliar with Chinese slang, so it is better to delete it directly than to translate it to increase the readers' reading burden and affect their understanding and grasp of the whole text. Ge Haowen's domesticated translation method reflects his holistic view of discourse as a unit<br /> <br /> 例二：但一个二十多岁就当了县级领导干部的人，和农村姑娘结婚的可能性几乎是零，无论她貌如西施还是色比婵娟。<br /> <br /> There was no chance that a leading country-level cadre in his twenties would ever actually marry a peasant girl , no matter how pretty or fetching she might be.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaojun ,Xishi, Diao Chan and Yang Yuhuan were the main characters with unique beauty at that time in historical illusions ,named as “Four Beauties in ancient times”.In the original work, Mo Yan chose only two historical figures, &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, to contrast and emphasize the beauty of rural girls. In the process of translation, Ge did not translate &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, nor did he make any commentary, but took into account the target audience's alienation from the historical allusion to the Four Beauties. Therefore, he adopt a domesticated translation method to make a simplification, breaking the constraints of the original language and enhancing the readability of the translation, without deviating from the original meaning.<br /> In the above example, when dealing with unfamiliar allusions or common sayings and proverbs, Ge Haowen boldly rewrote and deleted them, translating the work from the reader's point of view, so that the target readers will be pleased with his translation.<br /> 5.2 The Application of Foreignization in English-Chinese Translation<br /> The nature of foreignization is such that it deals with elements of the original language that are culturally distinctive, and the result of the translation is to bring in new forms of expression that are different from the mother tongue and the cultural connotations attached to them. Language is an open system with a strong capacity for absorption and inclusion. With the deepening of communication among countries and peoples, various languages have been enriched to different degrees, and variant translation plays a more important role in this process. In Chinese, the terms &quot;internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot; are used to refer to the &quot;Internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot;. &quot;Time is money&quot;, &quot;ivory tower&quot;, &quot;washroom&quot;.... (crocodile tears), &quot;black humor&quot; , and &quot;qi gong&quot; ), &quot;taijiquan&quot; , &quot;kong fu&quot; , &quot;typhon” These words did not originally exist in the Chinese and English language systems. However, translators make a large number of words with exoticism in the way of foreignization more popular and acceptable among the massive culture . Therefore, foreignization is not only beneficial to introduce local history and culture to foreign countries, but also gives local readers the opportunity to understand foreign customs and realize the purpose of cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> 例一.打破铁饭碗<br /> <br /> Break the”iron rice bowl”<br /> <br /> &quot;Iron rice bowl&quot; is a Chinese idiom, in Chinese we compare &quot;rice bowl&quot; to an occupation, while &quot;iron rice bowl&quot; refers to a stable job, no doubt, it is difficult to convert such words with obvious Chinese characteristics into the target language through the method of &quot;domestication&quot;, but foreignization not only retains the imagery of the source language, but also introduces the unique culture of China to Western readers.<br /> 例二.下海<br /> <br /> A.to jump into the sea of business<br /> <br /> B.To turn professional<br /> <br /> In the early days of reform and opening up, the word “jumping into the sea of business” was popular, mainly meaning the trend of doing business.For this new phenomenon ,translators adopt different methods. Text A used foreignization and direct translation while the later domestication. In comparison, the former was more expressive and vivid, conveying the meaning of source language in a proper way.<br /> Domestication and foreignization is more apparent in the literary translation. Here I will take the translation of Dream of the Red Chamber as an example and compare the translations of Mr. and Mrs. Yang Xianyi ,and Mr. Hawkes. The translation of Dream of the Red Chamber by Yang Xianyi and his wife is a typical representative of foreignization, which is highly praised by domestic readers, but some scholars have conducted a survey and found that it is far inferior to the British sinologist David Hawks in terms of the number of borrowed readers, citations and reprinted editions. Why the &quot;cold shoulder&quot;? Let's find out by comparing and analyzing some examples of the two translations.<br /> <br /> 例一.刘姥姥道: “这倒不然。谋事在人，成事在天。咱们谋到了，靠菩萨的保佑，有些机会，也未可知。”<br /> <br /> A.“ Don’t be so sure,” said Granny Liu. “Man proposes, Heaven disposes. Work out a plan,trust to Buddha,and something may come of it for all you know.”<br /> <br /> B.“ I wouldn’t say that.”said Grannie Liu.”Man proposes, God disposes.It is up to us to think of something. We must leave it to the good Lord to decide whether He’ll help us or not. Who knows, he might give us the opportunity we are looking for.”<br /> <br /> Dream of the Red Chamber is a literary work full of Buddhist and Taoist thoughts. Yang Xianyi and Hawks have different approaches to the phrase“谋事在人，成事在天”， which also reflects different religious thoughts. In Yang's translation, &quot;God&quot; is replaced by &quot;Heavenly Father,&quot; which is in line with the Chinese religious belief that Heavenly Father in control of everything, while retaining the religious flavor of the source culture. However, Hawks gave priority to the religious background and acceptance of the English readers, so he adopted the English proverb directly without any modification, thus transforming the Buddhism and Taoism in the East to Christianity in the West, in accordance with western religious belief and thinking ways.<br /> The two translations have their own merits. The choice of translation strategies is based on different objectives. Mainly depending on the foreignization stategy, Mr. and Mrs. Yang tried to spread Chinese literature classics and convey Chinese traditional culture originally.However, they didn't get the desired results.One of the main reasons is that Mr. and Mrs. Yang regard faithfulness as the first priority and overemphasize the foreign culture of the translated works, neglecting to consider the reception environment and the recognition of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===6.Conclusion===<br /> With the continuous expansion of international cultural exchanges, the human cultural gap is gradually narrowing, language as an important carrier of culture has also been affected by the same, an appropriate increase in the use of &quot;foreign&quot; translation,can not only inject the new elements into domestic culture, but also promote the spread of local culture, achieve cross-cultural exchange and accelerate the process of &quot;cultural globalization&quot;. It should be pointed out foreignization is not at the expense of forgetting one's own culture, on the contrary, it is based on the familiarity with other cultures, and then carry out painstaking, creative translation work. To give more attention to &quot;alienation&quot; translation is not to deny, reject the domesticated translation method, because domestication and foreignization play an irreplaceable rol in the target language and culture.Therefore, the two translations will always co-exist and complement each other. Flexible use of foreignization and domestication is the real way of addressing the cultural conflicts.<br /> <br /> ===7.Reference===<br /> 1. 王瑛. &quot;跨文化翻译中的归化和异化.&quot; 内蒙古财经学院学报(综合版) 03(2007):83-87.<br /> <br /> 2. 周永堃. &quot;归化异化在跨文化翻译中的选择与运用——以《红楼梦》和《生死疲劳》为例.&quot; 邵阳学院学报(社会科学版) 18.01(2019):103-108.<br /> <br /> 3.王红卫. &quot;跨文化交际翻译方法:归化和异化策略.&quot; 西南民族学院学报(哲学社会科学版) 9(2002):250-253.<br /> <br /> 4.熊兵. &quot;文化交流翻译的归化与异化.&quot; 中国科技翻译 16.003(2003):5-9.<br /> <br /> 5.刘苹. &quot;中国翻译史上的归化和异化.&quot; 滨州学院学报 24.001(2008):74-75.<br />  <br /> <br /> ==The Translation Strategies of Chinese Political Discourse under the Standard of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; 高明珠 Gao Mingzhu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With the development of globalization, the political communication among countries is more and more frequent, and the translation of political terms has gradually become one of the heated topics in the translation field. Political discourse translation is challenging, because not only does it concern the relationship between countries, national status, political attitude and other important issues, but also it is developmental. Political neologisms will keep emerging, and some political terms will contain new connotations with the advancement of the times. In addition to the above characteristics, Chinese political discourse has many affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases, metaphors.In 2008, Yang Mingxing and other scholars put forward the &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; based on Eugene Nida's &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; theory for the translation of Chinese political discourse, which pointed out that the translation of political discourse should follow the three principles of &quot;political&quot;, &quot;dynamic&quot; and &quot;balanced&quot;. On the basis of some related papers, this chapter will sum up the specific strategies such as supplement, omission, keeping or converting analogical body, adding explanation and narration for translating Chinese political discourse with characteristics of having lots of affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases and metaphors following the guidance of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> political equivalence Chinese political discourse translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着全球化的发展，各国间的政治交流愈加频繁，政治话语的翻译也逐渐成为翻译界讨论热点之一。政治话语的翻译是具有挑战性的，不仅是因为它关系到国与国之间的关系、国家地位、政治态度等重要问题，而且因为政治词汇是发展性的，政治词汇中会不断有新的词汇涌进，且某些政治词汇会随着时代的发展而增加新的内涵。而中国政治话语除了具有以上特点，它还有多词缀、缩写、四字短语[1]，多用隐喻等修辞手法的特点。2008年，杨明星等学者针对中国政治话语的翻译，基于尤金·奈达的“功能对等”理论提出了“政治等效”翻译标准，该标准指出政治话语的翻译要遵循“政治性”、“动态性”、“平衡性”三大原则。本文基于相关文献，总结出在该标准下，对中国政治话语在具有多词缀、缩写、四字短语及多采用隐喻这几个特点下的翻译可采用的具体的翻译策略，如增补法、省略法[1]、喻体保留法（完全保留、部分保留）、喻体转换法、喻底补充法、喻义直叙法[2]等。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 政治等效 中国政治话语 翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction of Background===<br /> <br /> Political discourse is a communication carrier or one kind of discourse behaviors that elaborate a country's foreign policies, governance mechanisms or political ideas, including oral expression and written expression. Oral expressions includes leaders' speeches, the contents conveyed by various government agencies' press conferences, and written expressions includes diplomatic documents, white papers, legal provisions, treaties, agreements and communiques issued by relevant state agencies. With the improvement of China's comprehensive national strength and the continuous expansion of its global influence, the study of the translation standards, principles, strategies of Chinese political discourse has become an important topic in the field of translation. A study in 2019 has shown that domestic political discourse translation studies started in 2000 and entered a stage of rapid development with the convening of the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012. The current research hot spots of political discourse translation include the translation of Xi Jinping's speeches and works, the application of various translation laws and interpretive theories, the principle of political equivalence and the theory of ecological translation(Chu Xingjun 2020,36).<br /> <br /> ===2. The Significance of Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> This chapter holds that the significance of political discourse translation mainly involves two aspects----politics and linguistics. Firstly, in terms of politics, translating political discourse is to facilitate the political communication between countries, show the country's political attitude, theory and policy to the outside world. Political discourse translation plays a significant role in promoting the relationship between the countries, taking one’s stand, safeguarding one’s national interests and shaping one’s national image and so on. Secondly, in terms of linguistics, political terms are developmental. With the advance of the times and the rapid development of the world, new political terms will constantly emerge, which is also the process of language expansion. The study of the translation of new words is not only the bounden duty of translators, but also of great significance to the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Difficulties in Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> The difficulties are mainly reflected in three aspects. Firstly, the translator should correctly understand the political connotation of the source language and translate it as the target language faithfully. Secondly, different expression ways between two languages. There are rare equivalent words in both languages, so when translating the source language as the target language, the expression habits of the target language users should be taken as account, so as to facilitate the target language users to accurately understand the original meaning. Especially, Chinese political discourse often present metaphor rhetoric which may not be easy for foreigners to understand, thus when translating such words, methods that we can adopt not only include literal translation, transliteration plus explanation, but also sometimes it would be better to translate those words on the basis of the target language’s culture to make the translation more vivid and help readers understand the meaning accurately. In a word, be more flexible in adopting methods according to different cases; Finally, the same political term may have different meanings in different contexts, or it may require translators to adopt different translation methods in different contexts. In addition, the connotation of some political terms will develop with the advance of The times. Therefore, translators should keep up with current events and deal with them flexibly in translation.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Connotations of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal and connotation of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard<br /> <br /> In 2008, US Department of Defense mistranslated the term &quot;韬光养晦&quot; to propaganda &quot;China threat theory&quot;. Therefore, based on Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, a scholar, Yang Mingxing, proposed the translation concept of &quot;political equivalence&quot; for the first time from the perspective of international relations and diplomatic analysis (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). The connotation of this concept mainly involves three aspects: firstly, the translator needs to truthfully convey the political thought of the source language as well as the speaker; secondly, when translating, the translator should choose the target language according to the expression ways that the target language users get used to, so that the information and political thoughts brought by the target text to the target language users are equivalent to those brought by the source text to the source language users; Thirdly, in different contexts and historical backgrounds, the connotations of political discourse will be different. Translators' translation should keep pace with the times and be determined in accordance with the situation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). In 2012, Yang Mingxing and other scholars further proposed three prominent principles or characteristics of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; translation standard: political, balanced and dynamic (Yang Mingxing, Yan Da 2012, 35). Among them, political nature, namely accurately grasping the political connotation of the source language, is the most prominent characteristic, which is determined by the strong political color of the political terms themselves. Balance means to strike a balance among source language, target language, speaker and audience without focusing on either side, and strive to make the effect produced by the translation in the foreign readers be similar or equivalent to that produced by the original text in local readers. Dynamic means that the equivalent process mentioned above is a dynamic equivalent process. Because political terms’ connotation changes with the advance of the times and varies from different contexts, translators need to keep pace with the times, follow up the connotation development of political terms, and translate flexibly according to different situations. In 2018, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed a compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + aesthetic representation&quot; on the basis of the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; (Yang Mingxing, Qi Jingjing 2018,15). This standard was put forward in the context of the appearance of ancient poetry in political discourse. Besides meeting the requirements of &quot;political equivalence&quot; mentioned above, this standard asks to take the literary beauty of ancient poetry and prose, such as rhythm, form, artistic conception, etc as account. In January 2020, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed another compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + image representation&quot; based on the frequently used the rhetoric device metaphor in political discourse(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2018,41). The purpose of realizing &quot;image reproduction&quot; and &quot;aesthetic reproduction&quot; is basically similar, both of which are to reproduce the aesthetic experience of the original text. In October 2020, Yang Mingxing and some other scholars made a review of several major diplomatic event in the Sino-British diplomatic history and put forward that the realization of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard should not only rely on the translator's ability, but also have some connections with the national policy of translation, translation system and equal speaking rights between two countries, among which equal speaking right is the key to realize &quot;political equivalence&quot;(Yang Mingxing 2020,05).<br /> <br /> (2)The differences between “political equivalence” and “functional equivalence” put forward by Nida<br /> <br /> Firstly, the &quot;equivalence&quot; emphasized by Nida does not pay enough attention to the political connnotations of the original text in translation, ignoring the particularity of diplomatic or political discourse, and that whether the original text and translation are quite consistent in political standpoint and political connotation. Secondly, although functional equivalence pays attention to the information equivalence between the original text and the translated text, it does not pay enough attention to the real intention of the speaker or writer of the original text, because the literal meaning of the original text cannot be equal with the political standpoint and ideological connotation of the speaker or writer. Thirdly, the &quot;dynamic&quot; concept Nida proposed in “functional equivalence” theory ignores the dynamic changes in context and connotation of original text and translation. However, for diplomatic or political discourse, the connotations of the political terms do not remain unchanged. It changes constantly with the speaker's context, political tendency and historical background at that time. On the other hand, the target language is also dynamic, because the meaning and usage of the target language are constantly changing, the translator must keep track of the latest development of the target language and the domestic political and cultural background of the target audience (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> In a word, the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; is an important theory aiming at the translation of foreign affairs, diplomacy and political discourse, and provides theoretical guidance and normative requirements for the translation of political terms.<br /> <br /> ===5. Requirements of “Political Equivalence” for Translators ===<br /> <br /> First of all, pay attention to both the source language and the target language equally, and grasp the relationship between the speaker or writer and the audience or reader. The translation should not only accurately convey the meaning of the original text and the speaker or writer's real intention, but also take the language habits and the way of thinking of the target language users into consideration, so as to arise a common sense between the speaker or writer and the audience or reader. The translation of political discourse should not only aim at correctly understanding and expressing China's policy thoughts, but also fully consider the national emotions, language habits and identity psychology of the receiving country. If the translation only focuses on one side, it will be difficult to achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; and even cause political events (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;political equivalence&quot; must be dynamic. This kind of dynamic is not only related to the accurate understanding of the original text, but also involves the proper selection and use of the target language. It must always be in line with the context and political background of the speaker or writer as well as the audience or reader, which is the key to the realization of &quot;political equivalence&quot;. To translate political discourse or terms only by looking up the dictionary without considering the context is bound to make the translation be quite different from the original in meaning (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Thirdly, translation strategies should be flexible and diversified, and language form should not be confined to the original one. To achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; in political terms translation, the translation strategies cannot be single, rigid, and the translation either cannot be confined to the primitive form of the original text, the original or even the extended concepts or connotations of the words in it. Translators should make the necessary adjustment and bold choices in supplement and omission to the language form of the original text in accordance with the context and the real thoughts of the speaker or writer and the background of the political relationships between the two countries(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Fourthly, we should be familiar with the differences between English and Chinese customs, cultures, national emotions and ideologies. In the era of globalization, translation is not only the transformation of language symbols, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication behavior. The translation of political discourse is closely related to the cultural background of language. Due to the differences between China and West in way of thinking and language environment, corresponding words in English and Chinese have different national emotion and political connotation.For example, sometimes we may meet idioms, metaphors, allusions, myths and fables in the political discourse which are the quintessence of a nation's language with its own characteristics. They formed and developed on the basis of different culture and living environmnet, so it is necessary to strictly distinguish their differences in cultural connotation and political orientation which are the difficulties and key points in political discourse translation(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Fifthly, the grammatical phenomena and rules peculiar to English cannot be ignored, either. In English, there are many grammatical rules different from Chinese, such as tense, voice, subjunctive mood, singular and plural, case, article, etc. These language forms seem to have little effect, but if used improperly, they will often affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> lastly, learn the related knowledge of China's foreign policy and international relations to ensure political correctness in the translation of political discourse. Many countries have such sensitive issues as appellation, ethnicity, religion, sovereignty and territory. These are the &quot;minefields&quot; of political translation. When translating, one must handle it carefully and respect the language and cultural habits of the other party, otherwise it will easily lead to &quot;translation storm&quot; and affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> ===6. Translation Straties under The Standard of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of the standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot;, the following translation strategies are provided for reference on the characteristics of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> (1) Characteristics of Chinese political discourse<br /> <br /> Affixes are often seen in Chinese political discourse such as “化” in &quot;现代化&quot; and &quot;城镇化&quot;, so are abbreviations like &quot;‘十四五’规划&quot;, &quot;四个自信&quot;, etc., and four-character phrases such as &quot;和平共处&quot;, &quot;和而不同&quot;, etc. Besides, metaphor is also used frequently in Chinese political discourse such as &quot;‘老虎’、‘苍蝇’一起打&quot;, among which &quot;老虎(tiger)&quot; and &quot;苍蝇(flies)&quot; refer to officials accused of bribery and corruption. So, how do we translate these words that have Chinese language characteristics but need us to take their political implications as consideration? Pointing at these characteristics, some scholars have proposed specific translation strategies based on the &quot;political equivalence&quot;standard.<br /> <br /> (2) The strategies of supplement and omission for affixes, four-character phrases and abbreviations(Wu Jing 2014, 30)<br /> <br /> ① supplement<br /> <br /> The supplement strategy is to add words appropriately in the translation so as to convey the meaning of the original text accurately. In the foreign translation of Chinese political terms, this strategy is mainly applicable to two situations. Firstly, the abbreviation, which is a refined utterance of many political words for the convenience of memory. When the target language users don’t have relevant knowledge or language background about those abbreviations, supplementary explanation plays its role. Secondly, four-character phrases. Four-character phrases are typical examples of Chinese expressions. In order to conform to the expression habits of the target language, these condensed words should be supplemented and explained so that the audience can understand the meaning of the original text correctly.<br /> <br /> The strategy of supplement can be applied to the following situations: firstly, supplement relevant knowledge background. For example, “‘十四五’规划”is translated by China Daily as “the 14th Five-Year Plan(2021-25) for economic and social development”. In the translation, “十四”is translated as “the 14th” and“五” is translated as “Five-Year”, which adds category words to those numbers and time horizon as well as the nature of the plan to the content; Secondly, supplement detailed content to abbreviations. For example,“四个自信”is translated as “confidence in the path, theory, system and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics.”<br /> <br /> ②Omission<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belong to two kinds of language families, having great differences from vocabulary to the sentence structure, expression ways, etc. There are very little equivalent words in the two languages, so in order to make the translation smoother and be more in line with the expression ways of the target language, translator can use the strategy----omission, namely omitting those expressions without practical significance but hindering translation work, on the basis of being loyal to the original text.<br /> <br /> The strategy of omission is often used in the process of translation from Chinese to English, and the translation of Chinese political terms is no exception. For emphasizing, Chinese political leaders often use parallel sentences or repeated words, so we can omit those repeated words in the translation. For example, “治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字仍然在扩大。”can be translated as “Governance, trust, development and peace deficits continue to grow.” In addition, there are situations where multiple sentences express the same meaning, in which omission is also available. For example, “改善人民生活，增进人民福祉。”can be translated as “improve people’s livelihood”.<br /> <br /> (3) Translation strategies for metaphor<br /> <br /> Metaphor refers to the use of known figurative concepts to explain abstract concepts in diplomatic discourse. The translation standard and strategies of metaphor are determined by their inherent special attributes, which are not only the key factors to select their translation strategies, but also the important yardstick to test whether those strategies are applicable(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41). Metaphor is an objective phenomenon that has existed in political discourse for a long time. Its special attributes are reflected in political discourse, such as high political sensitivity, high cultural load and strong national characteristics. In view of the strong political sensitivity of diplomatic discourse, plain and direct words in political discourse is often empty of words, which is difficult to produce obvious communicative effect in foreign relations. In most cases, metaphorical discourse can be used to imply and disseminate a country's diplomatic ideas, attitudes and positions to achieve better communication effects (Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41).<br /> <br /> Through reading relevant papers, this chapter finds that the translation strategies proposed by scholars for metaphorical rhetoric in political discourse are mainly as follows(Long Xinyuan, Li Qiuxia 2020, 27):<br /> <br /> ① Literal translation of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> Although English and Chinese belong to different language families, and the cultural background and geographical area on which they live are also different, language is created by human beings, and human emotions always have something in common. At the same time, human beings live in the same world, especially in an increasingly integrated world like today, where the communication between human beings and the collision between cultures are inevitable. As a result, we are becoming more tolerant and understanding of different cultures and languages. When translating metaphorical words with cultural characteristics, we can render the metaphorical words in literal translation under the condition that the audience can understand them correctly, which is easier to arouse emotional resonance and cultural identity.<br /> <br /> For example, “新时代的长征路” is translated as &quot;Long March of the new era&quot;. The original text compares China's development path in the new era to the new Long March. In Chinese history, the Long March was a bloody road trodden by the communist party of China to save the country and the people. On the one hand, the literal translation of &quot;The Long March&quot; retains the historical allusions used in the original text, so that the audience can understand its meaning only by a simple association. On the other hand, it is more conducive to show the national spirit of China.<br /> <br /> ② Substitution of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> After all, differences are greater than similarities between different languages, so sometimes adopting literal translation in the text using metaphor does not make the audience clear, but may mislead. However, different metaphorical entities are often used to express the same abstract concept between Chinese and English. At this time, in order to make the audience better understand and accept the original metaphor, translator can replace the original metaphorical entities with those referring to same thing in the target language, which can also improve the external communication effect of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> For example, foreign ministry spokesman Hua Chunying once said:”The US wants to make China a scapegoat(对于美国的花式‘甩锅’，我们不想接也不能接。).”“甩锅”is an internet buzzword in China used to vividly express the meaning of shifting the blame onto someone else. And “scapegoat” originates from an allusion in the Bible which has the same meaning with the Chinese word “甩锅”(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41), so translator made a conversion between the two words. In this way, English readers can better understand the political connotation of the original sentence. However, if adopting literal translation, English readers won’t understand.<br /> <br /> ③literal translation+explanation<br /> <br /> In some other cases, either literally translating those metaphorical entities or using corresponding ones to substitute them cannot eliminate the language barrier caused by cultural differences, then translator can adopt the strategy of “literal translation+explanation”, which is to literally translate the metaphor entity and then add explanation to it. In this way, the translation not only keeps the cultural characteristics of the source language while making English readers be clear with the meaning of them, but also contributes to the spread of Chinese culture to the outside world.<br /> <br /> For an instance, “不能腐的笼子越扎越牢”is translated as “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption has been strengthened”. The Chinese words “笼子”refers to the strict management institutions against corruption set up by Chinese government. Comparing the institution to the cage makes the action of fighting against corruption become more vivid. However, for English readers, it is hard to understand the original political connotation according to a simple word “cage”, so translator needs to add some explanations like “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption.” As a result, the meaning is clear and vivid.<br /> <br /> ④abandoning the figurative body and translate its connotation directly<br /> <br /> Metaphor, as a figure of speech, is highly culture-loaded, while political discourse is a kind of words with high political sensitivity. These characteristics make the translation of Chinese political discourse more difficult, and it is inevitable that translators may meet the situation where they cannot easily balance and take all these characteristics into consideration. At this time, the translator should choose to abandon the figurative body and keep the metaphorical meaning, after all, it is the first important thing to convey the correct political implication.<br /> <br /> For example, “保障‘米袋子’、‘菜篮子’安全”is translated as “ensure the security of grain supply and non-staple food supply”,among which the Chinese words “米袋子(rice bag)”and“菜篮子(vegetable basket)”refer to major grain supply and non-staple food supply respectively. Because rice is the staple food in most ares of China while vegetable is the complementary food, such a metaphor is very vivid and down to earth. However, it's hard for foreigners to understand the meaning of &quot;rice bag&quot; or &quot;vegetable basket&quot; without a similar living environment, so we have to discard the original figurative body and translate its meaning directly.<br /> <br /> ===7. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the summary of the above-mentioned translation strategies pointing at different situations in translating Chinese political discourse, we can see that every strategy follows the three principles under the standard of &quot;political equivalence” ---- political, balance and dynamic. Every translation strategy takes the correct transition of the political implications of the original text as the first rule, namely being political; and then keeps the cultural or linguistic characteristics of the original text as much as possible, namely keeping balance; additionally, adopting appropriate translation strategies according to different contexts or situations, namely being dynamic. The translation of political discourse has its particularity and is of great importance, so it is necessary to be careful when choosing translation strategies. Translators should not only have high linguistic literacy and fair political standpoint, but also keep up with current events, correctly and fully understand the political meaning of the original text, and make specific analysis according to different contexts and occasions to adopt the most appropriate translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===8. References===<br /> <br /> [1]楚行军. 中国政治话语翻译研究二十年(2000—2019)[Studies on the Translation of Chinese Political Discourse over the past 20 years(2000-2019)]——基于中国知网的分析[J]. 焦作师范高等专科学校学报,2020,36(03):24-27+40.<br /> <br /> [2]吴静. 基于“政治等效”的中国政治新词翻译策略解析[An analysis of translation strategies of Chinese new political terms on the basis of &quot;political equivalence&quot;][J]. 兰州文理学院学报(社会科学版),2014,30(01):95-98.<br /> <br /> [3]龙新元,李秋霞. “政治等效+认知趋同”：认知翻译观视阈下的政治文本翻译研究[&quot;Political Equivalence + Cognitive Convergence&quot; : A Study of political Text translation from the perspective of cognitive Translation][J]. 天津外国语大学学报,2020,27(05):104-120+161.<br /> <br /> [4]杨明星. 论外交语言翻译的“政治等效”——以邓小平外交理念“韬光养晦”的译法为例[The application of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; in diplomatic Language Translation -- Taking Deng Xiaoping's diplomatic idea &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2008,(05):90-94.<br /> <br /> [5]杨明星,闫达. “政治等效”理论框架下外交语言的翻译策略——以“不折腾”的译法为例[Translation strategies of diplomatic language under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;-- Taking the translation of &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2012,35(03):73-77.<br /> <br /> [6]杨明星,齐静静. 外交修辞的复合性翻译标准:“政治等效+审美再现”——以国家领导人外交演讲古诗文为例[The composite translation standard of diplomatic rhetoric: &quot;Political equivalence + aesthetic reproduction&quot; -- taking the ancient poems and essays in diplomatic speeches of national leaders as an example][J]. 中国外语,2018,15(06):89-96+109.<br /> <br /> [7]杨明星,赵玉倩. “政治等效+”框架下中国特色外交隐喻翻译策略研究[A research on translation strategies of metaphors in diplomatic discorses with Chinese characteristics under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence plus&quot;][J]. 中国翻译,2020,41(01):151-159+190.<br /> <br /> [8]杨明星,张琰. 中英外交翻译中“政治等效”与话语平等辩证关系分析——从马戛尔尼使华到共建“一带一路”(1792-2019)[Dialectical relationship between &quot;political equivalence&quot; and discourse equality in diplomatic translation between China and Britain -- from macartney's mission period to &quot;One Belt And One Road&quot; period(1792-2019)][J]. 上海翻译,2020,(05):24-29+94.<br /> <br /> ==Classification, Chinese translation methods and Strategies of Russian Proverbs - 张虎 Zhang Hu==<br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of Liaison Interpreting from the Perspectives of Reception Aesthetics and Translator's Subjectivity 李璐伊 Li Luyi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In a time of increasing intercultural communication, the working scenes of liaison interpreters are increasingly complex, and the role of interpreters are still controversial. From the perspective of aesthetics of reception and translator-centered theory, this paper analyzes the role positioning of liaison interpreters in terms of customers' expectations on the role of interpreters and their own understanding of the role of interpreters, and develops corresponding strategies for different types of liaison interpreters.<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> Liaison Interpreting；Positioning of Interpreter；Reception Aesthetics ；Translator-Centered<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在跨文化交际日益频繁的今天，联络口译译员的工作场景日益复杂，而其角色定位还存在争议。本文拟通过接受美学和译者中心论的视角分别从客户对口译译员的角色期待以及口译译员自身角色认识两方面分析了客户对口译员的角色期待和口译员对自身的角色定位，并针对不同联络口译类型制定了相应的应对策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 联络口译；译员角色定位；接受美学；译者中心论<br /> <br /> ===I. Introduction===<br /> In a broad sense, where there is a society, there is intercultural communication, which usually refers to the communication activities carried out by people in different cultural backgrounds. With the acceleration of globalization in recent years, cross-cultural communication has become increasingly frequent and complex. Susan Bassinet once argued that translation is by no means a purely linguistic act, it is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is spoken, and that translation is the communication within or between cultures. This view is also reflected in his book ''Translation, History and Culture'' (Bassnett, Susan; Lefevre, Andre 1996,4). As an important bridge in intercultural communication, interpretation is real-time, which requires interpreters to adjust their interpretation strategies in the new era to meet the increasing demand for interpreting.<br /> Translation studies is a relatively young research field, the current translation studies work an obvious trend to written translation studies, with less attention in the study of interpreting, this is probably due to the earlier tradition of the translation studies -- In the past, people only discussed the translation strategies of literary classics. As for this point, some scholars have proposed before that &quot;in terms of translation theory research itself, only written translation theory research is paid attention to rather than interpretation research, especially the study of specific problems in the process of interpretation by interpreters&quot; (Liu 2014,141- 143). We believes that the reasons for this situation are as follows: first, the corpus of written translation recorded in the form of words are easier to preserve than the interpreted corpus, and the research is also easier to retrieve the corpus of written translation; Second, Culture-related content is more common in translation than in interpretation. In addition, at present, the entry point of interpretation studies on cultural issues in liaison interpreting is often limited to a specific interpreting scene. For example, Zhao Xiaomei makes an analysis of the role of medical liaison interpreters, and believes that interpreters should abandon the tradition of complete neutrality in the process of interpreting (Zhao 2020, 105-108). However, different interpreting scenes have different requirements for interpreters, so the study confined to a specific scene does not accord with the actual situation that interpreters must be in multiple situations to interpret. In addition, many domestic liaison interpreting studies are practice reports of MTI majors, lacking systematic theoretical discussion. Against such a background of translation studies, it is very necessary to study liaison interpretation from the perspective of receptive aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;. The value of this study lies in: first, it provides a new theoretical perspective for liaison interpretation analysis; Second, it provides coping strategies to solve the cultural barriers of interpreting in intercultural communication.<br /> Generally speaking, interpretation is divided into consecutive interpretation and simultaneous interpretation according to its working mode, while it is divided into two-way interpretation and one-way interpretation according to the direction of interpretation. The liaison interpretation we discuss here is a typical two-way interpretation. We generally believe that liaison interpretation is a kind of interpretation which is different from conference interpretation and has a variety of working scenes, and it's working mode is mainly consecutive interpretation. Henri van Hoof, when talking about liaison interpretation earlier, described it as an interpreting practice existing in business negotiations (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2004,12). This is the early propositions which business interpretation is equivalent to liaison interpretation, and in the later long period of time has been recognized and widely used, but this description has obvious limitations. With the development of society and the diversification and complexity of interpretation scenes, the connotation of liaison interpretation has been expanded to include various forms of interpretation within the society or within the community. Later, R. Bruce W. Anderson (1976/2002) generically described liaison interpreting as a &quot;tripartite communication&quot; model, which is characterized by the emphasis that liaison interpreting is an activity in which two monolingual speakers communicate through a bilingual interpreter (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2004,14). Of course, this definition is more in line with the current practical understanding of liaison interpreting, but it is also difficult to distinguish the specific forms of liaison interpreting because of the high generality of its description. According to Anderson's point of view and the definition of conference interpretation, liaison interpreting is a &quot;bilateral interpreting&quot; within the society, rather than an international conference interpreting for representatives of several countries. Therefore, not only business interpretation, but also legal interpreting and guide-interpreting should be included in liaison interpretation.<br /> Based on the &quot;reader-centered theory&quot; of reception aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; of &quot;Eco-translatology&quot;, this paper mainly adopts the method of literature research and takes liaison interpreters as the object to discuss customers' expectations on the role of interpreters and interpreters’ awareness of their own role, so as to seek interpreting strategies in different situations of liaison interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===II. Reception Aesthetics and Translator-Centered Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1、Reception Aesthetics====<br /> Reception aesthetics, also known as reader-centered theory, is a critical approach in literary studies, developed in the 1960s by H.R. Jauss and Wolfgang. Iser. This theory is different from the previous critical method which is centered on author or works. It turns to the critical method which is centered on readers' aesthetic acceptance and aesthetic experience. Phenomenology and modern hermeneutics are the theoretical basis of reader-centered theory, and the term &quot;reception aesthetics&quot; was first introduced in Hans Robert Jauss's essay ''Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory'', which is a manifesto for reception aesthetics to become an independent school (Jin 2002, 264-267). Izer once said, &quot;Reception aesthetics advocates the reader's initiative and creative ability. Reading is not a passive perception but an active creative activity. The transformation of the reader's role can be said to be an epoch-making transformation in the development of literature&quot;(Guo，1997，338-339). There are several important concepts in reception aesthetics. The first is the &quot;the horizon of expectations&quot;， which Jauss coined. Jauss believes that due to the complex reasons of individuals and society, readers who are the subject of receiving literature often have established thinking orientation and concepts in their psychology before and during the process of literature reading (Wang 2020, 198-199). The second concept is the &quot;response-inviting structure&quot;, which was proposed by Iser. Iser considers the meaning of a text to be indeterminable, so the meaning of a text would never have been generated by itself, but there is a &quot;text blank&quot; in the text that only the reader can fill (Jin 2002,274). &quot;Text blank&quot; can induce the reader to think aesthetically. Reception aesthetics in interpreting is reflected in that the success of a interpretation product largely depends on the response of the recipient to the work and whether the recipient has generated aesthetic pleasure, and the evocation of the text and the satisfaction of the recipient have become the criteria for evaluation of interpretation products. From the perspective of reception aesthetics, interpreting serves the recipient completely.<br /> <br /> ====2、Translator-Centered Theory====<br /> <br /> ===III. Positioning of liaison interpreter===<br /> <br /> ===IV. Interpreting Strategies in Different Interpreting Environments===<br /> <br /> ===V. Conclusion===<br /> In this paper，we discussed how interpreters should adapt to the interpreting environment and make correct translation strategies from the perspectives of reception aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;. The first part of this paper is an introduction, which introduced the definition of liaison interpreting, the current situation of interpreting studies in translation studies and the significance and methods of this study. The second part introduced the two perspectives of this research -- reception aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;. The third part analyzed the influence of two perspectives on the role positioning of liaison interpreters and the different types of liaison interpreters. The fourth part puts forward how to adjust translation strategies and how to use translation techniques to achieve the balance between &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;creativity&quot;.<br /> We believes that in the context similar to business interpretation, contact interpreters should adjust the translation strategies of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;creativity&quot; according to the constantly changing interpretation content. In the guide-interpretation, interpreters should pay more attention to the &quot;creativity&quot; of interpretation products on the basis of &quot;faithfulness&quot;, so as to bring tourists more relaxed and pleasant experience. In legal interpretation, due to the rigor and inviolability of the law, interpreters should try their best to interpret &quot;word by word&quot;. Only in certain circumstances can they provide necessary explanations for both sides of communication by adding interpretation content. This paper also puts forward other specific strategies. Interpreters can reduce errors in interpreting by communicating with customers in the preparation stage. In the process of interpreting, the translation strategies can be flexibly adjusted by adopting various translation techniques, such as addition and omission. After the end of interpretation, we can reflect on the mistakes and make an interpreting corpus to avoid repeating the mistakes in the future.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Appreciation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> == Study on Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden'' from the Stylistic Perspective 袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi 202020080664==<br /> &lt;center&gt;袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'' is a classic literary work of Henry David Thoreau, which has become a classic work in the Treasure house of American literature. The Chinese translator Xu Chi first translated it into China, and since then ''Walden'' has been retranslated and republished for many times. In China, the version of ''Walden'' translated by Xu Chi is the most widely spread and influential one, and has been highly regarded as a classic translation. There hve been a lot of studies on ''Walden'' both at home and abroad, such as studies on the ecology of the book, studies on birth background and living conditions of the author Henry David Thoreau, and systematic studies on Chinese translation version of ''Walden'' under different theoretical frameworks. However, there are few studies on Chinese translations of ''Walden'' from stylistic perspective. This paper will focus on the lexical, syntactic and rhetorical features of Xu Chi’s translation and analyze their stylistic effects. It is hoped that this study will be of certain value to the translation studies of ''Walden'' and the literary translation criticism from the stylistic perspective.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'', Chinese Translation of ''Walden'' by Xu Chi , Stylistics<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从文体学角度看《瓦尔登湖》徐迟译本<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》是亨利·大卫·梭罗的经典文学作品，已经成为美国文学宝库中的经典之作。中国译者徐迟首先将其译入国内，此后《瓦尔登湖》多次被重译再版。在中国，徐迟翻译的《瓦尔登湖》汉译本流传最广、影响最大，而且一直被推崇为“译文经典”。对于《瓦尔登湖》的研究，在国内和国外有很多，例如对散文涉及生态的研究，对于作者亨利·戴维·梭罗出生背景和生活状况的研究，以及不同的理论框架下对于《瓦尔登湖》中文翻译版本的系统研究。但是从文体学角度研究《瓦尔登湖》中译本的不多。本文着重探讨徐迟译本在词汇、句法、修辞层面上的特征，分析其文体效果。希望本研究对《瓦尔登湖》的翻译研究及从文体学视角开展文学翻译批评具有一定的参考价值。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》、徐迟中译本、文体学<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau and ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a collection of essays written by American writer Henry David Thoreau. Henry David Thoreau was born in 1817 and died in 1862. He was a famous writer, philosopher, representative of Transcendentalism, abolitionist of slavery and naturalist in the United States. He was deeply influenced by Emerson. He advocated returning to original mind and being close to nature. Thoreau created more than 20 first-class prose collections in his whole life. His essays are concise and powerful, simple and natural, full of thought, which hava unique style in American proses in the 19th century. In 1845, he lived in seclusion by Walden lake, two miles away from Concord. He cultivated and ate by himself and experienced a simple and close to nature life. Thoreau loved, appreciated and immersed in nature. He understood the world through nature and regarded the world as a whole for people to appreciate and enjoy. He advocated simple life, so he abandoned all material enjoyment and pursued spiritual enrichment. With a keen thinking of a philosopher and rigorous spirit of science, Thoreau put himself into the embrace of nature and explored everything around him.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a record of Thoreau's life when he lived alone by Walden lake. ''Walden'' is composed of 18 essays, which record Thoreau's hands-on life by walden lake for two months from 1845 to 1847. This book advocates simple life, appeals readers to return to nature, and expresses Thoreau's love for nature. The simple way of life in the book reflects Thoreau’s view of nature.This book has certain philosophical significance as well as artistic and aesthetic value.<br /> ''Walden'' is a Transcendentalist classic and is recognized as the most popular non-fiction work in American literature. After more than 100 years of circulation, the book has become a classic in American literature. So far, it has been published in more than 150 editions and translated into more than 40 languages. <br /> Thoreau's own practice in Walden lake and his works have a consistent proposition, that is, returning to nature. In his works, he constantly pointed out that most of modern people are trapped by family, work and various material needs, thus lost their spiritual pursuit and lived a materialistic life. Thoreau persisted in the pursuit of spiritual happiness and rejected material comforts. This is why Thoreau lived a simple life by Walden lake, enjoying a life of leisure while his neighbors pursued a life of wealth and material comforts, enslaved by their own desires.<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Xu Chi and His Translation of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi=====<br /> Xu Chi is famous for his poems, essays and reportage. He was once awarded by Mao Zedong's inscription of &quot;poetry expresses ambition&quot;, and he was known as &quot;Contemporary Chinese Goethe&quot; and &quot;Father of Reportage&quot;.<br /> Another little-known identity of this famous Chinese writer is being as a translator. He not only wrote poems, essays, reportages, novels and reviews, but also translated and introduced a large number of foreign literary works, with a total of 10 million words in his life.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden''=====<br /> In 1949, Xu translated Walden into Chinese called &quot;华尔腾&quot;, which failed to elicit widespread attention because at that time, people all over China were immersedin the joy of gaining cmancipation from feudalism and imperialism, so that ''Walden'',promoting tranquility and transcendentalism, was ignored.<br /> In 1982, Xu Chi retranslated it and titled it &quot;瓦尔登湖&quot;, which was so popular that it was republished for many times since then. Xu's version of ''Walden'' chosen in this study is its second edition, published in 1982, to which Xu Chi added a preface to present information about Thoreau and comments on ''Walden''. To some extent, readers are able to have a glimpse of Xu's own emotions and thoughts in his translation of ''Walden''. <br /> Xu Chi usually selected and translated works that were close to his own nature and could move him, because only in this way, he could have more resonance with the writers and their works, and reproduced the style of the original author. For Xu Chi, he expressed his own feelings and thoughts through translating these writers'works to a certain extent (Yao Junwei, 2005:146). Only when his soul was in harmony with Thoreau's, did Xu Chi love this book so much and rised to translating this book. It was in the summer of 1949 that Xu Chi began to translate Thoreau's ''Walden''. Because Xu Chi was extremely fond of this book, he spent lots of efforts in translating this famous work. In the first stage of translation, he tried to understand the meaning of the original work, hoping to be able to deeply understand the original work. He confessed that it was a very profound book which is full of translation challenges. He was very busy during the day, so he sometimes couldn't read it.Because this book was too difficult to understand, it seemed that this book was suddenly not so interseting and attractive to him, and it seemed that it was of no benefit to translate it. However, he found that his mood gradually became peaceful after dusk. When he read this book at this time, he suddenly felt the book quite interesting. What he saw was the chapters that could’t be seen in the daytime. The language was amazing, the words were shining, and his heart was touched. When the ningt became quiet, the book became not so obscure. Under the recitation, he could not help but be fascinated by it (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).<br /> His most successful translation is ''Walden'', which he translated first in 1949, then again in 1982 and in 1996. The masterpiece of David Thoreau, a famous American transcendentalist writer, still shines brightly in the vast Chinese translated literature. In recent ten years, there have been more than 20 new translations of ''Walden'', but Xu Chi's translation is still regarded as the best translation and is the first choice for many presses to publish as Chinese translations of ''Walden'' in recent years. Although there are many Chinese translations of ''Walden'', most of them take Xu Chi's translation as a reference (Wang Zhao 2009, 147), which indicates the authority of Xu Chi's translation.<br /> <br /> ====Style and Styllistics====<br /> =====Style=====<br /> Originated from the Latin or Greek word &quot;stile&quot; or &quot;stilus&quot;, &quot;style&quot; originally refers to a sharp instrument made of metal or bone, used as a writing tool, and later symbolizes a way of writing. At first, it was mainly used in writing. As time goes by, its application has been broadened into areas like music, dance, painting, fashion, behavior,literature, architecture and so on. As it has been mentioned in the introduction part, the research object ''Walden'' is a piece of literary work, consequently, this thesis will mainly study literary style.<br /> Since ancient times, style has always been the object of people's study. Aristotle, Cicero, Demetrius, and Quintilian all used style as an appropriate decoration for thought. This view prevailed throughout the Renaissance, when devices of style could be classified. An essayist or orator needs to construct his or her point of view by means of exemplary sentences and prescribed kinds of &quot;figures&quot; that conform to his or her mode of discourse.<br /> For a long time, the definition of style has remained varied, and different scholars have given different definitions of it. It is unnecessary and impractical here to list them all. Some definitions will be given below to help us understand what style is.<br /> One of the most successful attempts to define style in a comprehensive way is Leech and Short’s (1981). Although claiming that “unsuccessful attempts to attach a precise meaning” to the term “style” have often resulted in an impoverishment of the subject , they offer a list of the items forming the basis of their own concept of style, which can be summarized as follows:<br /> (a) Style is a way in which language is used; therefore it consists in choices made from the repertoire of the language; <br /> (b) A style is defined in terms of a domain of language use (e.g. what choices are made by a particular author, in a particular genre, or in a particular text);<br /> (c) Literary stylistics is typically concerned with explaining the relation between style and literary or aesthetic function;<br /> (d) Stylistic choice is limited to those aspects of linguistic choice which concern alternative ways of rendering the same subject matter.<br /> Nida Eugene (1982, 12) defines that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”So in translation of literary works, the author’s style should be represented through the translator’s style, and the translator’s style should depend on the style of the author. Many translators are good at representing different writers’styles and yet has its own unique translation style.<br /> The broad view of style includes the elements of linguistic style and non-linguistic style. Among them, the elements of language style mainly include the means of language style, such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structure and rhetorical devices, and the elements of non-language style include the author's emotion factor, the author's imagination factor and the author's intelligence factor. The narrow sense of style only involves the author's means of language style and rhetorical style (Lv Jun &amp; Hou Xiangqun 2001, 320).<br /> In conclude, translation (especially literary translation) as an across-culture process dose not only focus on the content of source text but also the style which is about how the writers write. Therefore, it is essential for a translator to know how to figure out the style of source text and reproduce it with target language.<br /> <br /> =====Styllistics=====<br /> Stylistics is a comprehensive frontier discipline that studies the characteristics, essence and laws of text forms, and is in the ascendant between linguistics, literature and art, aesthetics, psychology and other disciplines.<br /> It is difficult to determine when stylistics became a field of academic study. It can be argued, however, that it was not until the late 1950s that stylistics began to make significant and measurable progress. This is a young frontier discipline that is growing over time. Stylistics has developed into a well-targeted and technically effective interdisciplinary field of study, which is expected to provide useful insights for literary criticism and literature teaching. It has also been influencing translation criticism. Modern stylistics provides an important theoretical basis for translation studies. As far as the development of the subject of translation is concerned, stylistics has been recognized for its value and function. <br /> Modern stylistics uses the tools of formal linguistic analysis coupled with the methods of literary criticism; its goal is to try to isolate characteristic uses and functions of language and rhetoric rather than advance normative or prescriptive rules and patterns.<br /> <br /> =====Language Style and Stylistic Features of ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a masterpiece of prose style. It is concise, eloquent and profound in thought. Just as he pursues the simplest life, his language style of ''Walden'' can be summarized into four points: concise writing, accurate description, incisive argument, and pithy argumentation and causal narration. <br /> ''Walden'' is also a book aimed directly at the reader. Anyone who read this book feels that they are listening to and sharing Thoreau's ideals. This book is not easy for readers to understand, especially those who read it for the first time. Correspondingly, the prominent stylistic characteristics of ''Walden'' are manifested in four aspects: exquisite scenic description, complex syntax, various rhetorical devices and rich quotations．<br /> So it is helpful for the translator to understand the original text and reproduce the stylistic equivalence in the translation. Therefore, the translator should fully understand his stylistic characteristics, which is the premise of reproducing his style in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===Stylistic Features of ''Walden''===<br /> ====Lexical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Degree of Formality=====<br /> There are a lot of obsolete and old words in ''Walden''and the use of these words makes the book more flavor, solemn and elegant. However, the use of these words will also bring great trouble to the translation at the same time. It is difficult for the translators to grasp these words, so they can not use literal translation but use creative way to make readers feel what the author wants to express in this book.<br /> In ''Walden'', Thoreau uses concise words to demonstrate his own ideas, natural scenery and cultural customs of Walden Lake. Unlike official documents, regulations, or academic creations, general style of ''Walden'' suggests that Thoreau’s choice of words is less formal. This section aims to analyze the degree of formality of nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the Xu Chi’s translation. In terms of nouns, Xu Chi tends to choose words with literary charm and formal style, which are not suitable for the informal style of the original text.<br /> Example 1：<br /> …；where the washing is not put out, nor the fire, nor the mistress, and perhaps you are sometimes requested to move from off the trap—door; when the cook would descend into the cellar, and learn whether the ground is solid or hollow beneath you without stamping．(Thoreau 2012, 277—278)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：在那罩，洗瀣物不比晒在外面，炉火不熄，女主人也不会生气，也许有时要你移动一下，让厨子从地板门里走下地窖去，而你不用蹬脚就可以知道你的脚下是虚是实。 (徐迟 2009, 270)<br /> The passage describes part of Thoreau’s dream of a bigger house for more people. The original text provides a natural and causal description of the scenes and activities in Thoreau's dream house. There are five commas and a period in this 47-word sentence with employment of concrete nouns，the structure of the original is loose and casual. As can be seen from the above, &quot;washing&quot; in Xu's translation is loosely understood as “洗涤物” which means the process of eliminating unnecessary ingredients through detergent, which is formal in Chinese. Xu Chi reproduced the content of‘'the washing’’but he ignored the degree of formality in choosing word, thus falling to deliver the casualness reflected by the original text．<br /> Because ''Walden'' is full of depictions of landscape, adjectives are indispensable in Thoreau's creation of various images and pictures, as well as his insightful comments. Let us look at a example of it.<br /> Example 2：<br /> Often the poor man is not so cold and hungry as he is dirty and ragged and gross．(Thoreau 2012, 85)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：往往是那个穷人，邋遢、褴褛又粗野，但并没有途堡查选。(徐迟 2009, 83)<br /> The first adjective “poor” is used as an antecedent modifier and the other five adjectives are used as predicates. With the six adjectives being short and plain, the original text is generally of informal style. Xu transfered “cold and hungry” into a four-character noun phrase“冻馁之忧”which means “sufferings from cold and hunger.” However, this phrase is somewhat old-fashioned and is too formal to keep in line with the original style．Besides，it appears uncoordinated with three adjectives“邋遢、褴褛又粗野”being placed before the noun phrase“冻馁之忧”. So, it is not appropriate to reflect the original style.<br /> Verbs are also frequently employed in ''Walden'' to depict the fighting between animals or other activities. The degree of formality marked by verbs is the target of the study here. <br /> Example 3：<br /> I took up the chip on which the three I have particularly described were struggling, carried it into my house，and placed it under a tumbler on my window-sill，in order to see the issue．(Thoreau 2012, 262-263)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation：<br /> 我特别描写的三个战士在同一张木片上搏斗，我把这张木片拿进我的家里，放在我的窗槛上。罩在一个大杯子下面，以便考察结局。(徐迟 2009, 256)<br /> As we can see from the examples, these verbs are short and common in our everyday speech. They come mainly from Anglo-Saxon English and have informal stylistic characteristics. Therefore, the style of the original text is informal and should be preserved in Chinese translation. In this sentence, Thoreau prepared to wait and see with interest how the battle between the ants would go on after a series of arrangements. Xu Chi translated the word “see” into “考察”which sounds serious and formal, because “考察”means carefully checking certain items or situations, and is often used in formal situations, such as “考察人” or “考察情况”. So, Xu's version deviates from the original natural and informal flavor.<br /> <br /> =====Expressive Meaning=====<br /> Roman Jakobson, building on Karl Bühler (1934), coined the term expressive or emotive for one of the functions of language. He describes it as the function focused on the ADDRESSER [speaker], aims a direct expression of the speaker's attitude toward what he is speaking about (Jakobson 1960, 354) and gives interjections as the prime example of this function.<br /> It is worthy of our attention that differences between words in terms of expressive meaning are not simply equal to a matter of whether an expression of a certain attitude or evaluation is reproduced or not. The same attitude or evaluation may be expressed to widely varying degrees of forcefulness.<br /> Example 4：It is said that a flood-tide, with a westerly wind，and ice in the Neva, would sweep St. Petersburg from the face of the earth. (Thoreau 2012, 22)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：据说，涅瓦河要是涨了水，刮了西风，流来的冰块可以把圣彼得堡一下子大地的表面上冲掉的。 (徐迟 2009, 21)<br /> According to the Oxford Advanced English-Chinese Dictionary, &quot;sweeping&quot; is the act of sudden movement (of weather, fire, etc.), forcing a movement in an area or in a particular direction. In the original context, the combination of “flood tides, westerly winds, and ice” was destructive and therefore clearly detrimental to St.Petersburg. So the word &quot;sweep&quot; here reflects the speaker's negative attitude toward the possible outcome. Obviously, the word “冲掉” in Xu Chi’s translation is a neutral term and does not reflect the speaker’s attitude or feelings towards the potential disaster caused by flood tide, westerly winds and snow. Xu ignored the author’s emotional attitude, thus ignoring the influence that these forces may cause, and did not produce systematic equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====Syntactic Features of ''Walden''====<br /> Raffel (1994) points out that &quot;the syntax of prose shows the style of the author, and the reproduction of the original style is the key to prose translation which stresses not only what message says, but also how the message is said.&quot; So, the syntactic features of ''Walden'' should never be ignored.<br /> In the original text, short sentences in English have neat structure and harmonious rhythm. Xu Chi did not change the original structure in translation, but adopted literal translation. The so-called literal translation is to retain the content and language expression habits of the original text as well as the form and style of the original text under the condition that the target language allows. Since Both Chinese and English are discourse systems and they have something in common, literal translation is a good way to deal with them.<br /> Example 5:<br /> It is no dream of mine, To ornament a line; I cannot come nearer to God and Heaven, than I live to Walden even. I am its stony shore, and the breeze that passes o’er; In the hollow of my hand, are its water and its sand, and its deepest resort Lies high in my thought. (Thoreau 2012, 137) <br /> Xu Chi’s Translation:<br /> 这不是我的梦，用于装饰一行诗;我不能更接近上帝和天堂甚于我之生活在瓦尔登。我是它的圆石岸，飘拂而过的风;在我掌握的一握，是它的水，它的沙，而它的最深邃僻隐处,高高躺在我的思想中。 (Xu Chi 2012, 151)<br /> The translation of this paragraph has a neat structure, neat antithesis, and pays attention to the regularity and rhythm of the literal. The original is composed of ten verses and the translation retains the original format, which can increase the depth and appeal of the translation, thus producing artistic effect and aesthetic value.<br /> <br /> ====Rhetorical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Metaphor=====<br /> Metaphor means to &quot;shift a word from its original meaning to another word that is generally not interchangeable but similar, and to emphasize its identity, that is, the two are similar but not a simile&quot;.<br /> Example 6: <br /> Public opinion is a weak tyrant compared with our own private opinion. (Thoreau 2012， 7)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation: 和我们的自知之明相比较，公众舆论这暴戾的君主也显得微弱无力。(徐迟 2009，6）<br /> The ontology and metaphor in this sentence are &quot;public opinion&quot; and &quot;weak tyrant.&quot; There must be something similar between them. The following statement gives the reason: &quot;Compared to our own private opinions&quot;, which is quite clear. People are used to focusing on themselves in front of others, so public opinion is only slightly weak. The subtle use of metaphor shows Thoreau's wisdom and thorough understanding of human nature. Xu Chi dealt with this metaphor perfectly.<br /> <br /> =====Pun=====<br /> Puns are deliberately declared polysemous words or homonyms created with double meaning in a certain language environment, with implicit, humorous and profound effects. Newmark (2001, 217) points out that &quot;pun translation is unimportant but fascinating&quot;. The use of puns in Walden is remarkable.<br /> The basic function of pun in ''Walden'' is to express logical relations. Because puns can express two levels of meaning in a word, phrase, or sentence, they are often used as a link between the text before and after it. A key problem that haunts the reader when reading ''Walden'' is the lack of connection between the two passages. A clear logical relationship is a prerequisite for expressing other special effects, such as rhetorical and aesthetic effects. Therefore, the improper translation of puns will seriously affect logical coherence and other rhetorical devices.<br /> Example 7：<br /> If the name was not derived from that of some English locality - Saffron Walden, for instance, one might suppose that it was called originally Walled-in Pond. (Thoreau 2012, 209)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation: 如果这个湖名不是由当地一个叫萨福隆•瓦尔登的英国人的名字化出来的话，——那么，我想瓦尔登湖原来的名字可能是围而得湖。(徐迟 2009, 172)<br /> This classic example of puns has been discussed many times. Thoreau suggested that &quot;Walden&quot; might come from “Walled-in”. &quot;Walled-in Pond&quot;, as ahomophonic pun, serves as the logic link of the whole paragraph. Xu wisely translates it as “围而得”, retaining not only the similar pronunciation but also the importance of meaning. “围而得” maintains the logical relation of the whole paragraph.It is eye-catching and stimulates readers to think more about Thoreau's intentions to use this word.<br /> <br /> =====Personification=====<br /> Personification refers to &quot;the practice of representing a person, quality, or characteristic as a human being in art and literature.&quot; People subconsciously tend to reflect non-human things with their lives in order to express their feelings and thoughts. In view of the characteristics of human behavior, literary works can vividly express the feelings of the author, and make readers feel that the description of the object is more vivid and appropriate, which makes the article more vivid.<br /> Example 8：<br /> This further experience also I gained：I said to myself,1 will not plant beans and corn with so much industry another summer，but such seeds, if the seed is not lost, as sincerity, truth, simplicity, faith, innocence, and the like, and see if they will not grow in this soil，even with less toil and manurance，and sustain me, for surely it has not been exhausted for these crops. (Thoreau 2012, 186-187)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation:<br /> 我还获得了下面的更丰富的经验：我对我自己说，下一个夏天，我不要花那么大的劳力来种豆子和玉米了，我将种这样<br /> 这样一些种子像诚实、真理、纯朴、信心、天真等等，如果这些种子并没有失落，看看它们能否在这片土地上生长，能否以较少劳力和肥料；来维持我的生活，因为，地力一定还没消耗到不能种这些东西。 (徐迟 2009, 182)<br /> Thoreau here is sharing his experience in growing beans and his plans next summer with readers. As we know, words like &quot;sincerity,truth，simplicity, faith and innocence&quot; usually refer to qualities of human. But here, these words are adopted to describe the characteristics of seeds and humanize these seeds，constructing a vivid personification. Xu Chi reproduce the rhetorical feature of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The language of ''Walden'' is rich in vocabulary, complex and diverse sentence structure, the author's writing is flexible and fluent, and the use of various rhetoric makes the translation work more difficult. <br /> To sum up, Xu Chi's translation appears more formal than the original text and some words of his translation can not reflect the expressive meaning of the original one. It is found that Xu Chi tended to use words with typical features of his time which seem out of date at present. But due to the time he lived in, we believe that Xu Chi's translation satisfied the need or linguistic expectation of the target readers of his time which has its significance. We also find that sentences in Xu's translation follow the syntax of English language. Xu Chi kept the structure beauty of the original work properly, respected the original work and kept the structure orderly, directly conveying Thoreau's thoughts and feelings. And Xu Chi indeed do well in reflecting rhetorical features of the original text, which is refered by many translators later. In general, Xu Chi's translation is close to the original text in style and language characteristics and is a classic translation of ''Walden''.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Leech.G.N. &amp; M. H. Short. (1981). Style in Fiction：A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. <br /> <br /> Newmark P. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> Nida Eugene. (1982). Translating Meaning. Sandimas: English Language Institute. 12.<br /> <br /> Raffe. (1994). The Art of Translating Prose. Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press．<br /> <br /> Roman Jaobson. (1960). “Linguistics and Poetry” in Style and Language. Cambridge: MIT Press.<br /> <br /> Thoreau Henry David. (2012). Walden. New York: W. W. Norton &amp; Company, INC.<br /> <br /> Lv Jun &amp; Hou Xiangqun 吕俊,侯向群. (2001) 《英汉翻译教程》[English-chinese Translation Course].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.320.<br /> <br /> Wu Siying &amp; Li Jing 吴巳英,李靖. (2011). 外国文学翻译体例的时代演变——基于《瓦尔登湖》不同译本的比较. [The Time Evolution of Foreign Literary Translation Styles: Based on the Comparison of different versions of Walden]. 湖南农业大学学报（社会科学版) Journal of Hunan Agricultural University (Social Science edition) 12 83-87.<br /> <br /> Xu Chi 徐迟. (2009). 瓦尔登湖. [Walden].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. <br /> <br /> Yao Junwei姚君伟. (2005). 徐迟与美国文学在中国的译介[Xu Chi and the Translation of American Literature in China]. 外国文学研究 Study of Foreign Literature 4 145-149.<br /> <br /> ==A Comparison Beteewn the Translation Systems Proposed by Tan Zai and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===: The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people’s overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===: Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===：一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===：谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''==== <br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shy.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> The translation of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper Translatology must be established, which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> <br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems====<br /> <br /> =====Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> <br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000. <br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005. <br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation. 王美玲 Wang Meiling==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;王美玲 Wang Meiling&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> The Renaissance is the fourth peak in the history of Western translation and a great development in the history of Western literature. During the 16th century and the period following the Renaissance in Europe, translation reached an unprecedented climax in the fields of thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion. At that time, the German translation of the Bible by the Martin Luther is the most well-known one in the whole translation circle, and its influence is unique and long-standing in Germany as well as in the whole Europe continent. Since the Reform and Opening-up, China has gradually stepped into the center of the world arena, and its literary works bearing the quintessence of Chinese culture has become a crucial bridge connecting the rest of the world with China. Despite the rise of machine translation, it can never replace the overwhelming role of human translation in the literary translation. Luther’s translation thoughts have exerted an important influence on the development of Western translation theories, so what sparks can be drawn between his translation principles and Chinese modern culture and literary works? This paper makes a brief comment on the main translation activities of renaissance, then compares the translation thoughts of Luther and Lu Xun, and applies Luther’s detailed translation principles to the actual translation practice. Finally,some thoughts are acquired.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Renaissance; Luther; literary works; translation principles; influence;<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴运动是西方翻译史的第四次高潮，也是西方文学史上的一次大发展。文艺复兴在欧洲普遍开展的16世纪以及随后一个时期，翻译活动达到了前所未有的高峰，深入思想、政治、哲学、文学宗教等各个领域。在整个翻译界，德国马丁·路德的《圣经》德译本是该时期最负盛名的译本，其影响不论是在德国乃至整个欧洲都是独一无二且源远流长的。改革开放以来，中国日益走进世界舞台中央，承载着中华文化精髓的文学作品成为了中国连接世界的重要桥梁。纵然机器翻译兴起，但绝不能替代人工翻译在文学翻译领域的绝对性地位。路德的翻译思想对西方翻译理论的发展产生了重要影响，那么其翻译思想和理论原则与中国当代文化及文学作品又能擦出什么样的火花呢？本文将通过对文艺复兴时期的主要翻译活动进行简评，再对比路德与鲁迅的翻译思想，接着将路德的翻译细则运用到实际的翻译实践中，最后得出一些思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴；路德；文学作品；翻译原则；影响；<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The Protestant Reformation Movement in Germany in the 16th century ushered in a new era of translation and dissemination of Bible. Under the protection of Protestantism, Martin Luther devoted himself to the German translation of the Bible. By the time of 1544 Luther’s death, 430 versions of his Bible translation had been published. In order to make common people more directly understand the meaning of the Bible, Martin Luther translated it in national language. He insisted on his translation thought and fought against the church power and his opponents. He made unremitting efforts in the great project of the Bible translation, which promoted the unification of German language and created a graceful literary language.His translation thoughts are still of great significance to the current translation theory and practice.&quot;First of all, from a historical point of view, translation has two main functions in promoting the birth and development of national culture and the transformation of national culture into world culture: one is to promote cultural exchange; the other is to disseminate ideas.&quot;（Tan Zaixi，2004：10）<br /> <br /> Since the beginning of reform and opening-up, China has gradually stepped onto the world arena. China persists in its cultural development geared to the needs of the world and actively promotes cultural development to the world. Literary works bear the essence of Chinese culture, whose export is an crucial way to spread Chinese culture to the world. Over the years, despite the rise of machine translation, which has a certain practical role, it can not replace the overwhelming role of manual translation in literary translation. So what significance does Luther’s translation thoughts and principles have in guiding modern translation theory and practice, especially in the field of literary translation?<br /> <br /> ===2.Brief comments on translation thoughts in the period of Renaissance===<br /> <br /> Translations must respect the original text and combine content and form, free translation and literal translation in the translation process. &quot;In the high tide of translation in 16th century France, there were two outstanding contributors, one is Amyot, the King of Translation, and the other is Dolet, the translation theorist.&quot; Amyot believed that the translator must understand the original text thoroughly, and that the translator's task was not only to restore the author's meaning, but also to imitate and reflect the author's style and mood to some extent. He also emphasized the unity of content and form, and of free translation and literal translation; in France, the important figure in translation theory is Dolet. He believed that translators should avoid word-for-word translation because it was detrimental to the conveyance of the original meaning and to the beauty of the language. As we can see, Dolet's translation ideas were quite modern and involved the basic principles and problems of translation commonly raised by later European translation theorists. Holland of England was the most outstanding English translator in the 16th century and was regarded as the &quot;Chief Translator&quot; of the Elizabethan era, and he also advocated that the style of the original text must be reflected in the translation in order to make the translation authentic and without foreign accent. Thus, it can be seen that translators from various European countries actively explored new literary fields and brought new ideas to their own countries, inspiring the national consciousness and humanistic thoughts of their own people while trying to explore classical literature.<br /> <br /> Translation must convey new ideas on the basis of respecting the original work, that is, being innovative, and seek the style of translation.In his translation of ancient Greek and Roman masterpieces, Amyot put forward the idea of &quot;trying to be comparable to the original work&quot;, and blended the language of the people with the language of scholars, forming a unique style of translation. Thus, some people commented that Amyot adopted the creative meaning; Dolet advocated that translators should not do translations word by word, but must choose the words and adjust the word order as well as use various rhetorical devices to make the style of translation consistent with that of the original text, giving readers a &quot;feeling of beauty&quot;. The English translator North, who had little knowledge of the classical language and whose translations were not translated from the original text of Greek, was able to bring the translation style into full play. The prose style used in his translation of Biography of a Celebrity was new and elegant, which has become an immortal model in the history of English translation. There was another famous English translator, Florio, whose translation of The Tempest was the first to show English readers that prose could exist as a literary genre. From this, we can see that translators not only respected the cultural works of the classical period, but also gave full play to their own initiative in the translation process and injected humanistic thoughts and spirits into their translations during the Renaissance. Liu Junping said: &quot;In the past years, translators were servants attached to God, but now they have shifted from God to the translator as the center, and their personal developments have become the goal and value of life. &quot;（liu Junping,2009:76）<br /> <br /> Translators focus on the practical spirit of translation.Emphasizing the needs of translations to serve reality, Holland compared his translations to the fruits of conquest and once asked Queen Elizabeth to protect his translations with the hope that his translations would benefit the country. &quot;The translators, with the idea of serving their country, introduced the wisdom of the ancients to their own people through their translations, providing not only serious lessons for the Queen and the statesmen, but also story plots and materials for the dramatists and readers.&quot; This word profoundly reflects the dialectical relationship among culture, politics,and economy in Marxism: a certain culture is determined by certain economy and politics, and culture，in turn，acts on politics and economy with great influence on politics and economy. The above-mentioned translation ideas indicate the practicality and practical spirit of the practice of translation culture, which originated from the specific social and cultural contexts of the time. Under the guidance of these translation ideas, the translation culture and cultural practice of translators promoted the political and economic development, and laid the ideological foundation for the political and cultural needs of Western European countries.<br /> <br /> In the practice of translation, translation of all national languages achieved parallel and independent development when Latin gradually receded into a tributary.<br /> During the Renaissance, national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and linguists recognized the unique style and expressive ability of their own languages, and began to shift the emphasis of translation from the original language to the translated language. Finally, Latin was no longer prevalent. These phenomenon were especially prominent in Germany. Under the pressure of the national language and the Reformation, the German translator Luther adopted the language of the people to translate the great work of the Bible, that is, to translate the original text into the authentic German one. Luther's German translation of the Bible not only had a profound influence on German life and religion, but also created a literary language form accepted by the German people, which played an immeasurable role in the development of the unified German language and shook the absolute and unshakable position of Latin in the European language system.<br /> <br /> ===3.Comparison Between Luther’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Thoughts===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction to Luther and Lu Xun====<br /> <br /> Lu Xun was the greatest literary scholar, thinker and revolutionary of modern China, an important participant in the New Culture Movement, who was regarded as &quot;the writer who occupied the largest territory on the cultural map of East Asia in the twentieth century&quot;. Lu Xun also had outstanding achievements in translation, and made a series of superb remarks on translation issues, which had great influence on the whole translation circle at that time and established a monument in the history of Chinese translation theory.<br /> <br /> Martin Luther was a German religious reformer and translator in the 16th century. In his translations, Luther followed the principles of being popular, clear, and acceptable to the public. His translation of the Bible is known as the &quot;first Bible of the common people”and enjoyed the highest reputation in the entire translation community. Luther was a leader in the Reformation movement in the 16th century in Europe, so his translation had a significant impact on Germany and Europe as a whole.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Different Translation Thoughts====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Lu Xun's &quot;Foreignization&quot;=====<br /> <br /> Lu Xun lived in the period of the May Fourth New Culture Movement，whose translation thoughts and activities were closely connected with his political life. In the period of transition between the old culture and the new one, literary translation was also at its climax. In this regard, Lu Xun put forward the translation concept of &quot;Foreignization&quot; , which preserved the &quot;exoticism&quot;. Moreover,he insisted that the translation should be consistent with the original text as much as possible and put fidelity in the first place and fluency in the second, and exchanged unfluent translation for fidelity. He believed that the translation method of &quot;Foreignization&quot; could introduce foreign sentences to enrich Chinese language and culture. Lu Xun said bluntly, &quot;Like carrying arms for the uprising slaves, translation is directly aimd at servicing the revolution.&quot;（Chen Fukang,2000;286）<br /> With regard to his translation concept of &quot;Foreignization&quot;, he had such remarks :<br /> <br /> “还是翻译《死灵魂》的事情。……动笔之前，就先得解决一个问题:竭力使它归化，还是尽量保存洋气昵?日本文的译者上田进君，是主张用前一法的。……所以他的疑问，有时就化一句为数句，很近于解释。我的意见却两样的。只求易懂，小如创作，或者改作，将事改为中国事，人也化为中国人。如果还是翻译，那么，首先的目的，就在博览外国的作品，小但移情，也要益智，至少是知道何地何时，有这等事，和旅行外国，是很相像的:它必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也小会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌介神离，从严辨别起来，它算小得翻译。……(Lu Xun,1935:4th Volume)<br /> <br /> From this, we can see that Lu Xun engaged in translation work with the aim to &quot;conveying feelings&quot; and &quot;improving education&quot;, and his translations could facilitate readers to experience foreign customs, history, language and culture, as well as advanced ideology. Lu Xun would enrich these at a deeper level, so as to subvert the outlook on life and values of the whole society at that time and to inspire and educate the young generation to achieve the purpose of saving the country, thus promoting the revolutionary cause.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Luther's &quot;Domesticization&quot;=====<br /> <br /> In the context of the Reformation, Martin Luther embarked on the translation of the Bible. As the leader of the German Reformation movement, he could only ensure the eventual victory of the Reformation cause by quickly establishing and growing the Protestantism . Under the pressure of the Reformation and the national language, Luther had to translate the Bible in a way that served a specific audience, not priests and pastors, but the common people. It required that Luther had to do translations in people’s language and that &quot; Translation had to adopt authentic German instead of Latinized German.&quot;<br /> In the A Short History of Translation in the West, Tan zaixi made summary about Luther's translation thoughts：(Tan Zaixi,2004:64-67)<br /> <br /> &quot;Translation must employ the vernacular language; translation must pay attention to the connection between grammar and meaning; translation must follow seven principles (translators can change the word order of the original text; one can make reasonable use of intonation auxiliaries; translators can add necessary conjunctions; translator may omit word in the original that was not equivalent word in the target language;translator may use phrase to translate a single word;translator may translate metaphorical usage into non-metaphorical usage and vice versa; translator should pay attention to variation from usage and accurate explanation of a word (Wen Jun, 2004:39);Translation must be a brainstorming exercise.&quot;<br /> <br /> Luther insisted on these principles in order to translate the Bible from the reader's point of view on the basis of a grasp of the original meaning and to achieve the greatest possible approximation to the reader's level for the purpose of &quot;naturalization. Generally speaking, Luther advocated translation based on a grasp of the meaning of the sentence. When the original meaning of a sentence could not be well expressed in words, Luther used illustrations to represent it. Luther's German translation of the Bible enabled the common people of Germany to directly quote from the Bible to defend their own class interests, which played an invaluable role in the unification and development of the German language.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Lu Xun's translation principle of &quot;Foreignization&quot;, which preserved &quot;exoticism&quot;, satisfied Chinese readers' curiosity and appreciation of foreign culture and made them experience exoticism, which, to a certain, awakened the thought of common thoughts and stimulated the patriotic consciousness and revolutionary enthusiasm of some youth groups. That was the aim and purpose of Lu Xun's translations, and was also what that volatile age longed for.<br /> <br /> Luther's “Domesticization” thought was based on his recognition that the German people began to value their own national language as a counter to the Church's forced use of Latin. Luther translated the Bible in the language of common people, so that readers who knew neither Hebrew, Greek, nor Latin and had a low level of literacy could understand the Bible in German.<br /> <br /> Translation thoughts between Luther and Lu Xun are rather different, but their translations equally made profound implications and were recognized by the two peoples of their respective countries. Moreover, their audience were both the common people, and they took into full consideration the receptiveness of their readers in the process of translation. Therefore, the dichotomy in translation is only relative, and finitude and infinitude are dialectically unified.<br /> <br /> ===4.The Application of Luther's Translation Principles and Thoughts for Modern Literary Translation Practice===<br /> <br /> Engels praised Luther:&quot;Luther not only cleared the church's Ogias, but also cleared the German language of the Ogis, created modern German prose, and wrote the words and songs of the hymns of the Marseilles with victory and confidence into the 16th century.&quot; (Tan Zaixi，2004:64）In his translation of the Bible, Luther came up with systematic translation thoughts and principles, followed the principles of being popular, clear and acceptable to the public, and created modern German prose. Thus, his translation thoughts and principles have certain significance for us to translate literary works whose language style is “grounded”.<br /> <br /> '''Example one '''<br /> <br /> “You can translate metaphor usage into non-metaphorical usage.”<br /> <br /> “The translator can change the word order of the original text”<br /> <br /> “严闭的心幕，慢慢的拉开了，涌出五年前的一个印象。” （《笑》—— 冰心）<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the original text, the translator finds that this sentence uses metaphor,because the action of &quot;拉开&quot; can only be issued by human beings, and the &quot;心幕&quot; is not a physical object which cannot be &quot;pulled open&quot;. In the process of translation, we find that the action of &quot;拉开&quot; does not have a subject, and the predicate-object pairing of &quot;拉开&quot; and &quot;心幕&quot; is unreasonable, not to mention translated into the passive voice. Therefore, it is not feasible to translate the metaphor usage. The translator chooses to omit this metaphor and the verb &quot;拉开&quot;, which is in line with Luther's sixth principle of translation. The translator finds that the emphasis of the original text is on the second half of the sentence, so we changes the order of the whole sentence and choose&quot;涌出&quot; as the predicate and translated it into the intransitive verb &quot;unveil&quot;. Naturally, the phrase &quot;五年前的一个印象&quot; becomes the subject. scene of five years ago&quot;, and the word &quot;before&quot; was used to show the relationship between “印象” and “心幕”. It is in line with language habit of English, that is, to express the main content clearly and put it in the important position as an important component. Here comes the translation &quot;A scene of five years ago slowly unveiled before my mind's eye.&quot; It is consistent with the first principle of Luther's translation. If translated according to the original word order, it would be translated to &quot;The tight mind's eye was opened slowly, and a scene of five years ago slowly unveiled.”Although its meaning is complete, the sentence structure is incoherent and the relationship between the &quot;心幕&quot; and the &quot;印象&quot; is not highlighted. As a translator, we need to read the original text carefully and then relate it to the context in order to get close to the original style and to achieve the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot;, meanwhile, we should take into account the reading feelings of the audience.<br /> <br /> '''Example Two'''<br /> <br /> “The necessary conjunctions can be added.”<br /> <br /> “作为一个中国人，经书不可不读。我年过三十才知道读书自修的重要。” （《时间即生命》—— 梁实秋）<br /> <br /> After reading the original text, we find that the original text is composed of two sentences. If we do not read it carefully, we will not grasp the key point, that is, the relationship between the two sentences: transition. The translation is“The reading of Chinese classics is a must for all chinese. But it was not until I was over 30 that I came to realize the importance of self-study.”We all know that Chinese sentences are short with more punctuation marks, and that Chinese is a formative language with few conjunctions between sentences. Therefore, when doing translation, translators should carefully search for the hidden logical relationship between sentences and fit the language habits of the readers in order to accurately convey the ideas that the author wants to convey and to arouse the emotional resonance between the author and the readers. During the Renaissance, Luther found the characteristics of the readers, German citizens, and grasped their aesthetics. Then he made certain degree of stylistic shaping with the Bible as a benchmark and focused on integrating the spirit of humanism into the translation.<br /> <br /> '''Example Three'''<br /> <br /> The translator can use a phrase to translate a single word.”<br /> <br /> “不过，花草自己会奋斗，我若置之不理，任其自生自灭，它们多数还是会死了的。” （《养花》——老舍）<br /> <br /> Translator find that the original text is inclined to be colloquial and its literal meaning is easy to understand. But for the readers, if they only saw the literal meaning, the central idea of the original text would be not well conveyed,leading to their losing interest in reading the work, then the translator was not much of doing a good translation job. In the original text, the word &quot;奋斗&quot; may be a confusing point for readers, they may wonder how flowers and plants could struggle? When it comes to &quot;奋斗&quot;, the first word that comes to the translator's mind may be &quot;struggle&quot;, &quot;fight&quot;, and &quot;strive&quot;, one of which most translators would choose if they wouldn’t look deeper into the original text and take into account the characteristics and writing style of the original text. The theme of the original text is &quot;raising flowers&quot;, which tells the story of the author and his inner feelings in the process of raising flowers. We should relate to the reality that the &quot;奋斗&quot; of flowers and plants is to resist the wind, rain and sun. Therefore, a good translator will choose to enrich the word &quot;struggle&quot; by using such phrases as &quot;weather through&quot;, &quot;carry on the struggle for existence&quot; to express the real experience of plants and flowers. It is in line with Luther's fifth principle. In translation, the translator should pay attention to the language habits of the readers, because different people of various countries will have rather different interpretations of the same literary work. Although the literal meaning of modern Chinese literature is easy to understand, the literary ideas are between the lines. If the translation does not convey the meaning of the original text properly, readers will not feel the meaning conveyed by the author. This is just as Luther took into account when he translated the Bible, he would create a literary form of language acceptable to the German citizens according to their language habits.<br /> <br /> '''Example Four'''<br /> <br /> “Translation must be a brainstorming exercise”<br /> <br /> In addition to translation principles, Luther also placed great importance on team cooperation. Luther believed that doing a translation on one's own was not enough, especially for a masterpiece like the Bible.As Luther said, &quot;One cannot go it alone in the matter of translation, for the correct and proper translation words won’t always occur to the only him.&quot;（zecher, 1993:12-13) Thus, Luther's later revisions of his New Testament, as well as his translations of the Old Testament and the Apocrypha, were done with the assistance of the Collegium biblicum, an academic translation committee.<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, the professor who teaching me the course Introduction to Translation Studies, also worked with a team in the translation of the great work, Dream of the Red Chamber. It is the first complete German translation of Dream of the Red Chamber. In 2000, Professor Wu set up a workshop consisting of 57 translators, and this team was so strong that the average annual translation volume increases considerably. According to Martina Ulrike Hasse, only 11 new works by Chinese authors were published in Germany in 2011. In recent years, thanks to the efforts of the team, the number of Chinese literature translated into German has increased to 17 per year, which has greatly contributed to the translation and dissemination of Chinese literature in the German-speaking world.<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> In conclusion, the Renaissance saw the independent and parallel development of national languages and the promotion of social changes, thanks largely to the extensive literary translation activities undertaken by key advocates, especially Martin Luther's German translation of the Bible, which ushered in a new era in the development of the German language. Luther's translation principles and thoughts were so influential due to the great success of his German translation of the Bible . When Wlliam Tyndale in England and Reina and Valera in Spain later translated the Bible into English and Spanish respectively, they both referred to and partially adopted the translation principles and thoughts proposed by Luther.<br /> After carefully reading Tan Zaixi's A Short History of Translation in the West and Chen Fukang's A History of Translation Theory In China, the author has gained a better understanding of Luther's and Lu Xun's translation thoughts and principles, and has gained two insights: first, even though their countries, political environments,translation thoughts are rather different, the nature of translation determines that there must be certain similarities in their translation thoughts; second, even though the age between Luther and the author is so long, his translation thoughts and principles still have implications for the author and other translation learners of her time.<br /> <br /> As an interdisciplinary student, the author lacked a systematic understanding of many translation thoughts and principles at the beginning of this term. After studying in this semester and reading related professional books,the author have benefited a lot and formed her own translation habits and thinking implicitly, and she hopes to improve her translation quality by practicing a lot more.<br /> <br /> ===6.References===<br /> <br /> [1]谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M].北京:商务印书馆,2004.<br /> <br /> [2]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史[M]．武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> <br /> [3]陈福康，《中国译学理论史稿》，上海:上海外语教育出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> [4]鲁迅.且介亭杂文二集.“题未定”草(二、三),《鲁迅全集》,第六卷;二心集.“硬译”与“文学的阶级性,《鲁迅全集》.第四卷.1935.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M].北京:商务印书馆,2004.<br /> <br /> [6] Eric. W.Gritsch.Luther as Bible translator [J] in Donald K. Mckim ed., The Cambridge Companion of Martin Luther (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2003),62-63.<br /> <br /> ==Study on Interpreter's Memory and Translation Memory in Interpreting 康浩宇 Kang Haoyu 202070080638==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康浩宇 Kang Haoyu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In interpreting, the translator's memory plays an important role, and the level of memory even determines the quality of interpreting and affects the interpretation results. Memory cognitive ability is one of the comprehensive qualities of interpreters. The exertion of journalists' memory ability is closely related to memory principles, types and mechanisms. With the development of science and technology, translation memory, as a new type of &quot;memory&quot;, appears in front of the public and is widely used in translation field. In the field of interpretation, some interpreters are also doing interpreting with the help of such tools. This paper aims to explore the translator's memory ability and the application of translation memory in the interpretation industry from the principle of memory.<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Memory; Translation Memory; Interpreting<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 在口译中，译者的记忆里发挥着举足轻重的作用，记忆水平的高低甚至决定了口译质量的好坏，影响口译结果。记忆认知能力是口译员的综合素质能力之一。记者记忆能力的发挥与提升和记忆原理，类型，机制等因素息息相关。 随着科学技术的发展，翻译记忆作为一种新型的“记忆”出现在大众面前并在翻译领域广泛使用。 而在口译领域，一些译员也在通过这类工具来协作口译。本文旨在从记忆的原理出发探究译者记忆能力以及翻译记忆在口译行业的运用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 记忆； 翻译记忆； 口译<br /> <br /> ===1 Introduction===<br /> <br /> '''1.1 Background'''<br /> <br /> Memory plays an important role in interpreting and it is a kind of interpreting competence. The information processing in interpreting is complicated. When the information is input, interpreter first recognize and keep the information, which will then be analyzed, encoded, stored and retrieved. And the interpreter finally decode the information into target language.Because of the fast input of information and limited time for pausing, great memory is required for interpreters. Whether a good or poor memory has a direct effect on the quality of interpreting(Wang Jianhua, 2019）. <br /> With the development of science and technology, machine translation and computer aided translation, which is also called CAT, was invented as two effective and efficient ways for translation. In CAT, there is a concept called translation memory. Different from human beings’ memory, translation memory is more likely a database. Nowadays, translation memory of CAT has been put into wide use in translation. And in recent years, translation memory has also been applied as a tool in interpreting. As the technology is not yet mature, there are still some limitation and weakness(Su Mingyang, 2007, 73).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Significance of the Study'''<br /> <br /> There are some studies on the memory of interpreters. But most of them focus on its practical aspects such as how to improve interpreters’ memory or how to make the best of memory in interpreting, instead of substantial facts. The nature of memory and mechanism of memory is also worthy to be studied, so readers can have better understanding and cognition of what is memory and how it works. Therefore, readers can better address our problems in memory of interpreting. The study will fully analyze memory from the aspect of psychology and science. And then it will study on memory of interpreting in details including systems, mechanism, coding and theories(Li Jun, 2020, 127). <br /> <br /> Translation memory is quite a novel topic as it belongs to a sort of science and technology. As the world stepped into information era, digital era and even Artificial Intelligence era, translation memory has been used more widely than ever before. It really facilitates the translators as it both saves a lot of time and greatly improved the translation efficiency. However, there are few studies on the translation memory application in interpreting field. Actually, in many situations, interpreters also uses this kind of technology to help their interpreting. They study will research on the fact of translation memory in interpreting(Li Jun, 2020, 127).<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Structure of the Study'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be developed in five chapters. <br /> Chapter 1, the introduction part, is initiated by introducing the background, research problems, and significance of the study.<br /> Chapter 2 is functioned to define and categorize the memory.<br /> Chapter 3 will present the memory mechanism and related theories in interpreting.<br /> Chapter 4 will mainly focus on the translation memory technology at present and its application in interpreting.<br /> The concluding chapter generalizes the content of the study and put forward the limitations.<br /> <br /> ===2 Study on Memory===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 The definition of the Memory'''<br /> <br /> Memory has different definitions in different fields. Generally speaking, human memory is a reflection of what the brain has experienced. From the perspective of psychology, memory is the recognition, maintenance, reappearance of experienced things by the human brain, and it is the basis of advanced psychological activities such as thinking and imagination. It is the retention and extraction of past experience by human brain. It is a psychological process in which individual experience is accumulated and preserved in the mind. All things that have been perceived can be kept in people's minds, and can be reproduced when necessary. This refers to the process in which the human brain encodes, stores and extracts meaningful information input from the outside world. From the perspective of neurology, human memory is closely related to the changes of chemical composition in hippocampus and brain. All memory that exists in the brain depends on various nerve cells of the brain, which are called neurons. According to information processing theory, memory process is the process of encoding, storing and extracting input information. Only coded information can be remembered. Coding is the process of processing and transforming the input information, and coding is the key stage of the whole memory process(Che Wenbo, 1987, 403).<br /> <br /> '''2.2. Memory Systems'''<br /> <br /> Based on the structure, memory can be categorized into three systems. There are sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. The later two systems are also often referred as STM and LTM. The three memory systems are different from each other but closely related(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1 Sensory Memory'''<br /> <br /> As the shortest memory system, sensory memory is the first channel for human brain to get the information. It has some capacity. According the research in Cognitive Psychology(Wang Su, Wang Ansheng, 1992), People’s visual sensory capacity is more than 9 chunk while their auditory sensory memory capacity has less capacity, which is about chunk. chunk here are memory units, and the size of chunk varies with people's knowledge and experience. A chunk can be a word, a number, a phrase, a sentence, a word list, etc. Sensory memory works as temporary storage for sensory information. It depends on the physical nature of external stimulus to code the information and it is the real copy and transcription of the external stimulus. Most sensory memory can stay for one to two seconds and then disappear. Only with more attention and focus can the sensory memory be processed and then become short term memory(Bao Gang, 2005). People’s visual sensory memory can just keep for less than one second while their auditory sensory memory can keep for 4 seconds. It is inevitable that information will lose with the disappearance of sensory memory(Bao Gang, 2005, 150). <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2 Short Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Short term memory is the second memory system. Short term memory is based on the neuron network in hippocampus. It keeps the information that has been selected in the hippocampus of human brain. In some cases, part of information will move from the short memory in hippocampus to long term memory in cerebral cortex. In psychology, short term memory can keep for about one minute with the capacity of about 7 chunks. That means that people can memorize seven unrelated numbers or phonemes for about one minute with their short term memory. However, the capacity of short term memory is not decided by the amount of stimulus but by the modes of chunk and coding. Chunks can effectively expand the capacity of short-term memory. When processing information, people can use the knowledge and experience stored in long-term memory to combine several single stimuli into larger information units, which can effectively expand and increase short-term memory span and improve memory efficiency. Moreover, the coding of short-term memory is mainly auditory coding, and there are also visual coding and semantic coding. Instead of chunk and information unit, people can also use retelling to transfer short term memory to long term memory. Retelling refers to the psychological operation process of repeating the materials just memorized by language to consolidate memory. In the case of retelling, the learning materials kept in short-term memory will transfer to long-term memory. The content of short-term memory can be transformed into long-term memory by retelling(Bao Gang, 2005, 150). <br /> <br /> There is a special type of short term memory, working memory. The concept working memory was first proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. It is used to describe the process of a person temporarily memorizing the fact and thoughts when addressing problems or working(Baddeley, 2006, 22). In spite of limited resources and storage time, working memory is still different from short term memory in temporary storage of information(Hitch, 2012, 266). Compared with short term memory which store information passively, the working memory process is more dynamic. Generally speaking, there are three differences. First, working memory emphasizes storing and processing information at the same time, while short-term memory only focuses on information storage. Secondly, working memory is a multi-factor system, while short-term memory is a single system. Third, working memory is more important than short-term memory for many advanced brain functions and even almost all human cognitive work(Wang Jianhua, 2019， 76). The disappear of short term memory is often due to the interruption.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3 Long Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Different from short term memory, long term memory is stored in human’s cerebral cortex where there is more room for storage. Long term memory is very important in keeping information for long time. It can keep information for more than one minute and even for a whole life. Its capacity is unlimited. All the information kept by long term memory has been selected and filtered.According to Tulving, long term memory is stored mainly as two types(Tulving, 1974). They are episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory is about one’s experience of some specific situations. Semantic memory refers to knowledge such as words, concepts, rules and other abstract things.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Memory Mechanism'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, the process of memory includes three key steps. They are memorizing, keeping and recalling. In interpreting, memorizing is related to interpreters’ listening and understanding to what the speaker says, keeping is related to the storage of original information and recalling refers to the output of interpreting(Tulving, 1972, 36).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 Memorizing'''<br /> <br /> Memorizing refers to the process of distinguishing and recognizing the characteristics of things and leaving a certain impression in the mind. Some things can be remembered after one perception, while most of the contents need to be perceived repeatedly, so that the new information can be connected with the existing knowledge structure. As the first step in the memory process, memorization has a very important influence on the memory effect. Therefore, understanding and mastering the rules of memorization will help improve memory(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997, 23).<br /> <br /> According to whether memorization has a purpose or not, memorization can be divided into unconscious memorization and conscious memorization(Ma Zhengyu, 2013, 26).<br /> Unconscious memorization refers to memorization that happens naturally without a predetermined purpose and without a certain effort of will. When they are perceived, there is no intention to memorize them, but these contents can reappear in people’s mind in the future naturally. And this is unconscious memorization. The content of unconscious memorization is an important part of experience, and it has great effect on people’s psychological activities and behaviors. Inadvertent experience can do as much help as existing experiences when people consciously face certain situations and deal with certain problems. In daily life, the environment, contact and work will influence people unconsciously in psychology and behavior. Generally speaking, there are two characteristics of unconscious memorization. First, the stimulation acts on people's sensory organs which is of great significance and attracts people's attention. For example, people will never forget new and different things; Second, it is in people's needs, interests and content so that it can produce deeper emotional experience. Unconsciousness plays a positive role in people's acquisition of knowledge and experience(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004, 173).<br /> <br /> Conscious memorization refers to memorizing with a predetermined purpose, which requires a certain amount of will and effort in the process of memorizing. The process of conscious memorization is controlled by the purpose of memorization. The purpose of memorization determines that memorizing process is an active coding process for memorizing content. This coding includes &quot;what to remember&quot; and &quot;how to remember&quot;. &quot;What to memorize&quot; determines the direction and content of memorization, and &quot;how to memorize&quot; is the method to better memorize the content. All people's knowledge and experience are acquired through conscious memorization and unconscious memorization. However, in terms of memorizing effect, conscious memorizing is better than unconscious memorizing(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004, 173).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 Keeping'''<br /> <br /> Keeping refers to the process of remaining and consolidating the memorized materials in brain. It is the process of information storage. Keeping is the middle step which is between memorizing and recalling and it is closely related the quality and effect of recalling(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).<br /> <br /> The effect of keeping is related to whether the materials to be memorized are vivid or not. When brains memorize verbal materials, if the materials are vivid, they can leave a deep impression on people, while the materials with empty contents are easy to be forgotten quickly. Many psychological experiments have also proved the important role of the &quot;image&quot; in the memory of human brain. The memory effect of image materials is generally better than that of words materials, and similarly, the effect of visual memory is generally better than that of auditory memory. This suggests that if interpreters make full use of the image carrier of the source language in interpreting memory, it is possible to improve their information storage of the source language(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).<br /> <br /> Keeping is a dynamic process during which the amount and nature of the stored information could be changed. In the aspect of amount change, the amount of stored information will decrease with time. In other words, this is forgetting. Forgetting is a very natural phenomenon that experienced by every person. Although forgetting is a complex psychological phenomenon, its occurrence and development have certain rules. Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, was the first to do this research. He used meaningless syllables as experimental materials and himself as experimental object. After memorizing the materials, he relearned them at regular intervals, and drew the forgetting curve with the time and times saved by heavy school as the index. Forgetting curve reflects the relationship between forgetting variables and time variables. This curve shows the rule of forgetting: the process of forgetting is unbalanced, and the amount of forgetting is relatively large in the initial period after memorization, and then gradually decreases. That is, the speed of forgetting is fast at first and then slow. After Ebbinghaus, many people have studied the forgetting process and confirmed that Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve is basically correct(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997, 26). <br /> <br /> Keeping is the process of consolidating what have been memorized in people's minds, and it is also the process of storing information. It is not a static and solidified process, but a process of reconstruction(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 Recalling'''<br /> <br /> The final step of memory is recalling. It is the process of retrieving the information that has been stored in people’s brain(Zhang Wei, 2011, 33). <br /> Recalling is the reappearance process of past experiences in the mind under the action of certain inducement. Memories can be divided into two categories: intentional memories and unintentional memories. Intentional recalling is the recalling of past experience under the action of intended purpose. Unintentional memories are memories that happen naturally without a predetermined purpose. Memories can be divided into direct recalling and indirect recalling according to whether there are intermediary factors involved in the recalling process. Direct recalling is the recollection of old experiences directly aroused by current things. Indirect recalling is a kind of recalling with the help of intermediary factors. In terms of difficulty, indirect recalling is more difficult than direct recalling(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 72).<br /> <br /> '''2.4 Primacy Effect and Recency effect'''<br /> <br /> Primacy effect and recency effect are two famous phenomena related to people’s memory. And both of them play a very important role in interpreting(Bao Gang, 2005, 166).<br /> <br /> '''2.4.1 Primacy Effect'''<br /> <br /> The concept “primacy effect” was first proposed by A. S. Lochins, an American psychologist. It refers to the fact that the first impression has a huge effect. Although the first impression may not always be right, but it is most vivid and solid. In primacy effect, information input plays a key role. Experimental psychology research shows that the order of external information input is important in determining the cognitive effect. The first input information plays the most important role, and the last input information also plays a great role. This feature of brain processing information is the internal cause of the primacy effect. When different information is combined, people always tend to attach importance to the former information. Even if people pay attention to the following information, they will think that the following information is non-essential and accidental. More importantly, even if the following information is inconsistent with the former information, people will succumb to the former information.<br /> <br /> '''2.4.2 Recency Effect'''<br /> <br /> Recency effect, also put forward by American psychologist Lochins, refers to the phenomenon that when people memorize a series of things, the memory effect of the last part is better than that of the middle part. The reason is that the previous information is gradually blurred in memory, while the recent information clearer in short-term memory. Recency effect is contrary to the primacy effect, and recency effect emphasizes that the last received information has the greatest effect. In people's perception, when the information obtained before and after is different, if there is irrelevant work in the middle to separate them, then the latter information plays a greater role in forming the total impression(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 81).<br /> <br /> Obviously, the primacy effect and recency effect are different, or even opposite. The primacy effect emphasizes the information received initially, while recency effect pays more attention to the information that comes into contact later. However, the primary effect and recency effect exist in our society and play their respective functions. Through a large number of experiments, it is found that the primacy effect and recency effect depend on people themselves. Generally speaking, people with relatively simple cognitive structure are prone to produce the primacy effect, while those with complex cognitive structure are prone to produce recency effect(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 82).<br /> <br /> Although the primacy effect and recency effect are different form each other, both of the effects are extremely beneficial to the memory of interpreters, and they can be used in different interpreting situations(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 82).<br /> <br /> ===3 Memory in Interpreting===<br /> <br /> In interpreting, time is very limited for interpreters to do the work and the information of original language is transient. Thus, interpreters are required ton have a good memory. The memory in interpreting is not mechanical. It refers to the processing and coding of original language, and then storage and retrieval of the coded information. The process of language understanding in translation is based on the information stored in memory such as pronunciation, grammar and speech structure(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Memory Mechanism in Interpreting'''<br /> <br /> When interpreters listen to what the speakers says, their brains are receiving stimulus. That means their brains begin to process these information. In interpreting, when the language area of the brain is stimulated, the interpreter will use the brain to process the existing related information by identifying, explaining, inferring and analyzing the pronunciation, and then stores the results in the form of internal speech, thus completing the information processing in a short time(Xu Han, 2007, 124).<br /> <br /> Only through sensory memory can people obtain external information. Therefore, in a broader sense, the initial stage of memory is sensory memory, not short-term memory. Once the recipient's cells are activated, the information is retained in the sensory storage. Attention should be paid to selecting certain information as pattern cognition, and changing it from sensory memory to short-term memory to obtain its meaning. Therefore, when interpreters listen to the content, they first store all the information in their sensory memory. Then their brain begins to identify which is the important information and pay more attention to it in order to store it in short term memory. For those unnecessary information, it will be forgotten naturally as sensory memory can just be kept for less than one second(Wang Jianhua, 2019,77).<br /> <br /> Short-term memory is the link between sensory memory and long-term memory. On the one hand, it directly accepts the information filtered by sensory memory; On the other hand, through a certain retrieval method, the relevant knowledge can be extracted from the long-term memory, and then combine the two to process and store the discourse information. Short-term memory plays a key role in connecting sensory memory and long-term memory, and functions as a central processing unit. When the information stored in sensory memory has been filtered by interpreters’ brain, then it is stored in short term memory. When interpreters start to interpret, they recall all those information that has been encoded in their short term memory and decode it into target languages. In most cases, these information become useless after the interpreting is finished, so it will soon be forgotten naturally by interpreters as short term memory also has a limitation of time. If there is some necessary and important information such as words or expression that could be useful in the future, interpreters can give it more attention and memorize it repeatedly to encode the information into long term memory(Han Xiaoming, 2004, 156).<br /> <br /> Long-term memory is like an knowledge base of experiences, and the stored information needs to be activated before it can be decoded into short-term memory to participate in the processing of new information. When the speech chain is released, the brain will quickly activate the long-term memory, extract the relevant knowledge stored before, and start the sensory memory and short-term memory to analyze and process the information , so as to fully understand the meaning carried by the speech, thus making the communication proceed effectively. Long-term memory is the basis of interpretation(Ma Yingmai, Sun Changyan, 2004, 78). In the whole process of interpretation, long-term memory has four functions. The first one is information confirmation. That is to identify information consistent with interpretation long-term memory. The second function is information understanding. If the new information to be processed is consistent with the existing old information in long-term memory, its meaning will be accepted. The third function is information anticipation. The activation of knowledge system will bring about the anticipation of future information. The last one is information expression. When the interpreters understands what the original text conveys, they must look for appropriate words or expressions in long-term memory to express their meanings in the target language(Wang Jianhua, 2019,77). Long-term memory, like a database, stores a large amount of information that can be extracted at any time. More importantly, it also has great influence on sensory memory and short-term memory. If there is no information in long-term memory, the receiver will not be able to recognize familiar stimuli, and short-term memory will not be able to encode and store information in chunks, so information will not be able to change from short-term memory to long-term memory. Therefore, long term memory plays a decisive role when interpreters store the content of original language(Bao Gang, 2005, 160).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Deverbalization Mode'''<br /> <br /> In the field of translation, as for the understanding of interpreting thinking process and interpreting memory mechanism, there are four different schools of translation theories, namely, information theory school, cognitive psychology school, neural network school and hermeneutic school. Among them, the most authoritative and influential interpretation theory is the &quot;Deverbalization Mode&quot; theory put forward by the French hermeneutics school(Liu Guiying, 2006, 117).<br /> <br /> &quot;Deverbalization Mode&quot; theory was proposed by the French hermeneutics school, which is represented by French interpreting theorist Seleskovitch. In a language, sense is the content while words and linguistic signs are the shell. In this mode, what the interpreter needs to do is “shell” the language by coding the information. That is to only keep the sense of the language in memory and remove all the other things(Seleskovitch, 1978). According to the theory, the whole process of interpreting is divided into three stages. They are listening, understanding and expressing respectively. Understanding is considered to be the most important part in the process of interpreting(Seleskovitch, Lederer 2003, 41). <br /> <br /> In interpreting, interpreters should first listen to and make clear these linguistic signs and find out the sense and content they express through analysis and understanding. Then the interpreters need to remove the “shell” of the language and forget the linguistic signs and their structure. Only the sense needs to be memorized. The final step for interpreters is to reconstruct the information of original language. They need to decode these sense with the linguistic signs of target language(Xu Ming, 2010, 6).<br /> <br /> Deverbalization is not just a coding process from original language to target language but also a dynamic process of understanding and expressing. The central idea is that the interpreters should memorize the pure sense of content instead of the language shells. And they then should process these information with the language shell of target language(Xu Han, 2007, 124).<br /> From the perspective of the theory, interpreters’ memory is not mechanical memory of isolated phonetic codes and information symbols of the source language, but the memory of the main meaning and key words of the source language information on the basis of understanding. Moreover, interpreters’ memory is not simply recalling of information stored in the brain, but a storage and extraction of input information after analyzing, screening, processing and coding. Interpreters must extract the relevant background knowledge stored in the brain by means of &quot;semantic retrieval&quot;, identify, interpret and reason the speech chain, then store the textual meaning in the form of internal speech, and complete the information restoration process in a short time(Xu Han, 2007, 124).<br /> <br /> '''3.3 Memory Strategies for Interpreters'''<br /> <br /> '''3.3.1 Logical Memory''' <br /> <br /> Logical memory means that when the interpreters receive new information, they can fully stimulate the existing schema in their mind according to the main content of the information, get rid of the limitations of the source language, better remember the newly acquired information, and truly achieve the combination of &quot;recalling&quot; and &quot;interpreting&quot;. In interpreting, interpreters use discourse knowledge to logically sort out the internal relations of the source language content and list the framework. In this process, the interpreters’ notes should mainly include the logical relationship between key words and information, and what the interpreters memorize in his brain is the main meaning and connection of the source material, rather than isolated phrases and sentences. In the interpreting stage, the interpreter uses the newly acquired information to activate the related schema in the brain to summarize and edit, so that the known information can reduce the memory burden. This memory method is suitable for interpreting materials with organized contents and clear priorities(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).<br /> <br /> '''3.3.2 Visual Memory'''<br /> <br /> Visual memory refers to a method in which an interpreter can quickly visualize the source language content in his mind, combine the existing background knowledge schema, and use the imagery thinking established in his brain to remember when he or she hears the interpretation content. Visual information storage tends to be more complete, and its retention time is relatively long. If images can be formed in the brain, it will definitely reduce the memory burden and produce better translations. Using visual memory of information in descriptive or introductory interpreting materials will produce very good results(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).<br /> <br /> For examples, the following is part of President Xi’s, state leader of People’s Republic of China, speech at the 12th BRICS Summit.<br /> <br /> “同时，我们坚信，和平与发展的时代主题没有改变，世界多极化和经济全球化的时代潮流也不可能逆转。我们要为人民福祉着想，秉持人类命运共同体理念，用实际行动为建设美好世界作出应有贡献。”(Xi jinPing, 2020)<br /> <br /> The official translation is given as fallowed from XinHua News Agency.<br /> <br /> “Despite all this, we remain convinced that the theme of our times, peace and development, has not changed, and that the trend toward multi-polarity and economic globalization cannot be turned around. We must keep people’ s welfare close to heart and pursue the vision of a community with a shared future for mankind. Through concrete actions, we will contribute our share to making the world a better place for everyone.”<br /> <br /> From president Xi’s speech, he mentioned the theme of times, world and peace, multi-polarity and economic globalization, people’s well being. Thus interpreters can use visual memory here to imagine peace as a peace bird, globalization as a the picture of earth and people’s well being as a picture of a happy family(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).<br /> <br /> '''3.3.3 Chunk Memory'''<br /> <br /> In the process of memory, individual information is often grouped into larger units, that is, recombined or recoded, which is called chunks. Although people's short-term memory capacity is only about 7 chunks, the information storage capacity of each chunk can be extended to a certain extent. People can reorganize the information of short-term memory by using the related schema in their minds, and form familiar larger meaning units. Therefore, in interpreting memory training, the translator should actively use the schema in his mind to make information memorized in chunks efficiently. Interpreters should reconstruct the information they hear, get rid of the language form of the original text, and transform it into meaningful information chunks. With the help of schema theory and interpretive theory, several single sentences can be condensed into several meaningful information chunks, thus reducing the memory pressure in interpretation and greatly improving the interpretation effect. Materials with poor logic and consistency are more suitable for this memory method(Miller, 1956, 63).<br /> <br /> There is also a part from President Xi’s speech at the 12th BRICS Summit as followed.<br /> <br /> “环顾全球，疫情使各国人民生命安全和身体健康遭受巨大威胁，全球公共卫生体系面临严峻考验，人类社会正在经历百年来最严重的传染病大流行。国际贸易和投资急剧萎缩，人员、货物流动严重受阻，不稳定不确定因素层出不穷，世界经济正在经历上世纪30年代大萧条以来最严重的衰退。单边主义、保护主义、霸凌行径愈演愈烈，治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字有增无减。”(Xi jinPing, 2020)<br /> <br /> And the official translation is given as followed. <br /> <br /> “Around the world, COVID-19 is posing a grave threat to people’s life and well-being. The global public health system is facing a severe test. Human society is going through the most serious pandemic in the past century. International trade and investment have shrunk considerably. The flow of goods and personnel has been impeded. Factors for uncertainty and instability are numerous. The world economy is witnessing the worst recession since the Great Depression in the 1930s. Unilateralism, protectionism and acts of bullying are becoming rampant, and the deficit in governance, trust, development and peace is widening instead of narrowing.”<br /> <br /> In this part, president Xi mentioned many aspects. They are current situation, public heath, people’s health, economy and politics. Each aspect can function as a chunk. When interpreters hear these information, they can memorize these information in these chunks(Chen Weihong, 2014, 87).<br /> <br /> ===4 Translation Memory in Interpreting===<br /> <br /> '''4.1 Translation Memory'''<br /> <br /> With development of science and technology, translation technology become widely use in translation field such as computer aided translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translators. And translation memory is a tool used in computer aided translation(Shi Yuntao, 2000, 36).<br /> <br /> '''4.1.1 Definition'''<br /> <br /> Translation memory is also called TM. It is different from the psychological memory that has been well elaborated. It is a kind of database to aid the translation. The principle of Translation Memory (TM) technology is that users build one or more translation memories by using existing original texts and translations. In the process of translation, the system will automatically search the same or similar translation resources such as sentences and paragraphs in the translation memories, and give reference translations, so that users can avoid unnecessary repetitive work and only focus on the translation of new content. At the same time, the translation memory keeps learning and automatically storing new translations in the background, which becomes more and more &quot;smart&quot; and more efficient(Lv Lisong, Mu Lei, 2007,36).<br /> <br /> '''4.1.2 Mechanism'''<br /> <br /> The translator first provides a source text to the translation memory, and the program will analyze this text first, and try to find out whether the existing translation section is consistent with the translated text in the past in the database. If matching translation pairs are found, they will be presented to the translator for reference. Translators can choose to accept the old translation, reject it or modify it. If it is modified, the modified version will also be recorded and stored in the database(Wang Jinquan, 2004, 14).<br /> <br /> Some translation memory systems only search for 100% matching words, which means that only the new source that is accurately compared with the database and completely matching data will be presented. There are also other systems that use the fuzzy comparison principle to find similar segments, and present them to translators with special marks to make them easy to recognize. It is very important that the general translation memory system only searches the source language from its database. Text segments that have no match at all will have to be translated manually by the translator. These newly translated text segments will be stored in the database, and future translations may be adopted immediately because the source text appears repeatedly. Translation memory will work well when the repetition of articles is quite high, such as some technical documents or manuals. Translation memory is also very helpful for translating a situation where existing documents are gradually added and revised from the past. Generally speaking, translation memory will not be considered in literature or creative documents, mainly because these types of articles have low repeatability. However, some people think that these words with extremely low repeatability are still worth collecting, for example, they can be used in the search of concordance. Other help collected from translation memory can also be helpful in quality verification and proofreading. When the translation memory is continuously used on appropriate words for a period of time, it will save a lot of workload for translators.(Wang Jinquan, 2004, 14)<br /> <br /> '''4.2 Application of Translation Memory in Interpreting'''<br /> <br /> '''4.2.1 Current Situation '''<br /> <br /> Although most translation memory is used in the work of translation, it is also used in interpreting widely in recent years. Translation memory is also used in three stages of a interpreting(Li Jun, 2020, 127). <br /> <br /> The first stage is pre-interpreting period when interpreters make preparation for the interpreting. If there is script or some new terms and expressions, interpreters can first resort to machine translation to learn how to translate these content and then store these results in translation memory for future use(Li Jun, 2020, 128).<br /> <br /> The second stage is when the interpreters are doing the interpreting. There is a very important technology called voice recognition. The technology can recognize what the speakers said and transcribe it into words. One the one hand, these words can show as subtitles on the screen. Listeners can choose to watch the subtitles or listen to interpreters by themselves. Ont the other hand, these recognized words can also show to interpreters for them to refer to. Thus, it can reduce their stress and burden to some extend. And if the speakers said the terms or words that have been stored in translation memory, they can soon be translated into target languages. The voice recognition technology can transfer speech into words. And then translation plays its role to help interpreters do their interpreting as it saves interpreters a lot of time to remember these words(Li Jun, 2020, 128).<br /> <br /> The third stage is after the interpreting. Interpreters can have a review on their on interpreting by voice recognizing their record. If there is any new words that could appear again in the future, interpreters can store them in their own translation memory. If there are words that have benn stored in translation memory but needs modifying, interpreters can also upgrade them(Li Jun, 2020, 128).<br /> <br /> '''4.2.2 Limitations'''<br /> <br /> Although translation memory has been adapted in interpreting, its has still some limitations. There are mainly two aspects of limitation. They are translation memory and voice recognition.<br /> <br /> As for translation memory, the limitation is that what stored in translation memory are words and phrases. In most cases, people needs to translate a whole paragraph or text, so the cohesion is very important. Common translation memory uses a sentence as a Translation Unit or a Translation Segment, which makes it easy to translate multiple sentences separately and then combine them. And this makes the translation not as coherent as it’s required. Besides, translation memory is not compatible to all file formats such as words, the one most frequently used(Su Mingyang, 2007, 73).<br /> <br /> As for voice recognition, when there are more than one language in the speech, the effectiveness of the technology could be affected. Besides, it sometimes fails to recognize conditional adverbials and adverbial clause induced by words such as If, every and although is not good. The reason is that the clauses caused by these words can be placed before or after the main sentence, which makes it difficult to recognize and automatically add punctuation marks. Moreover, the results of recognition is greatly affected by the pronunciation and intonation of the speaker and the environment(Li Jun, 2020, 129).<br /> <br /> ===5 Conclusion===<br /> <br /> A good interpreter is required to have a good memory. It doesn’t only mean the ability to memorize many things but also knowing how to use different memory systems and modes of coding to optimize their memory. Moreover, with the development of technology, interpreters should also learn how to use these technology such as translation memory to help them do the interpreting. However, although translation memory is used in interpreting now, it is still not mature and needs to be improved. Interpreters can use these technology but not rely on it. They must rely on their own memory.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Baddeley, A. D. Working Memory : an Overview[A]. 2006.<br /> <br /> [2]Hitch, G.J. Working Memory[A]. 2012.<br /> <br /> [3]Miller, A. George. The Magic Number Seven Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information[J]. 1956. The Psychological Review, 63(2).<br /> <br /> [4]Seleskovitch, D. &amp; Lederer, M. Pédagogie Raisonnée de l , Interprétation (3 e édition) [M]. Paris: Didier Erudition, 2003.<br /> <br /> [5]Tulving, Organism of Memory[C], New York: Academic Press, 1972.<br /> <br /> [6]鲍刚, 翻译理论概述[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,2005.<br /> <br /> [7]车文博, 心理学原理[M]. 黑龙江：黑龙江人民出版社, 1986.<br /> <br /> [8]陈卫红. 论心理认知和口译记忆[J]. 外语教学理论与实践, 2014: 85-95.<br /> <br /> [9]韩小明. 从记忆机制看口译教学中记忆能力的培养[J]. 重庆工学院学报, 2004: 156-15.<br /> <br /> [10]李俊. 计算机翻译辅助技术在同传中的应用及对同传生态系统的影响[J]. 中国翻译, 2020(4): 127-132.<br /> <br /> [11]刘桂英. 口译的记忆心理学基础[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2006: 116-118.<br /> <br /> [12]刘颖, 苏巧玲. 医学心理学[M]. 北京：中国华侨出版社, 1997.<br /> <br /> [13]吕立松, 穆雷. 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[J]. 外语世界, 2007: 35-43.<br /> <br /> [14]马英迈, 孙长彦, 口译中的记忆与理解[J]. 宁夏大学学报, 2004: 78-79.<br /> <br /> [15]施韵涛. 全新翻译解决方案 ——翻译记忆[J]. 中国科技翻译, 2000.<br /> <br /> [16]苏明阳. 翻译记忆系统的现状及其启示[J]. 外语研究, 2007: 70-74.<br /> <br /> [17]王建华. 口译过程认知研究[M]. 北京：中国人民大学出版社, 2019.<br /> <br /> [18]王金铨. 翻译记忆 ( TM)—— 计算机翻译技术的新发展[J]. 现代图书情报技术, 2004: 13-16.<br /> <br /> [19]徐翰. 口译记忆认知与记忆策略探索[J]. 南昌大学学报(人文社会科学版), 2007: 124-126.<br /> <br /> [20]许明. 口译认知过程中“deverbalization”的认知诠释[J]. 译论研究, 2010: 5-11<br /> <br /> [21]张威. 口译认知研究：同声传译和工作记忆的关系[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 2011.<br /> <br /> == The Subtile Translation of Movie from the Perspective of Multimodal Discourse Analysis 王轩 Wang Xuan==<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> Mankind has entered the era of multimedia, so the language as a mono-modal form has been unable to fully express the meaning of communication. Thus we need some other modals to enhance, in order to fully express the meaning and reach the aim of communication, such as sound, visual image, color and so on. Thus the term Multimodality aroused linguist’s interest and attention. <br /> <br /> They conducted a lot of research and exploration in Multimodal Discourse Analysis. Multimodal Discourse Analysis is based on Halliday’s systemic functional linguistics as the foundation, Professor Zhang Delu points out that the Multimodal Discourse is a phenomenon which means use auditory, visual, tactile and other sensory and communicate through language, image, sound, movement and other symbolic resources. <br /> <br /> Martin points out that Multimodal Discourse Analysis is composed of five levels, they are: (1) cultural level (2) context level (3) significance level (4) form level (5) media level. By discussing the combination between the subtitle translation of “Benjamin Button” and Multimodal, the thesis is to analyze that how does the Multimodal Discourse Analysis affect the subtitle translation of movies. <br /> <br /> The thesis is based on the Multimodal Discourse Analysis theory as the foundation, aims to analyze the following three areas under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis: 1. The embodiment of Multimodality in the film “Benjamin Button”, then aims to analyze how does the subtitle and Multimodality combining to constructed the whole meaning under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis.2. The second goal is to discuss the relationship between the movie’s subtitles and other modals, and the relationship between different modals. 3. By discussing the analysis of the movie subtitle expression function in the process of overall significance, this thesis attempts to put forward some suggestions on the movie subtitle translation. <br /> Keywords: Multimodal Discourse Analysis；Audio-visual Product；Subtitle Translation<br /> <br /> === Chapter One Multimodal Discourse Analysis Theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 1.1 The Emergence And Development Of Multimodality '''<br /> <br /> At present, experts and scholars have entered the stage of multimodal discourse analysis. This is not an accidental phenomenon, but inevitable, because they think that discourse or discourse is a unit of meaning, but the expression of meaning is not only through a single language, on the contrary, it can be constructed by many other symbol systems besides language. <br /> <br /> Therefore, it is not comprehensive and specific to analyze discourse or discourse from the linguistic level, so multimodal discourse analysis comes into being. Multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in foreign countries, and has been widely studied and explored. However, it is still in its infancy in China, and has attracted much attention in recent years. <br /> <br /> In the early 1950s, American linguist Harris put forward the theory of discourse analysis for the first time. Since then, discourse analysts all over the world have been working hard to analyze and study, and have put forward many theories and methods of discourse analysis, and analyzed them through a large number of examples. <br /> <br /> However, almost all the theories and methods of discourse analysis focus on language and ignore other forms of meaning expression, such as image, music, color and so on. Therefore, the research on discourse analysis at that time was not comprehensive and had great limitations. In the 1990s, multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in western countries, which overcomes the limitations of discourse analysis to a certain extent. Therefore, once multimodal discourse analysis was proposed, it immediately attracted the attention of linguists and once became a hot topic. Especially in recent years, linguists at home and abroad have carried out extensive research and Exploration on multimodal discourse analysis. <br /> <br /> In foreign countries, R. Barthes is the first French scholar to systematically analyze multimodality. As a famous semiotician, R. Barthes adopts the semiotic perspective to study multimodality. Therefore, multimodal discourse has been analyzed with semiotics from the very beginning. Multimodal discourse analysis breaks through the shackles of traditional single language information, and integrates more research in other fields, such as psychology, cognitive science and sociology. R. Barthes discussed the interaction and relationship between image and language in the expression of meaning. Based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed a relatively perfect grammatical framework for the analysis of visual images, thus providing theoretical basis and analytical methods for multimodal discourse analysis. They believe that multimodality is a major feature of various discourses in modern society. In the digital age, these different modes play the same role in meaning reproduction. In addition, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed an image analysis framework based on three pure functions in image reading, namely reproduction, interaction and composition.. In a word, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen's multimodal communication theory mainly focuses on the symbolic resources and their use. <br /> <br /> In China, there are also in-depth and extensive research on multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Li Zhanzi analyzes multimodal discourse from the perspective of social semiotics, while Hu Zhuanglin, a professor of Peking University, studies multimodal semiotics in theory and practice, and proposes multimodal language teaching and research in social semiotics. Zhu Yongsheng has made an in-depth study on multimodality and summarized the theoretical basis and research methods of multimodal discourse analysis. Zhang Delu made a preliminary exploration on the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Zhang Delu pointed out that multimodal discourse refers to the use of hearing, vision, touch and other senses, through language, images, sounds, movements and other means and symbol resources for communication. This phenomenon is very common, which is mainly reflected in the following aspects. For example, in order to better understand poetry, people find that it can be attached with pictures, that is, it is attractive People's interest has reached the purpose of helping people understand. In addition, people can often add some auxiliary gestures or actions, and use different tone and tone when speaking, which is also a form of multimodality. However, multimodal discourse analysis has not been paid enough attention. Only in the study of modern linguistics, some linguists have paid attention to multimodality and started to study it from the perspective of non-verbal features and linguistic features. However, it is only studied as an auxiliary expression system of language, but not as a mode of meaning expression. Although multimedia discourse analysis came into being, it was not until recent years that scholars gradually realized the importance of multimedia discourse analysis. It can be seen that multimodality has attracted a large number of linguists in China and achieved fruitful results.<br /> <br /> ''' 1.2 The Theoretical Framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis '''<br /> <br /> Linguists have found that systemic functional linguistics can be used as the basic theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. The five levels are: (1) cultural level, including ideology as the main form of culture and genre as the potential choice of discourse mode. (2) The context level includes the context configuration composed of discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. (3) The meaning level includes discourse meaning and conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning. (4) At the formal level, there are different formal systems to realize meaning, including lexical grammar system of language, visual ideographic form and visual grammar system, auditory ideographic form and auditory grammar system, tactile ideographic form and tactile grammar system, etc., as well as the relationship between the grammar of various modes. (5) Media level is the material form of discourse in the material world, including linguistic and non-verbal. Systemic functional linguistics provides a relatively ready-made theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis. On this basis, Professor Zhang Delu proposed a comprehensive theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis: (1) cultural level, (2) context level, (3) content level, (4) expression level<br /> <br /> ''' 1.3 The Forms and Relations of Multimodal Discourse '''<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse forms include: language, picture sense, sound sense and feeling. The typical multimodal discourse mode is a kind of modal discourse, which can not fully express its meaning, or can not express its full meaning. It needs to be supplemented by another one. The relationship between these modes is called &quot;complementary relationship&quot;, while the other is called non complementary relationship. <br /> <br /> Complementary relationship can be divided into strengthening relationship and non strengthening relationship. Reinforcement relationship means that one mode is the main form of communication, while another or more forms strengthen it. For example, when expressing meaning, if language is the main form of communication, then other body movements such as gestures will strengthen the language. On the contrary, language may also be a reinforcement to other ways of communication. Strengthening relationship includes three kinds of relations: prominent, primary and secondary, and expanding. Non reinforcement refers to the relationship between two modes which are indispensable and complementary to each other. For example, in the process of watching a movie, the visual and auditory modes are combined with each other. There are also three forms of non strengthening relations: coordination, union and intersection. In the coordination relationship, different modes construct the whole meaning together, and the lack of any mode will be incomplete. Play the video at the same time, for example. The two modes of image and sound are both necessary and difficult to understand without one communication. In this case, the relationship between image and sound is harmonious. The joint relationship refers to the combination of different types of media in the same mode to express the meaning. For example, in the typical multimodal discourse form of film, the sound matched with the scene animation and the voice of interpretation are combined to reflect the meaning of auditory construction. The last one is the phenomenon of cross embodiment of meaning. For example, teachers do experiments while they are in the experimental class. At this time, the text is still unimodal. However, if you are talking with your friends about whether the weather is snowing, the size and shape of snow, and so on, the scene of snow, including the process and mode of snow, will directly participate in the overall meaning you want to express. At this time, your discourse has a strong situational dependence. A large part of the meaning of your speech is reflected by the situation, although the scene does not actively participate in it In your verbal communication. Therefore, context dependent discourse communication is multimodal.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Two Film subtitle translation theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 2.1 Film Works and Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> With the advent of the multimedia digital era, foreign film and television works continue to flow into China, so subtitle translation is becoming more and more important. More and more people use subtitles to obtain foreign related information, understand foreign cultures and even learn foreign languages. Subtitling affects people's cognition of things, and subtitle translation has become a professional auxiliary form to facilitate the audience to understand multimedia works. Gottlieb defines subtitle translation as &quot;a kind of written, additional and synchronous translation type for instantaneous and multi symbolic texts&quot;. (Gottlieb, 1997:309) in China, film and television translation started relatively late, and large-scale film and television translation began after the 1980s. <br /> <br /> Although the number of mass media translation has greatly increased, subtitle translation has not attracted enough attention of the academic community, and the research results on subtitle translation are few. In recent years, subtitle translation, as a field of translation, has attracted more and more attention from experts and scholars all over the world. Subtitles have two major functions: first, to deepen the audience's impression of some film content; second, to assist the lack of listening. There are two kinds of subtitles: the first is intralingual subtitle, the second is interlingual subtitle. Intralingual subtitle translation does not need to translate one language into another, but only converts the discourse into text. &quot;Interlingual subtitle refers to the translation of the source language into the target language and superimposed on the bottom of the screen while retaining the original sound of the film and television, which is commonly referred to as subtitle translation.&quot; (Li Yunxing, 2001:38)<br /> <br /> ''' 2.2 The Characteristics Of Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> Film subtitles are an important part of the film, and together with the visual image to construct the meaning, film subtitles can help the audience to understand the characteristics of the characters in the film, to master the character's character and to be familiar with the plot of the film. Film subtitle translation has the following characteristics: <br /> <br /> Firstly, colloquialism. Subtitle translation in movies is mainly the translation of dialogues between the characters in the film. Therefore, subtitle translation should be as colloquial as possible and conform to the expression characteristics of the characters. On the premise of ensuring the coherence and smoothness of the context, the subtitle translation should be as close to life as possible so as to achieve natural and realistic effect. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the characters in the film have their own unique personalities, which are often reflected by different language styles. Therefore, the second feature of film subtitle translation is to conform to the characters' personalities. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, emotional, emotional help the audience better understand the plot, so the film subtitle translation should reflect the true feelings, the translation should be able to put oneself in the position and into the role, to achieve the artistic effect of sincere.<br /> <br /> Fourthly, oral form is a typical feature of film subtitle translation, which is also the most obvious difference between film subtitle translation and literature translation. The basic task of translation is to provide a blueprint for dubbing. Therefore, the translation of subtitles should be consistent with the mouth shape of the characters as much as possible, and the accuracy and vividness of the translation should be guaranteed. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, popularization means popularization. Popularization means that the translation can be understood by the audience on the premise of smoothness, so as to achieve the purpose of clear understanding and appreciation of both refined and popular tastes. The ultimate goal of popularization is to serve the audience and make the translation a bridge for effective communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3 Strategies Of Film Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.1 Pay Attention To The Artistry Of Language '''<br /> <br /> It is said that film is the seventh art after literature, music, dance, drama, painting and sculpture. As a young art, the only one who knows his birthday, film appeared as a popular art from the very beginning. Film is an art form with unique means of expression, and the artistry of its language is the basic element of film. Although Goethe once said: art should never be the same as reality, and it is impossible to embody art. But it turns out that film is not only a popular art, and it is the most popular art, which is called a kind of popular culture. From the point of view of the film itself, most of the films are for people to watch, and the audience of the film comes from different social strata, so their education level is also different. Therefore, the language in the subtitle of film translation must be in line with the audience's acceptance ability and actual level, so as to make the translation understood by the audience, more clearly, and achieve both refined and popular tastes. However, the vulgarization and popularization of the target language does not mean the vulgarization and generalization of the language. The language of film is rich in expressive force, and the language of subtitle translation must be accurate, natural and vivid. Therefore, in the film subtitle translation, we should not only retain the language characteristics of the source language and absorb the characteristics of foreign language expression, but also abide by the language tradition of our own culture, and use words with cultural color of the target language to translate the original text, so as to truly achieve the purpose of translation.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.2 Literal Translation And Free Translation Should Be Audience-Centered '''<br /> <br /> The characteristics of film subtitle translation, i.e. instantaneity and popularity, determine its translation strategies. Subtitle translation must refer to the picture and sound of the film and television. Usually, the subtitle appears in front of the audience together with the original picture, so that the audience can not only enjoy the picture, but also have time to read the subtitle. This is the duality of subtitle translation. When the audience accepts the sound, picture and subtitle information of the original text, they are integrated, complementary and contradictory. Therefore, subtitle translation must consider that subtitle is not an independent mode, it includes the creation process and the reception process. In a word, both literal translation and free translation should focus on the audience. Literal translation can absorb new foreign factors and information, and can reflect foreign culture and sentiment. Free translation is easier to be accepted by the target language audience. Film subtitle translation must take into account the audience's language level and education, and take the audience of the target language as the center and adopt correct translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.3 Processing Of Cultural Information '''<br /> <br /> As an intermediary of cultural exchange, the translator's main purpose is to promote the exchange of different cultures and reduce the cultural gap. Because the film subtitle in the process of translation is subject to many restrictions, for example, there are a large number of words with strong cultural color and some special language forms, and there are many gaps in the culture of different languages and nations and can not be replaced, so it increases the difficulty of film translation. For example, when translating puns, word games and proverbs, translators usually have to give up, which is actually a treason to the original film. <br /> <br /> There are three strategies to deal with cultural information in Subtitle Translation: first, the principle of cultural compensation. The principle of cultural compensation aims to preserve and introduce the cultural characteristics of foreign countries, so that the audience can understand the films of different languages and cultures. Second, adopt the principle of cultural transplantation. This principle can make subtitles more vivid, authentic and vivid. Translators need to discard the cultural characteristics of the source language and abide by the native language, so that subtitles can be easily understood and accepted by the target language audience. When neither of the two strategies is desirable, we can only use the third strategy, namely the principle of cultural coordination, which inevitably leads to the loss of cultural information in the source language and the target language. When dealing with the cultural information in subtitle translation, translators should pay attention to the combination of these three strategies with the film picture, and give full play to the illustrative and explanatory nature of the pictures, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Three Subtitle Translation Of &quot;Rejuvenation&quot; From The Perspective Of Multimodal Discourse Analysis ===<br /> <br /> ''' 3.1 A Brief Introduction of 'Benjamind Button' '''<br /> <br /> 'Benjamin Button', directed by the famous director David Finch is adapted from Fitzgerald's novel of the same name; the film tells the story of a strange Benjamin Barton who violates the laws of nature and is born in the image of an ancient and rare old man. As time goes by, he even lives more and more young. It is a story about the reversal of life.<br /> <br /> The following part will analyze the characteristics of subtitles and the translation strategies that should be adopted in the expression of the film from the cultural level, context level, content level and expression level of the multimodal theoretical framework.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2 Multimodal Translation in Movie Subtiles '''<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.1 On Cultural Level '''<br /> <br /> Under the influence of thinking patterns and habits, people have gradually formed a specific form of expression in which language can understand each other in communication. Therefore, it is particularly important whether the cultural factors in films are properly translated. Zhang Delu believes that &quot;the cultural level is the key level to make communication possible&quot;. In some cases, the source language and the target language can not be translated literally. Therefore, in the process of translating movie subtitles, we should not only keep the original features, that is, faithfulness, but also take into account the habitual language awareness of the target audience, that is, free translation strategies should be adopted to make the translation smooth and consistent Cultural characteristics of the target language.<br /> <br /> The English title of the film is ‘The Curious Case of Benjamin Button’, and a version is ‘本杰明·巴顿奇事’, but the translation of ‘返老还童’ has a larger audience. First of all, there is an English name in the title of Benjamin Button, which makes people feel the obscurity of the literal translation of foreign words. In Chinese, four character idioms or five or seven character quatrains or metrical poems are more catchy and easy to be accepted; Secondly, the title of &quot;rejuvenate&quot; is very suitable for the protagonist's inverted and retrograde life trajectory. In a word, it is very brilliant; Finally, the idiom ‘返老还童’ comes from ancient legends, which expresses people's desire for immortality and rejuvenation. Although it is a legend, modern people also want to be young and energetic, so the title of ‘返老还童’ can attract more audiences.<br /> In this film, there are many translation notes added to the translation, which will explain the cross-cultural ambiguity clearly. Although there are many translations, it is the best way to make the audience accept accurate information.<br /> <br /> When Daisy, the heroine, is old, she lies on the hospital bed and introduces the name of the Watchmaker: “they had the best clock maker in all of the south to build that glorious clock. His name was Mr. gateau Mr. Cake.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “还请来整个南方最好的钟表匠建了那座雄伟的大钟。那人叫盖图先生……蛋糕先生” (盖图/Gateau 在法语中是蛋糕之意)<br /> <br /> There is such a narration at the foundation laying ceremony of clocks and clocks: “Papa said there were people everywhere. Even Teddy · Roosevelt came.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “爸爸说，那天人山人海。连泰迪·罗斯福也来了( 西奥多·罗斯福，昵称泰迪美国第26 任总统)”<br /> <br /> In the above two examples, the comments added to the translation itself are in brackets. In the former example, &quot;Mr. cake&quot; suddenly appears. In the latter example, how President Roosevelt called &quot;Teddy Roosevelt&quot; will make the target language audience very puzzled. Although the use of annotations makes translation numerous, it is the best way for the audience to quickly obtain accurate information. The audience knows that gateau means &quot;cake&quot; in French, and Roosevelt has a nickname of &quot;Teddy&quot;.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.2 On Context Level '''<br /> <br /> In a specific context, communication is constrained by contextual factors (Zhang Delu, 2009). The context level elaborated by Zhang Delu includes discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. In order to express meaning or transmit information, subtitle and context jointly promote the development of film plot. Subtitle translation should be subject to context. In order to make subtitle translation not appear fault phenomenon, the film plot will advance naturally, and subtitle translation should also play a role of connecting the preceding and the following. In this way, in the process of translation, the translator should consider the contextual factors and pay attention to the smoothness and coherence of the translation within the sentence itself and between the sentences in the text.<br /> <br /> When describing Queenie's fertility problem, Queenie sees Benjamin's heart full of love. Her husband, Mr. Weathers, said: I know you ain't got all the parts it takes to make one of your own, but this ain't your to keep. At first it was certainly hard to understand the meaning of this sentence, but as the plot developed, Queenie prayed to the pastor for a son. After her pregnancy, she announced happily: “I had a miracle happen. The Lord saw fit to answer my prayer.” <br /> <br /> Little Daisy explained here: “ ‘I had a miracle happen’ means pregnancy.” （她有孩子了） In this way, the words said by Mr. Weathers was interpreted as: “我知道你没法有自己的孩子，可你也不能抚养这个。” Using free translation strategy, it is clear and faithful to the meaning of the source language, which makes the target language audience quickly know that Queenie likes children's characteristics and cares for Benjamin, an ugly ‘monster’.<br /> <br /> When Benjamin and Daisy are reunited in New York, Benjamin said: “I thought I'd come here and sweet you off your feet or something.” The phrase &quot;sweep you off your feet&quot; means &quot;to make you fall suddenly and deeply in love with you&quot;（让你倾倒）. Benjamin and Daisy were separated from each other for many years at that time. Daisy, who was living in the dance circle, was popular and desirable there. Benjamin went to New York to find daisy after burying his father. He was in a mixed mood. In fact, he wanted to find a friend to express his melancholy. Therefore, Benjamin did not go to find Daisy to &quot;fall in love&quot; with her but &quot;I thought I'd give you a big surprise when I came suddenly&quot;(我本以为我突然过来找你会给你一个大惊喜), which is very brilliant. This sentence is more suitable for the protagonist's situation by using free translation strategy.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.3 On Content Level '''<br /> <br /> The content level of Zhang Delu's expression includes discourse meaning level and form level. Discourse meaning is the conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning conveyed in language expression. In the film, subtitle is the narrator's narration and dialogue content. Film discourse requires the translator to accurately express the subtitle meaning to the audience. In the process of subtitle translation, some gas words, names and address terms can be omitted, which still does not affect the expression of discourse meaning.<br /> <br /> “Well, I know I don't have much to show for myself.”（我知道自己没有什么才能。） The omission of &quot;well&quot; does not affect the translation, but is more concise and can be understood more quickly.<br /> <br /> “You know, you may've got a few more years out of it, but you choose to do something so special and unique that there were only a short window of time you could do it.” Daisy was in the dance business, but she had an accident later. Some expressions here such as “a few more years out of it” ( 跳几年舞), “something so special and unique”( 事业太与众不同), “a short window of time” （几年黄金时间) have been dealt more concrete, so the whole sentence is translated as: “也许，你能多跳几年舞，可你的事业太与众不同了，只有几年的黄金时间可以发展。” <br /> <br /> As for its form, the formal features of different modes are interrelated and reflect the discourse meaning together (Zhang Fulu, 2009). The film system includes animation, pictures, music, language and other auditory and visual modes. Therefore, subtitles, together with listening and visual modes, work together to promote the expression of film meaning.<br /> <br /> For example, Benjamin and Daisy finally met and got together. They whispered in the yellow-glowed room:<br /> Daisy: “Will you still love me when my skin grows old and saggy?” ( 我要是成了黄脸婆你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> Benjamin: “Will you still love me when I have acne? When I wet the bed? When I'm afraid of what's under the stairs?” ( 等我老到脸上长满青春痘，老到尿床，老到连楼梯下有什么都怕，你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> The pictures, music and language all revealed the happy and loving life of the two people. In general, the film is based on the narration of a diary. In the film, the dialogue between the present and the narration in the diary is carried out alternately. In addition, the old pictures, the statement of time and the voice change of the narrator are used to make the past and the present change clearly and naturally, and they are applied in the formal level.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.4 On Expression Level '''<br /> <br /> Zhang Fulu believes that the expression level can be divided into language media and non-verbal media. In the language media level, he thinks that the main forms of meaning communication are sound symbols and writing symbols. For films, subtitles and subtitle translation belong to writing symbols. In the process of translating subtitles, translators should fully consider the media characteristics such as voice size, intonation strength, tone, font size and layout, which play a very important role in the expression of films. The subtitles of the film are at the bottom of the screen. Except for the notes, the translation takes up a little bit more space, and most of the subtitles in the source language and the target language occupy one line, which ensures that the audience has enough time to read the information. Non verbal media include communicators' body and nonverbal means (mainly tools and environment). Nowadays, with the progress of science and technology, movies can be played in cinemas, networks and various electronic media, and the media for appreciation is rich.<br /> <br /> Throughout the film, the dying old Daisy's tone is slow and strenuous on the bed. With the development of the story, light or heavy, a TV beside the bed broadcast the change of Hurricane weather activity, and the weather change also reflects Daisy's condition at that time.<br /> Finally, Daisy hugged Benjamin, a baby in her arms, and watched him invert the end of her life. The dying Daisy dictated in a low voice and intermittent tone: &quot;he looked at me and Iknow that he knew who I was.&quot;. (他看着我，那一刻，我知道他认出来了) The sound of the hurricane alarm suddenly sounded, sharp and obvious, and the picture of the staff of the hospital of traditional Chinese medicine was flustered, symbolizing that Benjamin's reversal clock was also washed away, and Daisy finally passed away. The sound, picture and words of the whole film are closely linked. It tells the story of eternal love, though limited in time, which is extremely shocking and thought-provoking.<br /> <br /> The translator of the film tries his best to translate various modes such as discourse, picture, sound and music. The translation strategy is mainly free translation, and the subtitle processing is simple and appropriate, so that the audience can have a good understanding of the limited time in the film, only the eternal knowledge of love. Taking the film subtitle of &quot;rejuvenation&quot; as an example, this paper analyzes the characteristics of subtitle translation from the aspects of culture, context, content and expression, hoping to better understand multimodal discourse analysis and free translation strategies in film subtitle translation.<br /> <br /> ='''Machine Translation'''=<br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory - A Case Study of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈永相 Chen Yongxiang&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine (hereinafter referred to as TCM), the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, boasts the favorable curative effect and a good reputation across the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative” and national economy, TCM has been playing an increasingly significant role in international trade, attracting more attention of foreign medical experts and consumers. As the essential attachment of a medicine, medicine instructions belong to the genre of practical writing, characterized by the unique language structure and stylistic features, guiding doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicines, such as usage and dosage, actions and indications, contraindication, etc. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. Due to the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, however, plenty of problems appear on the C-E translation of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> According to Adaptation Theory proposed by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. Translation is a cross-cultural communication activity, which involves language usage and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so on between source language and target language, and to adapt with different contexts, mentalities, cultures, etc. so as to achieve the ideal goal, from which the Adaptation Theory can be applied exactly into the study of translation. This paper will apply Adaptation Theory, therefore, as the theoretical framework, to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. Employing the core concepts and investigating aspects of Adaptation Theory, the author tries to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine instruction translation, Adaptation Theory, Yulin Pharmaceutical Company <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 中药是我国医药文化的瑰宝，有着良好的疗效和口碑。随着“一带一路倡议”的稳步推进和中国经济的平稳发展，中药药品在国际贸易中所占比重日益增加，得到了国外许多医疗专家和消费者的关注。药品说明书作为药品的重要附件，是一种实用文体，有其自身的语言结构和文体特点，能够指导医生与患者了解和熟悉药品作用、用法用量、适应症和禁忌等。而中医药品说明书英译作为中医英译的一个重要组成部分，其英译质量决定了药品能否被医生和患者正确理解和使用，以及中医药产品的国际贸易繁荣。然而，由于英语和汉语之间存在着不可避免的语言和文化差异，中医药品说明书英译依然存在着较大问题。<br /> <br /> 比利时语用学家维索尔伦提出的语言顺应论认为，语言的使用是一个不断作出选择和顺应的动态过程。翻译作为一项跨文化交际活动，需要在源语与目的语之间，就用词、翻译策略等方面进行选择，对不同语境、心理、文化等层面作出顺应。可见顺应论适用于翻译研究。因此本文以顺应论作为理论依据，通过对广西玉林制药公司中医药品说明书英译进行分析研究，运用顺应论的核心概念和研究视角，进一步探讨如何更好地翻译中医药品说明书。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 中医药品说明书翻译，顺应论，玉林制药公司<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''1.Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''1.1 Research Background of the Study'''====<br /> <br /> As the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, TCM has been through a profound history in China. Since “The Belt and Road Initiative” proposed for the first time, as an indispensable part in medical industry, TCM has tapped the potential of development opportunity to boost its reform so as to better make inroads into the international market. Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a renowned TCM pharmacy enterprise mainly engaged in R&amp;D, production and sales of Chinese medicines, one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties. In 2015, Consun Pharmaceutical Group Lt. has successfully brought partial share of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, which, in return, brought opportunities for the IPO and industrialization of the company. As the essential attachment of TCM medicine, the instructions guide doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicine correctly, which closely relates to consumer safety and are of great significance. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. The high quality translation versions of TCM instructions will accelerate TCM to enter into the international market, to occupy more competitive market share, and to better popularize the excellent TCM culture. <br /> <br /> ===='''1.2 Significance and Purpose of the Study'''==== <br /> <br /> It is noticed that studies and researches on TCM at home and abroad have boomed since the ancient Silk Road period. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from experts. Because of the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, a lot of problems appear on the translation of TCM instructions. And against such a backdrop, there are still no settled rules or translation standards to be applied and favored in the translation of TCM instructions, hence it’s quite essential to touch upon the area of C-E translation of TCM instructions in a more comprehensive and systematic way so as to find out more effective methods and strategies for the instruction translation. Adaptation Theory is proposed by Jef Verschueren, he thinks that language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation is a type of language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so forth between source language and target language. A good translation version of TCM instructions can appropriately guide both doctors and patients to understand the pharmacological functions, usage and dosage, actions and indications and contraindications of medicines. Therefore, the quality of instruction translation has a direct impact on whether TCM can be favored and obtained a good reputation among overseas medical industry and consumers. This paper studies the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, trying to take the Company as a case study to further discuss how to translate TCM instructions in a better way. <br /> <br /> ==='''2.Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 Features of TCM Instructions'''====<br /> <br /> Being the essential attachment of a medicine, the instruction contains important information that explains what the medicine is, how to take it and the effects after taking it, guiding doctors and patients to understand and use medicines properly. It closely relates to consumers’ safety. Thus, TCM instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. However, the information covered in most TCM instructions is drug name, ingredients, actions and indications, usage and dosage, while adverse effects, precautions, pharmacological effects, drug interaction, contraindications etc. are quite simple, even without any description of these items, failing to meet the requirement of international standards. <br /> <br /> Besides, due to the profound history of TCM developed in China, most of the unique TCM languages derived from the abstract philosophical concepts of ancient times remain being used until now, say, classical style and semi-classical style, which are accepted and favored by the TCM community, causing difficulties in translating them into English. And hence four-character structure, vagueness and ambiguity of the language, and no equivalence between Chinese and English are the main features of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> The four-character structure is concise but comprehensive in meaning, implying the extensive and abstract medical concepts of TCM. The tradition of using it to describe the symptoms and ways of treatment in TCM hasn’t been changed over time but continued to be applied and advocated in modern society. The TCM instructions are difficult to understand and translate, for the peculiar traits of TCM language, as well as the technical terms coming, directly or indirectly, from the abstract medical concepts of TCM, characterized by the unique treatment method as a whole in human body, and seeking to find answers and balance principles in nature to explain the causes and treatments of diseases, which is usually not the literal one but beyond cognition. In addition, there are gaps and non-equivalence between TCM and Western Medicine. Most TCM instruction translations apply technical terms from Latin in terms of ingredients, but adopt simple words and phrases for describing actions and indications, since the TCM language with Chinese characteristics finds no match in English. Ordinary people, as well as translators, who do not have the professional knowledge may have great difficulty in understanding and translating them. <br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Studies of TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine wasn’t legal once in the United States until 1975, as many scholars and experts were skeptical about its medical theory and way of treatment. Since the establishment of China, the government has been devoting great efforts to the recognition and popularization of TCM across the world. And from then on, a lot of studies and researches based on the translation of TCM have been published at home and abroad. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from the experts. In view of the special wording and the abstract theory of TCM, the translation of TCM instructions is of great difficulty and complexity. <br /> <br /> Currently, the translation of TCM instructions on the market, to a large extent, lacks readability and translation standards. Against such a backdrop, some scholars have striven to make some breakthroughs yet. Nigel Wiseman (2000) systematically elaborates the concept of “oriented by the source” in his dissertation, Translation of Chinese Medicine Terms: A Source Oriented Approach, in terms of the translation of TCM language, believing that the translation of TCM, as well as the instructions, should respect the original style and keep it in the target text as much as possible. In 2002, Translation of TCM Directions (《中医药说明书的英译》) written by Ouyang Lifeng (2002) put forward some practical methods for the translation of TCM instructions. He advocates “naturalization” and “readjustment”, namely, adaptation strategy, should be applied in translation, and if necessary, some additions and deletions are acceptable on the basis of faithfulness to the original text. Guided by Professor Ouyang, his student, Xiaoqiong, applies Peter Newmark’s Communicative Approach in her master’s thesis, On the Translation of TCM Booklets of Direction-The Communicative Approach (2008) to study the features of TCM instructions, suggesting that different approaches should be adopted regarding to different parts of the instructions. On translation Strategies of Chinese Medicine Instruction from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches written by Luo Haiyan (2009) conducts a relatively profound research under the guidance of Functionalist Approach in terms of each part of TCM instructions. She finds out the translation of TCM instructions is not very identical and comprehensible. Cao Qing’s thesis, A Study on Translation of Chinese Pharmaceutical Instruction (2011) states the common problems of translation instructions and advises three translation methods, namely literal translation, conversion and free translation under the Skopos Theory. There are still other scholars aiming at one aspect or another to further study the translation of TCM instructions, all of which exert a significant impact for references in translating TCM instructions. From the perspectives of Zhang Mengjing (1995), Ning Zhishou and Liu Cuiwei (1997), and Fu Wei (2006), the current TCM instruction translation lacks faithfulness, readability and incompatibility with conventional norms, suggesting that more attention should be paid in this field. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn from the above literature that studies on TCM instruction translation can be conducted from a wide scope. For the great distinction between western and Chinese culture, and the abstract medical principles of TCM, much has to be done to make the translation of TCM instructions more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> ==='''3.Adaptation Theory Applied in Traditional Chinese Medicine Instruction Translation of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company'''===<br /> <br /> From what has been mentioned above, as the important attachment of TCM, the instructions provide the correct and detailed medical information to doctors and consumers, guiding them to take medicine scientifically and properly, and hence the medicine instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. As one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a famous brand in the whole country, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties, and the buyout also boosts the process of IPO and reform. Through observation of the C-E translation instructions of TCM for foreigners and export, hence there are some certain instructive significance for the translation of TCM instructions. Because of the special characteristics of TCM instructions and the limited information included in the instructions of the company, this part tries to analyze the C-E translation instructions from the perspective of Adaptation Theory, mainly employing the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Contextual Correlates of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> As introduced earlier, according to Verschueren, the ingredients of contextual correlates of adaptability largely include the physical world, social world, and mental world. However, the author will mainly concentrates on the adaptation to the mental world and social world due to the limited materials collected. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.1 Adaptation to the Mental World'''=====<br /> <br /> Regarding the mental world, it involves the personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations, intentions and so on of both sides of language users. In the translation process, translators should take target readers’ mind into account, not just concentrating on personal mental world or literally translating the original text from one language to another language without any adaptation. <br /> <br /> Basically, consumers of drugs tend to rely on more renowned brands when facing a bunch of medicines displayed on the shelves. The key to attract their attention not only counts on the high quality of TCM, but also on the instructions with rigorous standards, concise specification and overall comprehensibility, delivering a sense of authority and credibility. <br /> <br /> To begin with, the name of drugs is the most direct information delivered to the consumers. Thus, a good name of the TCM can catch the eyes of buyers in the very beginning. “正骨水” is the most famous and important product of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, however, the translation of its name in the instruction simply applies transliteration and Chinese Pinyin, namely, “Zheng Gu Shui” , which fails to adapt with the mental world of target readers. Apparently, Pinyin isn’t the way of expression that they are familiar with. Translators should consider their mental expectation and make adaptation with their familiar ways of expression. In that point, “Bone-setting Liquor” would be a better name for the medicine. “Bone-setting” means the medicine is effective for the symptoms of bone problems, and “liquor” implies the ingredients involved alcohol and other irritating ingredients so that consumers can be aware of the precautions and avoid using it on fragile mucous membranes and anabrotic wounds. Also, the same type of medicine can apply the same way of translation, such as, “金装正骨水” can be translated to “Golden Bone-setting Liquor”, and “极品正骨水” is rendered as “Superb Bone-setting Liquor”. Such a name conveys the correct medical information to consumers and better adapt to their thinking patterns. <br /> <br /> Another example is “睡安胶囊”, the translation version is “Shui’an Jiaonang” . Obviously, it will confuse foreigners since they don’t recognize Chinese Pinyin in their cognitive levels. Translators should at least use “capsule” to indicate the medicine is some type of capsules effective for the sleeping problems. A well-recognized name will arouse attention and interest among consumers, attracting them to purchase the medicine. In order to adapt with their mental expectation and intention, as Ouyang (2002) advocates, naturalization or domesticating translation can be applied in translation. “Sleep Mate” or “Insomnia Killer” can better attract their attention and adapt with their beliefs and cognitive levels. In English, “mate” is a common word, which will be more acceptable and natural in such combination, and “killer” combined with “insomnia” implies the meaning of solving the insomnia problems, which is also more suitable and adaptable with their emotions and motivations. <br /> <br /> A good name of the medicine can not only imply the function of the medicine, conveying the essential information to customers, but also can draw their attention and arouse their desires to purchase the medicine. Meeting the demand and preference with the mental world of target people is also one of the requirements of medicine instructions. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, if transliteration or simply adopting Chinese Pinyin to translate the names of medicines will confuse customers and cause misunderstanding, adaptation is required, and not just words, but also translation strategies should be taken consideration when making adaptation. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.2 Adaptation to the Social World'''=====<br /> <br /> Verschueren (2000:91) states that there is no principled limit to the range of social factors that linguistic choices are inter-adaptable with. Basically, social settings and culture play a significant role in the process of translation. What distinguishes TCM from Western Medicine mainly lies on the cultural differences. Language is the carrier of culture, and the cultural differences can be embodied in different languages, and then shown and reflected in society. Instruction translation, as the cross-cultural communication activity, is influenced largely by cultural differences in different social worlds. Followings are the very typical translation examples to illustrate the point:<br /> <br /> Example 1(感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> Source Text (ST): 用于感冒或流感发热，头痛鼻塞, 伤风咳嗽，咽痛，肢痛<br /> <br /> Target Text (TT): Used for the treatment of cold, flu and fever, headache and nasal congestion, wind damage cough, angina and melalgia<br /> <br /> Revised Text (RT): Used for cold, flu, fever, headache, snuffle, cough, sore throat and pain in muscles<br /> <br /> Traditionally, “伤风” in Chinese means getting cold because of the invasion of “风” into the human body. “风” is actually one of the six exogenous pathogenic factors according to the medical theory of TCM, which cannot be explained from the perspective of Western Medicine. In western society, people have no concept that the natural phenomenon, say, “风” or “火”, will cause diseases in the human body. So the revised text deletes this term with TCM characteristics to avoid ambiguity and makes it more natural and understandable in English. In addition, most common patients who seek to buy medicines in pharmacies might not have the specific knowledge of medical field due to different social settings and backgrounds, thus, “angina” and “melalgia” might be beyond recognition and acceptance. Western world highlights the importance of brevity and conciseness in their society, and they place emphasis on simplification and efficiency, seldom using the very technical terms in their lives. Such social settings and cultural differences must be considered so as to make adaptation when translating. Besides, “nasal congestion” is the word-for-word translation and may cause misunderstanding among foreigners. So the revised text adopts “snuffle” and “sore throat” to indicate the meaning of “鼻塞” and “咽痛”, applying these simple words to make adaptation with cultural differences in different social worlds, and renders “melalgia” into “pain in muscles” to better deliver the meaning of “肢痛”. <br /> <br /> Example 2 (治咳枇杷露)<br /> <br /> ST: 治疗儿童伤风呃逆，咳嗽痰盛<br /> <br /> TT: Used for children’s wind-damage hiccup, cough and exuberant phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Used for cold, hiccup, cough and sputum in children<br /> <br /> Similarly, example 2 also translates “ 伤风” into “ wind damage”, which is not appropriate in such description. As mentioned above, additions and deletions, if necessary, can be applied to make adaptation in translation. So the revised text deletes “wind damage” and “exuberant phlegm”, adopting noun coordination and making it more readable and adaptable to the social world of target readers. <br /> <br /> Literal translation of instructions is not always the first option in the C-E translation of instructions. For translators, the first thing they should consider is to be faithful to the original meaning of the text, not the text itself. They need to make adaptation to the target readers’ social world, for instance, social status, social settings, social background, cultural differences, etc., striving to make the translation concise and easy to understand in their society. Amid such different social worlds, translators must bear in mind to render localization of different cultures to make adaptation without causing ambiguity and misunderstanding while successfully keeping and delivering the implied meanings as much as possible.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:26, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 Structural Objects of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translationn'''====<br /> <br /> According to Verschueren, linguistic choice-making takes place at all levels of structure that shows variability of any kind (2000:15). As indicated in Part two, for the reason of limited information covered in the TCM instructions, the materials collected from the company would be more meaningful if concentrating on the lexical level of the actions and indications of the instructions, which exactly features the typical four-character structure and language traits of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.1 Adaptation to the Lexical Level'''=====<br /> <br /> Differences in lexical level between TCM and Western Medicine largely reflect on terminologies and descriptions of diseases. The four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning. Currently, most translation versions of instructions are literally word-for-word translation and transliteration, failing to deliver the correct meanings implied in those TCM terminologies and words and lacking readability and authenticity. Here are some typical translation examples of the actions and indications of the medicines in Yulin Pharmaceutical Company:<br /> <br /> Example 3(蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 小便频数<br /> <br /> TT: Frequent urination<br /> <br /> Example 4 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 祛风除湿 <br /> <br /> TT: Dispel wind and eliminated dampness<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve rheumatic pain<br /> <br /> Example 5 (珍黄丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 消肿止痛<br /> <br /> TT: Ease a swelling and relieve pain<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve swelling pain<br /> <br /> Chinese four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning, and most of them are the causal relationship. &quot;祛风除湿&quot; is a typical example. “风湿” is a disease caused by the invasion of “风” into the human body, if &quot;风邪&quot; cannot be removed from the body soon, &quot;湿&quot; will appear and gather together near the joints, causing diseases and pains in joints according to the medical theory of TCM. So, &quot;祛风&quot; is actually the result of &quot;除湿&quot;, and vice versa. And the example of “消肿止痛”, it is usually can be explained that pain is caused by swelling as the result of illness or injury. Once the swelling disappears, so does the pain. According to the example 3, &quot;小便频数&quot; is translated into “Frequent urination”, using the structure of &quot;adjective+noun&quot; in English, which is concise in form and easy to understand. So the revised text of example 4 and 5 can also adopt such structure and translate into &quot;Relieve rheumatic pain&quot; and &quot;Relieve swelling pain&quot;, not only implying the causal relationship between the lines, concise and simple, but also avoiding translating repetitive meaning. <br /> <br /> Example 6 (感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> ST: 止咳化痰<br /> <br /> TT: Suppress cough and transform phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve cough and sputum<br /> <br /> Example 7 (乌军治胆片)<br /> <br /> ST: 疏肝解郁 <br /> <br /> TT: To course the liver and resolve depression<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve Qi stagnation in liver<br /> <br /> From the above two examples, &quot;止咳化痰&quot; is translated into &quot;Suppress cough and transform phlegm&quot;, and &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is “To course the liver and resolve depression”. It is noticed that simply employing the literal meaning of words to translate TCM instructions doesn’t work, especially in such medical context. Translators cannot ignore the relationship between the words and the context then make translation of words in isolation. &quot;化痰' means the symptom of sputum would be relieved and cured soon after taking the medicine, and hence here, the key words are &quot;咳&quot; and &quot;痰&quot;, not the verbs. So the translation of &quot;Relieve cough and sputum&quot; would be more comprehensible and readable. And the example of &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is actually another one that can be evidenced the casual relationship in TCM language. &quot;疏&quot; and &quot;解&quot; deliver the same meaning in such context, and &quot;肝郁&quot; is not the meaning of &quot;depression of liver&quot; but the irregular circulation and stagnation of the abstract &quot;Qi&quot; in liver from the perspective of TCM. So translating into &quot;Relieve Qi stagnation in liver&quot; retains the original meaning of Chinese and makes it more acceptable. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.2 Summary'''=====<br /> <br /> Despite of the characteristics of four-character structure in TCM language, the phenomenon of repetitive meaning implied between the lines is quite common. For translators, they should fully understand what meanings indicated between those words and phrases prior to translating them into another language. According to Adaptation Theory, language has the properties of variability, negotiability and adaptability. Facing abundant choices of words in English, translators should choose the most appropriate words and expressions after negotiation to make adaptation to the lexical level, the structure, the context, etc. preferred in English.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, translators should make linguistic choices not just at the lexical level, but also the syntactic level, textual level, rhetorical level etc. literally all levels of linguistic structures. Due to the limited information contained in TCM instructions of the company, this part mainly develops from the adaptation of lexical level, finding out that most translations apply literal translation with abusive usage of words, failing to deliver the correct meaning implied in TCM language and lacking readability and authenticity.<br /> <br /> With the great progresses of TCM over years, Yin(阴) and Yang(阳), Wuxing(五行) and Qi(气), these basic concepts in TCM have been accepted and recognized among foreigners. It can be adopted directly when translating the TCM instructions. With regard to the verbs in TCM language, literal translation sometimes might arouse skepticism and confusion of target readers and fail to deliver the correct meaning and the effectiveness of medicines. Translators should adapt the wording preference in target language and try to naturalize the translation but avoid abusive usage of words. Thus translators in this field should be equipped with excellent bilingual ability, sufficient background knowledge of TCM and Western Medicine, and the understanding of linguistics.<br /> <br /> ===='''3.3 Dynamics of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> As stated above, translation is a process of dynamic adaptation and involves the process of structural reconstruction and meaning regeneration. According to Verschueren (2000:157) “...strategies are always involved in any type of communication.” It means not just linguistic choices, but also translation strategies are dynamic because of different time, context and structure of both sides of language usage and each of them varies in line with relative factors when language users make choices. <br /> <br /> The dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation can be embodied from different words, phrases and translation strategies, even different languages applied in the medicine instructions. As for the part of ingredients, the instructions of the company employ Latin to indicate each TCM, for instance: Radix Notoginseng (三七), Herba Artemisiae Scopariae (茵陈), Fructus Lycii (枸杞), Poria (茯苓), Radix Codonopsis (党参), Rhizoma Dioscoreae (山药). It is usually the part where doctors and experts who have the specific knowledge of this field would be interested in, and using Latin to translate the TCM is the international standard of naming medicines, hence it is a way of adaptation. While next to the part of actions and indications, it resorts to different words and phrases in English to describe the indications of each medicine. English is apparently a better option for its universality and compatibility that common people can easily understand what the medicine is, and how to take it. Such adaptation to each part of the instruction in language shows the dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation. Following are some examples to show the dynamics of adaptability in translation: <br /> <br /> Example 8 (正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To remove obstruction from collateralls and channels and relieve muscular contracture<br /> <br /> Example 9 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To relax and activate tendons<br /> <br /> As for the translation of “舒筋活络”, example 8 and example 9 employ different words to deliver the meaning. The former is detailed and elaborated, delivering the original meaning implied in the lines while the latter is relatively simple, only using “tendons” to express the meaning of “筋络”. Besides the different specifications of “正骨水” and “金装正骨水”, the ingredients of these two medicines also show a wide difference, contributing to the different words and methods adopted in the same description of indications. From the above examples, it can be noticed, to some extent, that translators go through negotiation and then make dynamic adaptation with regard to different medicines. <br /> <br /> Example 10 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 旺盛局部血液循环, 增强细胞活力<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen partial blood circulation and improve vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 11 (筋骨王)<br /> <br /> ST: 改善局部血液循环，增强细胞活力。<br /> <br /> TT: To accelerate local blood circulation, increase vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 10 and example 11 are actually delivering the same meaning, but they change the words and phrases to adapt with two different medicines. With the variability and adaptability of language, the meaning of “增强” can be expressed by “improve” and “increase”, and translators employs “partial” and “local” to express the meaning of “局部”. As for the similar actions and indications, the translations of which vary in different medicines, demonstrating that translation is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. <br /> <br /> Example 12 (睡安胶囊)<br /> <br /> ST: 清心除烦<br /> <br /> TT: To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation<br /> <br /> Example 13 (蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 壮阳益肾<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney<br /> <br /> Example 12 and example 13 apply free translation to deliver the meaning of actions and indications of these two medicines. “清心除烦” is rendered into “To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation”, and “To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney” is more like the paraphrase of “壮阳益肾”. Both the translations are much easier to understand and adapt to consumers’ mind in a better way. Unlike the others, the above translations avoid literal translation, which will be too demanding and abstract for both sides of translators and target people, and they resort to free translation to convey the correct pharmacological actions, simplifying the instructions and making adaptation with the translation strategies to better resolve the cultural differences. <br /> <br /> Translating a TCM instruction can never be a mechanical activity of making translation from one language to another; rather, it entails dynamic adaptation to the differences between source language and target language. According to the Adaptation Theory, language use is a dynamic process of linguistic choice-making, which should adapt to contextual correlates and structural objects of language. As a type of more complex language use related to different languages, C-E translation of TCM instructions is a dynamic process of adaptation to different contexts and linguistic structures. However, the dynamic linguistic choices require language users to go through negotiation with themselves when facing abundant choices to eventually choose the most appropriate forms and strategies in accordance with different contexts and linguistic structures so as to fulfill the communicative intention. In other words, translators should avoid abusive usage of variability and adaptability of language, being faithful to the original meaning of texts to meet the standard of translation as much as possible.<br /> <br /> ==='''4.Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Being a significant carrier of TCM information, the instruction is a bridge that links the excellent TCM theories and effectiveness to the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative”, TCM will be learned and used across the world at a much larger scale. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, this paper employs the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, mainly concentrating on the adaptation to the mental world, social world, and the adaptation to the lexical level to study the C-E translation of the TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn that the C-E translation of TCM instructions of the Company is not that satisfactory after research. It doesn’t deal with the cultural differences between TCM and Western Medicine properly. Literal translation and abusive usage of words frequently appear in the C-E translation of instructions, failing to deliver the correct meaning and lacking readability and credibility, having a bad impact on the brand image. While at same time, there are some places worthy to be praised from the perspective of Adaptation Theory. It shows the dynamics of adaptability in the C-E translation of TCM instructions, which can be demonstrated through the various words, phrases, strategies applied in the process of translation. Still, much work has to be done to improve the quality of translation and make it more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, as a way of language use, translation involves the continuous making of linguistic choices. Not only words, language forms and structures, but also strategies should be taken into consideration when translating. Translators should adapt with the differences between English and Chinese, and meanwhile, pay attention to the features of TCM instructions, avoiding some obvious mistakes to achieve the ultimate goal of keeping the original meaning of TCM while delivering the accurate and rigorous medical information to foreigners. So the author advocates that adaptation is required during the process of translation, combined with transliteration and literal translation for some simple and basic concepts in TCM that have been well-recognized by foreigners, free translation and domesticating translation should be adopted with regard to the cultural differences in translation, if necessary, additions and deletions are also appreciated on the basis of being faithful to the original meaning of texts. <br /> <br /> Unfortunately, due to the limited materials collected and the incompetence of the author, the analysis of this paper only applies the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability of Adaptation Theory, failing to study in a more comprehensive way. In addition, this paper only conducts the research in studying the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, failing to reach at a larger scale. Last but not least, there are still some drawbacks and imperfections in Adaptation Theory, which the author fails to touch upon for lacking of knowledge and experience. Still, the author is willing to take all comment and advice.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1] As Homby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [Z]. The Commercial Press, Oxford University, extended eighth edition, 2014. <br /> <br /> [2] Bhatia, V. K. Analyzing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings [M]. London: Longman, 1993. <br /> <br /> [3] Carl James. Error in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [4] Fischbach, Henry. Translation and Medicine [M]. American Translators Association Scholarly Monograph Series, 1998. <br /> <br /> [5] Nigel Wiseman. Translation of Chinese medicine terms: A source oriented approach [D].University of Exeter, 2000. <br /> <br /> [6] Verschueren J. Pragmatic as a Theory of Linguistic Adaptation [R]. International Pragmatic Association, 1987. <br /> <br /> [7] Verschueren, J. Understanding Pragmatics [M]. London: Edward Arnold Ltd., 1999;Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000. <br /> <br /> [8] 曹情. 中文药品说明书的翻译[D]. 湖南：南华大学, 2011. <br /> <br /> [9] 傅微. 语篇视点理论在中药说明书翻译中的运用[D]. 广西：广西大学外国语学院,2006. <br /> <br /> [10] 罗海燕. 功能主义翻译理论关照下的中药说明书的翻译[D]. 江苏：南京中医药大学, 2009. <br /> <br /> [11] 李照国. 中医基本名词术语英译国际标准化研究[M]. 上海科学技术出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> [12] 马邦新. 英文药品说明书的翻译[J]. 中国科技翻译, 1998(3): 16-18. <br /> <br /> [13] 宁之寿, 刘翠微. 也谈药品说明书的翻译[J]. 上海科技翻译, 1997(2): 31-33. <br /> <br /> [14] 欧阳利锋. 中医药说明书的英译[J]. 中国科技翻译, 2002, 15(2): 17-20. <br /> <br /> [15] 宋志平. 翻译:选择与顺应——语用顺应论视角下的翻译研究[J]. 中国翻译,2004(2): 21-25. <br /> <br /> [16] 肖琼. 中医药说明书的翻译[D]. 广东：广东外语外贸大学, 2008.<br /> <br /> [17] 袁斌业. 语言顺应论对翻译的启示[J]. 四川外国语学院院报, 2009(9), 111-113. <br /> <br /> [18] 张梦井. 药品说明书的英译问题[J]. 中国科技翻译, 1995(2): 6-9. <br /> <br /> [19] 周书梅. 顺应论视角下的翻译研究[J]. 山东省农业管理干部学院学报, 2013, 30(5): 138-140. <br /> <br /> --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602==<br /> &lt;center&gt;莫玲 Mo Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Science and technology constitutes a primary productive force. In the contemporary era, with the continuous development of science and technology, artificial intelligence has shown more and more mighty strength, and machine translation has also been derived in the field of translation. In this regard, many people are beginning to worry that machine translation will one day replace human translation. When it comes to me, science and technology is people-oriented, and the continuous development of it aims at servimg mankind in a better standard. Therefore, it is not realistic to separate science and technology from humanities. The appropriate way to solve this dilemma is to integrate the two to achieve the perfectly qualitative change of &quot;1 + 1 &gt; 2&quot;. This paper will first analyze the cons and pros of human translation and machine translation, and then explore the development of computer-aided translation based on the combination of the two types above and the progress should be made in different sectors among our society.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Human Translation, Machine Translation, CAT, Compatibility<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 机器翻译会取代人工翻译吗？<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 科技是第一生产力。在当代，随着科学技术的不断发展，人工智能展现出越来越强大的实力，在翻译领域也相应地衍生出了机器翻译。对此许多人都开始担心机器翻译终有一天会取代人工翻译。在笔者看来，科技以人为本，科学技术的不断发展是为了更好的为人类服务。因而将科技与人文割裂开来的观点是并不现实的，最好的解决办法应是将二者结合起来，实现1+1＞2的完美质变。本文将分析人工翻译与机器翻译各自的优势和劣势，进而探讨二者相结合的后的计算机辅助翻译的发展和社会各个层面应该做出的改进。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 人工翻译，机器翻译，计算机辅助翻译，融合<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> In these years, artificial intelligence has experienced a skipping development and more and more advanced technologies have been applied in our daily life. For example, many factories have introduced some robots to replace the repetitive works done by ordinary workers before. In addition, some restaurants have adopted robots to send the dishes to guests, etc. More and more cases in our life demonstrate the gigantic strength of science and technology. Panicked by this reality, a constantly growing number of people are worrying that they will lose their job one day when the artificial intelligence are more practical than them. This anxiety is also quite common in translation industry. In this field , human translation and machine translation are the two main kinds of translation methods. The former merely relies on the single person to do tranlation, while the latter is based on the vast corpus and developed technique. Since this enormous contrast, some people put forward a question that “Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation?” The answer is absolutely “no”. Actually, these two approaches are not incompatible. Instead, they both have their own advantages and disadvantages and through analysis,we can find that they can remedy their shortbacks by learning the valuable aspects from the other so as to form a “perfect pitch”. In other words,they are complementary to each other. <br /> <br /> Based on these viewpoints, first of all , the pros and cons of human translation and machine translation will be displayed one by one and then the new type of translation---computer-aided translation will be analyzed in detail. At last,confronted with the constantly changing world there are somes personal suggestions for those who work in the translation industry or those who are preparing to march into this field as well as government, colleges and universities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Pros and Cons of Human Translation and Machine Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Human Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 The Advantages =====<br /> <br /> As the traditional main force of translation, mankind own some irreplaceable edges. <br /> <br /> Firstly, they master a sordid foundation about the translation work, including extensive vocabularies, complex grammars, the construction of sentences and so on and so forth. Therefore, it’s hardly for them to make such mistakes.<br /> <br /> Secondly, due to the advanced education they have received, a great number of them has an encyclopedic knowledge about many fields. Furthmore, during the years of learning foreign languages, they have acquired not only the language knowledge but also the histories and cultures of these countries so that they are able to handle with the problems of cultural differences in translation very well.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, people have an capacity of rich emotion and thoughtful mind. When facing with some obscure translation materials, at the beginning they will make a transformation about it and then translate it with their understanding yet maintaining the main idea of the original texts. <br /> <br /> What is more, people are able to summarize the experiences and lessons in the process of translation and then form their own theory. Until now, there have existed a bunch of translation theories to guide the subsequent translators. Such as “faithfulness”(translation should convey the content of the original faithfully and accurately), “expressiveness”(smooth and fluent translation) and “elegance”(the translation should be exquisite) by Yanfu, &quot;functional equivalence&quot; by Eugene Nida, skopos theory by Hans Vermeer, etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Disadvantages=====<br /> <br /> However, the volume of brain is limited and it is impossible for mankind to memorize all the things in the world. Sometimes, they may forget what they have translated and in result cause a repetition of the same work they have done before.<br /> <br /> It is showed from some data that the output of human translation is 2000 words per person in eight hours. Actually that speed is a little bit slow especially when there are strenuous tasks waiting for them. Besides, editors have to check and revise their translations which is quite time-wasting.(Chen Yi 2018,30)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most translators work for governments, institutions, companies or some rich indivuduals. And right now in the translation market ,the standard price are several hundred Yuan per thousand characters. And the wage of intepreting is even more expensive. As a result, ordinary people won’t bother to hire a private translator. Under some circumstances, human translation can’t give a hand to the needed immediately. For instance, when Chinese people are travelling in the foreign countries, they can’t understand the words of those foreigners. At that time, an opportune and cheap translation tool is more desirable.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Machine Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Superiorities=====<br /> <br /> In the condition mentioned above, machine translation can meet tourists' needs perfectly. There are many translation applications in the app store, just like Baidu Translation, Google Translation, Youdao Translation, Hujiang Translation and so on. All of them are free for using and able to translate the language you input in just 1 second. And these applications have covered dozens of foreign languages so as to be the optimizing choice for many people. <br /> <br /> Besides the adoptation in daily life, machine translation has also been utilized in some important conferences. &quot;Translation headset&quot; is one of the most popular translation tools. It is usually combined with a smartphone application to translate the foreign language it heard to users. &quot;After decades of research, we have created an algorithmic framework to recognize language patterns in the same way as the human brain (neural network),&quot; said Andrew Ochoa, CEO of Waverly labs. By combining it with speech recognition technology, we have greatly improved the accuracy of translation. &quot; Therefore, Wearable translation machines made by companies like Waverly labs are really popular at conferences(Global Collections 2020,17).<br /> <br /> With the development of science and technology as well as the artificial intelligence, the system of machine translation has been polished step by step. Nowadays, it has built a huge corpus which contains tens of millions of storations, and translation with high accuracy can be available in some non-literary texts. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 The Inferiorities=====<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, a lot of noticeable defects still remain in machine translation. When it comes to the literary genres just like proses, poems and ancient essays, machine translation is not familiar with the language habits of these genres so as to incline to a failure in comprehending the latent meaning of the words thus nor it can work out an outstanding translation. In most cases it will adopt the method of literal translation, which is a confusing version, which can not express the idea of source language and the images in it can be missed. Take the following poem for example:<br /> <br /> 江雪<br /> <br /> 唐 柳宗元<br /> <br /> 千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br /> <br /> 孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。<br /> <br /> '''Version of Baidu Translation'''<br /> <br /> River Snow<br /> <br /> Birds flying away,<br /> <br /> The trail of thousands of people;<br /> <br /> A lone boat with a straw hat,<br /> <br /> Fishing alone in cold river snow.<br /> <br /> '''Version of Xu Yuanchong'''<br /> <br /> Fishing in snow<br /> <br /> From hill to hill no bird in flight,<br /> <br /> From path to path no man in sight;<br /> <br /> A lonely fisherman afloat<br /> <br /> Is fishing snow in lonely boat.<br /> <br /> Between these two versions, we can easily identify which one is better. In Xu’s translation, he translates “鸟飞绝” &amp;“人踪灭”into “no bird in flight” and “no man in sight”, which get rid of the form of the original text, not only expressing the deep meaning, but also conforming to the English expression habit. In addition, due to the repetition of two sentences in the same pattern, readers can feel a strong sense of monotony. And The most splendid point is the rhyme of first two sentences and last two sentences, which makes the whole poem cathy and add the musical beauty of the translation. On the contrast, the first version by machine is inferior in that it fails to express the artistic conception of the poem. People can’t feel the beauty descriped in the poem. What’s worse, some readers may puzzle about its imcomplete images and incoherent sentences!(Dong Wugang &amp; Xue Jiabao 1996, 56)<br /> <br /> Nor is this all, machines can’t grasp the rich emotions of mankind. Thus they incline to misundersand of tone and deep meaning of the words(Liang Jie 2020,18). Nay, China has a broad and profound civilization and there are numerous of polysemous words in Chinese.Just like “意思”and “方便”.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> <br /> When Zhang San send money to his leader, an interesting dialogue occurs between them. Please explain the different meanings of “意思”in the following sentences.<br /> <br /> 领导(leader)：“你这是什么意思？”(Why do you send me money?)<br /> <br /> 张三(Zhang San)：“没什么意思，意思意思。”(No special purpose, just a small gift.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这就不够意思了。” (Why don’t you tell me your true purpose?)<br /> <br /> 张三：“小意思，小意思。”(Not a big deal.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这人真有意思。” (It’s so interesting of you.)<br /> <br /> 张三：“其实也没有别的意思。”(I don’t have other special intentions on you.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“那我就不好意思了。”(Well, since that, I will accept your money.)<br /> <br /> Apparently, it may even be difficult for some people to get the deep meaning behind this dialogue let alone the senseless machine. Machine translation derived from science and technology are always under the control of human beings, they are always working under the manipulation of humanbeings. Mankind possess an intelligible brain and they can cteate new things according to their needs and imaginations. While machine can not achieve the rich creativity as human brain.<br /> <br /> From all the analysis above, it can be easily seen that human translation and machine translation are strongly complementary. Thus, the best way is to combine them together to learn from the other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies.<br /> <br /> ====3. Computer-Aided Translation====<br /> <br /> To meet the constantly-increasing demand of the market, a new type of translation method named Computer-aided translation (CAT) emerges at the right moment. It is the combination of the two translation methods mentioned above and can help translators complete the translation work with high quality, efficiency and ease. Different from the previous machine translation software, it does not rely on the automatic translation of the computer, but accomplishes the whole translation process with the participation of human beings. Besides, its translation speed can be twice of the human translation, with the quality being the same standard or better. CAT makes a change from the arduous human translation to an automatic process, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Preponderance of This Method====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Translation Memory=====<br /> <br /> Translation memory system, the main tool of computer-aided translation, is a &quot;language database storing the original text and its translation&quot;. During the time when people are working out a translation, CAT are also constructing a translation memory corpus in the backstage. The corpus can automatically store all the translated content. What contributes to our great convenience is that the translation memory system will automatically search the contents in the translation memory database in the later translation. The system will automatically output the translation results if the contents are the same as the sentences and language fragments in the memory corpus; and if the structures or vocabularies of the materials are similar to the sentences in the translation memory database, it will also show corresponding translation references and suggestions. In a word, translation memory system can benifit translators to utilize the contents of previous translation effectively and avoid repeated work, thus greatly improving the speed and quality of translation and saving translation time. According to the statistics, the application of translation memory system can increase the average productivity by 30%, and reduce the translation cost by 15-30%(Chen Yi 2018,31).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Terminology Database=====<br /> <br /> When stepping into the translation industry and becoming a professional translator. It is inevitable that people will be confronted with materials from various fields, just like iatrology, law and science. All of these industries have a great number of terminologies. While human’s brain are limited that they can’t remember all the terms. Under this condition, a ready-made terminology database can be extremely helpful.<br /> <br /> Terminology management system provides a shortcut for translators to automatically search for terms appearing in the translation materials by displaying terms in the interface window of translation memory database or using hotkeys to search the entries in terminology database. Some programs have other hotkey combinations that enable translators to add new terms to the terminology database at the same time during translation. Some more advanced systems allow translators to check interactively or in batch if the correct source / target word combination is used within and between translation memory fragments of a given project. There is also an independent term management system, which can provide workflow functions, visual taxonomy, and be used as a term Checker (similar to a spelling checker to mark terms that are not used correctly), and can also support other types of multilingual term categories, such as pictures, videos or sounds(Global Encyclopedia).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Revise and Automatic Alignment=====<br /> <br /> After translators finish their task on CAT system, it will scan the translation and figure out the numbers of mistakes including spelling, punctuation and so on. This proofeading can make one’s translation more accurate. In addition, the aligner can divide the source text and the target text into multiple fragments and make sure the right match of them so as to build a translation memory database or other reference resources. Many aligners also enable translators to manually realign mismatched fragments (Global Encyclopedia).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Current Situation====<br /> <br /> Right now, due to the tremendous market demand, CAT steps into the golden era of development. There are several popular CAT softwares such as Trados、Déjà V、TransStar、IBM Translation Manager、WordFisher、Wordfast，OmegaT, among which the most famous is the first one. Theses softwares have experienced a long period of development and are relatively mature. They make the translation progress much more convenient than before. However, CAT is not yet a consummate system right now. It has a few drawbacks to be solved. To begin with, CAT is insufficient in the construction of the corpus. Right now, most domestic CAT softwares only restore hundreds of thousands of entries in the database, which is far from enough to meet the needs of translators. In a result, many people gradually emerge the idea that CAT is not workable. People still have to rely on themselves to search the complicated documents and their work are not able to decrease as they want. Nor is this all, sometimes it can be hard for people to extract the terms they need becauese of the failure of identification and although some easy mistakes can be found out, it may be difficult for the system to check out the sophisticated errors, thus people have to spend more time to tackle with the problems in person. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Prospect====<br /> <br /> Despite of the insufficiency of CAT right now, the defects can’t obscure the virtues. CAT has greatly emancipated the productivity of translation industry. Not only that, it has played an important role in reducing translation time, cutting down labor costs, standardizing translation documents, maintaining terminology consistency and ensuring translation quality, etc. In the near future, it is bound to become the main trend of translation development with its wide application all over the world and the functional improvement of various translation software. And the problems mentioned above can be effectively polished with the advancement of science and technology.(Chen Yi 2018,32)<br /> <br /> ===4. Suggestions===<br /> <br /> Facing with the unstoppable trend of artificial intelligence and CAT, should mankind repulse it or accept it? Apparently, the second attitude is more reasonable. For one thing, we can’t hinder the inexorable trend. For another thing, this is a good opportunity for people to utilize the tool to improve themselves.<br /> <br /> So, first and foremost, people should set up an open attitude, accepting CAT with an embracing mentality. It is no need to be afraid that machine will surpass human. Instead mankind is always the master of science and technology. Putting oneself on a pedestal is not a good way to make progress. And holding fast to one’s established ideas will eventually be sifted out by the era. In Qing Dynasty(1636-1912), the emperor and even the whole country praised the nation as the great kingdom. Since ancient time, China was abundant in natural resources and they were self-sufficient and self-contained. Thus the government constantly puesued a policy of “cutting off the country from the outside world”. At that time, the Western countries were going on an unprececedentedly industrial revolution. Through the renovation, the westerners immensely improved their productive forces and their countries got a rapid development. When the trend were heard by the Chinese emperor, they disdained to learn from the technology and regarded it as a diabolic trick. In this way, the gap between the East and the West was larger and larger. It was not until the breaking of the Opium War that Chinese people realized they have lagged behind a lot. Once a country was backward, it would be insulted by anyone else. After that, the Qing government was constantly forced to sign treaties of humiliating the country and forfeiting its sovereignty. The citizens were plunged into dire suffering. Under this circumstance, social conflicts intensified. Finally, the revolution of 1911 broke out and overthrew the Qing Dynasty. A feudal dynasty of more than 200 years fell down. Since the principle that lagging behind leaves one vulnerable to attacks is even applicable to a country, let alone the ordinary people. There is an old saying that “He who goes with the tide prospers, and he who goes against it dies”. The power of science and technology should never be looked down upon. The original purpose of this is to benifit the mankind rather than overthrow us. It is a powerful tool to help us scale new heights. If tranlators refuse to acquire the new skill, they will one day be weeded out by the industry.<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of market, the quality of translation talents should be improved accordingly. The span for talent training of translation majors in China is relatively short that it has only been 10 years since the establishment of Bachelor of Translation and Interpreting(BTI) and Master of Translation and Interpreting(MTI) in Colleges and universities across the country. The current situation of translation technology education in the cultivation of translation professionals is not optimistic either. First of all, compared with foreign universities and domestic universities in Hongkong, Macao and Taiwan, there is still a long way to open translation technology courses in domestic universities. According to the research by Lv Lisong and Mu Lei(2007,37), universities in Hong Kong and Taiwan of China work closely with translation companies to provide translation technology teaching for students. However, Manchester, London University, Ottawa University of Canada and other foreign universities have established a developed system in terms of machine translation, terminology management, translation technology training curriculum, personnel training mode and translation testing, and formed an effective model. On the contrary, many domestic colleges and universities still do not pay enough attention to translation technology education, which leads to the failure of translation technology education courses in some colleges and universities. A survey of 12 universities in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Chongqing, Liaoning, Jilin, Henan, Hebei, Hubei, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Sichuan and other provinces and universities found that 11 of the 43 universities (a large part of which are &quot;985&quot; universities and &quot;211&quot; universities) with MTI have not yet opened translation technology courses, accounting for 25%. If the scope of the survey is extended to the secondary and tertiary institutions, the situation may be even worse(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106).<br /> <br /> In this regard, the education of Chinese mainland is a little bit backward. There are several reasons for this phenomenon. To begin with, the perception of the educators and education system are rather outdated. The existing education system pay much attention to the translation and interpreting ability of students. This is a common pattern in many middle schools, high schools and even colleges and universities. As an English major student, the writer has the personal experience. During the university period. The most courses still focus on the cultivation of the basic skills of students. Although there are translation and interpreting classes every week, the normal model is that at first teachers will teach some translation theories or techniques, and then there will be some exercises for students to practice. Students are almost inaccessible to computing courses. This may resulted from the short of appropriate funds for education. China is a nation with a great number of population, and its population growth rate is also fast. As a result, the pressure on education has been relatively high. The commonly used index to measure whether a country's financial education funds are sufficient or not is the proportion of financial education funds in Gross Domestic Product(GDP). In China, this proportion has been at a low level for a long time. Although the education funds have been increasing with the continuous development of China's economy after the Reform and Opening up, yet the fact is that “There are too many monks and too little gruel.”---the funds allocated to each school are still far from enough. Take Hunan province as an example. In the year of 2000, China's financial education funds accounted for 2.87% of GDP, which failed to reach the target of 4% of GDP in 2000 as proposed in the outline of China's education reform and development. In 2003, the GDP of Hunan Province was 463.4 billion yuan, and the national financial expenditure on education was 11.179 billion yuan, accounting for 2.44% of GDP, an increase of 0.01 percentage points over the previous year. However, in 2004, the proportion of national financial education expenditure in GDP decreased to 2.34%, which is still far from the target of 4%.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15).<br /> <br /> Besides the deficiency of educational funds, the allocation of it is also a cause. Usually, colleges and universities tend to use the fund to ameliorate the living condition and the construction of infrastructures, and then stuents’ scholarship and subsideies are indispensible. What is more, the salaries of teachers and all the staffs are also a big expenditure. Besides these, many colleges and universities attaches great importance to the scientific research items so that more money will be involved in these projects. Opposely, the development of the liberal arts may be less highlighted. In response to this problem, the writer deems that government and universities should both make some changes. As for government, they should carry out a policy that encourage the cultivation of computer skills; when it comes to the colleges and universities, they are supposed to enlarge the investment in the multimedia intelligent classrooms, and more techers who are sufficient in the operation of CAT should be enrolled. So far, Peking University has open a major named CAT, which is aimed to cultivate the professional talents to meet the needs of market.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Will machine translation replace human translation or not? Toward this question, the answer is an absolute “No”. As far as I am concerned, both the human tranlation and machine translation have their pros and cons. Human are able to comprehend the complex emotions in the texts and handle it with flexible expressions. In this aspect, machine can’t reach the human standard just like examples of “《江雪》”and “意思”mentioned above. Besides, mankind are familiar with the differences between various of countries so as to minimize the rate of committing a blunder, while the machine doesn’t have a brain like human’s. Their work is to translate the materials according to the superficial meanings. However, machine owns a huge volume (much more larger than human brain)which can store numerous materials and its working speed is hundreds of times of human’s(Pang Yingyu 2019,165). In the contemporary era, translators should first of all polish their translation skills and improve their ability to flexibly use various translation strategies and skills(Yao Li 2020,201-202). The old saying goes that “It takes a good blacksmith to make steel.” By the time, people are still the main force in the translation industry and machine translation stays in an auxiliary position. Human should not rely on machine to do all the works. The translators should improve their competitiveness through sordid multi-lingual knowledge, translation practice as well as stronger learning capacity and so on and so forth. At the same time, translators are also supposed to adopt an embracing attitude to acquire the comouter-aided translation skills. After all, with the further advancement of science and technology, the trend is inevitable. Actually, human translation and machine translation are highly compatible, which can greatly improve the translation efficiency and reduce people’s workload. Thus, the combination of the two methods is highly appreciated and the new type of CAT is bound to become the tide of the future.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Yi,Fan Jiaolian. 陈谊,范姣莲.(2018). 计算机辅助翻译——新世纪翻译的趋势[Computer-Aided Translation-the Trend of Translation in the New Era] 中国现代教育装备[China mordern educational equipment] 30-32.<br /> <br /> Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao. 董务刚,薛家宝.(1996). 评许渊冲诗《江雪》[Appreciation of Xu Yuanchong's Translation &quot;Fishing in Snow&quot;] 盐城师专学报[Journal of Yancheng Normal School] 56.<br /> <br /> 计算机翻译会取代人工翻译吗？[Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not?] (2020) 环球采风[Globe Collections] 17.<br /> <br /> Liang Jie. 梁洁.(2020). 人工智能对翻译行业的影响[The Influence of Artificial Intelligence on Translation Industry] 家庭科技[Family Science and Technology] 17-18.<br /> <br /> Lv Lisong,Mu Lei. 吕立松,穆雷.(2007) 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[Technique of Translation-Aided Translation and Translation Education] 外语界[The Field of Foreign Language] 37.<br /> <br /> Pang Yingyu. 庞盈羽. (2019) 谈机器翻译与人工翻译的关系—从机器翻译与计算机辅助翻译的发展角度[Analysis of the Relationship Between Machine Translation and Human Translation--From the Perspective of the Development of Machine Translation and Computer-Aided Translation]. 科学大众·科学教育[Scientific Masses·Scientific Education] 164-165.<br /> <br /> 计算机辅助翻译[Computer-aided translation].(2020). 全球百科[Global Encyclopedia] https://vibaike.com/.<br /> <br /> Wu Sheng. 吴晟.(2016) 湖南省省属普通高校财政拨款体制研究[Research on the Financial Allocation System of Provincial Colleges and Universities in Hunan Province] 湖南师范大学[Hunnu Normal University] 14-16.<br /> <br /> Yaoli. 姚莉.(2020) 机器翻译时代,译者应该坚持技能与技术的融合[Translators Should Keep the Compatibility Between Skills and Technique in the Era of Machine Translation]. 科技经济导刊[Technology and Economic Guide] 201-202.<br /> <br /> Zhu Chaowei. 祝朝伟.（2018）机器翻译要取代作为人的译者了吗？—兼谈翻译人才培养中科技与人文的关系[Is Machine Translation Going to Replace Human Translators? -On the relationship between science and technology and Humanities in the cultivation of translation talents]. 外国语文[Foreign Literature] 106-108.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation 袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi==<br /> <br /> '''浅析汉语公示语的英译'''<br /> <br /> 英语笔译 袁天翼<br /> <br /> 摘 要：在这个经济全球化、政治多极化、文化全球化、科技现代化、信息共享化的时代，全球经济纵深发展，人类命运共同体日趋形成，人与人、国家与国家间的联系日益密切，这时，汉语公示语的英译问题便被提上了议程。尽管中国汉语公示语的英译翻译员越来越多，但是汉语公示语的英译问题层出不穷。本文简析了汉语公示语定义，例举了生活中常见的一些汉语公示语的英译典型问题，并针对此给出了一些翻译方法与策略，并进行了未来展望。<br /> <br /> 关键词：汉英翻译；公示语；翻译策略<br /> <br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': In this economic globalization, political polarization, cultural globalization, technological modernization and informative sharing age, the global economy is deeply developing, and the human community with a shared future is coming into shape day by day. The relations among people and among countries are increasing day by day. At this time, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation become the topic of us. Though the number of Chinese-English public sign translators in China grows daily, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation emerge endlessly. This passage offers a brief analysis of the definition of Chinese-English public sign, points out some typical problems in Chinese-English public sign translation we see in daily life, analyzes some methods and strategies of Chinese-English public sign translation, and gives some outlooks on the future of Chinese-English public sign translation. <br /> <br /> '''Key Words''': Chinese-English translation; public sign; translation strategies<br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> '''I. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> &quot;The public sign is a specially applied literary form that was formed in modern times, which has a long history. It is used in public places and seen by the masses thus realizing unique communicative purposes. The public sign has become a crucial link in the communication between China and other countries in the international community. In the meantime, there are increasingly more experts and scholars paying attention to the translation of Chinese public signs into English.&quot; (Reiss 2004,12). <br /> <br /> &quot;As an important tool for international communication, Chinese-English public sign translation plays an extremely important role in foreign friends’ understanding of Chinese culture&quot;.（Wang Huili 2019,31） Its applied range is so wide that nearly covers every aspect of our daily life, including: Introductions of tourism trips, propaganda languages, warning languages, road signs, shop signs and advertising boards. It is mostly used on public infrastructure: Subway, airport, taxi, pier, tourist spot, park, street, community, shop, supermarket, restaurant, bank, hotel, cinema, hospital and etc. It uses simple words or sentences, or pictures only, or combines words and pictures to pass useful information to the masses, which not only serves Chinese people, but also is shown to the foreigners, which can help foreigners in China study, work and live. <br /> <br /> '''II. The Current Situation of Chinese-English Public Sign'''<br /> <br /> Public signs are an art of convincing others through effective verbal means, which are also components of language activities. They, in essence, belong to a special kind of communication. However, it is not a kind of face-to-face communication that takes place in a specific period of time, and none of the participants will appear as individuals. The object is for all the people with social behaviors in the place, regardless of gender, age, class or education level. Public signs belong to “one-way communication”, and its binding force or influence will not be as big as direct communication, but it is also used to act with words and deeds, and affects the behavior of the audience with a clear purpose. &quot;Public signs have become a natural window for Chinese and other languages in various economic, trade and cultural activities.&quot;（Yang Yang 2020, 34）<br /> <br /> Public signs are everywhere, so what are their functions? &quot;Their functions can be divided into showing, warning, profiting, encouraging and eulogizing such five functions. (Zhou Shuxia 2017,239)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the public sign that has showing function offers all-round information about service, order, or informing service. Such as “Car Rental” and “Children and Senior Citizens Free”.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the public sign that has warning function comes up with restrictive or obligatory demands to typical people, which is often used through order, ban, information or persuasion tones. Such as: “Stand in Line” , and “Thieves Beware”. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the public sign that has profiting function promotes consumption, thus realizing enterprises’ economic profits. Such as: “Daily Special”, “Daily Service”. <br /> <br /> Fourthly, the public sign that has encouraging function calls for or encourages people to take actions for certain goals or tasks. Such as: “One Family, One Child”, and “Working together, we can make a world of difference”. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, the public sign that has eulogizing function gives wishes and chants to certain events or people to reach the goals of propaganda or education. Such as: “One World, One Dream”. &quot;<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (Eugene Nida 2004, 15) said, &quot;Chinese-English translation of public signs embraces the conversion of two different languages and two different cultures, which is not only to achieve the language equivalence, cultural equivalence, but also to enhance the possibility of understanding and the reading of Chinese-English translation of public signs.&quot;<br /> <br /> However, there are many problems in Chinese-English public sign translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In 2003, Clive W. J. Granger, a Nobel Economics Prize Winner talked of the settings and problems of public signs in Beijing when he was interviewed by a program of Beijing TV Station. He said: “Foreigners will feel a little bit nervous when they come to China, because they can not understand public signs in China. ” Clive’s comment extremely shows current problems in Chinese-English public sign translation .&quot;(Lv Hefa 2005,38)<br /> <br /> On June 20th, 2017, a national standard conference of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service was held in Beijing. The Vice Minister of the Education Ministry and Director of the National Language Commission stressed in the meeting: “The language and character industry of China is expanding from ‘striving to promote and normally use the national common language, scientifically protecting every nation’s language and character’ to ‘managing social foreign language use and improving foreign language service quality’. ” The national standard of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service is the standard of English translation and writing quality in public service fields, which stipulates the English translation principles, methods and requirements of transportation, tourism, culture, entertainment, physical exercise, education, medical health, postal service, telecommunication, catering, accommodation, commerce and finance these thirteen service fields. &quot;Nowadays, public signs are often bilingual to meet the needs of international communication.&quot;(Wang Xunian 2020,69)<br /> <br /> To sum up, there are still many major problems in China’s public sign translation, common and ubiquitous, which make foreign experts comment like that and the government use national force to normalize translation standards. &quot;Whether the translation of public signs in scenic spots into English is harmonious and unified has a great influence on cross-cultural communication &quot;.(Pinkham John 2000, 156)<br /> <br /> '''III. The Causes of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> '''3. 1 The Basic Linguistic Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> To be a proficient Chinese-English public sign translator, one must, fundamentally, grasp basic linguistic rules of English and Chinese, otherwise he or she must make stupid mistakes, and some even primary learners will not make. &quot;There are many problems in the translation of public signs from English to Chinese, which should not be limited to the translation of the original text, but should pay attention to the context of public signs.&quot;(Chen Daobin 2020, 9)<br /> <br /> [[File:No.1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.1<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3684466622,1422277554&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.1 is a public sign put on a glass wall in a mall, the Chinese reads“全年无休(QUAN NIAN WU XIU)”, and it tries to use English to express that “This business runs the whole year”, so the precise translation should be “NO REST DAY ALL YEAR”. But there, we can see it was translated as“365DAY SA TEAR”, which does not belong to the grammatical law of English. So this is a big mistake. Only one who understands Chinese can understand. But for ordinary foreigners, they can not. So, when translating Chinese-English public sign, the translator must be clear about the target language, and know the basic grammatical venation, then begin to translate, instead of randomly putting some letters together and finishing. Otherwise, the translator will make a big mistake like this picture.<br /> <br /> A public sign in Haichang Ocean Park of Chengdu City, Sichuan Province reads &quot;Jellyfish Museum, the 2th floor&quot;. More specifically, it is a floor direction sign. Here, the correct English for the second floor should be “2nd”, not “2th”. Apparently that the translator has poor knowledge of English vocabulary, which led he or she to make such a ridiculous mistake. Actually, in English language, if there is a number contains “11”, “12”or “13”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “11th”, “12th” or “13th” respectively; And if there is a number contains“1”, “2”or “3”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “1st”, “2nd” or “3rd” respectively. For example, “101st”, “111th”, “201st”, “211th” and etc. <br /> <br /> No.3 is a warning sign of a tourist spot, reads &quot;The rockery danger, pleases no climb&quot;, whose Chinese meaning is “There stands a rockery, it is dangerous to climb, every one is forbidden from climbing it. ” The Chinese meaning is alright. But, when it was translated into English, a big mistake occurred: “The rockery danger Pleases no climb.”<br /> <br /> First, there should be “climbing” after “no”, not “climb”, this is just English grammar knowledge that can be learned in primary school; And the “Please” is followed by a “s”, why does the translator use third person singular at the top of a imperative sentence? Second, if the translator wants to tell the tourists that the rockery is dangerous and mustn’t be climbed, he or she should write: “The rockery is dangerous. Please don’t climb” or “Dangerous rockery. No climbing” or just “No climbing”. Unless the foreigners who see this sign have supreme understanding ability, they will not easily make sense of it. <br /> <br /> 3. 2 The Tendency Towards Chinglish and Mechanical Translation<br /> <br /> Knowing a little about English, then begin to translate public sign. This is ridiculous, which is definitely going to cause obvious mistakes. Especially when translating, there is a high probability that the translator will make Chinglish errors, or tend to seek for mechanical translation, which are the most common public sign translation problems in mainland China. With regard to the tendency towards Chinglish, it only proves that the translator’s basic skills of English are not so proficient, and he or she does not fit for translation work. For the tendency towards mechanical translation, on the one hand, it demonstrates that the translator is lazy, who is not willing to think about how to translate. On the other hand, it reveals his or her lack of basic English language knowledge. In fact, these two both can be easily avoided, only if the translator pays a little more attention to it or is earnest and dedicated to their work. All those mistakes should not have been made. &quot;To understand the language style of Public signs in English, it is imperative to carry out idiomatic and standardized translation of public signs in Chinese.&quot;(Pang Yan 2020, 34)<br /> <br /> No.4, this is a sign that is hung in an Internet celebrity milk tea shop: Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province. It reads &quot;out of the cup area&quot;. It originally means that the customers should queue here to get their milk tea after finishing paying. The translator should have easily translated “出杯区（CHU BEI QU）”into “FETCH AREA”, but it was translated as “OUT OF THE CUP AREA”, what a joke! Purely it was translated word-for-word. The translator did not understand its true meaning. Probably it was translated by a machine. As an Internet celebrity milk tea shop runner, when dealing with such kind of cultural issues, he or she should be extremely careful, earnest and cautious, instead of casually simply copying the contents given by a machine or hiring a third-rate translator and asking him or her to randomly translate. Large scale milk tea shops must shoulder their required obligations, and undertake necessary responsibilities and duties on public sign translation. Imagine that a foreigner, who can not understand it, stand there and think: What? Standing here is standing outside the cup? Maybe something interesting would happen. Let me try!<br /> All those will bring big and standing jokes. <br /> <br /> No.5 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province. It reads&quot; tourists get off area&quot;. Its Chinese meaning is: This is the place that tourists get off from a bus. But, it was translated as “Tourists get off area”, which fully shows the ignorance and lack of English language knowledge of the translators. People may can not help doubting whether it is copied from the translation given by a machine. Famous tourist spots like this, especially this kind of 5A tourist spot, can not even shoulder the cultural obligations, let alone developing in the long run. They should make big mistakes in such a little public sign translation! Do they only want to serve Chinese well while ignoring foreigners?<br /> <br /> Similarly, No.6 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province, and it reads &quot;up the mountain&quot;. The Chinese meaning is “This is the passage that leads tourists to climb the mountain”. The translation should have been a very easy and fun job, but when the sign is showed to tourists, a big big joke was born: “Up the mountain”. We can say “uphill way” or “uphill passage”, but, the translator obviously did not realize it. What’s more, when “up” is used as a verb, it is completely another meaning. It is also the symbol of such irresponsible spot management. <br /> <br /> No.7, it is a napkin given by an Internet celebrity milk tea shop (Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province ) for free after buying its milk tea. It reads &quot;more China, more fashion&quot;. At first glance, everything seems okay. But more carefully, we can find the mistake. The Chinese meaning is “If there are more elements with Chinese characteristics, it will be more fashionable.” But when translating, maybe with the aid of machine, or lack of a solid English knowledge foundation, it becomes “More China, more fashion”. If the customer is a Chinese, it does not matter, for he or she can understand it, and just shows a smile. But if foreigners see, they will be pretty shocked by the sight: What the hell is this? They will think that this shop lacks money to hire a good translator, and the managers are stupid. Furthermore, the Chinese national image will be badly affected. In fact, this sentence can be translated as “The more sinicization there is, the more fashion there will be” or “With greater Chinese characteristics come more fashion”. Easier? It can be “More sinicization breeds more fashion”. Translated like these, won’t it be much more correct and intelligible?<br /> <br /> '''3. 3 The Misunderstanding of the Public Sign Translators'''<br /> <br /> It is the little knowledge of English of the translators that makes them can not even spell a basic word correctly; Or due to carelessness, they make mistakes on public sign translation, thus causing mistakes on the meaning of the sign. All these are significant reasons why there are so many mistakes in Chinese-English public signs. &quot;Errors and ambiguities in public signs are not allowed, as they can lead to disorientation, confusion, and lessening of the force of the warning.&quot;(Pan Xutong 2020, 251)<br /> <br /> [[File:No.8.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.8<br /> [https://www.sinaimg.cn/edu/cr/2015/0316/3124267229.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.8. The Chinese meaning of it is “The door or passage that leads you to the outside”, in short, “EXIT”. But the public sign was translated as“EXPORT”, so, what is “EXPORT”? In a word, it means trade among different countries. The commercial goods pass through the customs, being transported from one country to another country. Distinctly, the maker was careless, who has mixed the meaning of “出口（Chu Kou）”in Chinese, thus resulting in an obvious translation error. As for public sign translation, translators must weigh every word, and think over and over and over again, not just search online, and grab all the words you “discover”, which is a highly irresponsible behavior, an extremely irresponsible behavior to the society and the country . <br /> <br /> [[File:No.9.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.9<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4069547043,45136776&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.9 is from a hospital department. Its Chinese meaning is: Here is neurology emergency department. It uses a special logogram in Chinese. But, the maker was misled, so, he or she translated it as “God Medical”. If a person has a little common sense, he or she will be made to laugh wildly. It is completely the “Understanding of a sentence simply by a word”! That should be translated as “ Department of Emergency Neurology”. Such a casual translation will make Christians think that they can see God for real. Whether can he see death here or a way to heaven with a passionate God serving you? To some extent, this is disrespect for Christians, which can even cause disputes. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.10.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.10<br /> [https://ss0.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4055489075,1169617432&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.10 is photographed in a company building. Here, the Chinese means: this is the place where you can get boiled water. However, the translator of this public <br /> sign made a huge mistake, because he or she disintegrated the three Chinese words one by one, and thus translating them one by one, which can not be understood as a whole, let alone enable foreigners to understand the meaning of this public sign, and as a result, foreigners may not receive the service that they deserve. What’s worse, many people, including intelligent Chinese, when seeing this disqualified translation, will definitely be amused, and feel funny: What is this guy’s literate level?<br /> <br /> As a matter of fact, this public sign can be translated as “Boiled Water Room”. “开水”means “boiled water” in English. Certainly, the translator treated the “开”as a verb “open”, which is absolutely wrong. <br /> <br /> Further, this is a single room, not two or more, so we must use “room”, which is the plural form, instead of the singular form “rooms”. <br /> <br /> 3. 4 The Falsification and Loss of Information<br /> <br /> Originally, the managers want to use signs to warn people, but due to mistranslation, the information is tampered and missed, resulting in an opposite consequence, and producing big jokes.&quot;Standardized translation of public signs can improve the international language environment of cities, on the other hand, it is responsible for improving the level of urban opening to the outside world.&quot;(Liu Peiyu 2020, 67)<br /> <br /> No.11 is a public warning sign in Liuxiang Barbecue Restaurant. It reads &quot; carefully hot&quot;. Is it a true warning? In the foreigners’ opinion, it is not. People who speak Chinese can realize that this sign was designed to warn customers not to be burned by the hot oven. However, the English translation is far from what it originally means. The correct translation can be “Careful! Hot!” or “Be Careful of the Hot Oven!” But according to the translation on the sign, it means “Carefully burn yourself”. Luckily, this is a small scale restaurant, if it were a large one, its reputation would be badly affected. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.12.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.12<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3765137851,1011242048&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.12 is a public sign in a large shopping center. As we all know, modern shopping centers now always use smooth and shiny tile floor as the ground, which makes the shopping centers look beautiful and attractive. However, smooth though it is, one big safety problem then comes into shape: The ground is too smooth to make shoppers slide and fall. Later, the managers made public signs like No.12 to warn people not to fall. The Chinese warning is okay, Chinese shoppers can understand, but when foreigners see this, he or she will burst out laughing: What? You order me to slide on the floor with care? What on earth do you mean? I have even seen an Internet celebrity girl posting an video clip that tells us a story that satirizes this mistranslation: The girl and her father slide joyfully on the ground in a shopping center while murmuring “Carefully slide! Carefully slide!” As a matter of fact, The correct Chinese-English translation should be “Caution! Slippery!” or “Beware of Wet Floor” or “Caution! Wet Floor”. Each one of the three is okay. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.13.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.13<br /> [https://ss2.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=461657809,3986868053&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.13 is a public sign that is put on the ceiling of a restaurant’s stair. Here, the translator wanted to pass such information by Chinese and English: Watch <br /> your head, do not hit the low ceiling of the stair. Be careful. Though the Chinese information is okay, the English, however, can not by understood by others, especially foreigners. <br /> <br /> Here, the makers wanted to warn the danger of the low ceiling, not to ask people to purposely hit the ceiling. So we can correct it as: “Watch Your Head”, or “Be Careful”. Both are okay. <br /> <br /> Here, the translator made a mistranslation, which reversed the original meaning when translating, thus producing a huge laughingstock. First, “碰”is not “meet”, but “hit”, according to this specific environment. It does not mean “meet someone”. Second, “小心碰头” means not to hit the ceiling, not to “meet carefully”. <br /> <br /> Throughout so many examples, every one can see that the mistakes of public sign translation are ubiquitous and common in daily life, which you can even randomly pick up one from any store you meet. Pervasive errors like these in public signs will negatively affect China’s reform and opening-up and the integration into international community, which will not only make foreigners misunderstand the meaning, but also seriously damage China’s national image. Therefore, the study of the public sign translation is extremely urgent and imperative. At present, translators must start from basic demand of Chinese-English public sign translation, endeavor to learn English well, cultivate a good sense of utilizing English and a great mindset of English utilization, proactively take part in English translation practice, and be highly alert and form a sense of “Using English language in a proper, correct, suitable and decent way”. Only then will the situation of Chinese-English public sign translation turn better. &quot;Due to the specific role of public signs, their translation is different from literary translation and has powerful functional characteristics.&quot;(Liu Hui 2020, 43)<br /> <br /> IV. Public Sign Translation Methods<br /> <br /> There is a saying goes: “Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards. ” So is the Chinese-English public sign translation. Zhang Yan (Zhang Yan 2015,44) maintains in her paper that, &quot;the public sign translation methods can be summarized as four kinds. <br /> <br /> '''4. 1 Amplification'''<br /> <br /> Many new words that are with Chinese characteristics, especially combined with numbers, need using amplification to introduce to foreign readers. For example, in the past, “五讲四美三热爱(Wu Jiang Si Mei San Re Ai）”was translated as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves”. Many foreigners said that they could not understand it. Later, it was revised as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves” with the notation “ stress on decorum, manners, hygiene, discipline and morals; beauty of the mind, language, behavior and the environment; love of the motherland, socialism and the Communist Party”. Hence, foreigners can easily understand its connotation. Public signs are information-type and calling-type texts, which should focus on the information transmission of the original text in translation. Therefore, communicative translation can be regarded as a good theoretical basis.(Shen Jianwen 2020, 69)<br /> <br /> '''4. 2 Ellipsis'''<br /> <br /> To make sure that the translation is concise and intelligible, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators must properly delete unnecessary words according to English expressing habits to achieve overall generalization. Such as: “Food Paradise”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 3 Re-translation'''<br /> <br /> Due to cultural differences, many folk adages with Chinese characteristics will not be understood by readers once simply read literally. So translators can moderately reorganize those sentences that can not be translated or understood. Such as: “Drinking and Driving Costs Your Life”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 4 Backward Translation'''<br /> <br /> There are two cases: Translating the cultural expressions that are borrowed from translation back into their original forms in the target language; Translating the expressions with obvious cultural characteristics into the idiomatic expressions in the target language. Such as: “Venus Florist”. <br /> The English public sign has its own cultural and pragmatic meanings. When doing the Chinese-English public sign translation, translators should consider about the cultural differences and avoid any form of ambiguity, misunderstanding or mistranslation, and offer high quality information service, thus making public sign translation advance with the times. &quot;<br /> <br /> '''V. Public Sign Translation Strategies'''<br /> <br /> He Xueyun (He Xueyun, 2006) holds in her thesis that, &quot;theoretically, semantic translation and communicative translation differ much. Semantic translation strives to keep the language specialty and unique express method of the original work, in order to express the original work’s thinking process; However, communicative translation’s key point lies in spreading information and enabling people to think, feel and act, giving play to the function of information that language conveys and the consequences it causes. &quot;Public sign translation must focus on results, and put readers first, only by this can we improve the current situation of public sign translation, thus achieving the purposes of public sign translation. <br /> <br /> Before beginning to do anything, we all need a world view and methodology to guide us to behave well. Likewise, when doing Chinese-English public sign translation, we also need guiding ideology to direct us. Here, I will show you four Chinese-English public sign translation strategies, which act as guiding ideology, which are definitely going to be a powerful weapon for you. Just remember them and practice them, you will gain a lot. &quot;To strengthen the research on the Translation of public signs into English, improve the translation quality of bilingual public signs and improve the translation of bilingual public signs are the urgent tasks to promote the cross-cultural communication of city image.&quot;(Niu Haihua 2020, 118)<br /> <br /> '''5.1 No Grammatical, Semantic and Logical Error'''<br /> <br /> The most basic prerequisite of public sign translation is that there is no language error: No grammatical error, no vocabulary spelling error, no language context error, no Chinglish or machine-aided translation error. <br /> <br /> “This is office area, tourists mustn’t enter” can be translated as “Staff Only”, not “OFFICE AREA PLEASE DON’T COMING”, or you will make a grammatical and redundant error. “Be careful, don’t slip into water” can be translated as “Caution! Deep Water!” instead of “TAKE CARE! FALL INTO WATER CAREFULLY!” Otherwise, people will can not help laughing. <br /> <br /> One translator was not able to translate “The grass is so beautiful, are you sure you wan to walk on it?” into English public sign, so here comes <br /> “Fangcaoqiqi riding the Heren”. What a laughingstock! This is a combination between Chinese and English, without any grammar structure. Not to translate it will be a much better choice. We can concisely translate it as “Don’t Walk on the Beautiful Grass!”<br /> <br /> '''5. 2 Concise and Intelligible Translation'''<br /> <br /> One prominent character of public sign is conciseness. It asks people to ensure the translation is crystal clear and precise, without any compound or obscure sentence. Only by achieving this can the signs become popularized, instead of making people think over and over and over again to discover their cryptic meaning. <br /> <br /> The public sign translation must be concise and intelligible, which means that you not only need to precisely convey what the maker means to people, but also must be concise. People can understand it immediately without comprehension deviation or ambiguity. <br /> <br /> '''5. 3 Understanding of Cultural Background Differences'''<br /> <br /> When translating, every translator must thoroughly understand the culture of the targeted language. Translators must comprehensively understand each specific use of the targeted language under different cultural backgrounds. If not doing so, it may cause severe disputes, and even cause irresistible outcomes. Here are several examples. <br /> <br /> “Dragon” is a legendary animal in traditional Chinese culture. Chinese people often view themselves as “dragon”, and even say that they are “Descendants of the Dragon”. Thus, “Dragon” means holy and sacred thing in Chinese culture. But in English speaking countries, the meaning of “dragon” is not so. In these countries, “dragon” means something evil like Satan, sometimes it is even used to describe thugs, scoundrels or other bad behaviorists. Therefore, invariably coping the icon of “dragon” and using it in other cultures is a definite mistake. In a word, a public sign language translator must totally comprehend the cultural background differences. <br /> <br /> '''5. 4 Obedience to Certain Norms and Standards'''<br /> <br /> As long as someone is translating, he or she must obey certain rules, norms and standards. He mustn’t translate according to his will. This is a truth. <br /> For example, according to China’s first set of standards on how to regulate the use of foreign languages in China, which was jointly issued by the State Standards Commission and the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine on November 20, 2017 and officially implemented on December 1, 2017, some of the standards have been specified in detail. <br /> <br /> Names of tourist spots: Names of mountains, rivers and lakes should be written in Chinese pinyin. Translations of names of temples should vary according to different situations, so are the towers’ names. In line with external service needs, English explanations can be added. <br /> <br /> '''VI. The Future of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> China is a major powerful country, and is the country with the second highest Gross Domestic Product in the world, which is why China should keep close economic and cultural relationships with other countries. &quot;In order to integrate China with international community in a better way, there must be high quality public sign translation. To optimize the translation quality of public signs, the most important way is to realize the standardization of the translation of public signs.&quot;(Ding Ying 2020,78)<br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation must improve the China’s influence power in international community. High quality public sign translation represents that China is rich in translators and intellects, and shows that China can fulfill obligations and shoulder responsibilities as a major country. Achieving this means China not only takes responsibilities for Chinese people, but also for all human beings. Good quality public sign translation is definitely going to significantly synergize the course of reform and opening-up. High quality public sign translation is obliged to facilitate foreigners to travel in China, boost domestic consumption demand, form a new growth point for economy, promote the rise of Gross Domestic Product, and accelerate the comprehensive, coordinated and sustainable development. High quality public sign translation is also an integral part of the New Development Philosophy: Innovation, coordination, green, open and share. High quality public sign translation corresponds to the New Normal of Chinese economy. At present, the economy of China has been changing from developing at a high speed to develop at high quality, and is at the stage of changing economic development mode, transforming driving forces of economic development and optimizing the economic structure, so high quality public sign translation is badly needed. Thus, considering the big change of Chinese economy, achieving high quality public sign translation is an urgent affair. &quot;Public signs have a strong linguistic function and social value. Pragmatic or social pragmatic failures caused by cultural differences often occur in the translation of public signs. Therefore, it is necessary to fully understand the cultural connotation of the original text in translation.&quot;(Li Jing 2020, 229)<br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation has the duty to embody a city’s humanism spirit, cultural speciality and charm, which is the inevitable requirement of core socialist values and system. It also promotes the spreading of Chinese culture, and improves the influence power of Chinese culture. High quality public sign translation also levels up Chinese people and overseas Chinese’s sense of identity and belonging. What’s more, it can narrow the gap between Chinese and foreigners, and acquire more recognition from them towards China. Domestically, high quality public sign translation can strengthen national cohesion; Externally, it will strengthen China’s soft power, and increase China’s international speaking right while creating national radiation power. <br /> &quot;It is an important measure to improve China’s public service and governance capability by establishing an evaluation mechanism and promoting the standardization of English translation. It is of great benefit to further improve China’s service level of opening to the outside world, demonstrate its cultural soft power and enhance its international image&quot; .(Guo Jinghong 2019, 154)<br /> <br /> In short, looking forward to the future of Chinese-English public sign translation from a strategic perspective, translators must remain true to their original aspiration and keep their mission firmly in mind, which is: To be devoted to the future of socialism with Chinese characteristics, to be dedicated to the landscape of translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and to be committed to the sustainable development of Chinese-English public sign translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics. &quot;The translation of public signs from Chinese to English needs to consider the actual situation of English speakers and abide by international uniform rules, so that foreign friends can directly understand the contents of public signs.&quot;(Song Yanbei 2020,64)<br /> <br /> The English translation of public signs of tourist attractions belongs to the category of cross-cultural communication, and the translator should have certain cross-cultural knowledge and awareness, so that the English translation can be more understood and accepted by the audience and truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication&quot;. (Yang Hongyu, 2019) Since reform and opening-up, China has been integrating into the international community day by day. To fully achieve this, as regards of Chinese-English public sign translation, we still have a long way to go. There is no time for us to delay the work of strengthening, proceeding, and improving public sign translation. The rising level of quality of Chinese-English public sign translation will improve both city image and urbanization level. He Xueyun contends in her article that, many people take it for granted that if one knows a foreign language, he then can translate. As a matter of fact, basic skills of public sign translation not only includes foreign language level, but also the knowledge of foreign cultures. <br /> <br /> '''VII. Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> So, how to facilitate the overall development of Chinese-English public sign translation？Firstly, we need to keep pace with the times. Language is constantly changing, so are many words and idioms, and so are public signs. In order to accurately convey information to the audience, it is essential to integrate the latest, most reliable and most accepted language into public signs. Secondly, it is necessary to fully understand the idiomatic usage of public signs, because public signs are mainly aimed at English speakers, so it is necessary to strengthen the accumulation of words, phrases and idioms, which is also the basis of translation. Thirdly, the translators of Chinese-English public signs should use accurate words and phrases in combination with specific environment and objects, and should not fail to convey the meaning or deviate from the original meaning, which otherwise will result in misunderstanding. Of course, only achieving the above is not enough. In order to do a good job in the translation of Chinese-English public signs, we need to keep improving our translation attitude and spirit of study, and constantly improve and summarize and innovate on the basis of the original, so as to make the translation of Chinese-English public signs more perfect and recognized by the international audience. &quot;It is very important for the academic community and people from all walks of life to analyze the problems in the application of public signs and put forward corresponding improvement countermeasures&quot;. (Liu Xiaoping, 2019) A Chinese-English public sign translator must fully realize and shoulder the responsibilities that translators must carry, form a sense of community of a shared future, fully acknowledge the current situation of Chinese-English public sign translation, completely learn lessons from the predecessors who have made mistakes in Chinese-English public sign translation, totally implement the four public sign translation strategies I mentioned before, to make Chinese-English public sign translation serve the construction of a moderately prosperous society in all respect, the construction of modern powerful socialist country, the construction of building China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and the realization of the great Chinese dream, that is: the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> [1]Eugene Nida &amp; Charles Taber.（2004） [The Theory and Practice of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [2]Gutt &amp; Ernst, Agust. （1991）[Translation and Relevance: Cognition and Context] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> [3]Newmark, Peter. （2001）[Textbook of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [4]Pinkham, John.（2000） [The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br /> <br /> [5]Reiss. （2004）[Translation Criticism: the Potentials and Limitations] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [6]陈道彬.（2020） 规范公示语双语标识 营造高品质横琴国际休闲旅游岛环境 珠海特区报,2020-11-09(009).<br /> <br /> [7]国家标准委.（2017） 公共服务领域英文译写规范<br /> <br /> [8]郭京红.（2019）公示语英译中的错误观点与评价方式 海外英语(23)154-155. <br /> <br /> [9]贺学耘. （2006）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略外语与外语教学,(03)57-59. <br /> <br /> [10]刘小平. （2019）公示语翻译中存在的问题及对策. 凯里学院学报, (04)72-74.<br /> <br /> [11]刘慧.（2020）公示语的汉译英翻译研究 海外英语,(16):43-44.<br /> <br /> [12]刘培钰,殷嘉媛,翟晓琳,张美琪,谢慧英.（2020）公示语英文译写与城市国际形象构建 百科知识 (27):26-27.<br /> <br /> [13]吕和发. （2005）公示语汉英翻译研究——以2012年奥运会主办城市伦敦为例 北京:中国翻译,(06)38. <br /> <br /> [14]牛海花.（2020）公示语翻译质量的提高对促进齐齐哈尔市旅游城市形象的跨文化传播的意义 理论观察 (07):118-120.<br /> <br /> [15]潘栩童,郭亚卿.（2020）交通公示语英译现状分析及策略研究 农家参谋,(21):251-252+262<br /> <br /> [16]庞燕.（2020）从语言风格谈公示语规范化翻译 海外英语,(20):34-35+41.<br /> <br /> [17]田国民. （2019）谈汉语公示语的英译英语教师(22)110-113. <br /> <br /> [18]王回力. （2019）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略 延边教育学院学报(05)31-33. <br /> <br /> [19]王旭年.（2020）社会符号学翻译法视域下西安高校公示语英译研究 渭南师范学院学报35(11):69-76.<br /> <br /> [20]杨洪玉.（2019） 旅游景点公共标识语的英文翻译 北京工业职业技术学院学报(04)122-126. <br /> <br /> [21]杨阳.（2020）“一带一路”战略视域下公示语翻译现状及策略研究 公关世界(22):34-35.<br /> <br /> [22]张焱. （2015）汉英翻译过程中的难译现象处理 北京:中国社会科学出版社(16)44-46<br /> <br /> [23]周树霞. （2017）浅析公示语的汉英翻译 校园英语(42)239-239.<br /> <br /> == A Study of Translation of Movie Titles in the Light of Venuti's Theory 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan==</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5&diff=111438 2020-12-13T11:33:58Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第五部分(Part 5)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Thoughts'''=<br /> ==A Study on Creative Treason of Literature Translation - 李玉 Li Yu==<br /> ==On the Analysis of Three Kinds of Beauty in ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence-林敏 Lin Min 202020080616==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;林敏 Lin Min &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation, aiming to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language in a translation. Xu Yuanchong introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties” principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book, he said that the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem. This thesis is going to use such two theories to compare and analyze the two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond in our nation --Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version with some typical and representative examples, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.This thesis is divided into five parts: the first part roughly describes the purpose, method and significant of the study; the second part introduces the general idea and two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond; The third part introduces two translation theories functional equivalence and three beauty principle; the fourth part, some typical examples are selected and two theories are used to compare study the two versions. The fifth part summarizes the whole thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Functional Equivalence, Three Kinds of Beauty<br /> <br /> === 题目===<br /> 功能对等理论指导下《荷塘月色》英译本“三美”的传达<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 功能对等论是翻译理论中最重要的理论之一。功能对等论的目的是实现源语和目标语之间的功能对等。许渊冲在《毛泽东诗词四十二首》序言中提出的译诗的“三美”原则，即音美，意美和形美。本篇文章将利用这两个基本原则，通过一些有代表性的例子对译本进行比较学习，学习研究两篇文章是否符合功能对等。本篇论文共分为五部分，第一部分介绍了本研究的目的、意义和方法；第二部分介绍了《荷塘月色》的大意和两个英译本；第三部分对两个翻译原则：功能对等论和“三美”原则做了简要地介绍；第四部分选取了有代表性的例子，运用了两个理论对两译本进行了对比学习；第五部分对全文进行了总结。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 功能对等论，三美原则<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> With the advent of globalization as well as the development of Chinese economy, more and more Chinese literary works have been introduced abroad. Prose is one of the important part of China’s literature.However there is still not enough attention to the introduction of Chinese prose, especially Chinese modern prose. <br /> <br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''，the well-known lyric prose, written by the famous author Zhu Ziqing, has made a huge influence on the development of Chinese prose. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer's depressing mood. For this prose is a typical example of Chinese modern prose, many translators have given their translations of it, such as Zhu Chunshen, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang, Li Ming and Wang Jiaosheng. A large number of scholars have analyzed its different versions making great contribution to the prose translating. <br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation. Functional equivalence theory introduced by Nida, refers to the fact that the translation does not take rigid correspondence between words and structures as the standard, but aims to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language. The theory emphasizes that“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。<br /> <br /> Here, this paper selects This thesis selects two of the most famous English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen's version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, to compare and study, based on Xu Yuanchong's “Three Beauty” principle under the guidance of functional equivalence. This thesis will compare and analyze the two English versions, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> === 2. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' and Its English Versions ===<br /> Before comparing and analyzing the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' , we need learn some necessary information about the author who wrote it and the relatively background. At present, the two famous English versions are Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version .<br /> <br /> ====2.1 ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is the classical of lyric prose written by Zhu Ziqing in Tsinghua University, Beijing on July 1927，which depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer’s depressing mood. It was published in the Novel Monthly, one of the new literary journals which enjoys the reputation of “the first journal in the China’s literary world” in the 1920s.（Han,2018 ）Since it was published, the article has received both high praise and fierce criticism. From this perspective, it has witnessed the history of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> In this prose, the author is sleepless and sits in his yard to enjoy the cool in the evening. Suddenly, it occurred to his mind that the lotus pond where he passes every day and the pond must be different at night with the moonlight. So, the author wandered lonely on a cinder footpath around the lotus pond, he feels that he is a “free man”. As he sees the pond cover with trim lotus leaves and white lotus flowers, hearing the sounds of the cicadas and the frogs, Zhu thinks that “this animation was theirs alone, I had no part in it（Yang ,1990 ）.”<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Two English Versions ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is one of Zhu Ziqing’s masterpieces and was selected into Chinese textbook. Most scholars say that the prose is “文质相称，形神俱美” which has attracted an amount of scholars and students.（Chen ,2018）The prose has been introduced to foreign countries in different languages, especially in English since the May 4th Movement. The notable translations include Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, Li Ming’s version and Wang Jiaosheng’s version. This thesis choices Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version. Both Zhu ’s version and Yang’s version are faithful to the original meaning and concise to the sentence structure and close to the original style. But Zhu prefer to employ literal translation and Yang uses the free translation, like the words “热闹” ,“冷静”, “群居”and “独处”, Zhu translated these as “a serene and peaceful life”,“a busy and active one”, “being in solitude” and “in company”, in contrast Yang’s translation is “excitement and stillness”.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Basis of Theory ===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Functional Equivalence Theory ====<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Three Kinds of Beauty ====<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===4. On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence ===<br /> Zhu Ziqing used a large number of rhetorical devices and reduplicated words to describe the beauty of the lotus pond under the moonlight at night, to express his gloomy and upset mood, which brings great difficulty to translation, in his famous prose--''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. This part is aimed at using the functional equivalence theory and Xu Yuanchong’s theory of “Three Beauties” to analyze wheatear the two English versions of such prose achieving the degree of function equivalance.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 ====<br /> Words are the basic meaning of sentences. G •Leech divided “meaning” into two categories: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(Leech,1987) The conceptual meaning is the meaning that we can find in dictionary, and the associative meaning is the actually meaning of the word in the special context. It is a truly universal acknowledge that the meaning of the sentence is not simple addition of word meaning. Thus, the translator should find the conceptual meaning and the associative meaning of the original, especially the associative meaning. Here are some typical examples:<br /> <br /> Example 1: “这几天心里颇不宁静。”（Zhu Ziqing , 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu ’s version: “I have felt quite upset recently.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang ’s version: “The last few days have found me very restless.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> This sentence is the first sentence in the first paragraph. Here “不宁静” refers to “quite uncomfortable”, which can be translated as “upset, restless, untranquil, disquieting and so on”. However, considering Zhu Ziqing’s patriotic feeling and his responsibility for his wife and kid, he cannot devote his whole life to the great revolution. Therefore “不宁静” in the context means the author is anxiety, because he want to change his condition. Zhu Chunshen translated it as“upset”which means“unhappy or disappointed because of something unpleasant that has happened”in the ''OED'', which emphasized the unhappy mood. And Yang Xianyi employed it as “restless”, which means “unable to stay still or happy where you are, because you are bored or need a change ” in the ''OED'', which stressed on one needing a change. It is clear that the word “restless” is more exactly than the word “quiet” in this sentence.<br /> <br /> However,“宁静”has an end rhyme“ing”and neither“upset”in Zhu’s translation nor“restless”in Yang’s version opted the words with the same end rhyme for they both focused on the meaning. And such sentence in original text is a 9 characters short sentence with no subject, Yang translated it into 9 words,used the“the last few day”as the subject, while Zhu’s version only has 6 words and selected “I” as the subject. Therefore, Yang’s version is expressive to the original in this sentence and it retains the beauties of form and sense in this sentence at the same time. In short, the two versions are good translation, but the Yang’s version is much better from this point. <br /> <br /> Example 2“这是一条幽僻的路；白天也少人走，夜晚更加寂寞。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: It is peaceful and secluded here, a place not frequented by pedestrians even in the daytime; now at night, it looks more solitary......”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “It is off the beaten track and few pass this way even by day, so at night it is still more quiet.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> The word “幽僻” means “安静和人迹罕至” here. Zhu rendered the word “幽僻” into “peaceful and secluded”, emphasized that there is silent and private. Yang employed it into “off the beaten track” which means no one knows here and quiet. From this perspective, both translations are very similar in understanding the writer’s meaning.<br /> <br /> However, the word “幽僻” is an adjective word with two meanings: quiet and not disturbed by other people. Zhu’ s version “peaceful and secluded” ,are two adjective words and has two similar meanings, which keep the form and sense of the original sentence. In conclusion，according to the “Three Beauties” principle, Zhu’s translation is much better than Yang’s for it retains the form of the original.<br /> <br /> Example 3: “这路上阴森森的，有些怕人。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “The foliage, which, in a moon-less night, would loom somewhat frighteningly dark.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “ On nights when there is no moon the track is almost terrifyingly dark.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> In this sentence, Zhu Ziqing uses “怕人” to describe the atmosphere of the air on the road and his feeling of walking on this path at such a night. “怕人” referred to “令人害怕的” in Chinese, it is an adjective to present his feeling. “Frightening ” means “making you feel afraid”, and “terrifying” means “to make somebody extremely frightened”in the ''OED'' , which can be regarded as synonyms. Both use the adverb to translate the adjective “怕人”. But in Zhu’s translation, “the foliage” is “frighteningly dark” and in Yang’s version, “the track” is “terrifyingly dark”. Both translators have their own understanding of the original content, but the both translations are faithful to the word “怕人”. We could say the two translations achieve the beauty in sense. However, in “Three Beauties” principle, we should consider the beauty in form and sound. As for sound ,the last sound of “怕人” is [en] in Chinese, but both “frightening” and “terrifying” has the same end sound of [en]. As for “frightening” and “terrifying”, the last sound of these are [iŋ] which could be regarded as the similar pronunciation with [en] .So, the two translations achieved beauty in sound from this aspect. In all the both versions are great from this perspective.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 ====<br /> The two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond do a good job in two aspects: “grammaticality”and “idiomaticness”. This part will analyze their features of“clarity”and “ organization”.(“stylistic adaptability” will be analyzed in the next part)<br /> The first is the“clarity”. A qualified translation should be fluent and easy to understand. Here it does not means the two versions have grammatical mistakes.Readers should not be confused by the cultural and social background of a word. In Moonlight over the Lotus Pond ,there are also some words with Chinese cultural or social characteristic. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> <br /> Example4 : “我悄悄地披了大衫，带上门出去。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “ Shrugging on an overcoat, quietly, made my way out, closing the door behind me.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang ’s version: “I quietly slipped on a long gown, and walked out leaving the door on the latch.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> The words “大衫”and“带上门” with Chinese characteristics, cannot be simply translated, the translator should carefully apt the best words owing to their traits.<br /> <br /> First of all,“大衫”is means “身长过膝的中式单衣”. Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xianyi employed this word into “overcoat” and “gown” respectively. The overcoat is a long warm coat worn in cold weather. And the gown is a long loose piece of clothing. At the beginning of the prose, the author sits in his yard to enjoy the cool. So, it is hot and the overcoat is not suit for summer. Then, the Chinese people in the later Qing Dynasty and the period of Republican, especially the men who were educated, preferred wearing the long and loose clothes. Thus, “大衫” translated into “grow” is more proper than “overcoat ”. By doing so, readers can correctly understand the meaning of the original text and draw a picture in his mind without confusion: why he wears a thick coat in summer.<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, a house with a courtyard has two doors, the gate of yard and the door of house in China, and when the owner need to go out for a short time, he will not lock the gate of yard, just as the Chinese people says “我一会就回来，别锁门”. Thus the word “带上门出去” translated as “leaving the door on the latch” in Yang’s version is more faithful to the original meaning than the word “closing the door ” in Zhu’s translation. In this sense, readers can receive more information about Chinese cultural or social background.<br /> <br /> To sum up, both two versions of this sentence are fluent without any grammatical errors and successful convey the meaning of original. However, Yang masterly selected the words “long gown” and the expression “leaving the door on the latch” .<br /> <br /> Example5 : 月光如流水一般，静静地泻在这一片叶子和花上。薄薄的青雾浮起在荷塘里。叶子和花仿佛在牛乳中洗过一样；又像笼着轻纱的梦。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: The moon sheds her liquid light silently over the leaves and flowers, which, in the floating transparency of a bluish haze from the pond, look as if they had just been bathed in milk, or like a dream wrapped in a gauzy hood.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: Moonlight cascaded like water over the lotus leaves and flowers, and a light blue mist floating up from the pool made them seem washed in milk or caught in a gauzy dream.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> In order to make the translation more authentic and smooth English, both Zhu Chunshen and Yang Xiangyi used the translation method of combination to combine the original three sentences into a long sentence, but the two versions have their different features. As for the form of the translation, Zhu Chunshen rendered his translation in three segments, short parts and long parts combined that is similar to the original sentence.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 ====<br /> Style is a difficult and hot issues of literary translation. Leech defined style as “the way in which the language is used in a given context, by a given person, for a given purpose and so on”.(Leech,2001:10) Many scholars believe that although the style is not translatable to some extent, the translation should still strive to reproduce the style of the original text. Liu Zhongde emphasized the importance of being close to the style of the original text in his the three-character principle of translation--faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness. Zhu Guanqian also believed that “对原文忠实，不仅是对表面的字义忠实，对情感，思想，风格，声音节奏等必须同时忠实。” (Zhu Guangqian,1984:447)So how should the translator reproduce the original author’s style?<br /> <br /> In the following part, the author of this thesis is going to compare the two English versions, and is based on the translation of rhetorical devices , to discuss whether or not the two versions can reproduce rhetorical effects of the original. This thesis focus on the analysis of metaphor, personification and other rhetorical devices, and selects several fragments of these rhetorical devices as the comparison of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example 6: 叶子出水很高，像亭亭的舞女的裙。层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花......正如一粒粒的明珠，又如碧天里的星星，又如刚出浴的美人。(Zhu Ziqing, 1927) <br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: ...reaching rather high above the surface, like the skirts of dancing girls in all their grace. Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms... like scattering pearls, or twinkling stars, or beauties just out of the bath. (Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: ...which rose high out of the water like the flared skirts of dancing girls. And starring these tiers of leaves were white lotus flowers... like glimmering pearls, stars in an azure sky, or beauties fresh from the bath.(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)<br /> <br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing used three extremely beautiful metaphors to form a parallel construction, to enhance the language strength, to express his love of lotus, gives people endless feeling of beauty. <br /> <br /> The author uses “亭亭的舞女的裙” to describe the lotus leaves above the surface, vividly and lively depicted the lotus leaves as the skirt of the dancing girls, which is beautiful and charming. Zhu Chunshen rendered“亭亭” into “in all their grace”, though the meaning is relevant, there is an inappropriate: the metaphor here uses to focus on the dance dress rather than dancing girls, so it is not correctly using too much words to modified the dancer. Yang Xianyi added the word “flared “before the “skirts of dancing girls”, which seems out of thin air. However, “flared” referring to the cloths being “wider at the bottom edge than at the top”, the word is more appreciated and reproduces the scene of lotus leaves. In general, Yang handling of metaphor the first sentence is the most appropriate, also can best affect the beauty of sense.<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing used “一粒粒的明珠”, “碧天里的星星”and “刚出浴的美人” to describe the “白花 ”. The writer used three different things to describe the lovely lotus blooms. As for the form and sound, Zhu Chunshen employed “一粒粒的明珠” and “碧天里的星星” into two same phrases “scattering pearls” and “ twinkling stars ”which end with “-ing”, which is well-read and looks greater; while Yang translated them into two sentences in different forms, which differs from the original form for such sentence is just faithful to the literal meaning of original. As for the clause “刚出浴的美人”, Zhu’s translation is similar to Yang’s.<br /> <br /> All in all, Yang’s version is more appreciated for keeping the sense of beauty in the first sentence of this fragment. And Zhu’s version better reproduces the beauties of sound and form. <br /> <br /> Example 7: “层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花，有袅娜地开着的，有羞涩地打着朵儿的......”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “Here and there, layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms, some in demure bloom, others in shy bud ...”.(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “And starring these tiers of leaves were white lotus flowers, alluringly open or bashfully in bud ...”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)<br /> <br /> “袅娜”and “羞涩”are the words used to describe people;“袅娜” uses to describe elegance posture and expression, especially women’s and girls’. Zhu Chunshen rendered “袅娜” into “demure”, which means “behaving in a way that does not attract attention to herself or her body; quiet and serious” in the OED, which seems inconsistent with the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated it into “alluringly”, which refers to attractive and exciting in a mysterious way in the dictionary. It seems much appropriate. Then as for the word “羞涩”, Zhu translated it into “shy” and Yang’s version is “bashfully”. Both the two words can use to describe people, and use to translate the word “羞涩”. However, the word “bashful” means “shy and easily embarrassed” which is more appropriate to reproduce the beauty of sense. Moreover, yang’s translation retains the beauty of form, because “羞涩” in original text is a adverb, and “bashfully” is a adverb too. Therefore, it is obvious that Therefore, it is obvious that Yang’s version is more appropriate.<br /> <br /> Example8: “微风过处，送来缕缕清香，仿佛远处高楼上渺茫的歌声似的。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “A breeze stirs, sending over breaths of fragrance, like faint singing drifting from a distant building”. (Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “The breeze carried past gusts of fragrance, like the strains of a song faintly heard from a far-off tower.” (Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990)<br /> <br /> Synaesthesia is the production of a sense impression relating to one sense or part of body by stimulation of another sense or part of the body. The author uses “歌声” to describe the fragrance of the lotus flowers. Here the fragrance of flowers is originally the sense of smell, but the author written it as a melodic song, the sense of hearing. Zhu Chunshen used “breeze...breaths...building” and “fragrance...faint...from”to describe the faint sound of the song which is vividly and close to the original text. And Zhu employed an alliteration, “drifting from a distant” to make the readers feel the dynamic beauty of lotus and achieve the same effect as the original text.In general, Zhu’s version is more appropriate for he reproducing the beauties of sense and sound .<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> We learn from the study and comparison. We develop from the study and comparison. While we are accumulating English and Chinese knowledge and practicing translation skill, we should also study others’ translations carefully. Through comparative study, we can improve ourselves.<br /> <br /> Through the comparative analysis of these two English translations, we will find that functional equivalence theory has been fully embodied. Functional equivalence theory is a bridge connecting world cultures, fully reproducing the original text through form equivalence, content equivalence，so that the readers of the target texts receive the same feeling as the readers of the original. Functional equivalence theory not only has a wide range of applications now, but in the future, functional equivalence theory will certainly play its role in promoting the exchange and development of various cultures and promoting the prosperity of the world’s culture.<br /> <br /> ===6..Reference===<br /> * Leech G N, Short M H.Style in Fiction:A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2001:10.<br /> * Chen Bohui.陈波慧(2018).汉英叠词对比及其英译——以《荷塘月色》两个英译本为例.[ Comparison of Chinese and English Reduplication and Their English Translation——Taking the Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' as an example ].海外英语.[Overseas English]. 2018.7<br /> * Han Zhengshun, Wang Jian（2008）<br /> *<br /> *<br /> *<br /> <br /> ==Lexical Gap between English and Chinese and its translation strategies 孟莹 Meng Ying==<br /> <br /> ==On Form and Spirit in Translation 文偲荇 Wen Sixing==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> translation methods，form，sprit<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译方法，翻译的形与神<br /> <br /> ===The form of translation===<br /> <br /> ===The sprit of translation===<br /> <br /> ===Discussion===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories——Taking &quot;2017 APEC Speech&quot; as sample 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing==<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Strategies'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Study on the Translation Strategies, Translation Methods and Translation Techniques in Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao==<br /> <br /> ==Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” to “Visibility” 胡百辉 Hu Baihui==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;胡百辉 Hu Baihui 202070080590&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> This chapter is on translator’s subjectivity from translator’s “invisibility” to “visibility”. As we all know, the translator is the subject of translation, by whom the meaning of the translated text is conveyed. However, the invisibility of translator has always been emphasized in the traditional theory of translation. Until 1970s, with the “cultural turn”, the translators’ role has been redefined and their subjectivity in translation has caught much attention. As a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with. Translators should give full play to their subjective initiative and deal with the relationship between them.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> translator’s subjectivity, invisibility, visibility.<br /> <br /> ==='''题目'''===<br /> <br /> 译者主体性：从“隐形”到“显性”<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 本章从译者的“隐形”到“显形”论述译者的主体性。众所周知，译者是翻译的主体，翻译文本意义的传达是通过译者实现的。然而，传统译论一直强调译者在翻译中“隐形”。直到20世纪70年代出现了翻译研究的“文化转向”，才重新定义了译者的角色，其主体性才得到关注。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点，我们不能简单说译者的角色从“隐形”转化为“显性”，而是从多个方面探讨，并且关注和解决其面临的挑战。译者要合理发挥自己的主观能动性，合理地处理二者之间的关系。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 译者主体性；“隐形”；“显性”。<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> The translator's “invisibility” and “visibility” have always been a controversial topic in the field of translation, both of which have their own theoretical basis and purpose; however, both of them are the result of the exertion of the translator's subjective initiative. These arguments are not to prove who is right and who is wrong, but to enrich the arguments in the process of proving their own views or persuading others, so as to perfect the relevant theories.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 128)<br /> <br /> For a long time, the translator's subjectivity has been one of the focuses of scholars, but we have always neglected the role of translators in translation activities. It was not until the “cultural turn” in the 1970s that translators and some scholars began to study and discuss this issue. There are some translation theories in the West that face the target culture. So with these translation theories that face the target culture, the scholars will inevitably do some research in translator’s subjectivity. At present, there are many researches on translator's subjectivity in China. This shows that the study of translator's subjectivity is deepening day by day. The translator should not continue to be invisible in the process of translation. The translator's subjectivity will directly affect the translator selecting words and sentences and the style of translation. In short, at present, the status of translator and translator's subjectivity are highly praised in the field of translation studies. However, it should be emphasized that in today's information technology era, the translator's subjectivity is not only valued, but also faced with great challenges.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> ==='''Translator's Subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional translation theories often neglect the study of translator's subjectivity, but tend to explore the linguistic level of the translated text. Therefore, translation, as a dynamic process, is often ignored and the translator's subjective factors are not paid enough attention.<br /> <br /> Actually, the traditional translation view, on the one hand, holds that translation is not creative and can not be compared with creation. On the other hand, it is against advocating the translator's subjectivity and creativity, and requires the translator to worship the original author, which also tends to the original. And the traditional role of translator was identified as the “servant” of the author, while assessing fidelity to the original text was primary. Pulled between the two poles: fidelity and treason, the translator faced the dilemma of lacking independence and subjectivity(Shufen Huang 2019, 100). Now it seems that this view of negating translator's subjectivity is unreasonable.<br /> <br /> As mentioned in the abstract, attention to the translator’s subjectivity did not arise until 1970s, when Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefevere have come up with the idea of “the cultural turn”. They stated that translation is not the simple transform between two languages, it goes in special cultural environment.<br /> <br /> And studies on the role of translators as well as the function of their subjectivity in the translating process have begun to flourish. However, the role of the translator and his subjectivity have been renewed and affirmed with the development of translation theory and translating activities. In the transitional years for translation studies, new translation theories were proposed (Shufen Huang 2019, 100). Those influential translation series, such as the polysystem theory and manipulation school have integrated researches on translator’s subjectivity into their massive system respectively (Zhiwei Gu 2017,24). At present, the study of translator's subjectivity is emerging in an endless stream.<br /> <br /> '''1. Definition of translator's subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> According to Za Mingjian and Tian Yu, translator’s subjectivity can be defined that on the premise of respecting the translation text, the translator shows his subjective initiative in order to achieve the purpose of translation. Its basic characteristics are the cultural consciousness, humanistic character, cultural and aesthetic creativity of the translator. And the essential characteristics of the translator’s subjectivity refer to the translator’s “active cultural consciousness”, “human character” and “ascetic creativeness”.(Zha MIingjian, Tian Yu 2003, 22)<br /> <br /> '''2. Related theories on translator's subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> In the 1970s, some scholars proposed the idea of “culture turn”, and since then many scholars such as Susan Bassnett (1980), Theo Hermans(1985), Andre Lefevere(1992), Tejaswini Niranjana (1992), Lawrence Venuti(1995), and Douglas Robinson (1997) have made studies on translator’s subjectivity. The issue of translator's cultural identity and subjectivity has naturally become an important research topic. While in China, some scholars studying in translation theory have conducted in-depth study in the translator’s subjectivity since 1980s. In recent years, there are many papers on the study of translator's subjectivity.<br /> <br /> In the following, the studies on translator’s subjectivity will be introduced by typical schools.<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Polysystem theory'''<br /> <br /> This theory is introduced by Tynjanov, and he argues that elements do not exist in isolation, but always in an interrelationship with other elements of other systems (Even-Zohar, Itamar 1979, 287). Actually, Tynjanov is a cultural theorist, but his polysystem theory has made the study on translator more popular. But his pioneering work continues to exert considerable influence on translation, particularly when studying translation in emerging cultures or cultures in crisis. He said, it is necessary to include translated literature in the polysystem. And through studies on the translated edition, it provides a feasible way to reconsider issues like the proper translator, suitable network on translation edition, translating adequacy and so on. This theory ushers in the cultural shift paves the way for the appearance of manipulation school (Zhiwei Gu 2017,24).<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Manipulation school'''<br /> <br /> The name of manipulation school was given by the title of a collection of essays edited by Theo Hermans(1985), The Manipulation of Literature:Studies in Literature Translation, which gathers a number of studies by scholars such as Van Gorp and Andre Lefevere. “From the point of view of the target literature, all translation implies a degree of manipulation of the source text for a certain purpose” (Hermans 1985, 30), said Hermans. They sited that &quot;translating is rewriting”, which is the foundation of the manipulation school. They have made the translation studies shift from the source-text oriented to target-text oriented. In their opinion, translators have their own feelings for the source text, and they respond to their intuitive feeling, and render the source text in the target culture.<br /> <br /> '''3. Factors influencing the translator's subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> The exertion of translator's subjectivity runs through the whole process of translation activities. When different translators read the same article, their understanding varied. Also when selecting words, choosing translation strategies, the translators would have their own opinions. Understanding the factors that influence the translator's subjectivity makes great contribution to the study of the translator's translation style and characters.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The historical background of translator'''<br /> <br /> The historical background determines the criteria of value evaluation of translation, which also leads to the trend of mainstream translation style. The era in which translators live will limit the breadth and depth of their understanding. Therefore, the former translation standards may no longer conform to the contemporary development. It took a long time for the translator's position to rise from invisibility to visibility.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu, a famous translator in China at the end of the 19th century, has put forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. At this time, China was written in classical Chinese, so the “elegance” here means that the translation should be elegant and be translated in classical Chinese. Since the May Fourth New Culture Movement, vernacular gradually replaces classical Chinese. Translators begin to translate a large number of classic works of Marxism Leninism, literary theory, progressive literary works of Soviet Union and other countries. Therefore, the translation at this time emphasizes the plainness and energy. So in 1979, Liu Zhongde, a translation theorist, has come up with a new translation criteria of “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, which is accepted by the majority now. Different background determines different criteria of translation value, and the change of criteria also leads the trend of mainstream translation style, with obvious era brand.(Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Translator's bilingual cultural competence'''<br /> <br /> The translator's bilingual cultural competence includes linguistic knowledge and cultural knowledge. When translating an article, the translator accepts the cultural influence of the original text and brings the translation into another culture. The coordination of the two cultures reflects the translator's bilingual cultural ability,which directly affects the translator's choice of translation strategies. In general, if the translator has a strong native language ability, he tends to choose the “domestication” strategy when translating the foreign language into the native language. On the contrary, when translating the native language into a foreign language, the translator often uses the strategy of “foreignization” because he can't find the corresponding foreign language expression. This is often seen in the translation of literary works and proverbs. It rains dogs and cats, which means it rains heavily. When translating into Chinese, it should be “大雨倾盆”. If this sentence is translated words by words, the target readers will not understand it. In fact, it is obvious in translation whether a translator's bilingual ability is good enough.If not, it will often make errors.(Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 21)<br /> <br /> '''3.3 Understanding of the original'''<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, only when the translator has a thorough understanding of the meaning of the original can he accurately convey the meaning of the original to the readers. As a saying goes,&quot; A thousand readers make a thousand Hamlets &quot;. There is a growing tendency to believe that it is the reader that decides the meaning of the literary text. Zhu Shenghao, a famous translator, has translated a lot of Shakespeare's works in his life. Shakespeare's works began to be introduced and translated in China at the beginning of last century. Zhu Shenghao is recognized as an early translator of Shakespeare's works in China, and his translation style has also been highly recognized. Different from the chronological arrangement of the Oxford edition, he divides the works into comedy, tragedy, historical drama and zaju, which are arranged in a self-contained system. Since he has a thorough understanding of the original, he could rewrite and rearrangement it and his translation text is well received at home and abroad. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 22)<br /> <br /> In a word, the process of translation is also a process of recreation. And under the new study of translation theory, the translator's subjectivity is encouraged and supported, but it needs to be limited. In the process of translation, the translator can always choose their preferred translation strategy and style, and fully develop your own style and characteristics in the translation. In this kind of recreation, it is always restricted by the original work, and can't be separated from the original meaning. (Li Yingying, Lan Jie 2014, 22)<br /> <br /> ==='''The influence of translator's invisibility and visibility on translator's Subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> In literary translation, the word &quot;invisibility&quot; refers to &quot;the translator should insist on the translation in a smooth and accurate way, and can not add the translator's emotion&quot;; while &quot;apparent&quot; is put forward according to the opposite of &quot;invisibility&quot;, which means that the translator can put his own subjective feelings into literary translation, At the same time, in literary translation, translators can make use of the fact that there are some differences in the transformation of language symbol system to make reasonable and appropriate explanation of words, sentence processing, space structure reconstruction and other forms of translation through their own understanding. Cultural differences refer to different cultural styles in different cultural environments. Cultural differences also provide a more free creative environment for translators' translation. They can display their own unique styles by refining words, sending sentences and making sentences. This difference leads to the inevitable existence of the translator's &quot;appearance&quot;.(Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 71)<br /> <br /> '''1. Translator's invisibility'''<br /> <br /> The traditional translation theory focuses on the issue of language, focusing on how the ideal translator should do and what kind of requirements a perfect translation should achieve. It tries its best to eliminate the translator's traces in language and cultural transformation, and faithfully and completely convey all the information of the original work.<br /> Under the traditional translation theory, the translator should be invisible, that is, to achieve &quot;transparency&quot; and &quot;invisibility&quot;. The &quot;transparency&quot; of the translation requires the translator to strive to achieve fluenct, while the &quot;invisibility&quot; refers to that the target readers should not see the trace and influence of the translator when reading the translation text.<br /> &quot;The translator's invisibility depends on the following three conditions, which are often emphasized in the traditional translation theory: first, the translator should not incorporate his own subjective idea into the translation; second, the translator should not show his own personality in the translation; third, the translator should take the original text as the basis.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2003). In a word, &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;equivalence&quot; should be achieved in translation. The criterion of &quot;faithfulness&quot; also contributes to the tendency of traditional translation theories to neglect the translator's subjectivity.<br /> The traditional translation theories would emphasize to eliminate the differences in language, even some extreme domestication translation, even cultural differences. In domestication, the translator seems to be invisible. But the fact is that in order to meet the requirements of the target language and cultural norms, and get the recognition of the target language readers, the translator will spare no effort to exert his subjective initiative, which is the process of subject intervention. In this process, the translator should give full play to his subjectivity and bring his subjective idea into play. Therefore, on the surface, the translator seems to be &quot;invisible&quot;, but in essence, this &quot;invisibility&quot; is also the result of the translator's subjective initiative, which is the translator's conscious choice and abandonment.(Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 2011, 72)<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2. Translator's visibility'''<br /> <br /> In the 1970s, some scholars proposed the idea of “culture turn”, and since then many scholars have made studies on translator’s subjectivity. The issue of translator's cultural identity and subjectivity has naturally become an important research topic.<br /> The most familiar one is the Translator's Invisibility by American scholar Lawrence Venuti. In this book, he put forward the concepts of “foreignization” and “domestication”. According to his view, “domestication” emphasizes fluency and smoothness in order to minimize the exotic flavor in the translation and provide a natural and fluent translation for the target language readers. However, “foreignization” is intended to break through the conventions of the target language, retain the exotic flavor in the original text, and inject the linguistic and cultural differences in foreign texts into the target language. He called on translators to &quot;resist&quot; and adopt poor translation. &quot;Venuti believes that foreignization translation can not bring about the improvement of faithfulness. On the contrary, it is a misuse of faithfulness. Not only will some features of the original language be lost, but also new things will be added. As a result, the translator appears and the independent status of translation is revealed. In the actual translation process, the translator deliberately uses the &quot;resistance&quot; translation strategy to deliberately retain the expression and sentence pattern of the original text, so as to avoid the smooth translation, so that the readers can clearly feel that what they are reading is the translation, thus feeling the existence of the translator, reflecting the creativity of the translator and highlighting the role of the translator.(Li Jieping, Wu Yuanqing, 2006)<br /> <br /> ==='''The challenge of translator's Subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> As the focus of translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be limited to the transformation from being ignored to being valued, but should be found and faced up to the challenges it is facing from a comprehensive perspective.<br /> <br /> '''1. The challenge of modern information technology to translator's Subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of modern information technology, translation activities can be completed efficiently in a short time. In the past, translation was time-consuming and laborious, and the executor was the translator. Now, with the emergence of translation software and machines, the subject of translation activities has been increased in the traditional sense. These modern technologies have become the active elements in translation activities, which has caused a challenge to the translator's subjectivity. In some occasions where the requirements for translation are low and there is a certain tolerance for translation errors, translators have completely retired from the background. Because software and machines are supported by powerful corpora, they cover a wide range of fields, can process all kinds of texts, and can produce high-quality translations in a short time. Therefore, the target language readers can quickly get the original translation through the translation software or machine. In addition, in other occasions where translation requirements are high, translators with the help of translation software and various tools can not only shorten the translation time, but also obtain the translation with high accuracy. However, without the help of translation software and other tools, the translator needs to spend time to mobilize the initiative of all aspects, which can not be as fast and efficient as the machine assisted.<br /> There is no doubt that a series of modern information technology assisted translation work has played a positive role, which requires the translator not only to have the consciousness of language operation, cultural characteristics, artistic creation, aesthetic standards and humanistic character, but also to closely combine his own ability with modern information technology and have the ability to skillfully apply translation software and various auxiliary tools, However, the excessive dependence of translators on translation software can not be ignored.<br /> Some translators are eager for quick success and instant benefit, and make use of translation software and machines to make them become money making accelerators and produce poor quality translation works. In the mixed translation market, there are not a few translators who completely rely on machine for translation with only minor modifications. In the absence of machine translation, translation activities mainly rely on the translator's mental operation, and the translator's subjectivity can be brought into full play. But now, with the shortcut of translation, some translators can't help being lazy, which makes the most important part of the translation activities to fully display the translator's demeanor and play the translator's subjectivity lose its significance and turn into mechanical language output. In this process, the translator is satisfied with the convenience of machine translation and ignores the full play of the translator's subjectivity. Although translation tools can speed up the translation and improve the quality of translation in the process of translation activities, the excessive dependence on translation tools poses a challenge to the translator's subjectivity.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> '''2. The challenge of the era to the translator's Subjectivity'''<br /> <br /> In the past, professional translators always had to practice a lot of translation, combined with their preferences and strengths, to be able to translate works of interest to people. Many famous translations were produced at that time. Now, with the “one belt, one road” and the common destiny of mankind, the political, economic and cultural exchanges between China and other countries are becoming more frequent. More and more translators need to be served as bridges. The increasing number of translators and the professionalization of translation make translation a means of livelihood. The common existence of translation companies makes the threshold of becoming a translator too low, which reduces the requirement of translators' competence to a certain extent. From the recruitment information released by various companies, it can be found that many companies place too much emphasis on the language proficiency of interpreters, and they do not attach importance to translation experience or request to check relevant translation works, and neglect to investigate whether the translator's subjectivity, which reflects their profound skills, is fully exerted in their works. At present, the requirement of the translator's ability to survive in the field of translation has been reduced. Translation activities have become a kind of assembly line operation, and the translators participating in the assembly line have also changed from elite translators with strong translation ability to mechanical translation product producers. From this point of view, professionalization also challenges the translator's subjectivity<br /> Our times are dynamic. With the continuous updating of the information in various fields, the powerful corpus behind the translation software and machine can not be updated automatically, so it is necessary for the translator to explore the untranslated fields in order to obtain the relevant corpus to fill the corpus. From this point of view, as the subject of translation activities with individual thinking, translators must be prior to machines. If they excessively rely on modern technology, they will despise their initiative of thinking and choosing translation strategies in the process of translation, and can not give full play to the translator's subjectivity.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 129)<br /> <br /> '''3.The rational exertion of translator's subjective initiative'''<br /> <br /> The translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;manifestation&quot; are both the manifestation of subjectivity, and have their specific social and theoretical background. &quot;Translation is the active creative activity of the subject and the author's own language experience. Only through the translator's translation and interpretation can the text survive. The original text needs the participation of the translator's subject to help it obtain new life. The objective &quot;uncertainty&quot; needs to be filled and processed by the translator, so that the original intention of the composition can be revealed &quot;(Wang Zhengliang, Ma Tan, 2010). However, this kind of filling and processing is not random. Before translation, translators should first confirm whether their own conditions and temperament can adapt to the original text, and then translate the original composition. If the translated text is translated and interpreted at will, it will exaggerate the translator's autonomy to control the original work, and overemphasizes the translator's intervention in the work and the translator's interpretation space. Even under the banner of respecting the translator's identity and status and highlighting the translator's subjectivity, it is difficult to avoid the suspicion of &quot;overcorrection&quot;. In this process, we should pay attention to the influence of the mainstream ideology and Poetics in the historical background of the translator. When there is a conflict between the ideology of the translator and the ideology of the target culture, there are many translators in history who delete and change the original content in order to conform to the mainstream ideology and exert their subjective initiative. When the source language poetics is different from the target language poetics, the translator also needs to play an active role in mediating the differences between the two poetics, so as to make the translation get new life in the target language.(Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 2020, 130)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Many scholars have put forward their own views on the translator's subjectivity. However, few scholars have mentioned the challenge to the translator's subjectivity. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the challenges faced by translators' subjectivity. On the one hand, translators are required to improve their ability to exert their subjective initiative, closely integrate their own abilities with modern information technology, learn and skillfully apply various translation software, search tools, corpus and other auxiliary tools to improve the speed and quality of translation, On the other hand, the translator should be warned not to rely solely on the tool while neglecting the translator's subjectivity. The translator's subjectivity is an important support for our translation research and translation activities. We must face up to the challenges and actively deal with them.<br /> <br /> Translation is a process of gradual development and change, not a process of translating one language into another. Translators should fully understand, be familiar with and be familiar with the cultural differences in the original language in order to realize the true transmission of the original content. According to &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;manifestation&quot; in contemporary literary translation, we should know &quot;invisibility&quot; when necessary to ensure the fluency of language. According to Venuti's viewpoint of &quot;invisibility or invisibility is to make the translator invisible&quot;, we can better understand the meaning of &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator, and pay attention to the application effect of &quot;manifestation&quot; when necessary, which can not only make people pay attention to the translator, At the same time, it also reflects the cultural differences and image understanding in the process of reading. Therefore, the choice of &quot;invisible&quot; or &quot;explicit&quot; in translation is worth considering.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1] Even-Zohar, Itamar. (1979) &quot;Polysystem Theory&quot;. Poetics Today (1) 287.<br /> <br /> [2] Hermans, Theo. (1985) &quot;The Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;. London and Sydney: Croom Helm. (12) 30.<br /> <br /> [3] Lan Hongjun 蓝红军. (2017) 译者主体性困境与翻译主体性建构[J] [Translator's subjectivity dilemma and construction of translation subjectivity]. 上海翻译Shanghai Translation Journal (2) 21-27.<br /> <br /> [4] Li Hua, Li Guochao 李华,李国超. (2019) 文学翻译中译者的“隐身”与“显形”——以《第十个人》翻译中人物形象的塑造为例[J] [The translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;manifestation&quot; in Literary Translation--Taking the creation of characters in the translation of the Tenth Man as an example].智库时代 Think Tank Tines (42) 130-132.<br /> <br /> [5] Li Yingying, Lan Jie 李盈盈,兰杰.(2014) 浅谈翻译中的译者主体性[J] [On the translator's subjectivity in Translation]. 考试周刊 Weekly examination (24) 21-22.<br /> <br /> [6] Li Zheng, Yang Xianyu 李铮;杨贤玉. (2011) 论译者的“隐形”和“显形”[J] [On the translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;visibility]. 邢台学院学报 Journal of Xingtai College (26) 71-72.<br /> <br /> [7] Shufen Huang. (2019) “A Study of the Translator’s Subjectivity in Literary Translation--Exemplified by the English Version of The Border Town”. Open Journal of Social Sciences(JSS) (7) 100. <br /> <br /> [8] Wang Yu, Tian Cuiyun 王玉,田翠芸. (2020) 从译者的“隐形”“显形”到“忘形”谈译者主体性[J] [Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” and “Visibility” to “Complacency”]. 华北理工大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of North China University of science and Technology (SOCIAL SCIENCE EDITION) (28) 128-131.<br /> <br /> [9] ZhaMingjian, Tian Yu 查明建,田雨.(2003). 论译者主体性—从译者文化的边缘化谈起[J] [On Translator's Subjectivity -- from the Marginalization of Translator's Culture]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1) 22.<br /> <br /> [10] Zhiwei Gu. (2017) &quot;On Zhang Peiji's Prose Translation from the Perspective of the Translator's Subjectivity&quot;, English Language and Literature Studies (1) 24.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 06:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s ManipulationTheory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility - 马智星 Ma Zhixing==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> '''摘要'''<br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Business Contracts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 胡瑾 Hu Jin==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization in China and the increasing frequency of modern commercial activities, commercial contracts are particularly vital in order to ensure the smooth progress of commercial activities. In a business contract, it is required to ensure that the expression of any text in the contract is accurate as far as possible, and the same is true when translating it. Contracts provide vital basis for the smooth development of business and the protection of rights. Accurate and vivid translation of contracts has an important impetus to the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations and the resolution of disputes. Therefore, it is of practical significance to study the translation of business contracts. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory, equivalence is first realized in meaning and then in form. Dynamic equivalence is used to break the static equivalence and maximize the meaning of the translation. This thesis gives a preliminary introduction to the translation of business contracts, studies the application of functional equivalence theory in contract translation, and puts forward some major translation skills and methods, which will be of some guiding significance to the future translation of business contracts, thus avoiding unnecessary disputes between the two parties.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> business contract; Functional Equivalence Theory; contract translation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中国全球化进程不断加快，现代商务活动日益频繁，为了确保商务活动的顺利进行，商务合同的签订显得尤为重要。在商务合同中，要求尽量确保合同中的每一个文字都表达准确，在对其进行翻译时也是如此。合同是确保业务开展顺利和进行权利保障的重要依托，对合同进行准确生动的翻译对业务的开展和权利、义务的保障以及出现争议时的解决等有着重要的推动力。因此，研究商务合同的翻译有一定的现实意义。根据奈达的功能对等理论，对等首先在意义上实现，然后在形式上实现，利用动态对等，打破静态对等，使译文意义最大化。此课题初步介绍了商务合同的翻译，研究了功能对等理论在合同翻译中的应用，提出了一些主要的翻译技巧和方法，对今后商务合同的翻译具有一定的指导作用，从而避免合同双方出现不必要的纠纷。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 商务合同；功能对等理论；合同翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since China promoted the Silk Road Economic Belt, China's economic exchanges with other countries in the world have been increasing day by day. China's exports volume is also increasing, and goods are exported to other countries in the world. In 2013, China overtook the United States as the world's largest trading nation. In this context, in order to ensure the smooth progress of transactions and reduce trade friction and disputes, commercial contracts, which have legal effect, have attracted more and more attention. Contract translation belongs to the category of legal translation. Accurate translation of contracts plays an important role in the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations, and the resolution of disputes. However, commercial disputes in China's foreign economic and trade business are very common, and many disputes are caused by various problems in contract translation. Therefore, they should be guided by scientific translation theories.<br /> This paper mainly includes 3 chapters. The first chapter is the introduction of business English contracts, including the definition of business contract, the categories of business contract, and the linguistic features of English business contract.<br /> The second chapter introduces the theoretical framework of functional equivalence translation, including Nida's main principles and viewpoints of functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> The third chapter is the main part of the article, including the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 General Introduction of Business Contract===<br /> <br /> This chapter first introduces the definition of business contract and the categories of business contract, and then analyzes the linguistic features of English business contract from lexical, syntactic and textual levels respectively. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> As an important link in foreign trade activities, business contracts have always been valued by people. Article 2 of The PRC Contract Law clearly stipulates that Commercial contract refers to the agreement clauses that are formally concluded according to law, notarized and must be abided by jointly in order to determine their respective rights and obligations during certain commercial cooperation between the parties concerned. It can be seen from this that a commercial contract is the result of the consensus reached by the parties and is a civil legal act. A legally established contract shall take effect from the date of its establishment and shall be legally binding. This provides a legal guarantee for effectively avoiding trade frictions. However, special attention should be paid to the fact that China's Economic Law on Foreign Contracts stipulates that commercial contracts can take many forms, such as formal contracts, letters of intent, memorandum, agreements, commissioned purchase orders, etc. But no matter what form it takes, it should be signed in writing. The oral agreement cannot be submitted to the court as evidence after the dispute occurs.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Categories and Structure of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> Based on different standards, business contracts can be divided into many categories. According to the contract maker, they can be divided into sales contract (made by the seller) and purchase contract (made by the buyer); according to the subject matter, they can be divided into technology transfer contracts, processing contracts, foreign labor contracts, and agency agreements, etc; according to the details of the contract, they can be divided into sales contract, sales confirmation letter, purchase contract and purchase confirmation letter; according to the price terms used in the contract, they can be divided into CIF contract, FOB contract and goods arrival contract, etc.<br /> Although there are many types of commercial contracts, the structure of commercial contracts is generally relatively fixed, generally including three parts: preface, text and contract end. The first part is the preface, which generally includes the name of the contract, the parties to the contract, the date of signing and the place of signing. The second part is the main body of the contract, which mainly stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties to the agreement, the specific conditions of the traded goods, such as commodity name, quantity, total value, delivery date and validity period, port of shipment and destination, insurance and confidentiality clauses, payment clauses,etc. The third part is the end, which mainly includes the signatures of all parties to the agreement, the language of the contract, the number of copies of the contract and the explanation of the validity of the contract.<br /> <br /> ====1.3 A Contrastive Analysis of Stylistic Features of Chinese and English Business Contracts====<br /> <br /> English business contract is a solemn style with the highest degree of formality among all styles of English. A comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English business contract in terms of vocabulary, syntax and discourse will be made in this chapter.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Lexical Features of Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> As the most basic semantic constituent unit, vocabulary plays the most basic and important role in the whole contract text. When reading any text, the characteristics of words can often reflect the characteristics of the whole text. Therefore, it is necessary to study the characteristics of vocabulary so as to lay a foundation for the study of the whole text.<br /> <br /> First of all, the use of archaism is the most prominent feature in international business contract English. The extensive use of archaic words in business contracts and legal styles fully reflects their solemn and serious style, which is related to the social function of English style of business contracts and the particularity of international business. The archaism most commonly used in business contract English are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中)，therein-after(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于).<br /> <br /> In contrast, some classical Chinese words are often used in Chinese business contract terms, such as“兹、若”. This is to reflect the conciseness and clarity of the Chinese contract text. However, strictly speaking, Chinese business contract terms are more straightforward, the classical Chinese vocabulary is less frequently used, and the stylistic features are not as obvious as English business contracts.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the use of synonyms is another feature of English business contracts. Two or more synonyms are often used together in English business contracts. This is to make the terms of the contract more precise and accurate, and to avoid ambiguities and omissions as much as possible, for example, by and between, sole and exclusive, make and enter into, etc. <br /> <br /> However, we must note that synonyms are not commonly used in Chinese business contracts. This is mainly because of the differences in expression habits between Chinese and English and the differences in legal and cultural traditions between countries.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, as a contractual document with legal effect, legal terms are also used in the contract. In formal English business contracts, drafters often use “convene” instead of “hold or assemble”; “dispatch” instead of “spread out or handout”; “terminate” instead of “stop”. Similarly, in Chinese business contracts, interpreters use“承诺”to indicate “commitment”;“撤销”to indicate“cancel”instead of “取消”;“裁决” to mean “decision” instead of “决定”. Finally, the contract contains many professional knowledge and terminology.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.2 Syntax Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> Besides vocabulary, the syntax of business contracts also has their own characteristics, such as common clauses, declarative sentences, passive voice, modal verbs, etc. <br /> <br /> The most obvious feature in business contracts is the use of subordinate clauses. They are in obvious positions to explain, restrict and supplement the meaning of the main sentence. The positions of these clauses are relatively flexible. For example, attributive clause can be placed together with the central word or separated from the central word. A noun can be modified by multiple attributive clauses, and an attributive clause can also modify multiple nouns. The adverbial clause of time can be placed either at the beginning of the sentence or at the middle and end of the sentence.<br /> <br /> In contrast, the positions of attributive clauses and adverbial clauses in Chinese are relatively fixed. The adverbial clause of time is usually next to the modified verb because there is no temporal change in Chinese verbs. Declarative sentences are clear in meaning, division of powers and responsibilities, objective and fair in stating facts, and conform to the requirements of business contract terms. Therefore, they are frequently used in Chinese and English business contracts, but interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences are seldom used.<br /> <br /> Passive sentences are also quite common in business contracts. The passive voice is often used when there is no need to clearly indicate the sender of the behavior and the emphasis is placed on the object of the behavior.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.3 Textual Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> The textual features of Chinese and English business contracts are mainly reflected in textual cohesion and textual structure.<br /> <br /> In business contracts, whether Chinese or English, contextual cohesion is realized by adding conjunctions or repetitions of words, which indicates the logical relationship between sentences and reflects the rigour and solemnity of business contract language.<br /> <br /> The discourse structure of Chinese and English business contracts is basically the same, with highly stylized features.<br /> <br /> This kind of consistency is not only to obtain formal uniformity, but also often mainly due to the requirements of meaning, so that readers have the impression that the contents expressed by clauses with the same sentence pattern are equivalent in the legal effect of the contract.①<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 General Study of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This chapter introduces Nida's functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida first proposed the“dynamic equivalence”theory, then further developed the theory, emphasizing the equivalence of two aspects, namely“formal equivalence”and“dynamic equivalence”.“Formal equivalence”emphasizes the form and content of the information itself and believes that the translation should be close to the original structure. “Dynamic equivalence”refers to“reproducing source language information from semantics to style with the closest (original) natural equivalent in the recipient language”.② Tan Zaixi（谭载喜） pointed out, in this definition, there are three key points: 1. Natural, the translation cannot have a translation cavity. 2. Closeness, referring to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of nature. 3. Equivalence, which is the core.<br /> <br /> After the proposal of dynamic equivalence, many disputes have arisen. It is considered as free translation or live translation. In order to change people's misunderstanding of it, Nida pointed out:“Everything in the text is meaningful, including speech forms, so forms cannot be sacrificed easily.”④ Therefore, he replaced“dynamic equivalence”with “functional equivalence”. There is no essential difference between the two, but the latter highlights the concept of“function”.<br /> <br /> On the question of which level equivalence should be reflected, Nida pointed out that in addition to content and form equivalence, style equivalence should also be considered.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida divided functional equivalence into“maximum functional equivalence”and“minimum functional equivalence”since absolute equivalence is impossible to achieve. The so-called“maximum functional equivalence”means that the target readers can understand the original text in a way consistent with the original readers and further appreciate the original text while“minimum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand how the original readers understand and appreciate the original through their understanding of the target text. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Researches on Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Abroad, Beekman(1972: 32) pointed out:“Nida's functional equivalence theory makes theorists and translators believe that a good translation must be able to convey the meaning and dynamics of the original text at the same time.”⑤ <br /> <br /> Wilss(2001: 51) stressed:“Nida's functional equivalence theory can be applied to translation practice because it can achieve effective translation.”⑥ Venuti said:<br /> Functional equivalence theory also eases the debate between translators on“domestication” and “foreignization” from the perspective of language and culture.⑦<br /> <br /> At home, Jin Di(金堤) put forward“equivalence theory”on the basis of“functional equivalence theory”, and applied it to the translation of Ulysses, which illustrates the feasibility of“functional equivalence” theory in practical translation. Tan Zaixi made a comprehensive and systematic summary of the formation process of Nida's translation theory and its profound connotation. In addition, in the CNKI database, retrieval using“functional equivalence theory” as the key word shows that there are 2444 related articles in various core journals and magazines.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Applicability of Functional Equivalence Theory to E-C Translation of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> At present, there are no authoritative translation principles and standards for commercial contract translation, but the three principles of contract translation put forward by Ma Huijuan(马会娟) are highly recognized: First, the words used are accurate and the translation is complete. The translator shall not add, delete or change any information contained in the contract at will. The language of the translation shall be accurate, complete and natural. Second, the organization is clear and the format is equivalent. The translation should correspond to the original text format as a whole and reproduce the structural features of the source language as much as possible. Third, the translation should be in line with the stylistic characteristics of the contract.<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory emphasizes content equivalence, form equivalence and style equivalence. These three requirements are consistent with the three principles above put forward by Ma Huijuan respectively. Both of them limit the translation standards from the aspects of content, form and style. Therefore, the functional equivalence theory can be fully applied to the translation practice of business contracts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Business Contract Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This part focuses on the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. Combining with actual translation cases, this chapter analyzes the common problems in contract translation and puts forward corresponding solutions. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Equivalence at the Lexical Level====<br /> <br /> Vocabulary is the basic component of sentences and chapters. In the specific translation process, if vocabulary translation is not handled well, sentence and chapter translation will be impossible.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Equivalence of Technical Terms—Literal Translation and Free Translation=====<br /> <br /> The contents of business contracts involve all trades and professions, and there are many subject matters, including many professional knowledge and terminology, which is a big obstacle for many translators who do not know the professional knowledge of the industry. Therefore, before translation, translators should understand the relevant industries involved in the contract and master the necessary knowledge in the industry so as to avoid the layman's words and semantic errors in the translation, which will affect the accuracy and formality of the contract and cannot achieve functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> Example1:The balance 80% ( Eighty percent ) of the contract value shall be paid against irrevocable L/C at 360 days sight to be accepted by both parties. <br /> 译文：合同金额的80%（百分之八十）以不可撤销信用证的方式在交单的360 天予以支付。<br /> <br /> Many words in the contract appear in the form of letter abbreviations. As shown in this example,“L/C”is the abbreviation of letter of credit, which is translated literally into“信用证”. This is a well-established translation method in the industry, which can reflect both the equivalence of meaning and the professionalism of language expression.<br /> <br /> Example2:“The seller shall present the following documents required for negotiation or collection to the banks.”<br /> 译文:“卖方应向银行提交议付或托收所需的下列文件。”<br /> <br /> In this sentence,“negotiation”and“collection”are both technical terms of the contract, they are translated into“议付”and“托收” respectively, instead of“谈判”and“收取”. The expressions not only conform to the professional expression of the economic and trade industry, but also accurately reflect the meaning of the original text and achieve the meaning and style equivalence emphasized by the functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> Example3:“UNIT PRICES: FOB Xingang, Tianjing USD 22 150.00 per unit (US Dollars twenty two thousand, one hundred and fifty only)。”<br /> 译文:“单价: FOB天津新港, 每辆22150.00美元（贰万贰仟壹佰伍拾美元）。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“FOB”is an abbreviation of “Free on board”. It can be translated into “FOB” by free translation or by shifting translation. This is mainly because the readers of business contracts themselves are professionals in the industry. They usually exchange price terms in the form of English letters and abbreviations in their daily work. Therefore, when translating such price terms, their source language expressions can be retained.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Equivalence of Archaism—Omission, Addition and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Archaisms are rarely used in modern English, but they are still common in business contracts. They can not only reflect the formal rigour of business contracts, but also highlight the conciseness and clarity of language. The archaisms most commonly used in English business contract are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中), hereinafter(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于), etc.<br /> <br /> Example1:“The parties hereto shall, first of all, settle any dispute arising from or in connection with the contract through amicable negotiation.” <br /> 译文:“合同双方首先应该通过友好协商，解决因合同而发生的或与合同相关的争议。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“hereto”means“本协议的、本合同的”. It can be translated with omission. The contract subject relationship is clear, literal translation will only lead to redundant repetition of the translation, so there is no need to translate it.<br /> <br /> Example2: Now, therefore, in consideration of the recitals set forth above and the mutual covenants, promises, and agreements contained herein, and other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged, the Parties do hereby agree as follows: <br /> 译文：因此，考虑到上述陈述和本协议中包含的共同契约、承诺和协议，以及其他良好和有价值的对价，双方特此达成如下协议，特此确认其接收和充分性。<br /> <br /> In this example, herein usually means“此中，于此”. But such translation here will confuse readers. Therefore, we can adopt addition and translate it into“此协议中”. Although this expression is not as concise as“于此”, accuracy is the first requirement in contract translation.<br /> <br /> Example3: After arrival of goods at port of destination, the buyer shall apply to China Commodity Inspection Bureau (hereinafter referred to as CCIB) for a further inspection as to the specifications and quantity/weight of the goods.<br /> 译文：货到目的港后，买方将申请中国商品检验局(以下简称商检局)对货物的规格和数量重量进行检验。<br /> <br /> In this case, the original meaning of“hereinafter”is“以下，在下文中”. Its original meaning is directly inserted into the sentence, which not only accurately expresses the original meaning, but also makes the translated language natural and smooth, meeting the requirements of functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Equivalence of Formal Words—Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> “Functional Equivalence”emphasizes the transmission of reading experience, requiring the translator to transmit not only language functions but also legal functions, so as to enable the target readers to feel the reading experience of the original readers. <br /> <br /> Example1: The agreement does not operate as an acceptance of any conflicting terms and conditions and shall prevail over any conflicting provision of any purchase order or any other instrument of Customer. <br /> 译文：本协议不接受任何与本协议产生冲突的任何条款。若在乙方订单或任何文件中出现与本协议相冲突的条款，应均以本协议为准。<br /> <br /> Example2:“Time of shipment: within 15 days after receipt of the advance payment and the L/C of balance value to be accepted by the × Bank.” <br /> 译文:“装运日期：收到预付款且剩余货款的信用证被××银行承兑后的15天内装运。”<br /> <br /> In the first example, although the basic meaning of“胜过”is also expressed, it is usually translated into“以....为准” or “效力高于”in legal texts. In the second example, the common meaning of“accept”is “接受”, but in legal translation it is usually translated as “承兑”. Formal words are usually translated according to conventions, so the difficulty in translation lies not in the choice of translation strategies, but in the grasp of semantics and the reproduction of style.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.4 Equivalence of Juxtaposition—Contracted Translation=====<br /> <br /> English business contracts often use two or more synonyms to ensure the uniqueness of words meaning. The functional equivalence theory emphasizes the equivalence of meaning and form, but in the actual translation process, the absolute equivalence between the two, that is, the “maximum functional equivalence”proposed by Nida, is impossible to realize.<br /> <br /> Example1:“The agreement is made and entered into on April 16, 2007 by and between Party A and Party B.”<br /> 译文:“此合同由甲乙双方于2007年4月16日达成。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“made and entered into”and“by and between”are juxtaposed by two pairs of synonyms. When translating, these words only need translate once, which is called contracted translation. <br /> <br /> Example2: This agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the subject matter hereof and supersedes all prior agreements, understanding, warranties, representations, negotiations and discussion, whether oral or written, of the parties except as specifically set forth herein.<br /> 译文：此合同是双方就合同主体所达成的全部协议，将取代双方过往所有口头或书面的协议、理解、声明、保证、谈判和讨论，在此明确阐明的除外。<br /> <br /> In this example, several synonyms are juxtaposed to make the terms of the contract include all relevant matters as much as possible so as to make the writing strict and clear. Here, we can adopt literal translation strategy, keeping the total number of words listed in the original text, and looking for the corresponding Chinese words to achieve the double equivalence of content and form. <br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Equivalence at the Syntactic Level====<br /> <br /> Cliches are commonly used in official document and usually have a fixed translation method. Passive sentences and subordinate clauses have long sentence patterns and complicated logical relations, which tests the translator's translation ability and logical expression ability. <br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Conventional Phrases—Imitation Translation=====<br /> <br /> There are many cliches in business contracts, which are common at the beginning and end of contracts.<br /> <br /> Example1:“In consideration of the mutual covenants contained in this agreement, the parties agree as follows:”<br /> 译文:“考虑到本协议中的共同承诺，协议双方约定如下:”<br /> <br /> Example2:This Agreement may be executed in two or more counterparts, each of which shall be deemed an original and all of which together shall constitute one instrument. <br /> 译文：本协议可签署两个或两个以上的副本，每一副本构成本协议的一份原件，所有副本构成一份法律文件。<br /> <br /> Although the original expression of each text is not the same, the basic meaning is the same. A relatively fixed translation method has been formed, so the translators should know the common expressions in advance, or look for the parallel text to imitate the translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Equivalence of Passive Sentence=====<br /> <br /> Passive voice is a typical language structure in English business contracts. It can effectively reflect the objectivity and fairness of contracts. However, unlike English, passive voice is seldom used in Chinese. Therefore, in translation, we usually use various translation strategies to convert passive voice into active voice. The most common translation strategy is conversion, that is, the object of the original text is converted into the subject, and the subject is converted into the object. <br /> <br /> Example1: This Contract is made by and between the Buyer and the Seller whereby the Buyer agree to buy and the Seller agrees to sell the commodity in attached Annex according to the terms and condition stipulated below: <br /> 译文：买卖双方同意按下述条款购买出售附件中的商品并签订本合同： <br /> <br /> Example2: Agent shall be entitled to nominate mandate other third parties to act upon behalf of Agent in generating business to the Parties, as Agent’s sole discretion. <br /> 译文：代理人有权自行指定、授权其他第三方代表代理人为缔约方带来业务。<br /> <br /> From the first example, “by and between” is used as adverbial in the sentence. The object“the Buyer and the Seller” is the originator of this sentence, which is transformed into the subject of Chinese, and the recipient of the action“this contract”is transformed into the object of Chinese, thus the passive sentence of English is transformed into the active sentence of Chinese. In addition, some passive sentences in business contracts can also be translated into active sentences without changing the subject of the original sentence, as shown in the second example.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Equivalence of Long Sentence—Combination, Division and Reconstruction=====<br /> <br /> Long sentences must contain many clauses and modifiers, and their writing ideas are quite different from those of Chinese. Therefore, how to split the sentences into several parts, how to extract the core meaning of complex logical relations and how to reorganize Chinese are the three major difficulties.<br /> <br /> Example1: Agent’s undertaking and obligation is to search, locate and refer (lead) potential and prospective clients/customers to Principal who are seriously interested, ready, willing and able to apply for the Product. <br /> 译文：代理人的责任和义务是为委托人寻找、定位和推荐（引导）潜在的、真正对本产品感兴趣、准备好且愿意申请的客户。<br /> <br /> This is a restrictive attributive clause. We often adopt a combination method, translating the subordinate clause into“...的” and putting it before the modifier in the form of adjectives. This is mainly due to the structural differences between English and Chinese. The attributive elements in Chinese are not as flexible as the attributive clauses in English. <br /> <br /> Example2: The parties may not assign or transfer this Agreement or any of its rights and obligations under this Agreement without the prior written consent of the other party, which shall not be unreasonably withheld. <br /> 译文：未经另一方事先书面同意，缔约方不得出让或转让本协议或本协议项下的各项权利和义务，此要求不得被无理拒绝。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a non-restrictive attributive clause. Since this clause and the antecedent are not closely related and generally play an explanatory role, we often use division method in E-C translation. That is to say, the two should be separated and naturally combined by repeating antecedents.<br /> <br /> Example3: Should Principal be reasonably sure that Agent violated this rule, or should any client/customer present proof of such violation, Agent will not be entitled to its omission for the particular client or group of clients and Principal may terminate this Agreement with immediate effect at its own discretion. <br /> 译文：如果委托人有理由确定代理人违反了此项规定，或如果有客户提供了其违反此项规定的证据，代理人将无权享这一客户或这一组客户的佣金，委托人可自行终止本协议，即刻生效。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a adverbial clause. The structure of“should+subject+verb”belongs to the unreal conditional sentence. But there is no such usage in Chinese. Therefore, we can reconstruct the original text according to the logical structure of the original sentence and adjust the word order appropriately to make it natural and more in line with the Chinese expression habits. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Equivalence at Textual Level====<br /> <br /> The text consists of sentences, so the following focuses on the cohesion and format of the text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Text Cohesion=====<br /> <br /> Text cohesion is realized through the use of conjunctions and lexical repetition, reflecting the rigour and solemnity of business contract language.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> Thereafter, this Agreement shall be renewed automatically for successive additional one-year terms under the same terms and conditions unless either party chooses not to continue the relationship and provides written notice 30 days prior to the natural expiration of the existing one-year term. <br /> 译文：此后，本协议应以同样的条款自动延期一年，除非任何一方选择解除合作关系，并在一年合同期满前30天提交书面通知。<br /> <br /> Here, explicit connectives,“thereafter, and, unless”are clearly translated, which is conducive to textual cohesion and indicates the logical relationship between sentences. Therefore, we can translate them into “此后、和/并、除非”, which not only realizes the formal equivalence between the translation and the original, but also achieves the semantic equivalence.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Text Format=====<br /> <br /> As one kind of legal documents, commercial contracts are highly normative and have strict writing format. Therefore, attention should be paid to the corresponding format in translation.<br /> <br /> Contract No: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Date: Aug. ××,2013 <br /> <br /> The Buyer: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Representative: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> The seller: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××<br /> <br /> Representative: ××××××<br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> 译文：合同编号：×××××× <br /> <br /> 日期：2013年8月×号 <br /> <br /> 买方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：×××××× <br /> <br /> 卖方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：××××××<br /> <br /> Here, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the contract text, and keep the format of the translation and the original text in alignment during translation. Firstly, capital words with the first letter should be emphasized in terms consistent with Chinese expression habits. Secondly, the parts marked in bold or italics in the contract shall still be marked in bold or italics in the translation.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> To sum up, according to the requirements of functional equivalence theory on translation quality, commercial contract translation should meet the following standards:<br /> <br /> In terms of content, first, the translation language should be natural and fluent and conform to Chinese expression habits. Second, pay attention to the professionalism of the language expression in the translation, avoid using colloquial expressions, and achieve the meaning equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> In terms of format, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the commercial contract text and try our best to achieve the formal equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> In terms of language style, the translation should retain the original language style as much as possible. The business contract language is professional and solemn, so the translation should reproduce the strict and formal legal style of the original text on the premise of ensuring accurate content and natural language.<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes and summarizes specific contract terms and puts forward countermeasures. Although the translation strategies given in this paper have certain universality, the research text is slightly narrower than that of the whole commercial contract text research. Due to the space limitation, the cases provided are limited. Therefore, the scope of the research text should be broadened and analyzed from a broader research perspective in future research.<br /> <br /> ===Notes===<br /> <br /> ① 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998: 310-312.<br /> <br /> ② Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986: 113-120.<br /> <br /> ③ 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2004: 23-27.<br /> <br /> ④ Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993: 119-130. <br /> <br /> ⑤ Beekman, J. &amp; C, John. Translating the word of God[M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974: 191-221.<br /> <br /> ⑥ Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001: 72-86.<br /> <br /> ⑦ Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995: 76-89.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> [1] Beekman, J. &amp; John C. Translating the word of God [M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974. <br /> <br /> [2] Catford, J. C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965. <br /> <br /> [3] Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> [4] Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986.<br /> <br /> [5] Nida, E. A., and R Taber, Charles. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. New York: E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1969.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995.<br /> <br /> [7] Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [8] Yallop, C. The construction of equivalence[A]. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2001.<br /> <br /> [9] 顿官刚. 经贸英语词汇的特点及翻译[J]. 山东外语教学, 2002, (2).<br /> <br /> [10] 廖瑛. 实用公关英语[M]. 上海: 对外经济贸易大学出版社, 2005.<br /> <br /> [11] 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998.<br /> <br /> [12] 苗锡璞. 功能对等理论指导下的商务英语翻译[J]. 内蒙古财经学院学报, 2011, (1).<br /> <br /> [13] 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> [14] 汪洋. 浅析商务合同的词汇与句法翻译技巧[J]. 科技文汇, 2009, (10).<br /> <br /> [15] 金堤. 等效翻译探索[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998.<br /> <br /> [16] 马会娟. 论商务文本翻译标准多元化[J]. 中国翻译, 2005, (3).<br /> <br /> ==The identity of translator in translation activities张毓婕 Zhang Yujie==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In translation activities, translators have freedom in the choice of texts to be translated and translation strategies. They also have freedom in the choice of ways to understand the author’s emotions and values and reproduce the connotations and cultural flavor of the text. And Only when translators truly realize what roles they should play in translation activities and play these roles well can they create high-quality translations. Therefore, the translation is deeply imprinted by the translator, and the roles of the translator have become an important issue that cannot be ignored in translation studies. And with the development of translation studies, the issue of translator's identity has received due attention. This article also discusses the issue of translator’s identity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> identity of translator, translation activities, roles of today’s translator <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 论翻译活动中译者的身份<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 翻译活动中，译者既可以在翻译文本、翻译策略的选择上发挥主观能动性，也可以在对作者情感和价值观的理解、语言的选择、文化风味的重现上发挥主观能动性。而只有译者真正认识到自己在翻译活动中应该扮演什么角色并且扮演好这种角色，他们才能创造出高质量的译作。因而译作深深地打上了译者的烙印，译者的身份角色成为翻译研究中不可忽视的一个重要问题。而随着翻译实践的发展，译者的身份问题受到了应有的重视，本文也对这一问题进行了探讨。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 译者的身份，翻译活动，当今译者的角色<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Translators’ playing roles well in translation is vital to the accomplishment of high-quality translations. Therefore, the identity of translator is an important issue in translation studies and we should pay much attention to it. As for this paper, first of all, it makes an analysis of the importance and necessity of valuing the issue of translator’s identity. Then, it expounds different kinds of roles translators have played in the history. Next, it concludes the features of the changes of translator’s identity and its complexity. Finally, from the perspective of today’s translators, it shows what roles today’s translators should play with today’s development of society and technologies, so as to explain how can we make more contributions to culture and development of the world.<br /> <br /> ===1.The importance and necessity of valuing the issue of translator’s identity===<br /> Two scholars Zhong Weihe and Zhou Jing made the following overview: as the subject of translation, translators need to respect the objective translation environment and fully understand the cultural needs of the target language, and they must also show their self-consciousness through subjective initiative. For example, they can show it through language operation, cultural characteristics, artistic creation, aesthetic standards, and humanistic character. In addition, they must give full play to their autonomy, initiative, purpose, creativity, and acceptance. This is the subjectivity of translation. （Zhong and Zhou, 2006）The two scholars not only pointed out the objective conditions that translators need to consider in translation activities, but also further explained that translators need to stimulate their subjective initiative and creativity, which is very enlightening. As the subject of translation, the translator’s activity is the specific translation behavior, that is, the conversion between two different languages and cultures. He can be creative and active in the choice of the text to be translated, the order of translation and translation strategies. The translated version is also deeply imprinted by the translator. Although the translation is derived from the original, it is no longer the original and have a new life. In addition, the translator can not only give the original work a new life, but also decide which new life to give it, so that it will be presented to the target language readers in an acceptable appearance. Therefore, the identity of the translator runs through the entire translation activity and is closely linked to the original and translated work. It is an important issue worthy of our attention.<br /> <br /> ===2.Different kinds of roles translators have played in history===<br /> <br /> ====2.1The identity of translator under the source language centralism====<br /> Under the source language centralism, the purpose of translation is to reproduce the author’s original meanings and the highest standard of translation is being faithful to the original text. In these translation theories, translators’ cultural status is marginalized, and many of these translators are invisible, given various kinds of humble titles and roles.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1Translator as a servant=====<br /> There are certain common cognitions and understandings of the identity of translators in China and western countries. Due to their long-exist limitations in public awareness of translation activities and the low social status of translators, translators were once generally regarded as playing the &quot;servant role&quot; in both East and West.<br /> <br /> John Dryden compares a translator to a slave, thinking that the &quot;slave&quot; can only work in someone else's manor, manuring and pruning the grapes, while the wine produced belongs to the owner. （Tan, 1991）<br /> <br /> American modern translator Weinberger complained that although his translation works had attracted millions of readers, there was no his name on the cover of the translations, so he was merely an unsung hero.<br /> <br /> Yang Jiang also said in her book Experience of Failures-Trial Translation: At least, this is a hard job, because translators as servants have to follow the master and cannot be self-assertive. Moreover, a servant serves two masters at the same time: one is the original text, and the other is the readers of his translation. (Jin and Huang, 2019)<br /> <br /> The identity of servant requires translators to be completely faithful to the original text, adhere to the source-centered and author-centered theory, and not be affected by their own emotions and values. Playing this kind of role, the translator should only faithfully convey the connotation of the text and the author's original intention, so he just like a slave in shackles without personal freedom, and can only follow the author in anywhere. Of course, it is true that translators’ playing a role as a servant can help translators to faithfully restoring the author’s intention and not distorting his original meanings so that meet the requirements of “faithfulness” and “loyalty”, but this kind of theory ignores the translator’s subjectivity and will place translators in a very low social status. Just as an ancient craftsman did not have the right to sign his name on his carvings, a translator also doesn’t have this kind of right and is neglected in their translations. Therefore, this theory reveals various prejudices and disregard of public for translators. And even in today’s China with prosperous economy and society, most people still hold the view that translation is merely the mechanical conversion of the source language and the target language. They believe that if they understand English, they are absolutely qualified for the job of translation. At the same time, a lot of issues such as a chaotic translation market, low salary for translators, talent shortage in translation and gloomy employment prospects are very prominent. What’s more, even in the Chinese translation circles, there are long-exist serious problem of &quot;seeing things but not people&quot;. Translators have a low status in the literary world and are treated with indifference and contempt. And their fruits, that is, translations, are not valued or even recognized on many occasions.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2Translator as an invisible person=====<br /> One topic that has been heatly debated for a long time in the translation world is that whether translators should be invisible or visible in translation. The translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; and &quot;visibility&quot; have their own purpose and theoretical basis respectively, but both &quot;invisibility&quot; or &quot;visibility&quot; are translators’ own choices made after deliberations.<br /> Venuti, the translation theorist of deconstruction, explained invisibility in his monograph The Translators Invisibility: A History of Translation with Norman Shapiro's words and he thought that the translation should be transparent so that it does not look like the translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass. There are only small imperfections on the glass like scratches and bubbles. Of course, the ideal is to have nothing. The translation should never cause readers to feel that they are reading the translation. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu also had similar points of view and he stated in the article The Translation of Lin Shu that: The highest standard of literary translation is &quot;sublimation&quot;. In translation, if you can not only do not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched due to the differences of language habits, but also completely preserve the original flavor, then it has met requirements of “sublimation”. In the seventeenth century, someone praised this kind of translation as &quot;the transmigration of souls&quot; of the original text, whose body was changed and the spirit remained the same. In other words, the translation should be so faithful to the original that it does not read like the translation, because the original work will never read as if it is translated from somewhere else. （Qian，1984）<br /> <br /> The French translation theorist Munin once wrote in his translation monograph Les Belles Infideles: &quot;The ideal translator, as defined by Gogol, should turn into a glass, so transparent that readers can’t even feel its existence.<br /> <br /> The &quot;invisible&quot; identity of the translator means that the translator can reproduce the spiritual essence and style of the source text naturally, so as to achieve the &quot;transparency&quot; of the translation and the &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator. The translation needs to be fluent and natural, in line with the reading habits of the target language readers, and translators should avoid obscure word choice and mechanical sentence conversion. While reading the translated text, readers should not feel the existence of the translator and the influences he exerts on the text. And when the translator is nowhere to be seen and felt in the text, we can say that the translator's &quot;invisibility&quot; has been achieved. This requires translators to pay attention to three points that are often emphasized in traditional translation theories: one is that the translator should not incorporate their own emotions and values in the translation; the second is that the translator should not show his or her own personality in the translation; the third is that in translation the author should be based on the original text and follow the author in each choice. （Xu，2003）<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Translator as a painter=====<br /> Dryden once compared the translator to a painter. He advocated the translation view of comparing translation to painting: In translation, a translator should regard the original text as a model, and use his own colors to express the power and effect of the original text. The earliest Chinese translator who used metaphor like this was Chen Xiying. He believed that: translation is the same as a painting, although imitation is the most important, the colors used in the copy of a painting and the painting itself are the same. While the languages and strategies used in the original text and the translated version are totally different. On the other hand, a person who can appreciate the original painting has the ability to appreciate the copy one, while most people who can read the original book cannot read the translated version, and most people who can read the translation cannot understand the original text. This is the first difficulty the translator will face. &quot;And Chinese are much more familiar with Fu Lei’s statement: “In terms of effect, translation should be like a painting, and what you should restore is not the form but the spirit.” This theory extracts the common characteristics of translation and painting, and vividly elaborates the process and details of translation activities.<br /> <br /> ====2.2The identity of translator under the translator centralism====<br /> In 1980s, there was a cultural turn of translation studies in western countries from language translation to cultural translation. Translation theorists began to study translation with valuable theories from other subjects such as Semiotics, Hermeneutics, Philosophy, Literature and so on, which helped them to improve the traditional translation models. The subjectivity of translators were valued at that time and there appeared various kinds of roles of translators which emphasize the creativity, imagination, and activity of translators. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1Translator as a manipulator=====<br /> The manipulator status of the translator originated from the manipulation school. Manipulation school was an important part of the cultural school of translation studies in the 1980s. It was developed in the category of comparative literature. The main representatives are Hesman and Lefevre. Hesman said: From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for a certain purpose. Lefevre combines translation studies with power, ideology, patronage, and poetics and believed: “Translation, of course, is a rewriting of the original text. Rewriting is manipulation.” （Lefevere, 2010）The manipulation school is different from those schools that put &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot;faithfulness&quot; in the most important place. Its representatives believe that translation is the manipulation and rewriting of the original text, the translator is the manipulator of the text, and the translation and the original text are both important. This theory is contrary to the original work-centered theory and author-centered theory, and is subversive to the previous translation theories. It shifts the focus of translation from the original author to the translator, which is conducive to improve the status of translators. They also particularly emphasized the status of culture in translation and the significance of translation to culture. They believed that the purpose of translation is not to simply complete the conversion of words, phrases and sentences, but to achieve cultural correspondence, so that the cultural meanings conveyed by the translation is consistent with the cultural meanings in the original text. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2Translator as a writer=====<br /> Women and translation have been long connected with each other for both of them occupy very humble positions. The traditional view holds that translation is considered as a secondary work dependent on and subservient to the original text, just as women are inferior to men under patriarchal power. <br /> <br /> Feminist translation theory came into being in a wave of opposition to this kind of traditional thought. It combined feminism and translation, and its representatives put forward many translation viewpoints influenced by feminism, providing a new perspective for translation studies and subverting the traditional translation theory. The representatives of feminist translation theory include Sherry Simon, Lori Chambelain, Luise von Flotow, etc. Thus, translation studies “began to distrust the traditional hierarchical order and gender roles, and began to question the faithful rules and universal standards of meaning and value.&quot; They believed that translators should not be faithful to the original text or the author, but the identity and discourse power of women. The purpose of translation is to make language speak for women, improve their status and liberate women through language. Feminist translators revealed many sexist words and phrases in translation, re-examined the relationship between the original text and the translated version, advocated rewriting translation strategies, and required feminist intervention and rewriting of the original text. In this way, feminist translation theorists improved the status of translators and helped them to go to the front of the stage from behind the scenes, playing the role of an author.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3Translator as a conqueror=====<br /> As a social practice activity, translation is also a product of political thoughts and ideologies in a sense. When translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously affected by their political stance and ideologies, and the translator’s cultural identity and cultural attitude are always political. Therefore, the translated text is not exactly equivalent to the original, because in the process of translation, translators will add their own feelings and values to the translated version. What's more, some people think that translators are aggressors, and the purpose of translation is to impose one culture on another, such as the translations serving as a tool for the construction of subjectivity of colonialism in the process of colonization and maintaining cultural hierarchy after the end of the colonial era. This type of translation is used as a tool for political purpose and is just like a conqueror. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.4The translator's &quot;independent&quot; status=====<br /> Post-colonial research in the field of modern translation believes that translation has three functions: (1) the means of colonization (2) the lightning rod for cultural inequality (3) the tools of decolonization.(Robinson, 1997) As is mentioned above, when translators deal with cultural phenomena in translation, they will always be consciously or unconsciously influenced by their own political stance and ideologies, and thus become a tool for cultural expansion and maintaining cultural hierarchy in the colonial era. Similarly, this tool can also be applied to the activities of anti-colonialism. In fact, in the process of anti-colonialism, translation has also played an important role, providing a stage for anti-colonialism activities and becoming a tool used by the colonized to get rid of the colonial yoke and weaken cultural hegemony.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.5Translator as a creative rebel=====<br /> The term creative rebellion comes from French literary sociologist Robert Escarpit. He holds the view that translation is rebellious, because it puts the work in a completely unexpected reference system (referring to language); Translation is creative, because it gives the work a new look and makes it more comprehensive. So that readers can have a brand-new literary exchange. （Escarpit, 1987）That is to say, on the one hand, this theory believes that translation is creative, that is, in the process of translation, in order to restore the original contents and cultural flavor, the translator must use his creativity and imagination to find suitable words and styles in the target language to stimulate readers to have similar associations. This is a kind of creative work that can give the original work a new life in a new language. On the other hand, translation is rebellious. When using the target language to restore the connotations of the original text, the translator must discard some of the original form. Creative rebellion can be divided into three types: the creative rebellion of the translator, the creative rebellion of the recipient, and the creative rebellion of the receiving environment. The creative treason of the translator can be conscious and unconscious, such as personalized translation, mistranslation, omission, compilation, adaptation and so on.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.6Translator as a language quality controller(Li and He, 2018)=====<br /> In recent years, with the development of the world economy and Internet technology, computer-assisted translation has become more and more popular. It has overturned the traditional translation model and most of the work of language conversion is completed by computers instead of translators. However, although the computer can complete the task of translation, the translated texts usually don’t have a very high quality and need to be improved by human translators. Especially in literary translation, as we all know, when translating a literal work, translators need to have sufficient cultural background knowledge, and in the process of literal translation, they must put themselves into the author’s context and fully understand his emotions, attitudes and values in order to create translations with high quality. This is something that computer translation software are unable to achieve. Therefore, translators play the role of processing, modifying, and polishing the texts produced by computers. They are the controllers of language quality, making up for the flaws in the translation given by the computer, ensuring the fluency of the translation and choosing an appropriate style for it. This identity of the translator does not mean that the translator is marginalized again and in a low position. On the contrary, translators are playing an irreplaceable role in ensuring the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> ===3.The features of the changes of translator’s identity and its complexity===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The identity of translators changed from invisible to visible, from subordinate to dominant, from author-centered to translator-centered. ====<br /> At the beginning, due to the limitations of people’s understanding about translation activities, translators had low social status, and most of them played the roles of &quot;invisible man&quot;, &quot;slave&quot;, &quot;servant&quot; and &quot;painter&quot;. The author and the original text were the center of translation activities, while the translators were marginalized. Later, with the cultural turn of translation studies, translators gradually got rid of the shackles, moved from behind the scenes to the front stage, and became the subject of translation activities. （Yao, 1996）This feature is reflected in translation views of manipulation school, feminist translation theories, creative treason translation views and post-colonial translation views. At that time, translators played many other roles, such as &quot;manipulator&quot;, &quot;writer&quot;, &quot;creative rebel&quot;, &quot;conqueror “and so on. Nowadays, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have gained more roles such as &quot;language quality controller&quot;, &quot;learners of new technology and new knowledge&quot; and so on. Although part of the translator's work is done by a computer now, this is not a manifestation of the translator's marginalization again, but a manifestation of the translator's freedom and subjectivity. Therefore, translators today should grasp the trend of the evolution of the translator's identity, give full play to their subjective initiative in translation practice, and avoid becoming servants or slaves of the original text. At the same time, this does not mean that the translator can distort the author’s original meaning arbitrarily. Translation is just like “dancing with shackles&quot;. On the one hand, we should be faithful to the author and adhere to certain translation principles. One the other hand, we can adjust our translation strategies according to our purposes of translation and find a good way to restore the feelings, values and attitude of the original author as well as cultural flavor of the original text. In this way, the translator can present a high-quality translation to readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The identity and status of translators are closely connected with the era in which they live.==== <br /> Throughout the history of translation studies at home and abroad, the role of the translator was ignored in the early translation studies due to the limitations of the times, and translators had a low cultural and social status. It was not until the cultural turn in the 1970s that translators truly moved from behind the scenes to the foreground. We can say that the shift of the focus of translation studies and the change of the identity of translators are deeply influenced by the time and cultural backgrounds. For example, in the 1970s, the slogan &quot;women must be liberated from language, and women's liberation must start with language&quot; emerged and translation had always been in a position similar to that of &quot;women&quot; in its own hierarchical structure. Therefore, the feminist translation theory rose and its representative translation theorists revealed discriminations in the field of translation, and liberated women by liberating translation. Another example is that many translated works under colonial expansion and anti-colonial struggle have obvious ideological characteristics, and translators of that time hoped to use culture as a tool to achieve certain political goals. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation activities are complex, and so is the identity of translator.====<br /> In different times, the identity of translator is complicated. Faced with different works, the identity of translator changes, because we have different purposes and needs when translating different works. Even when the translator is only faced with one work, in many cases, the identity of the translator will not be a single one, but a combination of multiple identities. It is the integration of these identities that makes the translation more smooth and complete. For example, with the rise of computer-assisted translation technology, translators have multiple identities such as &quot;learner of new knowledge and new technology&quot;, &quot;selector of the style&quot;, and &quot;controller of language quality&quot;. We can say that translators can play different roles for different translation purposes and requirements as well as in different steps of translation.<br /> <br /> ===4. The roles of today’s translators===<br /> ====4.1 Dancers in shackles. ====<br /> Historically, there are many arguments about whether translators should be visible or invisible, servant or master. From today’s point of view, translators should keep a balance between them. They should not merely follow the author’s steps, and be the “servant” of the original text, nor should they believe that they can distort and rewrite the original text arbitrarily. Instead, they should act as a dancer in shackles: He should not only be faithful to the original text, adhere to specific translation standards and principles, carefully consider the choice of words and sentences, but also give full play to his subjective initiative and choose the most appropriate, natural and easily acceptable languages to convey the connotations of the original text.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Megaphones of real problems.====<br /> Feminist translation theory combined feminism with translation, and at that time translation became a tool for women to fight for independence and liberation. This reflects that translations are instrumental in reflecting social problems and seeking appropriate solutions to them. Excellent translation theorists can not only pay attention to the text translation itself, but also pay attention to the reflecting and solving of realistic issues in the field of translation and using translation as a tool to reasonably convey their appeals to the public on behalf of a specific group.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Learners who keep up with the time.====<br /> Translation is progressing with the time developing. If you stand still, you will lose out, and so will translators. They need to continuously learn new translation theories and accumulate more experience in practice in order to create excellent translation works. In addition, they must continue to learn new technologies and other new knowledge, such as computer-assisted translation technology, so that they can not only keep the traditional translation model in mind, but also find better ways to translate. In this way, they can adapt to the society and technological development more easily, and create high-quality translated works more efficiently. What’s more, translators should also pay attention to hot issues happened around the world, because translators should not only practice their translation skills, but also learn more new culture, which is vital in translation in the future.<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Promoters of cultural communication.====<br /> Translators are the bridges between the source language and the target language, the author and the readers. Translators with profound knowledge in language skills and cultural backgrounds can accurately grasp the connotations of the original text, reproduce the original style, convey cultural messages, and bring readers to foreign authors with unique emotional attitudes and values. With the globalization, today's world is characterized by frequent economic, political, and cultural exchanges between China and the West. Translators play the role of cultural communicators of the world. But this is different from the “conqueror” in the context of colonial expansion in the past, because China has long respected the diversity of world culture and treated the culture of every country and nation equally, so the purpose of translation activities for today’s translators is not cultural aggression but spread valuable Chinese culture to other countries and receive the essence of other countries' cultures. The role of today’s translators is the promoter of communication of cultures.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The identity of translator is an important issue of translation studies. Throughout the history, translators have played various kinds of roles in translation. At the beginning, translators had a low cultural status and are given such roles as “servant” and “invisible man”. And the subjectivity and creativity of translators were ignored in translation studies. Later in 1970s, with the cultural turn in translation studies of western countries, translators got much more attention and walked from behind the scenes to the front stage, and various kinds of roles are given to them such as: “manipulator” “writer” “creative rebel”. The status of translators had been improved. Then with the development of society and technology, translators are playing more roles such as “language quality controller” “new learner” and “selector”. From the changes of the translators’ identity, we can conclude many features of it and realize what roles should today’s translators play in order to give full play to their creativity and subjectivity, so as to create wonderful translated versions.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1] Venuti (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility'': London and New York: Routledge. <br /> <br /> [2] Robinson, D (1997). Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theories Explained: Manchester: St.Jerome Publishing. <br /> <br /> [3] 埃斯卡皮，罗贝尔(1987).文学社会学-罗•埃斯卡皮文论选:杭州：浙江人民出版社. <br /> <br /> [4] Lefevere, Andre (2010). ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame'': Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> [5]仲伟合、周静（2096），译者的极限与底线-试论译者主体性与译者的天职，外语与外语教学（07）：42-46。<br /> <br /> [6]谭载喜（1991），西方翻译简史，北京：商务印书馆：153。<br /> <br /> [7]许钧（2003），翻译论，武汉：湖北教育出版社。<br /> <br /> [8]杨武能（2003），再谈文学翻译主题，中国翻译（03）。<br /> <br /> [9]李晖，郝思源（2018），计算机辅助翻译中的译者身份研究，校园英（17）。<br /> <br /> [10]钱钟书（1984），林殊的翻译，北京商务印书馆。<br /> <br /> [11]姚亚平（1996），中国当代修辞学，广州：广东教育出版社：37。<br /> <br /> [12]金圣华，黄国斌（1996），因难见巧-名家翻译经验谈，香港：三联书店有限公司。<br /> <br /> ==Study of Domestication and foreignization in Cross-cultural Translation 顾东方 Gu Dongfang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's economic globalization, international cultural exchanges are expanding, and translation as a communication tool is also crucial. As a form of cross-cultural and cross-linguistic communication, translation is a kind of communication and interaction between two cultures with very different social backgrounds and cultural traditions. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, the application and selection of translation strategies should not only reflect the translator's style, but also directly affect the audience of the translated work among the target language readers. In 1995, Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization , in The Invisibility of Translators. domestication and foreignization are both opposed and unified, i.e. there is no such thing as absolute domestication or absolute foreignization. This paper will discuss the selection and application of domestication and foreignization in cross-cultural translation, based on the two translation strategies themselves and actual translation cases, so that translators can use these two translation strategies more flexibly in translation to better convey the meaning of the original texts and make the translations reach more readers, and thus promote the communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication and foreignization; cross-cutural; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在经济全球化的今天，国际间文化交流也在不断扩大，而翻译作为一种交流工具也显得至关重要。作为一种跨文化、跨语言交际的形式，翻译是一种社会背景与文化传统很不相同的两种文化间的交流与交往。因此，在跨文化翻译中，翻译策略的运用与选择不仅仅要体现出译者的风格，也会直接影响译作在目的语读者中的受众程度。美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出了归化与异化两种翻译策略。归化与异化，既对立又统一，也即绝对的归化或者绝对的异化都是不存在的。本文将从归化与异化这两种翻译策略的本身出发，并结合实际翻译案例，来探讨归化与异化在跨文化翻译当中的选择与运用，使得译者能够在翻译中更灵活地使用这两种翻译策略，更好地传达出原作的意蕴，使译作受众于更多的读者，以此促进不同文化之间的交流。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化与异化；跨文化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> === Definitions of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Domestication is to localize the original language and focuses on the target language or readers by conveying the original text in the way target readers are familiar with. In order to close the readers of target texts.Domesticated translation requires the translator to speak like a native author, and the translation must become authentic to the native language if the original author is to speak directly to the readers. It helps the reader to better understand the translation and enhances the readability and enjoyment of the translation.<br /> Foreignization is that the translator tries not to disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader can get closer to the author&quot;. In translation, it means to accommodate the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorb foreign expressions, require the translator to approach the author, and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the original content. The purpose of the foreignization strategy is to consider about the differences in national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationalities and linguistic styles, and to preserve the exoticism of the translated text for the readers.<br /> <br /> ===The relationship between literal translation and free translation ,and domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Historically, foreignization and domestication can be seen as extensions of, but not identical to, literal and free translation. The terms &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot; are English translation version. Literal translation is a kind of method or text that keeps the original content and the form of the original text. Free translation means that it keeps only the content of the original text, not the form of the original text. Literal translation appeared during the May 4th Movement, emphasizing the need for faithfulness to the original text so that the translation can be &quot;expressive&quot; and &quot;elegant&quot;. Literal translation does not mean translating word for word in mechanical way. Since English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate them word for word. Literal translation is to fully and accurately clarify the meaning of the original work, without any distortion or random addition or deletion of the original ideas to maintain the original style. Sometimes even the original mood or emotion, such as anger or embarrassment, sarcasm or irony, joy or happiness, should not be ignored. Fu Si Nian and Zheng Zhenduo both advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, literal translation is the overriding rule. The work of Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren, The Collected Works of Extra-territorial Novels, is regarded as the representative of literal translation. The free translation, on the other hand, starts from the meaning and requires only the main idea of the original text to be expressed without excessive attention to detail, but a natural flow of the translation. In translation, if we cannot directly adopt the structure and expression of the original, we must change the sentence structure and expression to convey the meaning of the original according to the form and characteristics of the expression. Since there are many differences between the original language and the translated language in word order, grammar, changing forms and rhetoric, we can only use appropriate ways to convey the meaning of the original and reproduce the effect of the original. Mr. Jing-Shen Zhao once said, &quot;A smooth and fluent version is better than one that focuses only on fidelity to the original&quot;. Obviously, Mr. Zhao was in favor of foreignization, and so did Mr Yan Fu. Foreignization has been used in many works of Yan Fu, for example, the Evolution and Ethics is a typical example . In literal translation, faithful to the original form should be placed first, followed by faithful to the original content, again the fluency and popularity of translated language; while in free translation, faithful to the original content should be placed first, translation language fluency and popularity of the second, but free translation is not limited to the form of the original. Some scholars often discuss literal translation, free translation and domestication and foreignization together, which is understandable, but it is necessary to make a distinction. Based on the level of language and culture,domestication and foreignization focus more on the use of language from the perspective of cultural differences and are a kind of translation strategy, while literal and free translation is a translation technique, which is only at the level of language. There may be only one main translation strategy for a text or a work, but each strategy may use both literal and free translation methods, and each method serves the general direction of the translation strategy. The choice of the main translation strategy depends on the purpose of the translation, if it is to maximize the understanding of foreign cultures or cross-cultural comparative study, then the main focus is on foreignization; if it is to understand the information or story development through reading, then the domestication may be the best choice. Taking the translation of the famous work Dream of the Red Chamber as an example, there are two versions by two masters, Yang Xianyi and Hawkes, the former adopts foreignization to deal with the cultural factors in the language, that is, to keep the source culture as much as possible in the translation, while Hawkes adopts domestication in order to avoid the conflict between two different cultures, Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===National and international research on the development of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> <br /> ===3.1.The history of the development of domestication and foreignization abroad.===<br /> The German translator Schleiermacher, in his work, On the Different Methods of Translation, elaborated the need for translations to bring the reader as close as possible to the original author, and for the first time introduced the concepts of domestication and foreignization.<br /> At the same time, in the British academic circles of the time, domestication was the main translation strategy, but Francis Newman in England, when discussing the transl ation work on Homer, advocated that translators should consciously translate in the ancient language to emphasize the heterogeneity of the work.<br /> In the 1960s A.D., Nida proposed the theory of domestication for the first time in many structuralist theoretical works, and since then the climax of the debate on domestication and foreignization rose on the stage in western translation field . In Nida's view, domesticated translation does not need to stick to the form of the original text, but only needs to express the content with the closest and most natural equivalent in the translated text to achieve equivalence.<br /> The French theorist Antoinette Bellman deplored the tendency of eliminating foreignization in translation through the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot;. He said: &quot;The proper theoretical goal of the translation action is to accept heterogeneity as it is.&quot; This view seems to have an impact on Venuti's strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot; .<br /> In his book The Invisibility of the Translator, Italian scholar Venuti discusses the &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator by combining the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization for the first time. He strongly advocates foreignization and questions domestication, arguing that domestication is essentially a means of cultural colonization by Western colonizers. At the same time, he also suggests that the purpose of translation is not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express linguistic and cultural differences.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Domestic development history on domestication and foreignization===<br /> The earliest translations of Buddhist scriptures have included the debate between assimilation and dissimilation. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the translator Zhiqian pioneered the translation style of using free translation instead of transliteration, which had far-reaching significance and influence in history.<br /> At the end of the 19th century, several other great translators emerged in Chinese history, and Yan Fu was one of them. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, foreign powers invaded extensively and the Chinese nation faced an existential crisis, under such a background, Yan Fu believed that translation must be carefully chosen based on the social and historical reality of the country into which it is translated. In the translation, the translator should take the literary tradition of the nation and the specific historical and cultural purpose as the main purpose, combining the cultural and linguistic background of the readers. The translator should not focus on how to be &quot;faithful to the original&quot;, but how to adapt to the social and cultural choices of the time.<br /> With the rise of the May 4th New Culture Movement, many translators tried to learn from foreign literature in order to transform literature and society.Lu Xun's most famous dictum relating to translation was &quot;I'd rather be faithful than smooth&quot;, and advocated &quot;preserving the foreign flavor as much as possible&quot; and &quot;the need for exoticism&quot;. <br /> After the founding of New China, China's translation industry entered the third high point, and a large number of Western and Soviet works were introduced, which was connected with the spiritual needs of people at that time. After the reform and opening up, with the influx of Western translation ideas, &quot;foreignization&quot; has emerged. Many scholars have put forward the idea that &quot;Foreignization is primary while domestication is supplementary&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===4.domestication and foreignization of cultural exchange translation===<br /> <br /> ===4.1the relationship between culture and language===<br /> In a broad sense, culture refers to the material and spiritual wealth created and accumulated by human beings in the course of social development; in a narrower sense, it refers to the ideology of society and the system of organizational constructs that corresponds to it. Culture has the following four basic characteristics 1) culture is owned and shared by all members of a society; 2) culture is acquired rather than inherited; 3) culture is biologically based; and 4) culture is based on a symbolic system. The relationship between language and culture is between the part and the whole; language is a subsystem of culture, and language cannot exist apart from culture; it embodies all the beliefs and emotions of a cultural group. Language and culture interact and influence each other and are inseparable. Based on the close relationship between language and culture, more consideration should be given to cultural factors in translation research, which means that translation research should be carried out in a more macro context. Translators should be aware of enough cultural differences when dealing with the cultural differences between the original language and the target language. Due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese, many English and Chinese phrases, although literally having the same or similar meanings, are inherently different. Therefore, a word-for-word translation without considering cultural factors can lead to ambiguity.<br /> <br /> ===4.2 Translatability and untranslatability of cultures===<br /> On the one hand, the similarity of human experience worldwide contributes to the translatability of cultures. In this regard, Nida has said that &quot;all human beings eat, work, sleep and procreate, and they produce objects such as furniture, tools and vehicles. They also organize themselves into families, clans, internal and external groups, nations and inter-national organizations. They have a conscious similarity in their views of the universe, values, religion and supernatural forces. In fact, the different groups of people in the world have much more in common with each other than they do with each other.&quot; It is the similarity of the cultures of different peoples that allows people of different cultures to understand each other and makes translation possible. Nida thus states, &quot;Linguists and anthropologists have discovered that what binds human beings together far outweighs what alienates them, and this is the basis for generating communication.&quot; Many expressions that are unique to one culture can be found almost identically in a culture and become the best evidence of cultural translatability.<br /> On the other hand, each people has a culture that is distinct from the others, which hinders mutual understanding with the others and may even cause cultural shock. Due to different cultural inheritances, the languages of different nationalities have their own symbol systems and lexical, syntactical and grammatical characteristics, which often make them untranslatable. For example, the Chinese phrase &quot;客上天然居，居然天客&quot; is one of the examples of untranslatable culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.3 Factors influencing cultural translation strategies===<br /> <br /> ===4.3.1.Motives and objectives of translation===<br /> <br /> Different motivations and purposes for translation lead to different translation principles and methods<br /> <br /> ===4.3.2.Text type===<br /> <br /> Different texts influence the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord, translation can be divided into instrumental translation, which refers to the means of transferring information from the source language to the target language, and documentary translation, which refers to the means of transferring information about communication activities from the source language to the target language. This type of translation emphasizes the transmission and conveyance of information and mainly includes non-literary writing, including advertising, media writing, scientific writing, propaganda and announcements, etc. With this method of translation, which is guided by the culture of the target language, the information that needs to be conveyed can be better expressed and accessed. The other type of text is documentary translation. This type of translation refers to the presentation of real communicative activities and information to the target language readers. The term &quot;documentary translation&quot; is appropriate for translating (language-)-specific expressions, where translation of language and content are equally important. eter Newmark distinguishes between communicative and semantic translation of such texts, emphasizing the &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot; of the message. &quot; in order to achieve the same effect on the readers of the original language as on those of the target language. Although this type of translation is a subjective process, the translator will attach great importance to the effect of the translation on the reader's mind. By reorganizing and rearranging the order of sentences, the translator will eliminate obscurities and ambiguities in order to achieve &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot;. Most non-literary writing, informative articles and books, as well as textbooks, bulletins, standardized writing, and novels are suitable for this type of communicative translation; because it emphasizes the need to have the same effect on both the original and target language readers, it often uses expressions that are customary and easily understood in the language in which they are written. Thus, communicative translation is equivalent to naturalized translation, where the translator's preference for idiomatic expressions is produced or determined by the translator's preference for the target language. Semantic translation attempts to get as close as possible to the exact meaning of the original text in terms of wording. Semantic translation focuses on the expression of the exact meaning of the content in order to preserve as accurate a style of the original text as possible. This type of translation is an objective process during which the translator focuses only on whether the translation is precise and retains the flavor of the original text. In this type of translation, the translator tries to preserve the semantic and syntactic structure of the original text, as well as the tone of the original text, etc. semantic translation applies to autobiographies, private correspondence, personal emotional texts and quotations. A semantic translation is equivalent to an alien translation in an attempt to achieve the preservation of the flavour of the original, due to the translator's original language preference.<br /> <br /> ===4.3.3Acceptance by readers===<br /> In the past, traditional translation theories placed one-sided emphasis on extra-author-centred and text-centred research, neglecting the involvement of translators and target language readers. Modern reception aesthetics considers the reader not as an unimportant and unnecessary perspective, but as a historical, active and creative factor in the relationship between author, text and reader. This is why different people have different interpretations of the same text of Hamlet. Naida was influenced by the acceptance of the aesthetic sub. His theory and practice of translation are very much focused on the readers' reflection. He pointed out that &quot;Judging the validity of a translation does not stop at the comparison of word meanings, grammar and rhetoric; what is important is the extent to which the recipient is able to understand and appreciate the translation correctly.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===4.4the cultural school of translation===<br /> In 1990, the representatives of the cultural school of translation, Bassnett and Lefevere, in their co-edited book Translation, History and Culture, formally proposed the slogan of &quot;Cultural Turn of Translation&quot;, which also marked the official emergence of the cultural school of translation. In the following years, they published several monographs, individually or together, discussing about the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. In the following years, they published several monographs, either individually or jointly, to discuss the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. Unlike the literary or linguistic schools of translation in the past, the cultural school is a school with a strong &quot;revolutionary&quot; element in translation theory, and some people even consider their views to be &quot;subversive&quot; to the previous translation theories. This is mainly because they especially emphasize the status of culture in translation and the importance of translation to the spread of culture and the promotion of social and cultural progress. Other translators, such as Lambert and Robyns, argue that translation is more accurately regarded as a communication activity between two cultures than as a bilingual conversion activity. Therefore, they believe that translation activity is a cultural conversion. In recent years, Chinese scholars have done some research and reflection on the essence of translation. In the researches of many scholars, under the current globalization environment ,the importance of translation to cultural exchange and communication is getting more and more attention from people. For example, Lv Jun proposes that &quot;translation is a kind of cross-cultural information exchange activities, and its essence is dissemination. To a certain extent, the viewpoint of Chinese scholars and the Western cultural schools can be said to echo each other. Language is not only a carrier of information, but also a carrier of culture. Therefore, in essence, translation as a kind of inter-linguistic communication, it is not only the conversion of language information , but also the transplantation of cultural information. Therefore, in essence, translation is not only a language information conversion, but also a cultural communication activity.<br /> <br /> ===5. discussion domestication and foreignization from translation examples===<br /> <br /> ===5.1 Application of domestication in English-Chinese Translation===<br /> Chinese famous writer Mo Yan has won the Nobel Prize for Literature for a series of works including Fatigue of Life and Death (2006) and Frog (2009) and American sinologist Ge Haowen should also be credited , who was called “the only midwife of Mo Yan’s works”.Ge's translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out reflects his consistent principle: &quot;The author is writing for the Chinese, while I am translating for foreigners,translating is a process of rewriting”. Ge Haowen did a lot of rewriting and compilation based on respecting the original work, and in the translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out, the domesticated translation reflects his relentless pursuit of &quot;accuracy&quot;, &quot;readability&quot; and &quot;acceptability&quot;. <br /> <br /> 例一： 常言道‘螃蟹过河随大流’，‘识时务者为俊杰’，不要顽固不化，不要充当挡路的石头，不要充硬汉子。<br /> <br /> Join the commune and stop working for yourself, end your quest for independence.Stop being headstrong,and an obstructionist.<br /> <br /> “螃蟹过河随大流” is a two-part allegorical saying in Chinese folks . It means &quot;following the majority of people to speak or act&quot;. A post-slip is a short, witty phrase that can be used as a philosophical and wisdom-boosting phrase. A man who knows the times is a hero&quot; is an idiom derived from a historical allusion, meaning &quot;only those who can recognize the trend of the times can become heroes and heroines&quot;. Ge Haowen domesticated these two slang expressions: first, because they have the same meaning as the one that follows: &quot;Don't be stubborn ...... don't be a tough guy anymore&quot;, which is used to kindly advise people who are unable to see the current affairs of the day, but are still stubbornly stubborn. The deletion of these two daily phrases does not affect the main content of the narrative and the expression of ideas in the context. Secondly, there is the concern that the translation may not produce the desired effect of depth, image, and humor as the source language. And then there is the fact that the target language readers are relatively unfamiliar with Chinese slang, so it is better to delete it directly than to translate it to increase the readers' reading burden and affect their understanding and grasp of the whole text. Ge Haowen's domesticated translation method reflects his holistic view of discourse as a unit<br /> <br /> 例二：但一个二十多岁就当了县级领导干部的人，和农村姑娘结婚的可能性几乎是零，无论她貌如西施还是色比婵娟。<br /> <br /> There was no chance that a leading country-level cadre in his twenties would ever actually marry a peasant girl , no matter how pretty or fetching she might be.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaojun ,Xishi, Diao Chan and Yang Yuhuan were the main characters with unique beauty at that time in historical illusions ,named as “Four Beauties in ancient times”.In the original work, Mo Yan chose only two historical figures, &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, to contrast and emphasize the beauty of rural girls. In the process of translation, Ge did not translate &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, nor did he make any commentary, but took into account the target audience's alienation from the historical allusion to the Four Beauties. Therefore, he adopt a domesticated translation method to make a simplification, breaking the constraints of the original language and enhancing the readability of the translation, without deviating from the original meaning.<br /> In the above example, when dealing with unfamiliar allusions or common sayings and proverbs, Ge Haowen boldly rewrote and deleted them, translating the work from the reader's point of view, so that the target readers will be pleased with his translation.<br /> 5.2 The Application of Foreignization in English-Chinese Translation<br /> The nature of foreignization is such that it deals with elements of the original language that are culturally distinctive, and the result of the translation is to bring in new forms of expression that are different from the mother tongue and the cultural connotations attached to them. Language is an open system with a strong capacity for absorption and inclusion. With the deepening of communication among countries and peoples, various languages have been enriched to different degrees, and variant translation plays a more important role in this process. In Chinese, the terms &quot;internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot; are used to refer to the &quot;Internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot;. &quot;Time is money&quot;, &quot;ivory tower&quot;, &quot;washroom&quot;.... (crocodile tears), &quot;black humor&quot; , and &quot;qi gong&quot; ), &quot;taijiquan&quot; , &quot;kong fu&quot; , &quot;typhon” These words did not originally exist in the Chinese and English language systems. However, translators make a large number of words with exoticism in the way of foreignization more popular and acceptable among the massive culture . Therefore, foreignization is not only beneficial to introduce local history and culture to foreign countries, but also gives local readers the opportunity to understand foreign customs and realize the purpose of cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> 例一.打破铁饭碗<br /> <br /> Break the”iron rice bowl”<br /> <br /> &quot;Iron rice bowl&quot; is a Chinese idiom, in Chinese we compare &quot;rice bowl&quot; to an occupation, while &quot;iron rice bowl&quot; refers to a stable job, no doubt, it is difficult to convert such words with obvious Chinese characteristics into the target language through the method of &quot;domestication&quot;, but foreignization not only retains the imagery of the source language, but also introduces the unique culture of China to Western readers.<br /> 例二.下海<br /> <br /> A.to jump into the sea of business<br /> <br /> B.To turn professional<br /> <br /> In the early days of reform and opening up, the word “jumping into the sea of business” was popular, mainly meaning the trend of doing business.For this new phenomenon ,translators adopt different methods. Text A used foreignization and direct translation while the later domestication. In comparison, the former was more expressive and vivid, conveying the meaning of source language in a proper way.<br /> Domestication and foreignization is more apparent in the literary translation. Here I will take the translation of Dream of the Red Chamber as an example and compare the translations of Mr. and Mrs. Yang Xianyi ,and Mr. Hawkes. The translation of Dream of the Red Chamber by Yang Xianyi and his wife is a typical representative of foreignization, which is highly praised by domestic readers, but some scholars have conducted a survey and found that it is far inferior to the British sinologist David Hawks in terms of the number of borrowed readers, citations and reprinted editions. Why the &quot;cold shoulder&quot;? Let's find out by comparing and analyzing some examples of the two translations.<br /> <br /> 例一.刘姥姥道: “这倒不然。谋事在人，成事在天。咱们谋到了，靠菩萨的保佑，有些机会，也未可知。”<br /> <br /> A.“ Don’t be so sure,” said Granny Liu. “Man proposes, Heaven disposes. Work out a plan,trust to Buddha,and something may come of it for all you know.”<br /> <br /> B.“ I wouldn’t say that.”said Grannie Liu.”Man proposes, God disposes.It is up to us to think of something. We must leave it to the good Lord to decide whether He’ll help us or not. Who knows, he might give us the opportunity we are looking for.”<br /> <br /> Dream of the Red Chamber is a literary work full of Buddhist and Taoist thoughts. Yang Xianyi and Hawks have different approaches to the phrase“谋事在人，成事在天”， which also reflects different religious thoughts. In Yang's translation, &quot;God&quot; is replaced by &quot;Heavenly Father,&quot; which is in line with the Chinese religious belief that Heavenly Father in control of everything, while retaining the religious flavor of the source culture. However, Hawks gave priority to the religious background and acceptance of the English readers, so he adopted the English proverb directly without any modification, thus transforming the Buddhism and Taoism in the East to Christianity in the West, in accordance with western religious belief and thinking ways.<br /> The two translations have their own merits. The choice of translation strategies is based on different objectives. Mainly depending on the foreignization stategy, Mr. and Mrs. Yang tried to spread Chinese literature classics and convey Chinese traditional culture originally.However, they didn't get the desired results.One of the main reasons is that Mr. and Mrs. Yang regard faithfulness as the first priority and overemphasize the foreign culture of the translated works, neglecting to consider the reception environment and the recognition of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===6.Conclusion===<br /> With the continuous expansion of international cultural exchanges, the human cultural gap is gradually narrowing, language as an important carrier of culture has also been affected by the same, an appropriate increase in the use of &quot;foreign&quot; translation,can not only inject the new elements into domestic culture, but also promote the spread of local culture, achieve cross-cultural exchange and accelerate the process of &quot;cultural globalization&quot;. It should be pointed out foreignization is not at the expense of forgetting one's own culture, on the contrary, it is based on the familiarity with other cultures, and then carry out painstaking, creative translation work. To give more attention to &quot;alienation&quot; translation is not to deny, reject the domesticated translation method, because domestication and foreignization play an irreplaceable rol in the target language and culture.Therefore, the two translations will always co-exist and complement each other. Flexible use of foreignization and domestication is the real way of addressing the cultural conflicts.<br /> <br /> ===7.Reference===<br /> 1. 王瑛. &quot;跨文化翻译中的归化和异化.&quot; 内蒙古财经学院学报(综合版) 03(2007):83-87.<br /> <br /> 2. 周永堃. &quot;归化异化在跨文化翻译中的选择与运用——以《红楼梦》和《生死疲劳》为例.&quot; 邵阳学院学报(社会科学版) 18.01(2019):103-108.<br /> <br /> 3.王红卫. &quot;跨文化交际翻译方法:归化和异化策略.&quot; 西南民族学院学报(哲学社会科学版) 9(2002):250-253.<br /> <br /> 4.熊兵. &quot;文化交流翻译的归化与异化.&quot; 中国科技翻译 16.003(2003):5-9.<br /> <br /> 5.刘苹. &quot;中国翻译史上的归化和异化.&quot; 滨州学院学报 24.001(2008):74-75.<br />  <br /> <br /> ==The Translation Strategies of Chinese Political Discourse under the Standard of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; 高明珠 Gao Mingzhu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With the development of globalization, the political communication among countries is more and more frequent, and the translation of political terms has gradually become one of the heated topics in the translation field. Political discourse translation is challenging, because not only does it concern the relationship between countries, national status, political attitude and other important issues, but also it is developmental. Political neologisms will keep emerging, and some political terms will contain new connotations with the advancement of the times. In addition to the above characteristics, Chinese political discourse has many affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases, metaphors.In 2008, Yang Mingxing and other scholars put forward the &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; based on Eugene Nida's &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; theory for the translation of Chinese political discourse, which pointed out that the translation of political discourse should follow the three principles of &quot;political&quot;, &quot;dynamic&quot; and &quot;balanced&quot;. On the basis of some related papers, this chapter will sum up the specific strategies such as supplement, omission, keeping or converting analogical body, adding explanation and narration for translating Chinese political discourse with characteristics of having lots of affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases and metaphors following the guidance of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> political equivalence Chinese political discourse translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着全球化的发展，各国间的政治交流愈加频繁，政治话语的翻译也逐渐成为翻译界讨论热点之一。政治话语的翻译是具有挑战性的，不仅是因为它关系到国与国之间的关系、国家地位、政治态度等重要问题，而且因为政治词汇是发展性的，政治词汇中会不断有新的词汇涌进，且某些政治词汇会随着时代的发展而增加新的内涵。而中国政治话语除了具有以上特点，它还有多词缀、缩写、四字短语[1]，多用隐喻等修辞手法的特点。2008年，杨明星等学者针对中国政治话语的翻译，基于尤金·奈达的“功能对等”理论提出了“政治等效”翻译标准，该标准指出政治话语的翻译要遵循“政治性”、“动态性”、“平衡性”三大原则。本文基于相关文献，总结出在该标准下，对中国政治话语在具有多词缀、缩写、四字短语及多采用隐喻这几个特点下的翻译可采用的具体的翻译策略，如增补法、省略法[1]、喻体保留法（完全保留、部分保留）、喻体转换法、喻底补充法、喻义直叙法[2]等。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 政治等效 中国政治话语 翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction of Background===<br /> <br /> Political discourse is a communication carrier or one kind of discourse behaviors that elaborate a country's foreign policies, governance mechanisms or political ideas, including oral expression and written expression. Oral expressions includes leaders' speeches, the contents conveyed by various government agencies' press conferences, and written expressions includes diplomatic documents, white papers, legal provisions, treaties, agreements and communiques issued by relevant state agencies. With the improvement of China's comprehensive national strength and the continuous expansion of its global influence, the study of the translation standards, principles, strategies of Chinese political discourse has become an important topic in the field of translation. A study in 2019 has shown that domestic political discourse translation studies started in 2000 and entered a stage of rapid development with the convening of the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012. The current research hot spots of political discourse translation include the translation of Xi Jinping's speeches and works, the application of various translation laws and interpretive theories, the principle of political equivalence and the theory of ecological translation(Chu Xingjun 2020,36).<br /> <br /> ===2. The Significance of Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> This chapter holds that the significance of political discourse translation mainly involves two aspects----politics and linguistics. Firstly, in terms of politics, translating political discourse is to facilitate the political communication between countries, show the country's political attitude, theory and policy to the outside world. Political discourse translation plays a significant role in promoting the relationship between the countries, taking one’s stand, safeguarding one’s national interests and shaping one’s national image and so on. Secondly, in terms of linguistics, political terms are developmental. With the advance of the times and the rapid development of the world, new political terms will constantly emerge, which is also the process of language expansion. The study of the translation of new words is not only the bounden duty of translators, but also of great significance to the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Difficulties in Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> The difficulties are mainly reflected in three aspects. Firstly, the translator should correctly understand the political connotation of the source language and translate it as the target language faithfully. Secondly, different expression ways between two languages. There are rare equivalent words in both languages, so when translating the source language as the target language, the expression habits of the target language users should be taken as account, so as to facilitate the target language users to accurately understand the original meaning. Especially, Chinese political discourse often present metaphor rhetoric which may not be easy for foreigners to understand, thus when translating such words, methods that we can adopt not only include literal translation, transliteration plus explanation, but also sometimes it would be better to translate those words on the basis of the target language’s culture to make the translation more vivid and help readers understand the meaning accurately. In a word, be more flexible in adopting methods according to different cases; Finally, the same political term may have different meanings in different contexts, or it may require translators to adopt different translation methods in different contexts. In addition, the connotation of some political terms will develop with the advance of The times. Therefore, translators should keep up with current events and deal with them flexibly in translation.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Connotations of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal and connotation of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard<br /> <br /> In 2008, US Department of Defense mistranslated the term &quot;韬光养晦&quot; to propaganda &quot;China threat theory&quot;. Therefore, based on Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, a scholar, Yang Mingxing, proposed the translation concept of &quot;political equivalence&quot; for the first time from the perspective of international relations and diplomatic analysis (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). The connotation of this concept mainly involves three aspects: firstly, the translator needs to truthfully convey the political thought of the source language as well as the speaker; secondly, when translating, the translator should choose the target language according to the expression ways that the target language users get used to, so that the information and political thoughts brought by the target text to the target language users are equivalent to those brought by the source text to the source language users; Thirdly, in different contexts and historical backgrounds, the connotations of political discourse will be different. Translators' translation should keep pace with the times and be determined in accordance with the situation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). In 2012, Yang Mingxing and other scholars further proposed three prominent principles or characteristics of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; translation standard: political, balanced and dynamic (Yang Mingxing, Yan Da 2012, 35). Among them, political nature, namely accurately grasping the political connotation of the source language, is the most prominent characteristic, which is determined by the strong political color of the political terms themselves. Balance means to strike a balance among source language, target language, speaker and audience without focusing on either side, and strive to make the effect produced by the translation in the foreign readers be similar or equivalent to that produced by the original text in local readers. Dynamic means that the equivalent process mentioned above is a dynamic equivalent process. Because political terms’ connotation changes with the advance of the times and varies from different contexts, translators need to keep pace with the times, follow up the connotation development of political terms, and translate flexibly according to different situations. In 2018, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed a compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + aesthetic representation&quot; on the basis of the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; (Yang Mingxing, Qi Jingjing 2018,15). This standard was put forward in the context of the appearance of ancient poetry in political discourse. Besides meeting the requirements of &quot;political equivalence&quot; mentioned above, this standard asks to take the literary beauty of ancient poetry and prose, such as rhythm, form, artistic conception, etc as account. In January 2020, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed another compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + image representation&quot; based on the frequently used the rhetoric device metaphor in political discourse(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2018,41). The purpose of realizing &quot;image reproduction&quot; and &quot;aesthetic reproduction&quot; is basically similar, both of which are to reproduce the aesthetic experience of the original text. In October 2020, Yang Mingxing and some other scholars made a review of several major diplomatic event in the Sino-British diplomatic history and put forward that the realization of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard should not only rely on the translator's ability, but also have some connections with the national policy of translation, translation system and equal speaking rights between two countries, among which equal speaking right is the key to realize &quot;political equivalence&quot;(Yang Mingxing 2020,05).<br /> <br /> (2)The differences between “political equivalence” and “functional equivalence” put forward by Nida<br /> <br /> Firstly, the &quot;equivalence&quot; emphasized by Nida does not pay enough attention to the political connnotations of the original text in translation, ignoring the particularity of diplomatic or political discourse, and that whether the original text and translation are quite consistent in political standpoint and political connotation. Secondly, although functional equivalence pays attention to the information equivalence between the original text and the translated text, it does not pay enough attention to the real intention of the speaker or writer of the original text, because the literal meaning of the original text cannot be equal with the political standpoint and ideological connotation of the speaker or writer. Thirdly, the &quot;dynamic&quot; concept Nida proposed in “functional equivalence” theory ignores the dynamic changes in context and connotation of original text and translation. However, for diplomatic or political discourse, the connotations of the political terms do not remain unchanged. It changes constantly with the speaker's context, political tendency and historical background at that time. On the other hand, the target language is also dynamic, because the meaning and usage of the target language are constantly changing, the translator must keep track of the latest development of the target language and the domestic political and cultural background of the target audience (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> In a word, the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; is an important theory aiming at the translation of foreign affairs, diplomacy and political discourse, and provides theoretical guidance and normative requirements for the translation of political terms.<br /> <br /> ===5. Requirements of “Political Equivalence” for Translators ===<br /> <br /> First of all, pay attention to both the source language and the target language equally, and grasp the relationship between the speaker or writer and the audience or reader. The translation should not only accurately convey the meaning of the original text and the speaker or writer's real intention, but also take the language habits and the way of thinking of the target language users into consideration, so as to arise a common sense between the speaker or writer and the audience or reader. The translation of political discourse should not only aim at correctly understanding and expressing China's policy thoughts, but also fully consider the national emotions, language habits and identity psychology of the receiving country. If the translation only focuses on one side, it will be difficult to achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; and even cause political events (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;political equivalence&quot; must be dynamic. This kind of dynamic is not only related to the accurate understanding of the original text, but also involves the proper selection and use of the target language. It must always be in line with the context and political background of the speaker or writer as well as the audience or reader, which is the key to the realization of &quot;political equivalence&quot;. To translate political discourse or terms only by looking up the dictionary without considering the context is bound to make the translation be quite different from the original in meaning (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Thirdly, translation strategies should be flexible and diversified, and language form should not be confined to the original one. To achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; in political terms translation, the translation strategies cannot be single, rigid, and the translation either cannot be confined to the primitive form of the original text, the original or even the extended concepts or connotations of the words in it. Translators should make the necessary adjustment and bold choices in supplement and omission to the language form of the original text in accordance with the context and the real thoughts of the speaker or writer and the background of the political relationships between the two countries(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Fourthly, we should be familiar with the differences between English and Chinese customs, cultures, national emotions and ideologies. In the era of globalization, translation is not only the transformation of language symbols, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication behavior. The translation of political discourse is closely related to the cultural background of language. Due to the differences between China and West in way of thinking and language environment, corresponding words in English and Chinese have different national emotion and political connotation.For example, sometimes we may meet idioms, metaphors, allusions, myths and fables in the political discourse which are the quintessence of a nation's language with its own characteristics. They formed and developed on the basis of different culture and living environmnet, so it is necessary to strictly distinguish their differences in cultural connotation and political orientation which are the difficulties and key points in political discourse translation(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Fifthly, the grammatical phenomena and rules peculiar to English cannot be ignored, either. In English, there are many grammatical rules different from Chinese, such as tense, voice, subjunctive mood, singular and plural, case, article, etc. These language forms seem to have little effect, but if used improperly, they will often affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> lastly, learn the related knowledge of China's foreign policy and international relations to ensure political correctness in the translation of political discourse. Many countries have such sensitive issues as appellation, ethnicity, religion, sovereignty and territory. These are the &quot;minefields&quot; of political translation. When translating, one must handle it carefully and respect the language and cultural habits of the other party, otherwise it will easily lead to &quot;translation storm&quot; and affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> ===6. Translation Straties under The Standard of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of the standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot;, the following translation strategies are provided for reference on the characteristics of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> (1) Characteristics of Chinese political discourse<br /> <br /> Affixes are often seen in Chinese political discourse such as “化” in &quot;现代化&quot; and &quot;城镇化&quot;, so are abbreviations like &quot;‘十四五’规划&quot;, &quot;四个自信&quot;, etc., and four-character phrases such as &quot;和平共处&quot;, &quot;和而不同&quot;, etc. Besides, metaphor is also used frequently in Chinese political discourse such as &quot;‘老虎’、‘苍蝇’一起打&quot;, among which &quot;老虎(tiger)&quot; and &quot;苍蝇(flies)&quot; refer to officials accused of bribery and corruption. So, how do we translate these words that have Chinese language characteristics but need us to take their political implications as consideration? Pointing at these characteristics, some scholars have proposed specific translation strategies based on the &quot;political equivalence&quot;standard.<br /> <br /> (2) The strategies of supplement and omission for affixes, four-character phrases and abbreviations(Wu Jing 2014, 30)<br /> <br /> ① supplement<br /> <br /> The supplement strategy is to add words appropriately in the translation so as to convey the meaning of the original text accurately. In the foreign translation of Chinese political terms, this strategy is mainly applicable to two situations. Firstly, the abbreviation, which is a refined utterance of many political words for the convenience of memory. When the target language users don’t have relevant knowledge or language background about those abbreviations, supplementary explanation plays its role. Secondly, four-character phrases. Four-character phrases are typical examples of Chinese expressions. In order to conform to the expression habits of the target language, these condensed words should be supplemented and explained so that the audience can understand the meaning of the original text correctly.<br /> <br /> The strategy of supplement can be applied to the following situations: firstly, supplement relevant knowledge background. For example, “‘十四五’规划”is translated by China Daily as “the 14th Five-Year Plan(2021-25) for economic and social development”. In the translation, “十四”is translated as “the 14th” and“五” is translated as “Five-Year”, which adds category words to those numbers and time horizon as well as the nature of the plan to the content; Secondly, supplement detailed content to abbreviations. For example,“四个自信”is translated as “confidence in the path, theory, system and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics.”<br /> <br /> ②Omission<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belong to two kinds of language families, having great differences from vocabulary to the sentence structure, expression ways, etc. There are very little equivalent words in the two languages, so in order to make the translation smoother and be more in line with the expression ways of the target language, translator can use the strategy----omission, namely omitting those expressions without practical significance but hindering translation work, on the basis of being loyal to the original text.<br /> <br /> The strategy of omission is often used in the process of translation from Chinese to English, and the translation of Chinese political terms is no exception. For emphasizing, Chinese political leaders often use parallel sentences or repeated words, so we can omit those repeated words in the translation. For example, “治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字仍然在扩大。”can be translated as “Governance, trust, development and peace deficits continue to grow.” In addition, there are situations where multiple sentences express the same meaning, in which omission is also available. For example, “改善人民生活，增进人民福祉。”can be translated as “improve people’s livelihood”.<br /> <br /> (3) Translation strategies for metaphor<br /> <br /> Metaphor refers to the use of known figurative concepts to explain abstract concepts in diplomatic discourse. The translation standard and strategies of metaphor are determined by their inherent special attributes, which are not only the key factors to select their translation strategies, but also the important yardstick to test whether those strategies are applicable(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41). Metaphor is an objective phenomenon that has existed in political discourse for a long time. Its special attributes are reflected in political discourse, such as high political sensitivity, high cultural load and strong national characteristics. In view of the strong political sensitivity of diplomatic discourse, plain and direct words in political discourse is often empty of words, which is difficult to produce obvious communicative effect in foreign relations. In most cases, metaphorical discourse can be used to imply and disseminate a country's diplomatic ideas, attitudes and positions to achieve better communication effects (Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41).<br /> <br /> Through reading relevant papers, this chapter finds that the translation strategies proposed by scholars for metaphorical rhetoric in political discourse are mainly as follows(Long Xinyuan, Li Qiuxia 2020, 27):<br /> <br /> ① Literal translation of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> Although English and Chinese belong to different language families, and the cultural background and geographical area on which they live are also different, language is created by human beings, and human emotions always have something in common. At the same time, human beings live in the same world, especially in an increasingly integrated world like today, where the communication between human beings and the collision between cultures are inevitable. As a result, we are becoming more tolerant and understanding of different cultures and languages. When translating metaphorical words with cultural characteristics, we can render the metaphorical words in literal translation under the condition that the audience can understand them correctly, which is easier to arouse emotional resonance and cultural identity.<br /> <br /> For example, “新时代的长征路” is translated as &quot;Long March of the new era&quot;. The original text compares China's development path in the new era to the new Long March. In Chinese history, the Long March was a bloody road trodden by the communist party of China to save the country and the people. On the one hand, the literal translation of &quot;The Long March&quot; retains the historical allusions used in the original text, so that the audience can understand its meaning only by a simple association. On the other hand, it is more conducive to show the national spirit of China.<br /> <br /> ② Substitution of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> After all, differences are greater than similarities between different languages, so sometimes adopting literal translation in the text using metaphor does not make the audience clear, but may mislead. However, different metaphorical entities are often used to express the same abstract concept between Chinese and English. At this time, in order to make the audience better understand and accept the original metaphor, translator can replace the original metaphorical entities with those referring to same thing in the target language, which can also improve the external communication effect of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> For example, foreign ministry spokesman Hua Chunying once said:”The US wants to make China a scapegoat(对于美国的花式‘甩锅’，我们不想接也不能接。).”“甩锅”is an internet buzzword in China used to vividly express the meaning of shifting the blame onto someone else. And “scapegoat” originates from an allusion in the Bible which has the same meaning with the Chinese word “甩锅”(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41), so translator made a conversion between the two words. In this way, English readers can better understand the political connotation of the original sentence. However, if adopting literal translation, English readers won’t understand.<br /> <br /> ③literal translation+explanation<br /> <br /> In some other cases, either literally translating those metaphorical entities or using corresponding ones to substitute them cannot eliminate the language barrier caused by cultural differences, then translator can adopt the strategy of “literal translation+explanation”, which is to literally translate the metaphor entity and then add explanation to it. In this way, the translation not only keeps the cultural characteristics of the source language while making English readers be clear with the meaning of them, but also contributes to the spread of Chinese culture to the outside world.<br /> <br /> For an instance, “不能腐的笼子越扎越牢”is translated as “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption has been strengthened”. The Chinese words “笼子”refers to the strict management institutions against corruption set up by Chinese government. Comparing the institution to the cage makes the action of fighting against corruption become more vivid. However, for English readers, it is hard to understand the original political connotation according to a simple word “cage”, so translator needs to add some explanations like “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption.” As a result, the meaning is clear and vivid.<br /> <br /> ④abandoning the figurative body and translate its connotation directly<br /> <br /> Metaphor, as a figure of speech, is highly culture-loaded, while political discourse is a kind of words with high political sensitivity. These characteristics make the translation of Chinese political discourse more difficult, and it is inevitable that translators may meet the situation where they cannot easily balance and take all these characteristics into consideration. At this time, the translator should choose to abandon the figurative body and keep the metaphorical meaning, after all, it is the first important thing to convey the correct political implication.<br /> <br /> For example, “保障‘米袋子’、‘菜篮子’安全”is translated as “ensure the security of grain supply and non-staple food supply”,among which the Chinese words “米袋子(rice bag)”and“菜篮子(vegetable basket)”refer to major grain supply and non-staple food supply respectively. Because rice is the staple food in most ares of China while vegetable is the complementary food, such a metaphor is very vivid and down to earth. However, it's hard for foreigners to understand the meaning of &quot;rice bag&quot; or &quot;vegetable basket&quot; without a similar living environment, so we have to discard the original figurative body and translate its meaning directly.<br /> <br /> ===7. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the summary of the above-mentioned translation strategies pointing at different situations in translating Chinese political discourse, we can see that every strategy follows the three principles under the standard of &quot;political equivalence” ---- political, balance and dynamic. Every translation strategy takes the correct transition of the political implications of the original text as the first rule, namely being political; and then keeps the cultural or linguistic characteristics of the original text as much as possible, namely keeping balance; additionally, adopting appropriate translation strategies according to different contexts or situations, namely being dynamic. The translation of political discourse has its particularity and is of great importance, so it is necessary to be careful when choosing translation strategies. Translators should not only have high linguistic literacy and fair political standpoint, but also keep up with current events, correctly and fully understand the political meaning of the original text, and make specific analysis according to different contexts and occasions to adopt the most appropriate translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===8. References===<br /> <br /> [1]楚行军. 中国政治话语翻译研究二十年(2000—2019)[Studies on the Translation of Chinese Political Discourse over the past 20 years(2000-2019)]——基于中国知网的分析[J]. 焦作师范高等专科学校学报,2020,36(03):24-27+40.<br /> <br /> [2]吴静. 基于“政治等效”的中国政治新词翻译策略解析[An analysis of translation strategies of Chinese new political terms on the basis of &quot;political equivalence&quot;][J]. 兰州文理学院学报(社会科学版),2014,30(01):95-98.<br /> <br /> [3]龙新元,李秋霞. “政治等效+认知趋同”：认知翻译观视阈下的政治文本翻译研究[&quot;Political Equivalence + Cognitive Convergence&quot; : A Study of political Text translation from the perspective of cognitive Translation][J]. 天津外国语大学学报,2020,27(05):104-120+161.<br /> <br /> [4]杨明星. 论外交语言翻译的“政治等效”——以邓小平外交理念“韬光养晦”的译法为例[The application of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; in diplomatic Language Translation -- Taking Deng Xiaoping's diplomatic idea &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2008,(05):90-94.<br /> <br /> [5]杨明星,闫达. “政治等效”理论框架下外交语言的翻译策略——以“不折腾”的译法为例[Translation strategies of diplomatic language under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;-- Taking the translation of &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2012,35(03):73-77.<br /> <br /> [6]杨明星,齐静静. 外交修辞的复合性翻译标准:“政治等效+审美再现”——以国家领导人外交演讲古诗文为例[The composite translation standard of diplomatic rhetoric: &quot;Political equivalence + aesthetic reproduction&quot; -- taking the ancient poems and essays in diplomatic speeches of national leaders as an example][J]. 中国外语,2018,15(06):89-96+109.<br /> <br /> [7]杨明星,赵玉倩. “政治等效+”框架下中国特色外交隐喻翻译策略研究[A research on translation strategies of metaphors in diplomatic discorses with Chinese characteristics under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence plus&quot;][J]. 中国翻译,2020,41(01):151-159+190.<br /> <br /> [8]杨明星,张琰. 中英外交翻译中“政治等效”与话语平等辩证关系分析——从马戛尔尼使华到共建“一带一路”(1792-2019)[Dialectical relationship between &quot;political equivalence&quot; and discourse equality in diplomatic translation between China and Britain -- from macartney's mission period to &quot;One Belt And One Road&quot; period(1792-2019)][J]. 上海翻译,2020,(05):24-29+94.<br /> <br /> ==Classification, Chinese translation methods and Strategies of Russian Proverbs - 张虎 Zhang Hu==<br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of Liaison Interpreting from the Perspectives of Reception Aesthetics and Translator's Subjectivity 李璐伊 Li Luyi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In a time of increasing intercultural communication, the working scenes of liaison interpreters are increasingly complex, and the role of interpreters are still controversial. From the perspective of aesthetics of reception and translator-centered theory, this paper analyzes the role positioning of liaison interpreters in terms of customers' expectations on the role of interpreters and their own understanding of the role of interpreters, and develops corresponding strategies for different types of liaison interpreters.<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> Liaison Interpreting；Positioning of Interpreter；Reception Aesthetics ；Translator-Centered<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在跨文化交际日益频繁的今天，联络口译译员的工作场景日益复杂，而其角色定位还存在争议。本文拟通过接受美学和译者中心论的视角分别从客户对口译译员的角色期待以及口译译员自身角色认识两方面分析了客户对口译员的角色期待和口译员对自身的角色定位，并针对不同联络口译类型制定了相应的应对策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 联络口译；译员角色定位；接受美学；译者中心论<br /> <br /> ===I. Introduction===<br /> In a broad sense, where there is a society, there is intercultural communication, which usually refers to the communication activities carried out by people in different cultural backgrounds. With the acceleration of globalization in recent years, cross-cultural communication has become increasingly frequent and complex. Susan Bassinet once argued that translation is by no means a purely linguistic act, it is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is spoken, and that translation is the communication within or between cultures. This view is also reflected in his book ''Translation, History and Culture'' (Bassnett, Susan; Lefevre, Andre 1996,4). As an important bridge in intercultural communication, interpretation is real-time, which requires interpreters to adjust their interpretation strategies in the new era to meet the increasing demand for interpreting.<br /> Translation studies is a relatively young research field, the current translation studies work an obvious trend to written translation studies, with less attention in the study of interpreting, this is probably due to the earlier tradition of the translation studies -- In the past, people only discussed the translation strategies of literary classics. As for this point, some scholars have proposed before that &quot;in terms of translation theory research itself, only written translation theory research is paid attention to rather than interpretation research, especially the study of specific problems in the process of interpretation by interpreters&quot; (Liu 2014,141- 143). We believes that the reasons for this situation are as follows: first, the corpus of written translation recorded in the form of words are easier to preserve than the interpreted corpus, and the research is also easier to retrieve the corpus of written translation; Second, Culture-related content is more common in translation than in interpretation. In addition, at present, the entry point of interpretation studies on cultural issues in liaison interpreting is often limited to a specific interpreting scene. For example, Zhao Xiaomei makes an analysis of the role of medical liaison interpreters, and believes that interpreters should abandon the tradition of complete neutrality in the process of interpreting (Zhao 2020, 105-108). However, different interpreting scenes have different requirements for interpreters, so the study confined to a specific scene does not accord with the actual situation that interpreters must be in multiple situations to interpret. In addition, many domestic liaison interpreting studies are practice reports of MTI majors, lacking systematic theoretical discussion. Against such a background of translation studies, it is very necessary to study liaison interpretation from the perspective of receptive aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;. The value of this study lies in: first, it provides a new theoretical perspective for liaison interpretation analysis; Second, it provides coping strategies to solve the cultural barriers of interpreting in intercultural communication.<br /> Generally speaking, interpretation is divided into consecutive interpretation and simultaneous interpretation according to its working mode, while it is divided into two-way interpretation and one-way interpretation according to the direction of interpretation. The liaison interpretation we discuss here is a typical two-way interpretation. We generally believe that liaison interpretation is a kind of interpretation which is different from conference interpretation and has a variety of working scenes, and it's working mode is mainly consecutive interpretation. Henri van Hoof, when talking about liaison interpretation earlier, described it as an interpreting practice existing in business negotiations (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2004,12). This is the early propositions which business interpretation is equivalent to liaison interpretation, and in the later long period of time has been recognized and widely used, but this description has obvious limitations. With the development of society and the diversification and complexity of interpretation scenes, the connotation of liaison interpretation has been expanded to include various forms of interpretation within the society or within the community. Later, R. Bruce W. Anderson (1976/2002) generically described liaison interpreting as a &quot;tripartite communication&quot; model, which is characterized by the emphasis that liaison interpreting is an activity in which two monolingual speakers communicate through a bilingual interpreter (Franz.Pǎchhacker 2004,14). Of course, this definition is more in line with the current practical understanding of liaison interpreting, but it is also difficult to distinguish the specific forms of liaison interpreting because of the high generality of its description. According to Anderson's point of view and the definition of conference interpretation, liaison interpreting is a &quot;bilateral interpreting&quot; within the society, rather than an international conference interpreting for representatives of several countries. Therefore, not only business interpretation, but also legal interpreting and guide-interpreting should be included in liaison interpretation.<br /> Based on the &quot;reader-centered theory&quot; of reception aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot; of &quot;Eco-translatology&quot;, this paper mainly adopts the method of literature research and takes liaison interpreters as the object to discuss customers' expectations on the role of interpreters and interpreters’ awareness of their own role, so as to seek interpreting strategies in different situations of liaison interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===II. Reception Aesthetics and Translator-Centered Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1、Reception Aesthetics====<br /> Reception aesthetics, also known as reader-centered theory, is a critical approach in literary studies, developed in the 1960s by H.R. Jauss and Wolfgang. Iser. This theory is different from the previous critical method which is centered on author or works. It turns to the critical method which is centered on readers' aesthetic acceptance and aesthetic experience. Phenomenology and modern hermeneutics are the theoretical basis of reader-centered theory, and the term &quot;reception aesthetics&quot; was first introduced in Hans Robert Jauss's essay ''Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory'', which is a manifesto for reception aesthetics to become an independent school (Jin 2002, 264-267). Izer once said, &quot;Reception aesthetics advocates the reader's initiative and creative ability. Reading is not a passive perception but an active creative activity. The transformation of the reader's role can be said to be an epoch-making transformation in the development of literature&quot;(Guo，1997，338-339). There are several important concepts in reception aesthetics. The first is the &quot;the horizon of expectations&quot;， which Jauss coined. Jauss believes that due to the complex reasons of individuals and society, readers who are the subject of receiving literature often have established thinking orientation and concepts in their psychology before and during the process of literature reading (Wang 2020, 198-199). The second concept is the &quot;response-inviting structure&quot;, which was proposed by Iser. Iser considers the meaning of a text to be indeterminable, so the meaning of a text would never have been generated by itself, but there is a &quot;text blank&quot; in the text that only the reader can fill (Jin 2002,274). &quot;Text blank&quot; can induce the reader to think aesthetically. Reception aesthetics in interpreting is reflected in that the success of a interpretation product largely depends on the response of the recipient to the work and whether the recipient has generated aesthetic pleasure, and the evocation of the text and the satisfaction of the recipient have become the criteria for evaluation of interpretation products. From the perspective of reception aesthetics, interpreting serves the recipient completely.<br /> <br /> ====2、Translator-Centered Theory====<br /> <br /> ===III. Positioning of liaison interpreter===<br /> <br /> ===IV. Interpreting Strategies in Different Interpreting Environments===<br /> <br /> ===V. Conclusion===<br /> In this paper，we discussed how interpreters should adapt to the interpreting environment and make correct translation strategies from the perspectives of reception aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;. The first part of this paper is an introduction, which introduced the definition of liaison interpreting, the current situation of interpreting studies in translation studies and the significance and methods of this study. The second part introduced the two perspectives of this research -- reception aesthetics and &quot;translator-centered theory&quot;. The third part analyzed the influence of two perspectives on the role positioning of liaison interpreters and the different types of liaison interpreters. The fourth part puts forward how to adjust translation strategies and how to use translation techniques to achieve the balance between &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;creativity&quot;.<br /> We believes that in the context similar to business interpretation, contact interpreters should adjust the translation strategies of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;creativity&quot; according to the constantly changing interpretation content. In the guide-interpretation, interpreters should pay more attention to the &quot;creativity&quot; of interpretation products on the basis of &quot;faithfulness&quot;, so as to bring tourists more relaxed and pleasant experience. In legal interpretation, due to the rigor and inviolability of the law, interpreters should try their best to interpret &quot;word by word&quot;. Only in certain circumstances can they provide necessary explanations for both sides of communication by adding interpretation content. This paper also puts forward other specific strategies. Interpreters can reduce errors in interpreting by communicating with customers in the preparation stage. In the process of interpreting, the translation strategies can be flexibly adjusted by adopting various translation techniques, such as addition and omission. After the end of interpretation, we can reflect on the mistakes and make an interpreting corpus to avoid repeating the mistakes in the future.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Appreciation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> == Study on Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden'' from the Stylistic Perspective 袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi 202020080664==<br /> &lt;center&gt;袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'' is a classic literary work of Henry David Thoreau, which has become a classic work in the Treasure house of American literature. The Chinese translator Xu Chi first translated it into China, and since then ''Walden'' has been retranslated and republished for many times. In China, the version of ''Walden'' translated by Xu Chi is the most widely spread and influential one, and has been highly regarded as a classic translation. There hve been a lot of studies on ''Walden'' both at home and abroad, such as studies on the ecology of the book, studies on birth background and living conditions of the author Henry David Thoreau, and systematic studies on Chinese translation version of ''Walden'' under different theoretical frameworks. However, there are few studies on Chinese translations of ''Walden'' from stylistic perspective. This paper will focus on the lexical, syntactic and rhetorical features of Xu Chi’s translation and analyze their stylistic effects. It is hoped that this study will be of certain value to the translation studies of ''Walden'' and the literary translation criticism from the stylistic perspective.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'', Chinese Translation of ''Walden'' by Xu Chi , Stylistics<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从文体学角度看《瓦尔登湖》徐迟译本<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》是亨利·大卫·梭罗的经典文学作品，已经成为美国文学宝库中的经典之作。中国译者徐迟首先将其译入国内，此后《瓦尔登湖》多次被重译再版。在中国，徐迟翻译的《瓦尔登湖》汉译本流传最广、影响最大，而且一直被推崇为“译文经典”。对于《瓦尔登湖》的研究，在国内和国外有很多，例如对散文涉及生态的研究，对于作者亨利·戴维·梭罗出生背景和生活状况的研究，以及不同的理论框架下对于《瓦尔登湖》中文翻译版本的系统研究。但是从文体学角度研究《瓦尔登湖》中译本的不多。本文着重探讨徐迟译本在词汇、句法、修辞层面上的特征，分析其文体效果。希望本研究对《瓦尔登湖》的翻译研究及从文体学视角开展文学翻译批评具有一定的参考价值。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》、徐迟中译本、文体学<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau and ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a collection of essays written by American writer Henry David Thoreau. Henry David Thoreau was born in 1817 and died in 1862. He was a famous writer, philosopher, representative of Transcendentalism, abolitionist of slavery and naturalist in the United States. He was deeply influenced by Emerson. He advocated returning to original mind and being close to nature. Thoreau created more than 20 first-class prose collections in his whole life. His essays are concise and powerful, simple and natural, full of thought, which hava unique style in American proses in the 19th century. In 1845, he lived in seclusion by Walden lake, two miles away from Concord. He cultivated and ate by himself and experienced a simple and close to nature life. Thoreau loved, appreciated and immersed in nature. He understood the world through nature and regarded the world as a whole for people to appreciate and enjoy. He advocated simple life, so he abandoned all material enjoyment and pursued spiritual enrichment. With a keen thinking of a philosopher and rigorous spirit of science, Thoreau put himself into the embrace of nature and explored everything around him.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a record of Thoreau's life when he lived alone by Walden lake. ''Walden'' is composed of 18 essays, which record Thoreau's hands-on life by walden lake for two months from 1845 to 1847. This book advocates simple life, appeals readers to return to nature, and expresses Thoreau's love for nature. The simple way of life in the book reflects Thoreau’s view of nature.This book has certain philosophical significance as well as artistic and aesthetic value.<br /> ''Walden'' is a Transcendentalist classic and is recognized as the most popular non-fiction work in American literature. After more than 100 years of circulation, the book has become a classic in American literature. So far, it has been published in more than 150 editions and translated into more than 40 languages. <br /> Thoreau's own practice in Walden lake and his works have a consistent proposition, that is, returning to nature. In his works, he constantly pointed out that most of modern people are trapped by family, work and various material needs, thus lost their spiritual pursuit and lived a materialistic life. Thoreau persisted in the pursuit of spiritual happiness and rejected material comforts. This is why Thoreau lived a simple life by Walden lake, enjoying a life of leisure while his neighbors pursued a life of wealth and material comforts, enslaved by their own desires.<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Xu Chi and His Translation of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi=====<br /> Xu Chi is famous for his poems, essays and reportage. He was once awarded by Mao Zedong's inscription of &quot;poetry expresses ambition&quot;, and he was known as &quot;Contemporary Chinese Goethe&quot; and &quot;Father of Reportage&quot;.<br /> Another little-known identity of this famous Chinese writer is being as a translator. He not only wrote poems, essays, reportages, novels and reviews, but also translated and introduced a large number of foreign literary works, with a total of 10 million words in his life.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden''=====<br /> In 1949, Xu translated Walden into Chinese called &quot;华尔腾&quot;, which failed to elicit widespread attention because at that time, people all over China were immersedin the joy of gaining cmancipation from feudalism and imperialism, so that ''Walden'',promoting tranquility and transcendentalism, was ignored.<br /> In 1982, Xu Chi retranslated it and titled it &quot;瓦尔登湖&quot;, which was so popular that it was republished for many times since then. Xu's version of ''Walden'' chosen in this study is its second edition, published in 1982, to which Xu Chi added a preface to present information about Thoreau and comments on ''Walden''. To some extent, readers are able to have a glimpse of Xu's own emotions and thoughts in his translation of ''Walden''. <br /> Xu Chi usually selected and translated works that were close to his own nature and could move him, because only in this way, he could have more resonance with the writers and their works, and reproduced the style of the original author. For Xu Chi, he expressed his own feelings and thoughts through translating these writers'works to a certain extent (Yao Junwei, 2005:146). Only when his soul was in harmony with Thoreau's, did Xu Chi love this book so much and rised to translating this book. It was in the summer of 1949 that Xu Chi began to translate Thoreau's ''Walden''. Because Xu Chi was extremely fond of this book, he spent lots of efforts in translating this famous work. In the first stage of translation, he tried to understand the meaning of the original work, hoping to be able to deeply understand the original work. He confessed that it was a very profound book which is full of translation challenges. He was very busy during the day, so he sometimes couldn't read it.Because this book was too difficult to understand, it seemed that this book was suddenly not so interseting and attractive to him, and it seemed that it was of no benefit to translate it. However, he found that his mood gradually became peaceful after dusk. When he read this book at this time, he suddenly felt the book quite interesting. What he saw was the chapters that could’t be seen in the daytime. The language was amazing, the words were shining, and his heart was touched. When the ningt became quiet, the book became not so obscure. Under the recitation, he could not help but be fascinated by it (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).<br /> His most successful translation is ''Walden'', which he translated first in 1949, then again in 1982 and in 1996. The masterpiece of David Thoreau, a famous American transcendentalist writer, still shines brightly in the vast Chinese translated literature. In recent ten years, there have been more than 20 new translations of ''Walden'', but Xu Chi's translation is still regarded as the best translation and is the first choice for many presses to publish as Chinese translations of ''Walden'' in recent years. Although there are many Chinese translations of ''Walden'', most of them take Xu Chi's translation as a reference (Wang Zhao 2009, 147), which indicates the authority of Xu Chi's translation.<br /> <br /> ====Style and Styllistics====<br /> =====Style=====<br /> Originated from the Latin or Greek word &quot;stile&quot; or &quot;stilus&quot;, &quot;style&quot; originally refers to a sharp instrument made of metal or bone, used as a writing tool, and later symbolizes a way of writing. At first, it was mainly used in writing. As time goes by, its application has been broadened into areas like music, dance, painting, fashion, behavior,literature, architecture and so on. As it has been mentioned in the introduction part, the research object ''Walden'' is a piece of literary work, consequently, this thesis will mainly study literary style.<br /> Since ancient times, style has always been the object of people's study. Aristotle, Cicero, Demetrius, and Quintilian all used style as an appropriate decoration for thought. This view prevailed throughout the Renaissance, when devices of style could be classified. An essayist or orator needs to construct his or her point of view by means of exemplary sentences and prescribed kinds of &quot;figures&quot; that conform to his or her mode of discourse.<br /> For a long time, the definition of style has remained varied, and different scholars have given different definitions of it. It is unnecessary and impractical here to list them all. Some definitions will be given below to help us understand what style is.<br /> One of the most successful attempts to define style in a comprehensive way is Leech and Short’s (1981). Although claiming that “unsuccessful attempts to attach a precise meaning” to the term “style” have often resulted in an impoverishment of the subject , they offer a list of the items forming the basis of their own concept of style, which can be summarized as follows:<br /> (a) Style is a way in which language is used; therefore it consists in choices made from the repertoire of the language; <br /> (b) A style is defined in terms of a domain of language use (e.g. what choices are made by a particular author, in a particular genre, or in a particular text);<br /> (c) Literary stylistics is typically concerned with explaining the relation between style and literary or aesthetic function;<br /> (d) Stylistic choice is limited to those aspects of linguistic choice which concern alternative ways of rendering the same subject matter.<br /> Nida Eugene (1982, 12) defines that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”So in translation of literary works, the author’s style should be represented through the translator’s style, and the translator’s style should depend on the style of the author. Many translators are good at representing different writers’styles and yet has its own unique translation style.<br /> The broad view of style includes the elements of linguistic style and non-linguistic style. Among them, the elements of language style mainly include the means of language style, such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structure and rhetorical devices, and the elements of non-language style include the author's emotion factor, the author's imagination factor and the author's intelligence factor. The narrow sense of style only involves the author's means of language style and rhetorical style (Lv Jun &amp; Hou Xiangqun 2001, 320).<br /> In conclude, translation (especially literary translation) as an across-culture process dose not only focus on the content of source text but also the style which is about how the writers write. Therefore, it is essential for a translator to know how to figure out the style of source text and reproduce it with target language.<br /> <br /> =====Styllistics=====<br /> Stylistics is a comprehensive frontier discipline that studies the characteristics, essence and laws of text forms, and is in the ascendant between linguistics, literature and art, aesthetics, psychology and other disciplines.<br /> It is difficult to determine when stylistics became a field of academic study. It can be argued, however, that it was not until the late 1950s that stylistics began to make significant and measurable progress. This is a young frontier discipline that is growing over time. Stylistics has developed into a well-targeted and technically effective interdisciplinary field of study, which is expected to provide useful insights for literary criticism and literature teaching. It has also been influencing translation criticism. Modern stylistics provides an important theoretical basis for translation studies. As far as the development of the subject of translation is concerned, stylistics has been recognized for its value and function. <br /> Modern stylistics uses the tools of formal linguistic analysis coupled with the methods of literary criticism; its goal is to try to isolate characteristic uses and functions of language and rhetoric rather than advance normative or prescriptive rules and patterns.<br /> <br /> =====Language Style and Stylistic Features of ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a masterpiece of prose style. It is concise, eloquent and profound in thought. Just as he pursues the simplest life, his language style of ''Walden'' can be summarized into four points: concise writing, accurate description, incisive argument, and pithy argumentation and causal narration. <br /> ''Walden'' is also a book aimed directly at the reader. Anyone who read this book feels that they are listening to and sharing Thoreau's ideals. This book is not easy for readers to understand, especially those who read it for the first time. Correspondingly, the prominent stylistic characteristics of ''Walden'' are manifested in four aspects: exquisite scenic description, complex syntax, various rhetorical devices and rich quotations．<br /> So it is helpful for the translator to understand the original text and reproduce the stylistic equivalence in the translation. Therefore, the translator should fully understand his stylistic characteristics, which is the premise of reproducing his style in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===Stylistic Features of ''Walden''===<br /> ====Lexical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Degree of Formality=====<br /> There are a lot of obsolete and old words in ''Walden''and the use of these words makes the book more flavor, solemn and elegant. However, the use of these words will also bring great trouble to the translation at the same time. It is difficult for the translators to grasp these words, so they can not use literal translation but use creative way to make readers feel what the author wants to express in this book.<br /> In ''Walden'', Thoreau uses concise words to demonstrate his own ideas, natural scenery and cultural customs of Walden Lake. Unlike official documents, regulations, or academic creations, general style of ''Walden'' suggests that Thoreau’s choice of words is less formal. This section aims to analyze the degree of formality of nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the Xu Chi’s translation. In terms of nouns, Xu Chi tends to choose words with literary charm and formal style, which are not suitable for the informal style of the original text.<br /> Example 1：<br /> …；where the washing is not put out, nor the fire, nor the mistress, and perhaps you are sometimes requested to move from off the trap—door; when the cook would descend into the cellar, and learn whether the ground is solid or hollow beneath you without stamping．(Thoreau 2012, 277—278)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：在那罩，洗瀣物不比晒在外面，炉火不熄，女主人也不会生气，也许有时要你移动一下，让厨子从地板门里走下地窖去，而你不用蹬脚就可以知道你的脚下是虚是实。 (徐迟 2009, 270)<br /> The passage describes part of Thoreau’s dream of a bigger house for more people. The original text provides a natural and causal description of the scenes and activities in Thoreau's dream house. There are five commas and a period in this 47-word sentence with employment of concrete nouns，the structure of the original is loose and casual. As can be seen from the above, &quot;washing&quot; in Xu's translation is loosely understood as “洗涤物” which means the process of eliminating unnecessary ingredients through detergent, which is formal in Chinese. Xu Chi reproduced the content of‘'the washing’’but he ignored the degree of formality in choosing word, thus falling to deliver the casualness reflected by the original text．<br /> Because ''Walden'' is full of depictions of landscape, adjectives are indispensable in Thoreau's creation of various images and pictures, as well as his insightful comments. Let us look at a example of it.<br /> Example 2：<br /> Often the poor man is not so cold and hungry as he is dirty and ragged and gross．(Thoreau 2012, 85)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：往往是那个穷人，邋遢、褴褛又粗野，但并没有途堡查选。(徐迟 2009, 83)<br /> The first adjective “poor” is used as an antecedent modifier and the other five adjectives are used as predicates. With the six adjectives being short and plain, the original text is generally of informal style. Xu transfered “cold and hungry” into a four-character noun phrase“冻馁之忧”which means “sufferings from cold and hunger.” However, this phrase is somewhat old-fashioned and is too formal to keep in line with the original style．Besides，it appears uncoordinated with three adjectives“邋遢、褴褛又粗野”being placed before the noun phrase“冻馁之忧”. So, it is not appropriate to reflect the original style.<br /> Verbs are also frequently employed in ''Walden'' to depict the fighting between animals or other activities. The degree of formality marked by verbs is the target of the study here. <br /> Example 3：<br /> I took up the chip on which the three I have particularly described were struggling, carried it into my house，and placed it under a tumbler on my window-sill，in order to see the issue．(Thoreau 2012, 262-263)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation：<br /> 我特别描写的三个战士在同一张木片上搏斗，我把这张木片拿进我的家里，放在我的窗槛上。罩在一个大杯子下面，以便考察结局。(徐迟 2009, 256)<br /> As we can see from the examples, these verbs are short and common in our everyday speech. They come mainly from Anglo-Saxon English and have informal stylistic characteristics. Therefore, the style of the original text is informal and should be preserved in Chinese translation. In this sentence, Thoreau prepared to wait and see with interest how the battle between the ants would go on after a series of arrangements. Xu Chi translated the word “see” into “考察”which sounds serious and formal, because “考察”means carefully checking certain items or situations, and is often used in formal situations, such as “考察人” or “考察情况”. So, Xu's version deviates from the original natural and informal flavor.<br /> <br /> =====Expressive Meaning=====<br /> Roman Jakobson, building on Karl Bühler (1934), coined the term expressive or emotive for one of the functions of language. He describes it as the function focused on the ADDRESSER [speaker], aims a direct expression of the speaker's attitude toward what he is speaking about (Jakobson 1960, 354) and gives interjections as the prime example of this function.<br /> It is worthy of our attention that differences between words in terms of expressive meaning are not simply equal to a matter of whether an expression of a certain attitude or evaluation is reproduced or not. The same attitude or evaluation may be expressed to widely varying degrees of forcefulness.<br /> Example 4：It is said that a flood-tide, with a westerly wind，and ice in the Neva, would sweep St. Petersburg from the face of the earth. (Thoreau 2012, 22)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：据说，涅瓦河要是涨了水，刮了西风，流来的冰块可以把圣彼得堡一下子大地的表面上冲掉的。 (徐迟 2009, 21)<br /> According to the Oxford Advanced English-Chinese Dictionary, &quot;sweeping&quot; is the act of sudden movement (of weather, fire, etc.), forcing a movement in an area or in a particular direction. In the original context, the combination of “flood tides, westerly winds, and ice” was destructive and therefore clearly detrimental to St.Petersburg. So the word &quot;sweep&quot; here reflects the speaker's negative attitude toward the possible outcome. Obviously, the word “冲掉” in Xu Chi’s translation is a neutral term and does not reflect the speaker’s attitude or feelings towards the potential disaster caused by flood tide, westerly winds and snow. Xu ignored the author’s emotional attitude, thus ignoring the influence that these forces may cause, and did not produce systematic equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====Syntactic Features of ''Walden''====<br /> Raffel (1994) points out that &quot;the syntax of prose shows the style of the author, and the reproduction of the original style is the key to prose translation which stresses not only what message says, but also how the message is said.&quot; So, the syntactic features of ''Walden'' should never be ignored.<br /> In the original text, short sentences in English have neat structure and harmonious rhythm. Xu Chi did not change the original structure in translation, but adopted literal translation. The so-called literal translation is to retain the content and language expression habits of the original text as well as the form and style of the original text under the condition that the target language allows. Since Both Chinese and English are discourse systems and they have something in common, literal translation is a good way to deal with them.<br /> Example 5:<br /> It is no dream of mine, To ornament a line; I cannot come nearer to God and Heaven, than I live to Walden even. I am its stony shore, and the breeze that passes o’er; In the hollow of my hand, are its water and its sand, and its deepest resort Lies high in my thought. (Thoreau 2012, 137) <br /> Xu Chi’s Translation:<br /> 这不是我的梦，用于装饰一行诗;我不能更接近上帝和天堂甚于我之生活在瓦尔登。我是它的圆石岸，飘拂而过的风;在我掌握的一握，是它的水，它的沙，而它的最深邃僻隐处,高高躺在我的思想中。 (Xu Chi 2012, 151)<br /> The translation of this paragraph has a neat structure, neat antithesis, and pays attention to the regularity and rhythm of the literal. The original is composed of ten verses and the translation retains the original format, which can increase the depth and appeal of the translation, thus producing artistic effect and aesthetic value.<br /> <br /> ====Rhetorical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Metaphor=====<br /> Metaphor means to &quot;shift a word from its original meaning to another word that is generally not interchangeable but similar, and to emphasize its identity, that is, the two are similar but not a simile&quot;.<br /> Example 6: <br /> Public opinion is a weak tyrant compared with our own private opinion. (Thoreau 2012， 7)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation: 和我们的自知之明相比较，公众舆论这暴戾的君主也显得微弱无力。(徐迟 2009，6）<br /> The ontology and metaphor in this sentence are &quot;public opinion&quot; and &quot;weak tyrant.&quot; There must be something similar between them. The following statement gives the reason: &quot;Compared to our own private opinions&quot;, which is quite clear. People are used to focusing on themselves in front of others, so public opinion is only slightly weak. The subtle use of metaphor shows Thoreau's wisdom and thorough understanding of human nature. Xu Chi dealt with this metaphor perfectly.<br /> <br /> =====Pun=====<br /> Puns are deliberately declared polysemous words or homonyms created with double meaning in a certain language environment, with implicit, humorous and profound effects. Newmark (2001, 217) points out that &quot;pun translation is unimportant but fascinating&quot;. The use of puns in Walden is remarkable.<br /> The basic function of pun in ''Walden'' is to express logical relations. Because puns can express two levels of meaning in a word, phrase, or sentence, they are often used as a link between the text before and after it. A key problem that haunts the reader when reading ''Walden'' is the lack of connection between the two passages. A clear logical relationship is a prerequisite for expressing other special effects, such as rhetorical and aesthetic effects. Therefore, the improper translation of puns will seriously affect logical coherence and other rhetorical devices.<br /> Example 7：<br /> If the name was not derived from that of some English locality - Saffron Walden, for instance, one might suppose that it was called originally Walled-in Pond. (Thoreau 2012, 209)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation: 如果这个湖名不是由当地一个叫萨福隆•瓦尔登的英国人的名字化出来的话，——那么，我想瓦尔登湖原来的名字可能是围而得湖。(徐迟 2009, 172)<br /> This classic example of puns has been discussed many times. Thoreau suggested that &quot;Walden&quot; might come from “Walled-in”. &quot;Walled-in Pond&quot;, as ahomophonic pun, serves as the logic link of the whole paragraph. Xu wisely translates it as “围而得”, retaining not only the similar pronunciation but also the importance of meaning. “围而得” maintains the logical relation of the whole paragraph.It is eye-catching and stimulates readers to think more about Thoreau's intentions to use this word.<br /> <br /> =====Personification=====<br /> Personification refers to &quot;the practice of representing a person, quality, or characteristic as a human being in art and literature.&quot; People subconsciously tend to reflect non-human things with their lives in order to express their feelings and thoughts. In view of the characteristics of human behavior, literary works can vividly express the feelings of the author, and make readers feel that the description of the object is more vivid and appropriate, which makes the article more vivid.<br /> Example 8：<br /> This further experience also I gained：I said to myself,1 will not plant beans and corn with so much industry another summer，but such seeds, if the seed is not lost, as sincerity, truth, simplicity, faith, innocence, and the like, and see if they will not grow in this soil，even with less toil and manurance，and sustain me, for surely it has not been exhausted for these crops. (Thoreau 2012, 186-187)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation:<br /> 我还获得了下面的更丰富的经验：我对我自己说，下一个夏天，我不要花那么大的劳力来种豆子和玉米了，我将种这样<br /> 这样一些种子像诚实、真理、纯朴、信心、天真等等，如果这些种子并没有失落，看看它们能否在这片土地上生长，能否以较少劳力和肥料；来维持我的生活，因为，地力一定还没消耗到不能种这些东西。 (徐迟 2009, 182)<br /> Thoreau here is sharing his experience in growing beans and his plans next summer with readers. As we know, words like &quot;sincerity,truth，simplicity, faith and innocence&quot; usually refer to qualities of human. But here, these words are adopted to describe the characteristics of seeds and humanize these seeds，constructing a vivid personification. Xu Chi reproduce the rhetorical feature of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The language of ''Walden'' is rich in vocabulary, complex and diverse sentence structure, the author's writing is flexible and fluent, and the use of various rhetoric makes the translation work more difficult. <br /> To sum up, Xu Chi's translation appears more formal than the original text and some words of his translation can not reflect the expressive meaning of the original one. It is found that Xu Chi tended to use words with typical features of his time which seem out of date at present. But due to the time he lived in, we believe that Xu Chi's translation satisfied the need or linguistic expectation of the target readers of his time which has its significance. We also find that sentences in Xu's translation follow the syntax of English language. Xu Chi kept the structure beauty of the original work properly, respected the original work and kept the structure orderly, directly conveying Thoreau's thoughts and feelings. And Xu Chi indeed do well in reflecting rhetorical features of the original text, which is refered by many translators later. In general, Xu Chi's translation is close to the original text in style and language characteristics and is a classic translation of ''Walden''.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Leech.G.N. &amp; M. H. Short. (1981). Style in Fiction：A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. <br /> <br /> Newmark P. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press.<br /> <br /> Nida Eugene. (1982). Translating Meaning. Sandimas: English Language Institute. 12.<br /> <br /> Raffe. (1994). The Art of Translating Prose. Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press．<br /> <br /> Roman Jaobson. (1960). “Linguistics and Poetry” in Style and Language. Cambridge: MIT Press.<br /> <br /> Thoreau Henry David. (2012). Walden. New York: W. W. Norton &amp; Company, INC.<br /> <br /> Lv Jun &amp; Hou Xiangqun 吕俊,侯向群. (2001) 《英汉翻译教程》[English-chinese Translation Course].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.320.<br /> <br /> Wu Siying &amp; Li Jing 吴巳英,李靖. (2011). 外国文学翻译体例的时代演变——基于《瓦尔登湖》不同译本的比较. [The Time Evolution of Foreign Literary Translation Styles: Based on the Comparison of different versions of Walden]. 湖南农业大学学报（社会科学版) Journal of Hunan Agricultural University (Social Science edition) 12 83-87.<br /> <br /> Xu Chi 徐迟. (2009). 瓦尔登湖. [Walden].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. <br /> <br /> Yao Junwei姚君伟. (2005). 徐迟与美国文学在中国的译介[Xu Chi and the Translation of American Literature in China]. 外国文学研究 Study of Foreign Literature 4 145-149.<br /> <br /> ==A Comparison Beteewn the Translation Systems Proposed by Tan Zai and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===: The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people’s overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===: Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===：一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===：谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''==== <br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shy.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> The translation of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper Translatology must be established, which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> <br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems====<br /> <br /> =====Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> <br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000. <br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005. <br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation. 王美玲 Wang Meiling==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;王美玲 Wang Meiling&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> The Renaissance is the fourth peak in the history of Western translation and a great development in the history of Western literature. During the 16th century and the period following the Renaissance in Europe, translation reached an unprecedented climax in the fields of thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion. At that time, the German translation of the Bible by the Martin Luther is the most well-known one in the whole translation circle, and its influence is unique and long-standing in Germany as well as in the whole Europe continent. Since the Reform and Opening-up, China has gradually stepped into the center of the world arena, and its literary works bearing the quintessence of Chinese culture has become a crucial bridge connecting the rest of the world with China. Despite the rise of machine translation, it can never replace the overwhelming role of human translation in the literary translation. Luther’s translation thoughts have exerted an important influence on the development of Western translation theories, so what sparks can be drawn between his translation principles and Chinese modern culture and literary works? This paper makes a brief comment on the main translation activities of renaissance, then compares the translation thoughts of Luther and Lu Xun, and applies Luther’s detailed translation principles to the actual translation practice. Finally,some thoughts are acquired.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Renaissance; Luther; literary works; translation principles; influence;<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴运动是西方翻译史的第四次高潮，也是西方文学史上的一次大发展。文艺复兴在欧洲普遍开展的16世纪以及随后一个时期，翻译活动达到了前所未有的高峰，深入思想、政治、哲学、文学宗教等各个领域。在整个翻译界，德国马丁·路德的《圣经》德译本是该时期最负盛名的译本，其影响不论是在德国乃至整个欧洲都是独一无二且源远流长的。改革开放以来，中国日益走进世界舞台中央，承载着中华文化精髓的文学作品成为了中国连接世界的重要桥梁。纵然机器翻译兴起，但绝不能替代人工翻译在文学翻译领域的绝对性地位。路德的翻译思想对西方翻译理论的发展产生了重要影响，那么其翻译思想和理论原则与中国当代文化及文学作品又能擦出什么样的火花呢？本文将通过对文艺复兴时期的主要翻译活动进行简评，再对比路德与鲁迅的翻译思想，接着将路德的翻译细则运用到实际的翻译实践中，最后得出一些思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴；路德；文学作品；翻译原则；影响；<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The Protestant Reformation Movement in Germany in the 16th century ushered in a new era of translation and dissemination of Bible. Under the protection of Protestantism, Martin Luther devoted himself to the German translation of the Bible. By the time of 1544 Luther’s death, 430 versions of his Bible translation had been published. In order to make common people more directly understand the meaning of the Bible, Martin Luther translated it in national language. He insisted on his translation thought and fought against the church power and his opponents. He made unremitting efforts in the great project of the Bible translation, which promoted the unification of German language and created a graceful literary language.His translation thoughts are still of great significance to the current translation theory and practice.&quot;First of all, from a historical point of view, translation has two main functions in promoting the birth and development of national culture and the transformation of national culture into world culture: one is to promote cultural exchange; the other is to disseminate ideas.&quot;（Tan Zaixi，2004：10）<br /> <br /> Since the beginning of reform and opening-up, China has gradually stepped onto the world arena. China persists in its cultural development geared to the needs of the world and actively promotes cultural development to the world. Literary works bear the essence of Chinese culture, whose export is an crucial way to spread Chinese culture to the world. Over the years, despite the rise of machine translation, which has a certain practical role, it can not replace the overwhelming role of manual translation in literary translation. So what significance does Luther’s translation thoughts and principles have in guiding modern translation theory and practice, especially in the field of literary translation?<br /> <br /> ===2.Brief comments on translation thoughts in the period of Renaissance===<br /> <br /> Translations must respect the original text and combine content and form, free translation and literal translation in the translation process. &quot;In the high tide of translation in 16th century France, there were two outstanding contributors, one is Amyot, the King of Translation, and the other is Dolet, the translation theorist.&quot; Amyot believed that the translator must understand the original text thoroughly, and that the translator's task was not only to restore the author's meaning, but also to imitate and reflect the author's style and mood to some extent. He also emphasized the unity of content and form, and of free translation and literal translation; in France, the important figure in translation theory is Dolet. He believed that translators should avoid word-for-word translation because it was detrimental to the conveyance of the original meaning and to the beauty of the language. As we can see, Dolet's translation ideas were quite modern and involved the basic principles and problems of translation commonly raised by later European translation theorists. Holland of England was the most outstanding English translator in the 16th century and was regarded as the &quot;Chief Translator&quot; of the Elizabethan era, and he also advocated that the style of the original text must be reflected in the translation in order to make the translation authentic and without foreign accent. Thus, it can be seen that translators from various European countries actively explored new literary fields and brought new ideas to their own countries, inspiring the national consciousness and humanistic thoughts of their own people while trying to explore classical literature.<br /> <br /> Translation must convey new ideas on the basis of respecting the original work, that is, being innovative, and seek the style of translation.In his translation of ancient Greek and Roman masterpieces, Amyot put forward the idea of &quot;trying to be comparable to the original work&quot;, and blended the language of the people with the language of scholars, forming a unique style of translation. Thus, some people commented that Amyot adopted the creative meaning; Dolet advocated that translators should not do translations word by word, but must choose the words and adjust the word order as well as use various rhetorical devices to make the style of translation consistent with that of the original text, giving readers a &quot;feeling of beauty&quot;. The English translator North, who had little knowledge of the classical language and whose translations were not translated from the original text of Greek, was able to bring the translation style into full play. The prose style used in his translation of Biography of a Celebrity was new and elegant, which has become an immortal model in the history of English translation. There was another famous English translator, Florio, whose translation of The Tempest was the first to show English readers that prose could exist as a literary genre. From this, we can see that translators not only respected the cultural works of the classical period, but also gave full play to their own initiative in the translation process and injected humanistic thoughts and spirits into their translations during the Renaissance. Liu Junping said: &quot;In the past years, translators were servants attached to God, but now they have shifted from God to the translator as the center, and their personal developments have become the goal and value of life. &quot;（liu Junping,2009:76）<br /> <br /> Translators focus on the practical spirit of translation.Emphasizing the needs of translations to serve reality, Holland compared his translations to the fruits of conquest and once asked Queen Elizabeth to protect his translations with the hope that his translations would benefit the country. &quot;The translators, with the idea of serving their country, introduced the wisdom of the ancients to their own people through their translations, providing not only serious lessons for the Queen and the statesmen, but also story plots and materials for the dramatists and readers.&quot; This word profoundly reflects the dialectical relationship among culture, politics,and economy in Marxism: a certain culture is determined by certain economy and politics, and culture，in turn，acts on politics and economy with great influence on politics and economy. The above-mentioned translation ideas indicate the practicality and practical spirit of the practice of translation culture, which originated from the specific social and cultural contexts of the time. Under the guidance of these translation ideas, the translation culture and cultural practice of translators promoted the political and economic development, and laid the ideological foundation for the political and cultural needs of Western European countries.<br /> <br /> In the practice of translation, translation of all national languages achieved parallel and independent development when Latin gradually receded into a tributary.<br /> During the Renaissance, national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and linguists recognized the unique style and expressive ability of their own languages, and began to shift the emphasis of translation from the original language to the translated language. Finally, Latin was no longer prevalent. These phenomenon were especially prominent in Germany. Under the pressure of the national language and the Reformation, the German translator Luther adopted the language of the people to translate the great work of the Bible, that is, to translate the original text into the authentic German one. Luther's German translation of the Bible not only had a profound influence on German life and religion, but also created a literary language form accepted by the German people, which played an immeasurable role in the development of the unified German language and shook the absolute and unshakable position of Latin in the European language system.<br /> <br /> ===3.Comparison Between Luther’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Thoughts===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Introduction to Luther and Lu Xun====<br /> <br /> Lu Xun was the greatest literary scholar, thinker and revolutionary of modern China, an important participant in the New Culture Movement, who was regarded as &quot;the writer who occupied the largest territory on the cultural map of East Asia in the twentieth century&quot;. Lu Xun also had outstanding achievements in translation, and made a series of superb remarks on translation issues, which had great influence on the whole translation circle at that time and established a monument in the history of Chinese translation theory.<br /> <br /> Martin Luther was a German religious reformer and translator in the 16th century. In his translations, Luther followed the principles of being popular, clear, and acceptable to the public. His translation of the Bible is known as the &quot;first Bible of the common people”and enjoyed the highest reputation in the entire translation community. Luther was a leader in the Reformation movement in the 16th century in Europe, so his translation had a significant impact on Germany and Europe as a whole.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Different Translation Thoughts====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Lu Xun's &quot;Foreignization&quot;=====<br /> <br /> Lu Xun lived in the period of the May Fourth New Culture Movement，whose translation thoughts and activities were closely connected with his political life. In the period of transition between the old culture and the new one, literary translation was also at its climax. In this regard, Lu Xun put forward the translation concept of &quot;Foreignization&quot; , which preserved the &quot;exoticism&quot;. Moreover,he insisted that the translation should be consistent with the original text as much as possible and put fidelity in the first place and fluency in the second, and exchanged unfluent translation for fidelity. He believed that the translation method of &quot;Foreignization&quot; could introduce foreign sentences to enrich Chinese language and culture. Lu Xun said bluntly, &quot;Like carrying arms for the uprising slaves, translation is directly aimd at servicing the revolution.&quot;（Chen Fukang,2000;286）<br /> With regard to his translation concept of &quot;Foreignization&quot;, he had such remarks :<br /> <br /> “还是翻译《死灵魂》的事情。……动笔之前，就先得解决一个问题:竭力使它归化，还是尽量保存洋气昵?日本文的译者上田进君，是主张用前一法的。……所以他的疑问，有时就化一句为数句，很近于解释。我的意见却两样的。只求易懂，小如创作，或者改作，将事改为中国事，人也化为中国人。如果还是翻译，那么，首先的目的，就在博览外国的作品，小但移情，也要益智，至少是知道何地何时，有这等事，和旅行外国，是很相像的:它必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也小会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌介神离，从严辨别起来，它算小得翻译。……(Lu Xun,1935:4th Volume)<br /> <br /> From this, we can see that Lu Xun engaged in translation work with the aim to &quot;conveying feelings&quot; and &quot;improving education&quot;, and his translations could facilitate readers to experience foreign customs, history, language and culture, as well as advanced ideology. Lu Xun would enrich these at a deeper level, so as to subvert the outlook on life and values of the whole society at that time and to inspire and educate the young generation to achieve the purpose of saving the country, thus promoting the revolutionary cause.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Luther's &quot;Domesticization&quot;=====<br /> <br /> In the context of the Reformation, Martin Luther embarked on the translation of the Bible. As the leader of the German Reformation movement, he could only ensure the eventual victory of the Reformation cause by quickly establishing and growing the Protestantism . Under the pressure of the Reformation and the national language, Luther had to translate the Bible in a way that served a specific audience, not priests and pastors, but the common people. It required that Luther had to do translations in people’s language and that &quot; Translation had to adopt authentic German instead of Latinized German.&quot;<br /> In the A Short History of Translation in the West, Tan zaixi made summary about Luther's translation thoughts：(Tan Zaixi,2004:64-67)<br /> <br /> &quot;Translation must employ the vernacular language; translation must pay attention to the connection between grammar and meaning; translation must follow seven principles (translators can change the word order of the original text; one can make reasonable use of intonation auxiliaries; translators can add necessary conjunctions; translator may omit word in the original that was not equivalent word in the target language;translator may use phrase to translate a single word;translator may translate metaphorical usage into non-metaphorical usage and vice versa; translator should pay attention to variation from usage and accurate explanation of a word (Wen Jun, 2004:39);Translation must be a brainstorming exercise.&quot;<br /> <br /> Luther insisted on these principles in order to translate the Bible from the reader's point of view on the basis of a grasp of the original meaning and to achieve the greatest possible approximation to the reader's level for the purpose of &quot;naturalization. Generally speaking, Luther advocated translation based on a grasp of the meaning of the sentence. When the original meaning of a sentence could not be well expressed in words, Luther used illustrations to represent it. Luther's German translation of the Bible enabled the common people of Germany to directly quote from the Bible to defend their own class interests, which played an invaluable role in the unification and development of the German language.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Lu Xun's translation principle of &quot;Foreignization&quot;, which preserved &quot;exoticism&quot;, satisfied Chinese readers' curiosity and appreciation of foreign culture and made them experience exoticism, which, to a certain, awakened the thought of common thoughts and stimulated the patriotic consciousness and revolutionary enthusiasm of some youth groups. That was the aim and purpose of Lu Xun's translations, and was also what that volatile age longed for.<br /> <br /> Luther's “Domesticization” thought was based on his recognition that the German people began to value their own national language as a counter to the Church's forced use of Latin. Luther translated the Bible in the language of common people, so that readers who knew neither Hebrew, Greek, nor Latin and had a low level of literacy could understand the Bible in German.<br /> <br /> Translation thoughts between Luther and Lu Xun are rather different, but their translations equally made profound implications and were recognized by the two peoples of their respective countries. Moreover, their audience were both the common people, and they took into full consideration the receptiveness of their readers in the process of translation. Therefore, the dichotomy in translation is only relative, and finitude and infinitude are dialectically unified.<br /> <br /> ===4.The Application of Luther's Translation Principles and Thoughts for Modern Literary Translation Practice===<br /> <br /> Engels praised Luther:&quot;Luther not only cleared the church's Ogias, but also cleared the German language of the Ogis, created modern German prose, and wrote the words and songs of the hymns of the Marseilles with victory and confidence into the 16th century.&quot; (Tan Zaixi，2004:64）In his translation of the Bible, Luther came up with systematic translation thoughts and principles, followed the principles of being popular, clear and acceptable to the public, and created modern German prose. Thus, his translation thoughts and principles have certain significance for us to translate literary works whose language style is “grounded”.<br /> <br /> '''Example one '''<br /> <br /> “You can translate metaphor usage into non-metaphorical usage.”<br /> <br /> “The translator can change the word order of the original text”<br /> <br /> “严闭的心幕，慢慢的拉开了，涌出五年前的一个印象。” （《笑》—— 冰心）<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the original text, the translator finds that this sentence uses metaphor,because the action of &quot;拉开&quot; can only be issued by human beings, and the &quot;心幕&quot; is not a physical object which cannot be &quot;pulled open&quot;. In the process of translation, we find that the action of &quot;拉开&quot; does not have a subject, and the predicate-object pairing of &quot;拉开&quot; and &quot;心幕&quot; is unreasonable, not to mention translated into the passive voice. Therefore, it is not feasible to translate the metaphor usage. The translator chooses to omit this metaphor and the verb &quot;拉开&quot;, which is in line with Luther's sixth principle of translation. The translator finds that the emphasis of the original text is on the second half of the sentence, so we changes the order of the whole sentence and choose&quot;涌出&quot; as the predicate and translated it into the intransitive verb &quot;unveil&quot;. Naturally, the phrase &quot;五年前的一个印象&quot; becomes the subject. scene of five years ago&quot;, and the word &quot;before&quot; was used to show the relationship between “印象” and “心幕”. It is in line with language habit of English, that is, to express the main content clearly and put it in the important position as an important component. Here comes the translation &quot;A scene of five years ago slowly unveiled before my mind's eye.&quot; It is consistent with the first principle of Luther's translation. If translated according to the original word order, it would be translated to &quot;The tight mind's eye was opened slowly, and a scene of five years ago slowly unveiled.”Although its meaning is complete, the sentence structure is incoherent and the relationship between the &quot;心幕&quot; and the &quot;印象&quot; is not highlighted. As a translator, we need to read the original text carefully and then relate it to the context in order to get close to the original style and to achieve the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot;, meanwhile, we should take into account the reading feelings of the audience.<br /> <br /> '''Example Two'''<br /> <br /> “The necessary conjunctions can be added.”<br /> <br /> “作为一个中国人，经书不可不读。我年过三十才知道读书自修的重要。” （《时间即生命》—— 梁实秋）<br /> <br /> After reading the original text, we find that the original text is composed of two sentences. If we do not read it carefully, we will not grasp the key point, that is, the relationship between the two sentences: transition. The translation is“The reading of Chinese classics is a must for all chinese. But it was not until I was over 30 that I came to realize the importance of self-study.”We all know that Chinese sentences are short with more punctuation marks, and that Chinese is a formative language with few conjunctions between sentences. Therefore, when doing translation, translators should carefully search for the hidden logical relationship between sentences and fit the language habits of the readers in order to accurately convey the ideas that the author wants to convey and to arouse the emotional resonance between the author and the readers. During the Renaissance, Luther found the characteristics of the readers, German citizens, and grasped their aesthetics. Then he made certain degree of stylistic shaping with the Bible as a benchmark and focused on integrating the spirit of humanism into the translation.<br /> <br /> '''Example Three'''<br /> <br /> The translator can use a phrase to translate a single word.”<br /> <br /> “不过，花草自己会奋斗，我若置之不理，任其自生自灭，它们多数还是会死了的。” （《养花》——老舍）<br /> <br /> Translator find that the original text is inclined to be colloquial and its literal meaning is easy to understand. But for the readers, if they only saw the literal meaning, the central idea of the original text would be not well conveyed,leading to their losing interest in reading the work, then the translator was not much of doing a good translation job. In the original text, the word &quot;奋斗&quot; may be a confusing point for readers, they may wonder how flowers and plants could struggle? When it comes to &quot;奋斗&quot;, the first word that comes to the translator's mind may be &quot;struggle&quot;, &quot;fight&quot;, and &quot;strive&quot;, one of which most translators would choose if they wouldn’t look deeper into the original text and take into account the characteristics and writing style of the original text. The theme of the original text is &quot;raising flowers&quot;, which tells the story of the author and his inner feelings in the process of raising flowers. We should relate to the reality that the &quot;奋斗&quot; of flowers and plants is to resist the wind, rain and sun. Therefore, a good translator will choose to enrich the word &quot;struggle&quot; by using such phrases as &quot;weather through&quot;, &quot;carry on the struggle for existence&quot; to express the real experience of plants and flowers. It is in line with Luther's fifth principle. In translation, the translator should pay attention to the language habits of the readers, because different people of various countries will have rather different interpretations of the same literary work. Although the literal meaning of modern Chinese literature is easy to understand, the literary ideas are between the lines. If the translation does not convey the meaning of the original text properly, readers will not feel the meaning conveyed by the author. This is just as Luther took into account when he translated the Bible, he would create a literary form of language acceptable to the German citizens according to their language habits.<br /> <br /> '''Example Four'''<br /> <br /> “Translation must be a brainstorming exercise”<br /> <br /> In addition to translation principles, Luther also placed great importance on team cooperation. Luther believed that doing a translation on one's own was not enough, especially for a masterpiece like the Bible.As Luther said, &quot;One cannot go it alone in the matter of translation, for the correct and proper translation words won’t always occur to the only him.&quot;（zecher, 1993:12-13) Thus, Luther's later revisions of his New Testament, as well as his translations of the Old Testament and the Apocrypha, were done with the assistance of the Collegium biblicum, an academic translation committee.<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, the professor who teaching me the course Introduction to Translation Studies, also worked with a team in the translation of the great work, Dream of the Red Chamber. It is the first complete German translation of Dream of the Red Chamber. In 2000, Professor Wu set up a workshop consisting of 57 translators, and this team was so strong that the average annual translation volume increases considerably. According to Martina Ulrike Hasse, only 11 new works by Chinese authors were published in Germany in 2011. In recent years, thanks to the efforts of the team, the number of Chinese literature translated into German has increased to 17 per year, which has greatly contributed to the translation and dissemination of Chinese literature in the German-speaking world.<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> In conclusion, the Renaissance saw the independent and parallel development of national languages and the promotion of social changes, thanks largely to the extensive literary translation activities undertaken by key advocates, especially Martin Luther's German translation of the Bible, which ushered in a new era in the development of the German language. Luther's translation principles and thoughts were so influential due to the great success of his German translation of the Bible . When Wlliam Tyndale in England and Reina and Valera in Spain later translated the Bible into English and Spanish respectively, they both referred to and partially adopted the translation principles and thoughts proposed by Luther.<br /> After carefully reading Tan Zaixi's A Short History of Translation in the West and Chen Fukang's A History of Translation Theory In China, the author has gained a better understanding of Luther's and Lu Xun's translation thoughts and principles, and has gained two insights: first, even though their countries, political environments,translation thoughts are rather different, the nature of translation determines that there must be certain similarities in their translation thoughts; second, even though the age between Luther and the author is so long, his translation thoughts and principles still have implications for the author and other translation learners of her time.<br /> <br /> As an interdisciplinary student, the author lacked a systematic understanding of many translation thoughts and principles at the beginning of this term. After studying in this semester and reading related professional books,the author have benefited a lot and formed her own translation habits and thinking implicitly, and she hopes to improve her translation quality by practicing a lot more.<br /> <br /> ===6.References===<br /> <br /> [1]谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M].北京:商务印书馆,2004.<br /> <br /> [2]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史[M]．武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br /> <br /> [3]陈福康，《中国译学理论史稿》，上海:上海外语教育出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> [4]鲁迅.且介亭杂文二集.“题未定”草(二、三),《鲁迅全集》,第六卷;二心集.“硬译”与“文学的阶级性,《鲁迅全集》.第四卷.1935.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M].北京:商务印书馆,2004.<br /> <br /> [6] Eric. W.Gritsch.Luther as Bible translator [J] in Donald K. Mckim ed., The Cambridge Companion of Martin Luther (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2003),62-63.<br /> <br /> ==Study on Interpreter's Memory and Translation Memory in Interpreting 康浩宇 Kang Haoyu 202070080638==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康浩宇 Kang Haoyu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In interpreting, the translator's memory plays an important role, and the level of memory even determines the quality of interpreting and affects the interpretation results. Memory cognitive ability is one of the comprehensive qualities of interpreters. The exertion of journalists' memory ability is closely related to memory principles, types and mechanisms. With the development of science and technology, translation memory, as a new type of &quot;memory&quot;, appears in front of the public and is widely used in translation field. In the field of interpretation, some interpreters are also doing interpreting with the help of such tools. This paper aims to explore the translator's memory ability and the application of translation memory in the interpretation industry from the principle of memory.<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Memory; Translation Memory; Interpreting<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 在口译中，译者的记忆里发挥着举足轻重的作用，记忆水平的高低甚至决定了口译质量的好坏，影响口译结果。记忆认知能力是口译员的综合素质能力之一。记者记忆能力的发挥与提升和记忆原理，类型，机制等因素息息相关。 随着科学技术的发展，翻译记忆作为一种新型的“记忆”出现在大众面前并在翻译领域广泛使用。 而在口译领域，一些译员也在通过这类工具来协作口译。本文旨在从记忆的原理出发探究译者记忆能力以及翻译记忆在口译行业的运用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 记忆； 翻译记忆； 口译<br /> <br /> ===1 Introduction===<br /> <br /> '''1.1 Background'''<br /> <br /> Memory plays an important role in interpreting and it is a kind of interpreting competence. The information processing in interpreting is complicated. When the information is input, interpreter first recognize and keep the information, which will then be analyzed, encoded, stored and retrieved. And the interpreter finally decode the information into target language.Because of the fast input of information and limited time for pausing, great memory is required for interpreters. Whether a good or poor memory has a direct effect on the quality of interpreting(Wang Jianhua, 2019）. <br /> With the development of science and technology, machine translation and computer aided translation, which is also called CAT, was invented as two effective and efficient ways for translation. In CAT, there is a concept called translation memory. Different from human beings’ memory, translation memory is more likely a database. Nowadays, translation memory of CAT has been put into wide use in translation. And in recent years, translation memory has also been applied as a tool in interpreting. As the technology is not yet mature, there are still some limitation and weakness(Su Mingyang, 2007, 73).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Significance of the Study'''<br /> <br /> There are some studies on the memory of interpreters. But most of them focus on its practical aspects such as how to improve interpreters’ memory or how to make the best of memory in interpreting, instead of substantial facts. The nature of memory and mechanism of memory is also worthy to be studied, so readers can have better understanding and cognition of what is memory and how it works. Therefore, readers can better address our problems in memory of interpreting. The study will fully analyze memory from the aspect of psychology and science. And then it will study on memory of interpreting in details including systems, mechanism, coding and theories(Li Jun, 2020, 127). <br /> <br /> Translation memory is quite a novel topic as it belongs to a sort of science and technology. As the world stepped into information era, digital era and even Artificial Intelligence era, translation memory has been used more widely than ever before. It really facilitates the translators as it both saves a lot of time and greatly improved the translation efficiency. However, there are few studies on the translation memory application in interpreting field. Actually, in many situations, interpreters also uses this kind of technology to help their interpreting. They study will research on the fact of translation memory in interpreting(Li Jun, 2020, 127).<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Structure of the Study'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be developed in five chapters. <br /> Chapter 1, the introduction part, is initiated by introducing the background, research problems, and significance of the study.<br /> Chapter 2 is functioned to define and categorize the memory.<br /> Chapter 3 will present the memory mechanism and related theories in interpreting.<br /> Chapter 4 will mainly focus on the translation memory technology at present and its application in interpreting.<br /> The concluding chapter generalizes the content of the study and put forward the limitations.<br /> <br /> ===2 Study on Memory===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 The definition of the Memory'''<br /> <br /> Memory has different definitions in different fields. Generally speaking, human memory is a reflection of what the brain has experienced. From the perspective of psychology, memory is the recognition, maintenance, reappearance of experienced things by the human brain, and it is the basis of advanced psychological activities such as thinking and imagination. It is the retention and extraction of past experience by human brain. It is a psychological process in which individual experience is accumulated and preserved in the mind. All things that have been perceived can be kept in people's minds, and can be reproduced when necessary. This refers to the process in which the human brain encodes, stores and extracts meaningful information input from the outside world. From the perspective of neurology, human memory is closely related to the changes of chemical composition in hippocampus and brain. All memory that exists in the brain depends on various nerve cells of the brain, which are called neurons. According to information processing theory, memory process is the process of encoding, storing and extracting input information. Only coded information can be remembered. Coding is the process of processing and transforming the input information, and coding is the key stage of the whole memory process(Che Wenbo, 1987, 403).<br /> <br /> '''2.2. Memory Systems'''<br /> <br /> Based on the structure, memory can be categorized into three systems. There are sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. The later two systems are also often referred as STM and LTM. The three memory systems are different from each other but closely related(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1 Sensory Memory'''<br /> <br /> As the shortest memory system, sensory memory is the first channel for human brain to get the information. It has some capacity. According the research in Cognitive Psychology(Wang Su, Wang Ansheng, 1992), People’s visual sensory capacity is more than 9 chunk while their auditory sensory memory capacity has less capacity, which is about chunk. chunk here are memory units, and the size of chunk varies with people's knowledge and experience. A chunk can be a word, a number, a phrase, a sentence, a word list, etc. Sensory memory works as temporary storage for sensory information. It depends on the physical nature of external stimulus to code the information and it is the real copy and transcription of the external stimulus. Most sensory memory can stay for one to two seconds and then disappear. Only with more attention and focus can the sensory memory be processed and then become short term memory(Bao Gang, 2005). People’s visual sensory memory can just keep for less than one second while their auditory sensory memory can keep for 4 seconds. It is inevitable that information will lose with the disappearance of sensory memory(Bao Gang, 2005, 150). <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2 Short Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Short term memory is the second memory system. Short term memory is based on the neuron network in hippocampus. It keeps the information that has been selected in the hippocampus of human brain. In some cases, part of information will move from the short memory in hippocampus to long term memory in cerebral cortex. In psychology, short term memory can keep for about one minute with the capacity of about 7 chunks. That means that people can memorize seven unrelated numbers or phonemes for about one minute with their short term memory. However, the capacity of short term memory is not decided by the amount of stimulus but by the modes of chunk and coding. Chunks can effectively expand the capacity of short-term memory. When processing information, people can use the knowledge and experience stored in long-term memory to combine several single stimuli into larger information units, which can effectively expand and increase short-term memory span and improve memory efficiency. Moreover, the coding of short-term memory is mainly auditory coding, and there are also visual coding and semantic coding. Instead of chunk and information unit, people can also use retelling to transfer short term memory to long term memory. Retelling refers to the psychological operation process of repeating the materials just memorized by language to consolidate memory. In the case of retelling, the learning materials kept in short-term memory will transfer to long-term memory. The content of short-term memory can be transformed into long-term memory by retelling(Bao Gang, 2005, 150). <br /> <br /> There is a special type of short term memory, working memory. The concept working memory was first proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. It is used to describe the process of a person temporarily memorizing the fact and thoughts when addressing problems or working(Baddeley, 2006, 22). In spite of limited resources and storage time, working memory is still different from short term memory in temporary storage of information(Hitch, 2012, 266). Compared with short term memory which store information passively, the working memory process is more dynamic. Generally speaking, there are three differences. First, working memory emphasizes storing and processing information at the same time, while short-term memory only focuses on information storage. Secondly, working memory is a multi-factor system, while short-term memory is a single system. Third, working memory is more important than short-term memory for many advanced brain functions and even almost all human cognitive work(Wang Jianhua, 2019， 76). The disappear of short term memory is often due to the interruption.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3 Long Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Different from short term memory, long term memory is stored in human’s cerebral cortex where there is more room for storage. Long term memory is very important in keeping information for long time. It can keep information for more than one minute and even for a whole life. Its capacity is unlimited. All the information kept by long term memory has been selected and filtered.According to Tulving, long term memory is stored mainly as two types(Tulving, 1974). They are episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory is about one’s experience of some specific situations. Semantic memory refers to knowledge such as words, concepts, rules and other abstract things.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Memory Mechanism'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, the process of memory includes three key steps. They are memorizing, keeping and recalling. In interpreting, memorizing is related to interpreters’ listening and understanding to what the speaker says, keeping is related to the storage of original information and recalling refers to the output of interpreting(Tulving, 1972, 36).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 Memorizing'''<br /> <br /> Memorizing refers to the process of distinguishing and recognizing the characteristics of things and leaving a certain impression in the mind. Some things can be remembered after one perception, while most of the contents need to be perceived repeatedly, so that the new information can be connected with the existing knowledge structure. As the first step in the memory process, memorization has a very important influence on the memory effect. Therefore, understanding and mastering the rules of memorization will help improve memory(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997, 23).<br /> <br /> According to whether memorization has a purpose or not, memorization can be divided into unconscious memorization and conscious memorization(Ma Zhengyu, 2013, 26).<br /> Unconscious memorization refers to memorization that happens naturally without a predetermined purpose and without a certain effort of will. When they are perceived, there is no intention to memorize them, but these contents can reappear in people’s mind in the future naturally. And this is unconscious memorization. The content of unconscious memorization is an important part of experience, and it has great effect on people’s psychological activities and behaviors. Inadvertent experience can do as much help as existing experiences when people consciously face certain situations and deal with certain problems. In daily life, the environment, contact and work will influence people unconsciously in psychology and behavior. Generally speaking, there are two characteristics of unconscious memorization. First, the stimulation acts on people's sensory organs which is of great significance and attracts people's attention. For example, people will never forget new and different things; Second, it is in people's needs, interests and content so that it can produce deeper emotional experience. Unconsciousness plays a positive role in people's acquisition of knowledge and experience(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004, 173).<br /> <br /> Conscious memorization refers to memorizing with a predetermined purpose, which requires a certain amount of will and effort in the process of memorizing. The process of conscious memorization is controlled by the purpose of memorization. The purpose of memorization determines that memorizing process is an active coding process for memorizing content. This coding includes &quot;what to remember&quot; and &quot;how to remember&quot;. &quot;What to memorize&quot; determines the direction and content of memorization, and &quot;how to memorize&quot; is the method to better memorize the content. All people's knowledge and experience are acquired through conscious memorization and unconscious memorization. However, in terms of memorizing effect, conscious memorizing is better than unconscious memorizing(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004, 173).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 Keeping'''<br /> <br /> Keeping refers to the process of remaining and consolidating the memorized materials in brain. It is the process of information storage. Keeping is the middle step which is between memorizing and recalling and it is closely related the quality and effect of recalling(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).<br /> <br /> The effect of keeping is related to whether the materials to be memorized are vivid or not. When brains memorize verbal materials, if the materials are vivid, they can leave a deep impression on people, while the materials with empty contents are easy to be forgotten quickly. Many psychological experiments have also proved the important role of the &quot;image&quot; in the memory of human brain. The memory effect of image materials is generally better than that of words materials, and similarly, the effect of visual memory is generally better than that of auditory memory. This suggests that if interpreters make full use of the image carrier of the source language in interpreting memory, it is possible to improve their information storage of the source language(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).<br /> <br /> Keeping is a dynamic process during which the amount and nature of the stored information could be changed. In the aspect of amount change, the amount of stored information will decrease with time. In other words, this is forgetting. Forgetting is a very natural phenomenon that experienced by every person. Although forgetting is a complex psychological phenomenon, its occurrence and development have certain rules. Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, was the first to do this research. He used meaningless syllables as experimental materials and himself as experimental object. After memorizing the materials, he relearned them at regular intervals, and drew the forgetting curve with the time and times saved by heavy school as the index. Forgetting curve reflects the relationship between forgetting variables and time variables. This curve shows the rule of forgetting: the process of forgetting is unbalanced, and the amount of forgetting is relatively large in the initial period after memorization, and then gradually decreases. That is, the speed of forgetting is fast at first and then slow. After Ebbinghaus, many people have studied the forgetting process and confirmed that Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve is basically correct(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997, 26). <br /> <br /> Keeping is the process of consolidating what have been memorized in people's minds, and it is also the process of storing information. It is not a static and solidified process, but a process of reconstruction(Bao Gang, 2005, 163).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 Recalling'''<br /> <br /> The final step of memory is recalling. It is the process of retrieving the information that has been stored in people’s brain(Zhang Wei, 2011, 33). <br /> Recalling is the reappearance process of past experiences in the mind under the action of certain inducement. Memories can be divided into two categories: intentional memories and unintentional memories. Intentional recalling is the recalling of past experience under the action of intended purpose. Unintentional memories are memories that happen naturally without a predetermined purpose. Memories can be divided into direct recalling and indirect recalling according to whether there are intermediary factors involved in the recalling process. Direct recalling is the recollection of old experiences directly aroused by current things. Indirect recalling is a kind of recalling with the help of intermediary factors. In terms of difficulty, indirect recalling is more difficult than direct recalling(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 72).<br /> <br /> '''2.4 Primacy Effect and Recency effect'''<br /> <br /> Primacy effect and recency effect are two famous phenomena related to people’s memory. And both of them play a very important role in interpreting(Bao Gang, 2005, 166).<br /> <br /> '''2.4.1 Primacy Effect'''<br /> <br /> The concept “primacy effect” was first proposed by A. S. Lochins, an American psychologist. It refers to the fact that the first impression has a huge effect. Although the first impression may not always be right, but it is most vivid and solid. In primacy effect, information input plays a key role. Experimental psychology research shows that the order of external information input is important in determining the cognitive effect. The first input information plays the most important role, and the last input information also plays a great role. This feature of brain processing information is the internal cause of the primacy effect. When different information is combined, people always tend to attach importance to the former information. Even if people pay attention to the following information, they will think that the following information is non-essential and accidental. More importantly, even if the following information is inconsistent with the former information, people will succumb to the former information.<br /> <br /> '''2.4.2 Recency Effect'''<br /> <br /> Recency effect, also put forward by American psychologist Lochins, refers to the phenomenon that when people memorize a series of things, the memory effect of the last part is better than that of the middle part. The reason is that the previous information is gradually blurred in memory, while the recent information clearer in short-term memory. Recency effect is contrary to the primacy effect, and recency effect emphasizes that the last received information has the greatest effect. In people's perception, when the information obtained before and after is different, if there is irrelevant work in the middle to separate them, then the latter information plays a greater role in forming the total impression(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 81).<br /> <br /> Obviously, the primacy effect and recency effect are different, or even opposite. The primacy effect emphasizes the information received initially, while recency effect pays more attention to the information that comes into contact later. However, the primary effect and recency effect exist in our society and play their respective functions. Through a large number of experiments, it is found that the primacy effect and recency effect depend on people themselves. Generally speaking, people with relatively simple cognitive structure are prone to produce the primacy effect, while those with complex cognitive structure are prone to produce recency effect(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 82).<br /> <br /> Although the primacy effect and recency effect are different form each other, both of the effects are extremely beneficial to the memory of interpreters, and they can be used in different interpreting situations(Wang Jianhua, 2019, 82).<br /> <br /> ===3 Memory in Interpreting===<br /> <br /> In interpreting, time is very limited for interpreters to do the work and the information of original language is transient. Thus, interpreters are required ton have a good memory. The memory in interpreting is not mechanical. It refers to the processing and coding of original language, and then storage and retrieval of the coded information. The process of language understanding in translation is based on the information stored in memory such as pronunciation, grammar and speech structure(Bao Gang, 2005, 150).<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Memory Mechanism in Interpreting'''<br /> <br /> When interpreters listen to what the speakers says, their brains are receiving stimulus. That means their brains begin to process these information. In interpreting, when the language area of the brain is stimulated, the interpreter will use the brain to process the existing related information by identifying, explaining, inferring and analyzing the pronunciation, and then stores the results in the form of internal speech, thus completing the information processing in a short time(Xu Han, 2007, 124).<br /> <br /> Only through sensory memory can people obtain external information. Therefore, in a broader sense, the initial stage of memory is sensory memory, not short-term memory. Once the recipient's cells are activated, the information is retained in the sensory storage. Attention should be paid to selecting certain information as pattern cognition, and changing it from sensory memory to short-term memory to obtain its meaning. Therefore, when interpreters listen to the content, they first store all the information in their sensory memory. Then their brain begins to identify which is the important information and pay more attention to it in order to store it in short term memory. For those unnecessary information, it will be forgotten naturally as sensory memory can just be kept for less than one second(Wang Jianhua, 2019,77).<br /> <br /> Short-term memory is the link between sensory memory and long-term memory. On the one hand, it directly accepts the information filtered by sensory memory; On the other hand, through a certain retrieval method, the relevant knowledge can be extracted from the long-term memory, and then combine the two to process and store the discourse information. Short-term memory plays a key role in connecting sensory memory and long-term memory, and functions as a central processing unit. When the information stored in sensory memory has been filtered by interpreters’ brain, then it is stored in short term memory. When interpreters start to interpret, they recall all those information that has been encoded in their short term memory and decode it into target languages. In most cases, these information become useless after the interpreting is finished, so it will soon be forgotten naturally by interpreters as short term memory also has a limitation of time. If there is some necessary and important information such as words or expression that could be useful in the future, interpreters can give it more attention and memorize it repeatedly to encode the information into long term memory(Han Xiaoming, 2004, 156).<br /> <br /> Long-term memory is like an knowledge base of experiences, and the stored information needs to be activated before it can be decoded into short-term memory to participate in the processing of new information. When the speech chain is released, the brain will quickly activate the long-term memory, extract the relevant knowledge stored before, and start the sensory memory and short-term memory to analyze and process the information , so as to fully understand the meaning carried by the speech, thus making the communication proceed effectively. Long-term memory is the basis of interpretation(Ma Yingmai, Sun Changyan, 2004, 78). In the whole process of interpretation, long-term memory has four functions. The first one is information confirmation. That is to identify information consistent with interpretation long-term memory. The second function is information understanding. If the new information to be processed is consistent with the existing old information in long-term memory, its meaning will be accepted. The third function is information anticipation. The activation of knowledge system will bring about the anticipation of future information. The last one is information expression. When the interpreters understands what the original text conveys, they must look for appropriate words or expressions in long-term memory to express their meanings in the target language(Wang Jianhua, 2019,77). Long-term memory, like a database, stores a large amount of information that can be extracted at any time. More importantly, it also has great influence on sensory memory and short-term memory. If there is no information in long-term memory, the receiver will not be able to recognize familiar stimuli, and short-term memory will not be able to encode and store information in chunks, so information will not be able to change from short-term memory to long-term memory. Therefore, long term memory plays a decisive role when interpreters store the content of original language(Bao Gang, 2005, 160).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Deverbalization Mode'''<br /> <br /> In the field of translation, as for the understanding of interpreting thinking process and interpreting memory mechanism, there are four different schools of translation theories, namely, information theory school, cognitive psychology school, neural network school and hermeneutic school. Among them, the most authoritative and influential interpretation theory is the &quot;Deverbalization Mode&quot; theory put forward by the French hermeneutics school(Liu Guiying, 2006, 117).<br /> <br /> &quot;Deverbalization Mode&quot; theory was proposed by the French hermeneutics school, which is represented by French interpreting theorist Seleskovitch. In a language, sense is the content while words and linguistic signs are the shell. In this mode, what the interpreter needs to do is “shell” the language by coding the information. That is to only keep the sense of the language in memory and remove all the other things(Seleskovitch, 1978). According to the theory, the whole process of interpreting is divided into three stages. They are listening, understanding and expressing respectively. Understanding is considered to be the most important part in the process of interpreting(Seleskovitch, Lederer 2003, 41). <br /> <br /> In interpreting, interpreters should first listen to and make clear these linguistic signs and find out the sense and content they express through analysis and understanding. Then the interpreters need to remove the “shell” of the language and forget the linguistic signs and their structure. Only the sense needs to be memorized. The final step for interpreters is to reconstruct the information of original language. They need to decode these sense with the linguistic signs of target language(Xu Ming, 2010, 6).<br /> <br /> Deverbalization is not just a coding process from original language to target language but also a dynamic process of understanding and expressing. The central idea is that the interpreters should memorize the pure sense of content instead of the language shells. And they then should process these information with the language shell of target language(Xu Han, 2007, 124).<br /> From the perspective of the theory, interpreters’ memory is not mechanical memory of isolated phonetic codes and information symbols of the source language, but the memory of the main meaning and key words of the source language information on the basis of understanding. Moreover, interpreters’ memory is not simply recalling of information stored in the brain, but a storage and extraction of input information after analyzing, screening, processing and coding. Interpreters must extract the relevant background knowledge stored in the brain by means of &quot;semantic retrieval&quot;, identify, interpret and reason the speech chain, then store the textual meaning in the form of internal speech, and complete the information restoration process in a short time(Xu Han, 2007, 124).<br /> <br /> '''3.3 Memory Strategies for Interpreters'''<br /> <br /> '''3.3.1 Logical Memory''' <br /> <br /> Logical memory means that when the interpreters receive new information, they can fully stimulate the existing schema in their mind according to the main content of the information, get rid of the limitations of the source language, better remember the newly acquired information, and truly achieve the combination of &quot;recalling&quot; and &quot;interpreting&quot;. In interpreting, interpreters use discourse knowledge to logically sort out the internal relations of the source language content and list the framework. In this process, the interpreters’ notes should mainly include the logical relationship between key words and information, and what the interpreters memorize in his brain is the main meaning and connection of the source material, rather than isolated phrases and sentences. In the interpreting stage, the interpreter uses the newly acquired information to activate the related schema in the brain to summarize and edit, so that the known information can reduce the memory burden. This memory method is suitable for interpreting materials with organized contents and clear priorities(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).<br /> <br /> '''3.3.2 Visual Memory'''<br /> <br /> Visual memory refers to a method in which an interpreter can quickly visualize the source language content in his mind, combine the existing background knowledge schema, and use the imagery thinking established in his brain to remember when he or she hears the interpretation content. Visual information storage tends to be more complete, and its retention time is relatively long. If images can be formed in the brain, it will definitely reduce the memory burden and produce better translations. Using visual memory of information in descriptive or introductory interpreting materials will produce very good results(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).<br /> <br /> For examples, the following is part of President Xi’s, state leader of People’s Republic of China, speech at the 12th BRICS Summit.<br /> <br /> “同时，我们坚信，和平与发展的时代主题没有改变，世界多极化和经济全球化的时代潮流也不可能逆转。我们要为人民福祉着想，秉持人类命运共同体理念，用实际行动为建设美好世界作出应有贡献。”(Xi jinPing, 2020)<br /> <br /> The official translation is given as fallowed from XinHua News Agency.<br /> <br /> “Despite all this, we remain convinced that the theme of our times, peace and development, has not changed, and that the trend toward multi-polarity and economic globalization cannot be turned around. We must keep people’ s welfare close to heart and pursue the vision of a community with a shared future for mankind. Through concrete actions, we will contribute our share to making the world a better place for everyone.”<br /> <br /> From president Xi’s speech, he mentioned the theme of times, world and peace, multi-polarity and economic globalization, people’s well being. Thus interpreters can use visual memory here to imagine peace as a peace bird, globalization as a the picture of earth and people’s well being as a picture of a happy family(Chen Weihong, 2014, 86).<br /> <br /> '''3.3.3 Chunk Memory'''<br /> <br /> In the process of memory, individual information is often grouped into larger units, that is, recombined or recoded, which is called chunks. Although people's short-term memory capacity is only about 7 chunks, the information storage capacity of each chunk can be extended to a certain extent. People can reorganize the information of short-term memory by using the related schema in their minds, and form familiar larger meaning units. Therefore, in interpreting memory training, the translator should actively use the schema in his mind to make information memorized in chunks efficiently. Interpreters should reconstruct the information they hear, get rid of the language form of the original text, and transform it into meaningful information chunks. With the help of schema theory and interpretive theory, several single sentences can be condensed into several meaningful information chunks, thus reducing the memory pressure in interpretation and greatly improving the interpretation effect. Materials with poor logic and consistency are more suitable for this memory method(Miller, 1956, 63).<br /> <br /> There is also a part from President Xi’s speech at the 12th BRICS Summit as followed.<br /> <br /> “环顾全球，疫情使各国人民生命安全和身体健康遭受巨大威胁，全球公共卫生体系面临严峻考验，人类社会正在经历百年来最严重的传染病大流行。国际贸易和投资急剧萎缩，人员、货物流动严重受阻，不稳定不确定因素层出不穷，世界经济正在经历上世纪30年代大萧条以来最严重的衰退。单边主义、保护主义、霸凌行径愈演愈烈，治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字有增无减。”(Xi jinPing, 2020)<br /> <br /> And the official translation is given as followed. <br /> <br /> “Around the world, COVID-19 is posing a grave threat to people’s life and well-being. The global public health system is facing a severe test. Human society is going through the most serious pandemic in the past century. International trade and investment have shrunk considerably. The flow of goods and personnel has been impeded. Factors for uncertainty and instability are numerous. The world economy is witnessing the worst recession since the Great Depression in the 1930s. Unilateralism, protectionism and acts of bullying are becoming rampant, and the deficit in governance, trust, development and peace is widening instead of narrowing.”<br /> <br /> In this part, president Xi mentioned many aspects. They are current situation, public heath, people’s health, economy and politics. Each aspect can function as a chunk. When interpreters hear these information, they can memorize these information in these chunks(Chen Weihong, 2014, 87).<br /> <br /> ===4 Translation Memory in Interpreting===<br /> <br /> '''4.1 Translation Memory'''<br /> <br /> With development of science and technology, translation technology become widely use in translation field such as computer aided translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translators. And translation memory is a tool used in computer aided translation(Shi Yuntao, 2000, 36).<br /> <br /> '''4.1.1 Definition'''<br /> <br /> Translation memory is also called TM. It is different from the psychological memory that has been well elaborated. It is a kind of database to aid the translation. The principle of Translation Memory (TM) technology is that users build one or more translation memories by using existing original texts and translations. In the process of translation, the system will automatically search the same or similar translation resources such as sentences and paragraphs in the translation memories, and give reference translations, so that users can avoid unnecessary repetitive work and only focus on the translation of new content. At the same time, the translation memory keeps learning and automatically storing new translations in the background, which becomes more and more &quot;smart&quot; and more efficient(Lv Lisong, Mu Lei, 2007,36).<br /> <br /> '''4.1.2 Mechanism'''<br /> <br /> The translator first provides a source text to the translation memory, and the program will analyze this text first, and try to find out whether the existing translation section is consistent with the translated text in the past in the database. If matching translation pairs are found, they will be presented to the translator for reference. Translators can choose to accept the old translation, reject it or modify it. If it is modified, the modified version will also be recorded and stored in the database(Wang Jinquan, 2004, 14).<br /> <br /> Some translation memory systems only search for 100% matching words, which means that only the new source that is accurately compared with the database and completely matching data will be presented. There are also other systems that use the fuzzy comparison principle to find similar segments, and present them to translators with special marks to make them easy to recognize. It is very important that the general translation memory system only searches the source language from its database. Text segments that have no match at all will have to be translated manually by the translator. These newly translated text segments will be stored in the database, and future translations may be adopted immediately because the source text appears repeatedly. Translation memory will work well when the repetition of articles is quite high, such as some technical documents or manuals. Translation memory is also very helpful for translating a situation where existing documents are gradually added and revised from the past. Generally speaking, translation memory will not be considered in literature or creative documents, mainly because these types of articles have low repeatability. However, some people think that these words with extremely low repeatability are still worth collecting, for example, they can be used in the search of concordance. Other help collected from translation memory can also be helpful in quality verification and proofreading. When the translation memory is continuously used on appropriate words for a period of time, it will save a lot of workload for translators.(Wang Jinquan, 2004, 14)<br /> <br /> '''4.2 Application of Translation Memory in Interpreting'''<br /> <br /> '''4.2.1 Current Situation '''<br /> <br /> Although most translation memory is used in the work of translation, it is also used in interpreting widely in recent years. Translation memory is also used in three stages of a interpreting(Li Jun, 2020, 127). <br /> <br /> The first stage is pre-interpreting period when interpreters make preparation for the interpreting. If there is script or some new terms and expressions, interpreters can first resort to machine translation to learn how to translate these content and then store these results in translation memory for future use(Li Jun, 2020, 128).<br /> <br /> The second stage is when the interpreters are doing the interpreting. There is a very important technology called voice recognition. The technology can recognize what the speakers said and transcribe it into words. One the one hand, these words can show as subtitles on the screen. Listeners can choose to watch the subtitles or listen to interpreters by themselves. Ont the other hand, these recognized words can also show to interpreters for them to refer to. Thus, it can reduce their stress and burden to some extend. And if the speakers said the terms or words that have been stored in translation memory, they can soon be translated into target languages. The voice recognition technology can transfer speech into words. And then translation plays its role to help interpreters do their interpreting as it saves interpreters a lot of time to remember these words(Li Jun, 2020, 128).<br /> <br /> The third stage is after the interpreting. Interpreters can have a review on their on interpreting by voice recognizing their record. If there is any new words that could appear again in the future, interpreters can store them in their own translation memory. If there are words that have benn stored in translation memory but needs modifying, interpreters can also upgrade them(Li Jun, 2020, 128).<br /> <br /> '''4.2.2 Limitations'''<br /> <br /> Although translation memory has been adapted in interpreting, its has still some limitations. There are mainly two aspects of limitation. They are translation memory and voice recognition.<br /> <br /> As for translation memory, the limitation is that what stored in translation memory are words and phrases. In most cases, people needs to translate a whole paragraph or text, so the cohesion is very important. Common translation memory uses a sentence as a Translation Unit or a Translation Segment, which makes it easy to translate multiple sentences separately and then combine them. And this makes the translation not as coherent as it’s required. Besides, translation memory is not compatible to all file formats such as words, the one most frequently used(Su Mingyang, 2007, 73).<br /> <br /> As for voice recognition, when there are more than one language in the speech, the effectiveness of the technology could be affected. Besides, it sometimes fails to recognize conditional adverbials and adverbial clause induced by words such as If, every and although is not good. The reason is that the clauses caused by these words can be placed before or after the main sentence, which makes it difficult to recognize and automatically add punctuation marks. Moreover, the results of recognition is greatly affected by the pronunciation and intonation of the speaker and the environment(Li Jun, 2020, 129).<br /> <br /> ===5 Conclusion===<br /> <br /> A good interpreter is required to have a good memory. It doesn’t only mean the ability to memorize many things but also knowing how to use different memory systems and modes of coding to optimize their memory. Moreover, with the development of technology, interpreters should also learn how to use these technology such as translation memory to help them do the interpreting. However, although translation memory is used in interpreting now, it is still not mature and needs to be improved. Interpreters can use these technology but not rely on it. They must rely on their own memory.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Baddeley, A. D. Working Memory : an Overview[A]. 2006.<br /> <br /> [2]Hitch, G.J. Working Memory[A]. 2012.<br /> <br /> [3]Miller, A. George. The Magic Number Seven Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information[J]. 1956. The Psychological Review, 63(2).<br /> <br /> [4]Seleskovitch, D. &amp; Lederer, M. Pédagogie Raisonnée de l , Interprétation (3 e édition) [M]. Paris: Didier Erudition, 2003.<br /> <br /> [5]Tulving, Organism of Memory[C], New York: Academic Press, 1972.<br /> <br /> [6]鲍刚, 翻译理论概述[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,2005.<br /> <br /> [7]车文博, 心理学原理[M]. 黑龙江：黑龙江人民出版社, 1986.<br /> <br /> [8]陈卫红. 论心理认知和口译记忆[J]. 外语教学理论与实践, 2014: 85-95.<br /> <br /> [9]韩小明. 从记忆机制看口译教学中记忆能力的培养[J]. 重庆工学院学报, 2004: 156-15.<br /> <br /> [10]李俊. 计算机翻译辅助技术在同传中的应用及对同传生态系统的影响[J]. 中国翻译, 2020(4): 127-132.<br /> <br /> [11]刘桂英. 口译的记忆心理学基础[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2006: 116-118.<br /> <br /> [12]刘颖, 苏巧玲. 医学心理学[M]. 北京：中国华侨出版社, 1997.<br /> <br /> [13]吕立松, 穆雷. 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[J]. 外语世界, 2007: 35-43.<br /> <br /> [14]马英迈, 孙长彦, 口译中的记忆与理解[J]. 宁夏大学学报, 2004: 78-79.<br /> <br /> [15]施韵涛. 全新翻译解决方案 ——翻译记忆[J]. 中国科技翻译, 2000.<br /> <br /> [16]苏明阳. 翻译记忆系统的现状及其启示[J]. 外语研究, 2007: 70-74.<br /> <br /> [17]王建华. 口译过程认知研究[M]. 北京：中国人民大学出版社, 2019.<br /> <br /> [18]王金铨. 翻译记忆 ( TM)—— 计算机翻译技术的新发展[J]. 现代图书情报技术, 2004: 13-16.<br /> <br /> [19]徐翰. 口译记忆认知与记忆策略探索[J]. 南昌大学学报(人文社会科学版), 2007: 124-126.<br /> <br /> [20]许明. 口译认知过程中“deverbalization”的认知诠释[J]. 译论研究, 2010: 5-11<br /> <br /> [21]张威. 口译认知研究：同声传译和工作记忆的关系[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 2011.<br /> <br /> == The Subtile Translation of Movie from the Perspective of Multimodal Discourse Analysis 王轩 Wang Xuan==<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> Mankind has entered the era of multimedia, so the language as a mono-modal form has been unable to fully express the meaning of communication. Thus we need some other modals to enhance, in order to fully express the meaning and reach the aim of communication, such as sound, visual image, color and so on. Thus the term Multimodality aroused linguist’s interest and attention. <br /> <br /> They conducted a lot of research and exploration in Multimodal Discourse Analysis. Multimodal Discourse Analysis is based on Halliday’s systemic functional linguistics as the foundation, Professor Zhang Delu points out that the Multimodal Discourse is a phenomenon which means use auditory, visual, tactile and other sensory and communicate through language, image, sound, movement and other symbolic resources. <br /> <br /> Martin points out that Multimodal Discourse Analysis is composed of five levels, they are: (1) cultural level (2) context level (3) significance level (4) form level (5) media level. By discussing the combination between the subtitle translation of “Benjamin Button” and Multimodal, the thesis is to analyze that how does the Multimodal Discourse Analysis affect the subtitle translation of movies. <br /> <br /> The thesis is based on the Multimodal Discourse Analysis theory as the foundation, aims to analyze the following three areas under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis: 1. The embodiment of Multimodality in the film “Benjamin Button”, then aims to analyze how does the subtitle and Multimodality combining to constructed the whole meaning under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis.2. The second goal is to discuss the relationship between the movie’s subtitles and other modals, and the relationship between different modals. 3. By discussing the analysis of the movie subtitle expression function in the process of overall significance, this thesis attempts to put forward some suggestions on the movie subtitle translation. <br /> Keywords: Multimodal Discourse Analysis；Audio-visual Product；Subtitle Translation<br /> <br /> === Chapter One Multimodal Discourse Analysis Theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 1.1 The Emergence And Development Of Multimodality '''<br /> <br /> At present, experts and scholars have entered the stage of multimodal discourse analysis. This is not an accidental phenomenon, but inevitable, because they think that discourse or discourse is a unit of meaning, but the expression of meaning is not only through a single language, on the contrary, it can be constructed by many other symbol systems besides language. <br /> <br /> Therefore, it is not comprehensive and specific to analyze discourse or discourse from the linguistic level, so multimodal discourse analysis comes into being. Multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in foreign countries, and has been widely studied and explored. However, it is still in its infancy in China, and has attracted much attention in recent years. <br /> <br /> In the early 1950s, American linguist Harris put forward the theory of discourse analysis for the first time. Since then, discourse analysts all over the world have been working hard to analyze and study, and have put forward many theories and methods of discourse analysis, and analyzed them through a large number of examples. <br /> <br /> However, almost all the theories and methods of discourse analysis focus on language and ignore other forms of meaning expression, such as image, music, color and so on. Therefore, the research on discourse analysis at that time was not comprehensive and had great limitations. In the 1990s, multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in western countries, which overcomes the limitations of discourse analysis to a certain extent. Therefore, once multimodal discourse analysis was proposed, it immediately attracted the attention of linguists and once became a hot topic. Especially in recent years, linguists at home and abroad have carried out extensive research and Exploration on multimodal discourse analysis. <br /> <br /> In foreign countries, R. Barthes is the first French scholar to systematically analyze multimodality. As a famous semiotician, R. Barthes adopts the semiotic perspective to study multimodality. Therefore, multimodal discourse has been analyzed with semiotics from the very beginning. Multimodal discourse analysis breaks through the shackles of traditional single language information, and integrates more research in other fields, such as psychology, cognitive science and sociology. R. Barthes discussed the interaction and relationship between image and language in the expression of meaning. Based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed a relatively perfect grammatical framework for the analysis of visual images, thus providing theoretical basis and analytical methods for multimodal discourse analysis. They believe that multimodality is a major feature of various discourses in modern society. In the digital age, these different modes play the same role in meaning reproduction. In addition, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed an image analysis framework based on three pure functions in image reading, namely reproduction, interaction and composition.. In a word, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen's multimodal communication theory mainly focuses on the symbolic resources and their use. <br /> <br /> In China, there are also in-depth and extensive research on multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Li Zhanzi analyzes multimodal discourse from the perspective of social semiotics, while Hu Zhuanglin, a professor of Peking University, studies multimodal semiotics in theory and practice, and proposes multimodal language teaching and research in social semiotics. Zhu Yongsheng has made an in-depth study on multimodality and summarized the theoretical basis and research methods of multimodal discourse analysis. Zhang Delu made a preliminary exploration on the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Zhang Delu pointed out that multimodal discourse refers to the use of hearing, vision, touch and other senses, through language, images, sounds, movements and other means and symbol resources for communication. This phenomenon is very common, which is mainly reflected in the following aspects. For example, in order to better understand poetry, people find that it can be attached with pictures, that is, it is attractive People's interest has reached the purpose of helping people understand. In addition, people can often add some auxiliary gestures or actions, and use different tone and tone when speaking, which is also a form of multimodality. However, multimodal discourse analysis has not been paid enough attention. Only in the study of modern linguistics, some linguists have paid attention to multimodality and started to study it from the perspective of non-verbal features and linguistic features. However, it is only studied as an auxiliary expression system of language, but not as a mode of meaning expression. Although multimedia discourse analysis came into being, it was not until recent years that scholars gradually realized the importance of multimedia discourse analysis. It can be seen that multimodality has attracted a large number of linguists in China and achieved fruitful results.<br /> <br /> ''' 1.2 The Theoretical Framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis '''<br /> <br /> Linguists have found that systemic functional linguistics can be used as the basic theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. The five levels are: (1) cultural level, including ideology as the main form of culture and genre as the potential choice of discourse mode. (2) The context level includes the context configuration composed of discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. (3) The meaning level includes discourse meaning and conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning. (4) At the formal level, there are different formal systems to realize meaning, including lexical grammar system of language, visual ideographic form and visual grammar system, auditory ideographic form and auditory grammar system, tactile ideographic form and tactile grammar system, etc., as well as the relationship between the grammar of various modes. (5) Media level is the material form of discourse in the material world, including linguistic and non-verbal. Systemic functional linguistics provides a relatively ready-made theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis. On this basis, Professor Zhang Delu proposed a comprehensive theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis: (1) cultural level, (2) context level, (3) content level, (4) expression level<br /> <br /> ''' 1.3 The Forms and Relations of Multimodal Discourse '''<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse forms include: language, picture sense, sound sense and feeling. The typical multimodal discourse mode is a kind of modal discourse, which can not fully express its meaning, or can not express its full meaning. It needs to be supplemented by another one. The relationship between these modes is called &quot;complementary relationship&quot;, while the other is called non complementary relationship. <br /> <br /> Complementary relationship can be divided into strengthening relationship and non strengthening relationship. Reinforcement relationship means that one mode is the main form of communication, while another or more forms strengthen it. For example, when expressing meaning, if language is the main form of communication, then other body movements such as gestures will strengthen the language. On the contrary, language may also be a reinforcement to other ways of communication. Strengthening relationship includes three kinds of relations: prominent, primary and secondary, and expanding. Non reinforcement refers to the relationship between two modes which are indispensable and complementary to each other. For example, in the process of watching a movie, the visual and auditory modes are combined with each other. There are also three forms of non strengthening relations: coordination, union and intersection. In the coordination relationship, different modes construct the whole meaning together, and the lack of any mode will be incomplete. Play the video at the same time, for example. The two modes of image and sound are both necessary and difficult to understand without one communication. In this case, the relationship between image and sound is harmonious. The joint relationship refers to the combination of different types of media in the same mode to express the meaning. For example, in the typical multimodal discourse form of film, the sound matched with the scene animation and the voice of interpretation are combined to reflect the meaning of auditory construction. The last one is the phenomenon of cross embodiment of meaning. For example, teachers do experiments while they are in the experimental class. At this time, the text is still unimodal. However, if you are talking with your friends about whether the weather is snowing, the size and shape of snow, and so on, the scene of snow, including the process and mode of snow, will directly participate in the overall meaning you want to express. At this time, your discourse has a strong situational dependence. A large part of the meaning of your speech is reflected by the situation, although the scene does not actively participate in it In your verbal communication. Therefore, context dependent discourse communication is multimodal.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Two Film subtitle translation theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 2.1 Film Works and Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> With the advent of the multimedia digital era, foreign film and television works continue to flow into China, so subtitle translation is becoming more and more important. More and more people use subtitles to obtain foreign related information, understand foreign cultures and even learn foreign languages. Subtitling affects people's cognition of things, and subtitle translation has become a professional auxiliary form to facilitate the audience to understand multimedia works. Gottlieb defines subtitle translation as &quot;a kind of written, additional and synchronous translation type for instantaneous and multi symbolic texts&quot;. (Gottlieb, 1997:309) in China, film and television translation started relatively late, and large-scale film and television translation began after the 1980s. <br /> <br /> Although the number of mass media translation has greatly increased, subtitle translation has not attracted enough attention of the academic community, and the research results on subtitle translation are few. In recent years, subtitle translation, as a field of translation, has attracted more and more attention from experts and scholars all over the world. Subtitles have two major functions: first, to deepen the audience's impression of some film content; second, to assist the lack of listening. There are two kinds of subtitles: the first is intralingual subtitle, the second is interlingual subtitle. Intralingual subtitle translation does not need to translate one language into another, but only converts the discourse into text. &quot;Interlingual subtitle refers to the translation of the source language into the target language and superimposed on the bottom of the screen while retaining the original sound of the film and television, which is commonly referred to as subtitle translation.&quot; (Li Yunxing, 2001:38)<br /> <br /> ''' 2.2 The Characteristics Of Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> Film subtitles are an important part of the film, and together with the visual image to construct the meaning, film subtitles can help the audience to understand the characteristics of the characters in the film, to master the character's character and to be familiar with the plot of the film. Film subtitle translation has the following characteristics: <br /> <br /> Firstly, colloquialism. Subtitle translation in movies is mainly the translation of dialogues between the characters in the film. Therefore, subtitle translation should be as colloquial as possible and conform to the expression characteristics of the characters. On the premise of ensuring the coherence and smoothness of the context, the subtitle translation should be as close to life as possible so as to achieve natural and realistic effect. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the characters in the film have their own unique personalities, which are often reflected by different language styles. Therefore, the second feature of film subtitle translation is to conform to the characters' personalities. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, emotional, emotional help the audience better understand the plot, so the film subtitle translation should reflect the true feelings, the translation should be able to put oneself in the position and into the role, to achieve the artistic effect of sincere.<br /> <br /> Fourthly, oral form is a typical feature of film subtitle translation, which is also the most obvious difference between film subtitle translation and literature translation. The basic task of translation is to provide a blueprint for dubbing. Therefore, the translation of subtitles should be consistent with the mouth shape of the characters as much as possible, and the accuracy and vividness of the translation should be guaranteed. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, popularization means popularization. Popularization means that the translation can be understood by the audience on the premise of smoothness, so as to achieve the purpose of clear understanding and appreciation of both refined and popular tastes. The ultimate goal of popularization is to serve the audience and make the translation a bridge for effective communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3 Strategies Of Film Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.1 Pay Attention To The Artistry Of Language '''<br /> <br /> It is said that film is the seventh art after literature, music, dance, drama, painting and sculpture. As a young art, the only one who knows his birthday, film appeared as a popular art from the very beginning. Film is an art form with unique means of expression, and the artistry of its language is the basic element of film. Although Goethe once said: art should never be the same as reality, and it is impossible to embody art. But it turns out that film is not only a popular art, and it is the most popular art, which is called a kind of popular culture. From the point of view of the film itself, most of the films are for people to watch, and the audience of the film comes from different social strata, so their education level is also different. Therefore, the language in the subtitle of film translation must be in line with the audience's acceptance ability and actual level, so as to make the translation understood by the audience, more clearly, and achieve both refined and popular tastes. However, the vulgarization and popularization of the target language does not mean the vulgarization and generalization of the language. The language of film is rich in expressive force, and the language of subtitle translation must be accurate, natural and vivid. Therefore, in the film subtitle translation, we should not only retain the language characteristics of the source language and absorb the characteristics of foreign language expression, but also abide by the language tradition of our own culture, and use words with cultural color of the target language to translate the original text, so as to truly achieve the purpose of translation.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.2 Literal Translation And Free Translation Should Be Audience-Centered '''<br /> <br /> The characteristics of film subtitle translation, i.e. instantaneity and popularity, determine its translation strategies. Subtitle translation must refer to the picture and sound of the film and television. Usually, the subtitle appears in front of the audience together with the original picture, so that the audience can not only enjoy the picture, but also have time to read the subtitle. This is the duality of subtitle translation. When the audience accepts the sound, picture and subtitle information of the original text, they are integrated, complementary and contradictory. Therefore, subtitle translation must consider that subtitle is not an independent mode, it includes the creation process and the reception process. In a word, both literal translation and free translation should focus on the audience. Literal translation can absorb new foreign factors and information, and can reflect foreign culture and sentiment. Free translation is easier to be accepted by the target language audience. Film subtitle translation must take into account the audience's language level and education, and take the audience of the target language as the center and adopt correct translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.3 Processing Of Cultural Information '''<br /> <br /> As an intermediary of cultural exchange, the translator's main purpose is to promote the exchange of different cultures and reduce the cultural gap. Because the film subtitle in the process of translation is subject to many restrictions, for example, there are a large number of words with strong cultural color and some special language forms, and there are many gaps in the culture of different languages and nations and can not be replaced, so it increases the difficulty of film translation. For example, when translating puns, word games and proverbs, translators usually have to give up, which is actually a treason to the original film. <br /> <br /> There are three strategies to deal with cultural information in Subtitle Translation: first, the principle of cultural compensation. The principle of cultural compensation aims to preserve and introduce the cultural characteristics of foreign countries, so that the audience can understand the films of different languages and cultures. Second, adopt the principle of cultural transplantation. This principle can make subtitles more vivid, authentic and vivid. Translators need to discard the cultural characteristics of the source language and abide by the native language, so that subtitles can be easily understood and accepted by the target language audience. When neither of the two strategies is desirable, we can only use the third strategy, namely the principle of cultural coordination, which inevitably leads to the loss of cultural information in the source language and the target language. When dealing with the cultural information in subtitle translation, translators should pay attention to the combination of these three strategies with the film picture, and give full play to the illustrative and explanatory nature of the pictures, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Three Subtitle Translation Of &quot;Rejuvenation&quot; From The Perspective Of Multimodal Discourse Analysis ===<br /> <br /> ''' 3.1 A Brief Introduction of 'Benjamind Button' '''<br /> <br /> 'Benjamin Button', directed by the famous director David Finch is adapted from Fitzgerald's novel of the same name; the film tells the story of a strange Benjamin Barton who violates the laws of nature and is born in the image of an ancient and rare old man. As time goes by, he even lives more and more young. It is a story about the reversal of life.<br /> <br /> The following part will analyze the characteristics of subtitles and the translation strategies that should be adopted in the expression of the film from the cultural level, context level, content level and expression level of the multimodal theoretical framework.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2 Multimodal Translation in Movie Subtiles '''<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.1 On Cultural Level '''<br /> <br /> Under the influence of thinking patterns and habits, people have gradually formed a specific form of expression in which language can understand each other in communication. Therefore, it is particularly important whether the cultural factors in films are properly translated. Zhang Delu believes that &quot;the cultural level is the key level to make communication possible&quot;. In some cases, the source language and the target language can not be translated literally. Therefore, in the process of translating movie subtitles, we should not only keep the original features, that is, faithfulness, but also take into account the habitual language awareness of the target audience, that is, free translation strategies should be adopted to make the translation smooth and consistent Cultural characteristics of the target language.<br /> <br /> The English title of the film is ‘The Curious Case of Benjamin Button’, and a version is ‘本杰明·巴顿奇事’, but the translation of ‘返老还童’ has a larger audience. First of all, there is an English name in the title of Benjamin Button, which makes people feel the obscurity of the literal translation of foreign words. In Chinese, four character idioms or five or seven character quatrains or metrical poems are more catchy and easy to be accepted; Secondly, the title of &quot;rejuvenate&quot; is very suitable for the protagonist's inverted and retrograde life trajectory. In a word, it is very brilliant; Finally, the idiom ‘返老还童’ comes from ancient legends, which expresses people's desire for immortality and rejuvenation. Although it is a legend, modern people also want to be young and energetic, so the title of ‘返老还童’ can attract more audiences.<br /> In this film, there are many translation notes added to the translation, which will explain the cross-cultural ambiguity clearly. Although there are many translations, it is the best way to make the audience accept accurate information.<br /> <br /> When Daisy, the heroine, is old, she lies on the hospital bed and introduces the name of the Watchmaker: “they had the best clock maker in all of the south to build that glorious clock. His name was Mr. gateau Mr. Cake.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “还请来整个南方最好的钟表匠建了那座雄伟的大钟。那人叫盖图先生……蛋糕先生” (盖图/Gateau 在法语中是蛋糕之意)<br /> <br /> There is such a narration at the foundation laying ceremony of clocks and clocks: “Papa said there were people everywhere. Even Teddy · Roosevelt came.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “爸爸说，那天人山人海。连泰迪·罗斯福也来了( 西奥多·罗斯福，昵称泰迪美国第26 任总统)”<br /> <br /> In the above two examples, the comments added to the translation itself are in brackets. In the former example, &quot;Mr. cake&quot; suddenly appears. In the latter example, how President Roosevelt called &quot;Teddy Roosevelt&quot; will make the target language audience very puzzled. Although the use of annotations makes translation numerous, it is the best way for the audience to quickly obtain accurate information. The audience knows that gateau means &quot;cake&quot; in French, and Roosevelt has a nickname of &quot;Teddy&quot;.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.2 On Context Level '''<br /> <br /> In a specific context, communication is constrained by contextual factors (Zhang Delu, 2009). The context level elaborated by Zhang Delu includes discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. In order to express meaning or transmit information, subtitle and context jointly promote the development of film plot. Subtitle translation should be subject to context. In order to make subtitle translation not appear fault phenomenon, the film plot will advance naturally, and subtitle translation should also play a role of connecting the preceding and the following. In this way, in the process of translation, the translator should consider the contextual factors and pay attention to the smoothness and coherence of the translation within the sentence itself and between the sentences in the text.<br /> <br /> When describing Queenie's fertility problem, Queenie sees Benjamin's heart full of love. Her husband, Mr. Weathers, said: I know you ain't got all the parts it takes to make one of your own, but this ain't your to keep. At first it was certainly hard to understand the meaning of this sentence, but as the plot developed, Queenie prayed to the pastor for a son. After her pregnancy, she announced happily: “I had a miracle happen. The Lord saw fit to answer my prayer.” <br /> <br /> Little Daisy explained here: “ ‘I had a miracle happen’ means pregnancy.” （她有孩子了） In this way, the words said by Mr. Weathers was interpreted as: “我知道你没法有自己的孩子，可你也不能抚养这个。” Using free translation strategy, it is clear and faithful to the meaning of the source language, which makes the target language audience quickly know that Queenie likes children's characteristics and cares for Benjamin, an ugly ‘monster’.<br /> <br /> When Benjamin and Daisy are reunited in New York, Benjamin said: “I thought I'd come here and sweet you off your feet or something.” The phrase &quot;sweep you off your feet&quot; means &quot;to make you fall suddenly and deeply in love with you&quot;（让你倾倒）. Benjamin and Daisy were separated from each other for many years at that time. Daisy, who was living in the dance circle, was popular and desirable there. Benjamin went to New York to find daisy after burying his father. He was in a mixed mood. In fact, he wanted to find a friend to express his melancholy. Therefore, Benjamin did not go to find Daisy to &quot;fall in love&quot; with her but &quot;I thought I'd give you a big surprise when I came suddenly&quot;(我本以为我突然过来找你会给你一个大惊喜), which is very brilliant. This sentence is more suitable for the protagonist's situation by using free translation strategy.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.3 On Content Level '''<br /> <br /> The content level of Zhang Delu's expression includes discourse meaning level and form level. Discourse meaning is the conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning conveyed in language expression. In the film, subtitle is the narrator's narration and dialogue content. Film discourse requires the translator to accurately express the subtitle meaning to the audience. In the process of subtitle translation, some gas words, names and address terms can be omitted, which still does not affect the expression of discourse meaning.<br /> <br /> “Well, I know I don't have much to show for myself.”（我知道自己没有什么才能。） The omission of &quot;well&quot; does not affect the translation, but is more concise and can be understood more quickly.<br /> <br /> “You know, you may've got a few more years out of it, but you choose to do something so special and unique that there were only a short window of time you could do it.” Daisy was in the dance business, but she had an accident later. Some expressions here such as “a few more years out of it” ( 跳几年舞), “something so special and unique”( 事业太与众不同), “a short window of time” （几年黄金时间) have been dealt more concrete, so the whole sentence is translated as: “也许，你能多跳几年舞，可你的事业太与众不同了，只有几年的黄金时间可以发展。” <br /> <br /> As for its form, the formal features of different modes are interrelated and reflect the discourse meaning together (Zhang Fulu, 2009). The film system includes animation, pictures, music, language and other auditory and visual modes. Therefore, subtitles, together with listening and visual modes, work together to promote the expression of film meaning.<br /> <br /> For example, Benjamin and Daisy finally met and got together. They whispered in the yellow-glowed room:<br /> Daisy: “Will you still love me when my skin grows old and saggy?” ( 我要是成了黄脸婆你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> Benjamin: “Will you still love me when I have acne? When I wet the bed? When I'm afraid of what's under the stairs?” ( 等我老到脸上长满青春痘，老到尿床，老到连楼梯下有什么都怕，你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> The pictures, music and language all revealed the happy and loving life of the two people. In general, the film is based on the narration of a diary. In the film, the dialogue between the present and the narration in the diary is carried out alternately. In addition, the old pictures, the statement of time and the voice change of the narrator are used to make the past and the present change clearly and naturally, and they are applied in the formal level.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.4 On Expression Level '''<br /> <br /> Zhang Fulu believes that the expression level can be divided into language media and non-verbal media. In the language media level, he thinks that the main forms of meaning communication are sound symbols and writing symbols. For films, subtitles and subtitle translation belong to writing symbols. In the process of translating subtitles, translators should fully consider the media characteristics such as voice size, intonation strength, tone, font size and layout, which play a very important role in the expression of films. The subtitles of the film are at the bottom of the screen. Except for the notes, the translation takes up a little bit more space, and most of the subtitles in the source language and the target language occupy one line, which ensures that the audience has enough time to read the information. Non verbal media include communicators' body and nonverbal means (mainly tools and environment). Nowadays, with the progress of science and technology, movies can be played in cinemas, networks and various electronic media, and the media for appreciation is rich.<br /> <br /> Throughout the film, the dying old Daisy's tone is slow and strenuous on the bed. With the development of the story, light or heavy, a TV beside the bed broadcast the change of Hurricane weather activity, and the weather change also reflects Daisy's condition at that time.<br /> Finally, Daisy hugged Benjamin, a baby in her arms, and watched him invert the end of her life. The dying Daisy dictated in a low voice and intermittent tone: &quot;he looked at me and Iknow that he knew who I was.&quot;. (他看着我，那一刻，我知道他认出来了) The sound of the hurricane alarm suddenly sounded, sharp and obvious, and the picture of the staff of the hospital of traditional Chinese medicine was flustered, symbolizing that Benjamin's reversal clock was also washed away, and Daisy finally passed away. The sound, picture and words of the whole film are closely linked. It tells the story of eternal love, though limited in time, which is extremely shocking and thought-provoking.<br /> <br /> The translator of the film tries his best to translate various modes such as discourse, picture, sound and music. The translation strategy is mainly free translation, and the subtitle processing is simple and appropriate, so that the audience can have a good understanding of the limited time in the film, only the eternal knowledge of love. Taking the film subtitle of &quot;rejuvenation&quot; as an example, this paper analyzes the characteristics of subtitle translation from the aspects of culture, context, content and expression, hoping to better understand multimodal discourse analysis and free translation strategies in film subtitle translation.<br /> <br /> ='''Machine Translation'''=<br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory - A Case Study of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈永相 Chen Yongxiang&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine (hereinafter referred to as TCM), the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, boasts the favorable curative effect and a good reputation across the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative” and national economy, TCM has been playing an increasingly significant role in international trade, attracting more attention of foreign medical experts and consumers. As the essential attachment of a medicine, medicine instructions belong to the genre of practical writing, characterized by the unique language structure and stylistic features, guiding doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicines, such as usage and dosage, actions and indications, contraindication, etc. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. Due to the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, however, plenty of problems appear on the C-E translation of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> According to Adaptation Theory proposed by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. Translation is a cross-cultural communication activity, which involves language usage and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so on between source language and target language, and to adapt with different contexts, mentalities, cultures, etc. so as to achieve the ideal goal, from which the Adaptation Theory can be applied exactly into the study of translation. This paper will apply Adaptation Theory, therefore, as the theoretical framework, to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. Employing the core concepts and investigating aspects of Adaptation Theory, the author tries to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine instruction translation, Adaptation Theory, Yulin Pharmaceutical Company <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 中药是我国医药文化的瑰宝，有着良好的疗效和口碑。随着“一带一路倡议”的稳步推进和中国经济的平稳发展，中药药品在国际贸易中所占比重日益增加，得到了国外许多医疗专家和消费者的关注。药品说明书作为药品的重要附件，是一种实用文体，有其自身的语言结构和文体特点，能够指导医生与患者了解和熟悉药品作用、用法用量、适应症和禁忌等。而中医药品说明书英译作为中医英译的一个重要组成部分，其英译质量决定了药品能否被医生和患者正确理解和使用，以及中医药产品的国际贸易繁荣。然而，由于英语和汉语之间存在着不可避免的语言和文化差异，中医药品说明书英译依然存在着较大问题。<br /> <br /> 比利时语用学家维索尔伦提出的语言顺应论认为，语言的使用是一个不断作出选择和顺应的动态过程。翻译作为一项跨文化交际活动，需要在源语与目的语之间，就用词、翻译策略等方面进行选择，对不同语境、心理、文化等层面作出顺应。可见顺应论适用于翻译研究。因此本文以顺应论作为理论依据，通过对广西玉林制药公司中医药品说明书英译进行分析研究，运用顺应论的核心概念和研究视角，进一步探讨如何更好地翻译中医药品说明书。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 中医药品说明书翻译，顺应论，玉林制药公司<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''1.Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''1.1 Research Background of the Study'''====<br /> <br /> As the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, TCM has been through a profound history in China. Since “The Belt and Road Initiative” proposed for the first time, as an indispensable part in medical industry, TCM has tapped the potential of development opportunity to boost its reform so as to better make inroads into the international market. Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a renowned TCM pharmacy enterprise mainly engaged in R&amp;D, production and sales of Chinese medicines, one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties. In 2015, Consun Pharmaceutical Group Lt. has successfully brought partial share of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, which, in return, brought opportunities for the IPO and industrialization of the company. As the essential attachment of TCM medicine, the instructions guide doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicine correctly, which closely relates to consumer safety and are of great significance. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. The high quality translation versions of TCM instructions will accelerate TCM to enter into the international market, to occupy more competitive market share, and to better popularize the excellent TCM culture. <br /> <br /> ===='''1.2 Significance and Purpose of the Study'''==== <br /> <br /> It is noticed that studies and researches on TCM at home and abroad have boomed since the ancient Silk Road period. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from experts. Because of the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, a lot of problems appear on the translation of TCM instructions. And against such a backdrop, there are still no settled rules or translation standards to be applied and favored in the translation of TCM instructions, hence it’s quite essential to touch upon the area of C-E translation of TCM instructions in a more comprehensive and systematic way so as to find out more effective methods and strategies for the instruction translation. Adaptation Theory is proposed by Jef Verschueren, he thinks that language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation is a type of language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so forth between source language and target language. A good translation version of TCM instructions can appropriately guide both doctors and patients to understand the pharmacological functions, usage and dosage, actions and indications and contraindications of medicines. Therefore, the quality of instruction translation has a direct impact on whether TCM can be favored and obtained a good reputation among overseas medical industry and consumers. This paper studies the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, trying to take the Company as a case study to further discuss how to translate TCM instructions in a better way. <br /> <br /> ==='''2.Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 Features of TCM Instructions'''====<br /> <br /> Being the essential attachment of a medicine, the instruction contains important information that explains what the medicine is, how to take it and the effects after taking it, guiding doctors and patients to understand and use medicines properly. It closely relates to consumers’ safety. Thus, TCM instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. However, the information covered in most TCM instructions is drug name, ingredients, actions and indications, usage and dosage, while adverse effects, precautions, pharmacological effects, drug interaction, contraindications etc. are quite simple, even without any description of these items, failing to meet the requirement of international standards. <br /> <br /> Besides, due to the profound history of TCM developed in China, most of the unique TCM languages derived from the abstract philosophical concepts of ancient times remain being used until now, say, classical style and semi-classical style, which are accepted and favored by the TCM community, causing difficulties in translating them into English. And hence four-character structure, vagueness and ambiguity of the language, and no equivalence between Chinese and English are the main features of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> The four-character structure is concise but comprehensive in meaning, implying the extensive and abstract medical concepts of TCM. The tradition of using it to describe the symptoms and ways of treatment in TCM hasn’t been changed over time but continued to be applied and advocated in modern society. The TCM instructions are difficult to understand and translate, for the peculiar traits of TCM language, as well as the technical terms coming, directly or indirectly, from the abstract medical concepts of TCM, characterized by the unique treatment method as a whole in human body, and seeking to find answers and balance principles in nature to explain the causes and treatments of diseases, which is usually not the literal one but beyond cognition. In addition, there are gaps and non-equivalence between TCM and Western Medicine. Most TCM instruction translations apply technical terms from Latin in terms of ingredients, but adopt simple words and phrases for describing actions and indications, since the TCM language with Chinese characteristics finds no match in English. Ordinary people, as well as translators, who do not have the professional knowledge may have great difficulty in understanding and translating them. <br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Studies of TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine wasn’t legal once in the United States until 1975, as many scholars and experts were skeptical about its medical theory and way of treatment. Since the establishment of China, the government has been devoting great efforts to the recognition and popularization of TCM across the world. And from then on, a lot of studies and researches based on the translation of TCM have been published at home and abroad. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from the experts. In view of the special wording and the abstract theory of TCM, the translation of TCM instructions is of great difficulty and complexity. <br /> <br /> Currently, the translation of TCM instructions on the market, to a large extent, lacks readability and translation standards. Against such a backdrop, some scholars have striven to make some breakthroughs yet. Nigel Wiseman (2000) systematically elaborates the concept of “oriented by the source” in his dissertation, Translation of Chinese Medicine Terms: A Source Oriented Approach, in terms of the translation of TCM language, believing that the translation of TCM, as well as the instructions, should respect the original style and keep it in the target text as much as possible. In 2002, Translation of TCM Directions (《中医药说明书的英译》) written by Ouyang Lifeng (2002) put forward some practical methods for the translation of TCM instructions. He advocates “naturalization” and “readjustment”, namely, adaptation strategy, should be applied in translation, and if necessary, some additions and deletions are acceptable on the basis of faithfulness to the original text. Guided by Professor Ouyang, his student, Xiaoqiong, applies Peter Newmark’s Communicative Approach in her master’s thesis, On the Translation of TCM Booklets of Direction-The Communicative Approach (2008) to study the features of TCM instructions, suggesting that different approaches should be adopted regarding to different parts of the instructions. On translation Strategies of Chinese Medicine Instruction from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches written by Luo Haiyan (2009) conducts a relatively profound research under the guidance of Functionalist Approach in terms of each part of TCM instructions. She finds out the translation of TCM instructions is not very identical and comprehensible. Cao Qing’s thesis, A Study on Translation of Chinese Pharmaceutical Instruction (2011) states the common problems of translation instructions and advises three translation methods, namely literal translation, conversion and free translation under the Skopos Theory. There are still other scholars aiming at one aspect or another to further study the translation of TCM instructions, all of which exert a significant impact for references in translating TCM instructions. From the perspectives of Zhang Mengjing (1995), Ning Zhishou and Liu Cuiwei (1997), and Fu Wei (2006), the current TCM instruction translation lacks faithfulness, readability and incompatibility with conventional norms, suggesting that more attention should be paid in this field. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn from the above literature that studies on TCM instruction translation can be conducted from a wide scope. For the great distinction between western and Chinese culture, and the abstract medical principles of TCM, much has to be done to make the translation of TCM instructions more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> ==='''3.Adaptation Theory Applied in Traditional Chinese Medicine Instruction Translation of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company'''===<br /> <br /> From what has been mentioned above, as the important attachment of TCM, the instructions provide the correct and detailed medical information to doctors and consumers, guiding them to take medicine scientifically and properly, and hence the medicine instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. As one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a famous brand in the whole country, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties, and the buyout also boosts the process of IPO and reform. Through observation of the C-E translation instructions of TCM for foreigners and export, hence there are some certain instructive significance for the translation of TCM instructions. Because of the special characteristics of TCM instructions and the limited information included in the instructions of the company, this part tries to analyze the C-E translation instructions from the perspective of Adaptation Theory, mainly employing the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Contextual Correlates of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> As introduced earlier, according to Verschueren, the ingredients of contextual correlates of adaptability largely include the physical world, social world, and mental world. However, the author will mainly concentrates on the adaptation to the mental world and social world due to the limited materials collected. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.1 Adaptation to the Mental World'''=====<br /> <br /> Regarding the mental world, it involves the personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations, intentions and so on of both sides of language users. In the translation process, translators should take target readers’ mind into account, not just concentrating on personal mental world or literally translating the original text from one language to another language without any adaptation. <br /> <br /> Basically, consumers of drugs tend to rely on more renowned brands when facing a bunch of medicines displayed on the shelves. The key to attract their attention not only counts on the high quality of TCM, but also on the instructions with rigorous standards, concise specification and overall comprehensibility, delivering a sense of authority and credibility. <br /> <br /> To begin with, the name of drugs is the most direct information delivered to the consumers. Thus, a good name of the TCM can catch the eyes of buyers in the very beginning. “正骨水” is the most famous and important product of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, however, the translation of its name in the instruction simply applies transliteration and Chinese Pinyin, namely, “Zheng Gu Shui” , which fails to adapt with the mental world of target readers. Apparently, Pinyin isn’t the way of expression that they are familiar with. Translators should consider their mental expectation and make adaptation with their familiar ways of expression. In that point, “Bone-setting Liquor” would be a better name for the medicine. “Bone-setting” means the medicine is effective for the symptoms of bone problems, and “liquor” implies the ingredients involved alcohol and other irritating ingredients so that consumers can be aware of the precautions and avoid using it on fragile mucous membranes and anabrotic wounds. Also, the same type of medicine can apply the same way of translation, such as, “金装正骨水” can be translated to “Golden Bone-setting Liquor”, and “极品正骨水” is rendered as “Superb Bone-setting Liquor”. Such a name conveys the correct medical information to consumers and better adapt to their thinking patterns. <br /> <br /> Another example is “睡安胶囊”, the translation version is “Shui’an Jiaonang” . Obviously, it will confuse foreigners since they don’t recognize Chinese Pinyin in their cognitive levels. Translators should at least use “capsule” to indicate the medicine is some type of capsules effective for the sleeping problems. A well-recognized name will arouse attention and interest among consumers, attracting them to purchase the medicine. In order to adapt with their mental expectation and intention, as Ouyang (2002) advocates, naturalization or domesticating translation can be applied in translation. “Sleep Mate” or “Insomnia Killer” can better attract their attention and adapt with their beliefs and cognitive levels. In English, “mate” is a common word, which will be more acceptable and natural in such combination, and “killer” combined with “insomnia” implies the meaning of solving the insomnia problems, which is also more suitable and adaptable with their emotions and motivations. <br /> <br /> A good name of the medicine can not only imply the function of the medicine, conveying the essential information to customers, but also can draw their attention and arouse their desires to purchase the medicine. Meeting the demand and preference with the mental world of target people is also one of the requirements of medicine instructions. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, if transliteration or simply adopting Chinese Pinyin to translate the names of medicines will confuse customers and cause misunderstanding, adaptation is required, and not just words, but also translation strategies should be taken consideration when making adaptation. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.2 Adaptation to the Social World'''=====<br /> <br /> Verschueren (2000:91) states that there is no principled limit to the range of social factors that linguistic choices are inter-adaptable with. Basically, social settings and culture play a significant role in the process of translation. What distinguishes TCM from Western Medicine mainly lies on the cultural differences. Language is the carrier of culture, and the cultural differences can be embodied in different languages, and then shown and reflected in society. Instruction translation, as the cross-cultural communication activity, is influenced largely by cultural differences in different social worlds. Followings are the very typical translation examples to illustrate the point:<br /> <br /> Example 1(感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> Source Text (ST): 用于感冒或流感发热，头痛鼻塞, 伤风咳嗽，咽痛，肢痛<br /> <br /> Target Text (TT): Used for the treatment of cold, flu and fever, headache and nasal congestion, wind damage cough, angina and melalgia<br /> <br /> Revised Text (RT): Used for cold, flu, fever, headache, snuffle, cough, sore throat and pain in muscles<br /> <br /> Traditionally, “伤风” in Chinese means getting cold because of the invasion of “风” into the human body. “风” is actually one of the six exogenous pathogenic factors according to the medical theory of TCM, which cannot be explained from the perspective of Western Medicine. In western society, people have no concept that the natural phenomenon, say, “风” or “火”, will cause diseases in the human body. So the revised text deletes this term with TCM characteristics to avoid ambiguity and makes it more natural and understandable in English. In addition, most common patients who seek to buy medicines in pharmacies might not have the specific knowledge of medical field due to different social settings and backgrounds, thus, “angina” and “melalgia” might be beyond recognition and acceptance. Western world highlights the importance of brevity and conciseness in their society, and they place emphasis on simplification and efficiency, seldom using the very technical terms in their lives. Such social settings and cultural differences must be considered so as to make adaptation when translating. Besides, “nasal congestion” is the word-for-word translation and may cause misunderstanding among foreigners. So the revised text adopts “snuffle” and “sore throat” to indicate the meaning of “鼻塞” and “咽痛”, applying these simple words to make adaptation with cultural differences in different social worlds, and renders “melalgia” into “pain in muscles” to better deliver the meaning of “肢痛”. <br /> <br /> Example 2 (治咳枇杷露)<br /> <br /> ST: 治疗儿童伤风呃逆，咳嗽痰盛<br /> <br /> TT: Used for children’s wind-damage hiccup, cough and exuberant phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Used for cold, hiccup, cough and sputum in children<br /> <br /> Similarly, example 2 also translates “ 伤风” into “ wind damage”, which is not appropriate in such description. As mentioned above, additions and deletions, if necessary, can be applied to make adaptation in translation. So the revised text deletes “wind damage” and “exuberant phlegm”, adopting noun coordination and making it more readable and adaptable to the social world of target readers. <br /> <br /> Literal translation of instructions is not always the first option in the C-E translation of instructions. For translators, the first thing they should consider is to be faithful to the original meaning of the text, not the text itself. They need to make adaptation to the target readers’ social world, for instance, social status, social settings, social background, cultural differences, etc., striving to make the translation concise and easy to understand in their society. Amid such different social worlds, translators must bear in mind to render localization of different cultures to make adaptation without causing ambiguity and misunderstanding while successfully keeping and delivering the implied meanings as much as possible.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:26, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 Structural Objects of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translationn'''====<br /> <br /> According to Verschueren, linguistic choice-making takes place at all levels of structure that shows variability of any kind (2000:15). As indicated in Part two, for the reason of limited information covered in the TCM instructions, the materials collected from the company would be more meaningful if concentrating on the lexical level of the actions and indications of the instructions, which exactly features the typical four-character structure and language traits of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.1 Adaptation to the Lexical Level'''=====<br /> <br /> Differences in lexical level between TCM and Western Medicine largely reflect on terminologies and descriptions of diseases. The four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning. Currently, most translation versions of instructions are literally word-for-word translation and transliteration, failing to deliver the correct meanings implied in those TCM terminologies and words and lacking readability and authenticity. Here are some typical translation examples of the actions and indications of the medicines in Yulin Pharmaceutical Company:<br /> <br /> Example 3(蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 小便频数<br /> <br /> TT: Frequent urination<br /> <br /> Example 4 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 祛风除湿 <br /> <br /> TT: Dispel wind and eliminated dampness<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve rheumatic pain<br /> <br /> Example 5 (珍黄丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 消肿止痛<br /> <br /> TT: Ease a swelling and relieve pain<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve swelling pain<br /> <br /> Chinese four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning, and most of them are the causal relationship. &quot;祛风除湿&quot; is a typical example. “风湿” is a disease caused by the invasion of “风” into the human body, if &quot;风邪&quot; cannot be removed from the body soon, &quot;湿&quot; will appear and gather together near the joints, causing diseases and pains in joints according to the medical theory of TCM. So, &quot;祛风&quot; is actually the result of &quot;除湿&quot;, and vice versa. And the example of “消肿止痛”, it is usually can be explained that pain is caused by swelling as the result of illness or injury. Once the swelling disappears, so does the pain. According to the example 3, &quot;小便频数&quot; is translated into “Frequent urination”, using the structure of &quot;adjective+noun&quot; in English, which is concise in form and easy to understand. So the revised text of example 4 and 5 can also adopt such structure and translate into &quot;Relieve rheumatic pain&quot; and &quot;Relieve swelling pain&quot;, not only implying the causal relationship between the lines, concise and simple, but also avoiding translating repetitive meaning. <br /> <br /> Example 6 (感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> ST: 止咳化痰<br /> <br /> TT: Suppress cough and transform phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve cough and sputum<br /> <br /> Example 7 (乌军治胆片)<br /> <br /> ST: 疏肝解郁 <br /> <br /> TT: To course the liver and resolve depression<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve Qi stagnation in liver<br /> <br /> From the above two examples, &quot;止咳化痰&quot; is translated into &quot;Suppress cough and transform phlegm&quot;, and &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is “To course the liver and resolve depression”. It is noticed that simply employing the literal meaning of words to translate TCM instructions doesn’t work, especially in such medical context. Translators cannot ignore the relationship between the words and the context then make translation of words in isolation. &quot;化痰' means the symptom of sputum would be relieved and cured soon after taking the medicine, and hence here, the key words are &quot;咳&quot; and &quot;痰&quot;, not the verbs. So the translation of &quot;Relieve cough and sputum&quot; would be more comprehensible and readable. And the example of &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is actually another one that can be evidenced the casual relationship in TCM language. &quot;疏&quot; and &quot;解&quot; deliver the same meaning in such context, and &quot;肝郁&quot; is not the meaning of &quot;depression of liver&quot; but the irregular circulation and stagnation of the abstract &quot;Qi&quot; in liver from the perspective of TCM. So translating into &quot;Relieve Qi stagnation in liver&quot; retains the original meaning of Chinese and makes it more acceptable. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.2 Summary'''=====<br /> <br /> Despite of the characteristics of four-character structure in TCM language, the phenomenon of repetitive meaning implied between the lines is quite common. For translators, they should fully understand what meanings indicated between those words and phrases prior to translating them into another language. According to Adaptation Theory, language has the properties of variability, negotiability and adaptability. Facing abundant choices of words in English, translators should choose the most appropriate words and expressions after negotiation to make adaptation to the lexical level, the structure, the context, etc. preferred in English.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, translators should make linguistic choices not just at the lexical level, but also the syntactic level, textual level, rhetorical level etc. literally all levels of linguistic structures. Due to the limited information contained in TCM instructions of the company, this part mainly develops from the adaptation of lexical level, finding out that most translations apply literal translation with abusive usage of words, failing to deliver the correct meaning implied in TCM language and lacking readability and authenticity.<br /> <br /> With the great progresses of TCM over years, Yin(阴) and Yang(阳), Wuxing(五行) and Qi(气), these basic concepts in TCM have been accepted and recognized among foreigners. It can be adopted directly when translating the TCM instructions. With regard to the verbs in TCM language, literal translation sometimes might arouse skepticism and confusion of target readers and fail to deliver the correct meaning and the effectiveness of medicines. Translators should adapt the wording preference in target language and try to naturalize the translation but avoid abusive usage of words. Thus translators in this field should be equipped with excellent bilingual ability, sufficient background knowledge of TCM and Western Medicine, and the understanding of linguistics.<br /> <br /> ===='''3.3 Dynamics of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> As stated above, translation is a process of dynamic adaptation and involves the process of structural reconstruction and meaning regeneration. According to Verschueren (2000:157) “...strategies are always involved in any type of communication.” It means not just linguistic choices, but also translation strategies are dynamic because of different time, context and structure of both sides of language usage and each of them varies in line with relative factors when language users make choices. <br /> <br /> The dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation can be embodied from different words, phrases and translation strategies, even different languages applied in the medicine instructions. As for the part of ingredients, the instructions of the company employ Latin to indicate each TCM, for instance: Radix Notoginseng (三七), Herba Artemisiae Scopariae (茵陈), Fructus Lycii (枸杞), Poria (茯苓), Radix Codonopsis (党参), Rhizoma Dioscoreae (山药). It is usually the part where doctors and experts who have the specific knowledge of this field would be interested in, and using Latin to translate the TCM is the international standard of naming medicines, hence it is a way of adaptation. While next to the part of actions and indications, it resorts to different words and phrases in English to describe the indications of each medicine. English is apparently a better option for its universality and compatibility that common people can easily understand what the medicine is, and how to take it. Such adaptation to each part of the instruction in language shows the dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation. Following are some examples to show the dynamics of adaptability in translation: <br /> <br /> Example 8 (正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To remove obstruction from collateralls and channels and relieve muscular contracture<br /> <br /> Example 9 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To relax and activate tendons<br /> <br /> As for the translation of “舒筋活络”, example 8 and example 9 employ different words to deliver the meaning. The former is detailed and elaborated, delivering the original meaning implied in the lines while the latter is relatively simple, only using “tendons” to express the meaning of “筋络”. Besides the different specifications of “正骨水” and “金装正骨水”, the ingredients of these two medicines also show a wide difference, contributing to the different words and methods adopted in the same description of indications. From the above examples, it can be noticed, to some extent, that translators go through negotiation and then make dynamic adaptation with regard to different medicines. <br /> <br /> Example 10 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 旺盛局部血液循环, 增强细胞活力<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen partial blood circulation and improve vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 11 (筋骨王)<br /> <br /> ST: 改善局部血液循环，增强细胞活力。<br /> <br /> TT: To accelerate local blood circulation, increase vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 10 and example 11 are actually delivering the same meaning, but they change the words and phrases to adapt with two different medicines. With the variability and adaptability of language, the meaning of “增强” can be expressed by “improve” and “increase”, and translators employs “partial” and “local” to express the meaning of “局部”. As for the similar actions and indications, the translations of which vary in different medicines, demonstrating that translation is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. <br /> <br /> Example 12 (睡安胶囊)<br /> <br /> ST: 清心除烦<br /> <br /> TT: To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation<br /> <br /> Example 13 (蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 壮阳益肾<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney<br /> <br /> Example 12 and example 13 apply free translation to deliver the meaning of actions and indications of these two medicines. “清心除烦” is rendered into “To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation”, and “To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney” is more like the paraphrase of “壮阳益肾”. Both the translations are much easier to understand and adapt to consumers’ mind in a better way. Unlike the others, the above translations avoid literal translation, which will be too demanding and abstract for both sides of translators and target people, and they resort to free translation to convey the correct pharmacological actions, simplifying the instructions and making adaptation with the translation strategies to better resolve the cultural differences. <br /> <br /> Translating a TCM instruction can never be a mechanical activity of making translation from one language to another; rather, it entails dynamic adaptation to the differences between source language and target language. According to the Adaptation Theory, language use is a dynamic process of linguistic choice-making, which should adapt to contextual correlates and structural objects of language. As a type of more complex language use related to different languages, C-E translation of TCM instructions is a dynamic process of adaptation to different contexts and linguistic structures. However, the dynamic linguistic choices require language users to go through negotiation with themselves when facing abundant choices to eventually choose the most appropriate forms and strategies in accordance with different contexts and linguistic structures so as to fulfill the communicative intention. In other words, translators should avoid abusive usage of variability and adaptability of language, being faithful to the original meaning of texts to meet the standard of translation as much as possible.<br /> <br /> ==='''4.Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Being a significant carrier of TCM information, the instruction is a bridge that links the excellent TCM theories and effectiveness to the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative”, TCM will be learned and used across the world at a much larger scale. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, this paper employs the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, mainly concentrating on the adaptation to the mental world, social world, and the adaptation to the lexical level to study the C-E translation of the TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn that the C-E translation of TCM instructions of the Company is not that satisfactory after research. It doesn’t deal with the cultural differences between TCM and Western Medicine properly. Literal translation and abusive usage of words frequently appear in the C-E translation of instructions, failing to deliver the correct meaning and lacking readability and credibility, having a bad impact on the brand image. While at same time, there are some places worthy to be praised from the perspective of Adaptation Theory. It shows the dynamics of adaptability in the C-E translation of TCM instructions, which can be demonstrated through the various words, phrases, strategies applied in the process of translation. Still, much work has to be done to improve the quality of translation and make it more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, as a way of language use, translation involves the continuous making of linguistic choices. Not only words, language forms and structures, but also strategies should be taken into consideration when translating. Translators should adapt with the differences between English and Chinese, and meanwhile, pay attention to the features of TCM instructions, avoiding some obvious mistakes to achieve the ultimate goal of keeping the original meaning of TCM while delivering the accurate and rigorous medical information to foreigners. So the author advocates that adaptation is required during the process of translation, combined with transliteration and literal translation for some simple and basic concepts in TCM that have been well-recognized by foreigners, free translation and domesticating translation should be adopted with regard to the cultural differences in translation, if necessary, additions and deletions are also appreciated on the basis of being faithful to the original meaning of texts. <br /> <br /> Unfortunately, due to the limited materials collected and the incompetence of the author, the analysis of this paper only applies the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability of Adaptation Theory, failing to study in a more comprehensive way. In addition, this paper only conducts the research in studying the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, failing to reach at a larger scale. Last but not least, there are still some drawbacks and imperfections in Adaptation Theory, which the author fails to touch upon for lacking of knowledge and experience. Still, the author is willing to take all comment and advice.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1] As Homby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [Z]. The Commercial Press, Oxford University, extended eighth edition, 2014. <br /> <br /> [2] Bhatia, V. K. Analyzing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings [M]. London: Longman, 1993. <br /> <br /> [3] Carl James. Error in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [4] Fischbach, Henry. Translation and Medicine [M]. American Translators Association Scholarly Monograph Series, 1998. <br /> <br /> [5] Nigel Wiseman. Translation of Chinese medicine terms: A source oriented approach [D].University of Exeter, 2000. <br /> <br /> [6] Verschueren J. 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London: Edward Arnold Ltd., 1999;Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000. <br /> <br /> [8] 曹情. 中文药品说明书的翻译[D]. 湖南：南华大学, 2011. <br /> <br /> [9] 傅微. 语篇视点理论在中药说明书翻译中的运用[D]. 广西：广西大学外国语学院,2006. <br /> <br /> [10] 罗海燕. 功能主义翻译理论关照下的中药说明书的翻译[D]. 江苏：南京中医药大学, 2009. <br /> <br /> [11] 李照国. 中医基本名词术语英译国际标准化研究[M]. 上海科学技术出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> [12] 马邦新. 英文药品说明书的翻译[J]. 中国科技翻译, 1998(3): 16-18. <br /> <br /> [13] 宁之寿, 刘翠微. 也谈药品说明书的翻译[J]. 上海科技翻译, 1997(2): 31-33. <br /> <br /> [14] 欧阳利锋. 中医药说明书的英译[J]. 中国科技翻译, 2002, 15(2): 17-20. <br /> <br /> [15] 宋志平. 翻译:选择与顺应——语用顺应论视角下的翻译研究[J]. 中国翻译,2004(2): 21-25. <br /> <br /> [16] 肖琼. 中医药说明书的翻译[D]. 广东：广东外语外贸大学, 2008.<br /> <br /> [17] 袁斌业. 语言顺应论对翻译的启示[J]. 四川外国语学院院报, 2009(9), 111-113. <br /> <br /> [18] 张梦井. 药品说明书的英译问题[J]. 中国科技翻译, 1995(2): 6-9. <br /> <br /> [19] 周书梅. 顺应论视角下的翻译研究[J]. 山东省农业管理干部学院学报, 2013, 30(5): 138-140. <br /> <br /> --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602==<br /> &lt;center&gt;莫玲 Mo Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Science and technology constitutes a primary productive force. In the contemporary era, with the continuous development of science and technology, artificial intelligence has shown more and more mighty strength, and machine translation has also been derived in the field of translation. In this regard, many people are beginning to worry that machine translation will one day replace human translation. When it comes to me, science and technology is people-oriented, and the continuous development of it aims at servimg mankind in a better standard. Therefore, it is not realistic to separate science and technology from humanities. The appropriate way to solve this dilemma is to integrate the two to achieve the perfectly qualitative change of &quot;1 + 1 &gt; 2&quot;. This paper will first analyze the cons and pros of human translation and machine translation, and then explore the development of computer-aided translation based on the combination of the two types above and the progress should be made in different sectors among our society.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Human Translation, Machine Translation, CAT, Compatibility<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 机器翻译会取代人工翻译吗？<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 科技是第一生产力。在当代，随着科学技术的不断发展，人工智能展现出越来越强大的实力，在翻译领域也相应地衍生出了机器翻译。对此许多人都开始担心机器翻译终有一天会取代人工翻译。在笔者看来，科技以人为本，科学技术的不断发展是为了更好的为人类服务。因而将科技与人文割裂开来的观点是并不现实的，最好的解决办法应是将二者结合起来，实现1+1＞2的完美质变。本文将分析人工翻译与机器翻译各自的优势和劣势，进而探讨二者相结合的后的计算机辅助翻译的发展和社会各个层面应该做出的改进。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 人工翻译，机器翻译，计算机辅助翻译，融合<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> In these years, artificial intelligence has experienced a skipping development and more and more advanced technologies have been applied in our daily life. For example, many factories have introduced some robots to replace the repetitive works done by ordinary workers before. In addition, some restaurants have adopted robots to send the dishes to guests, etc. More and more cases in our life demonstrate the gigantic strength of science and technology. Panicked by this reality, a constantly growing number of people are worrying that they will lose their job one day when the artificial intelligence are more practical than them. This anxiety is also quite common in translation industry. In this field , human translation and machine translation are the two main kinds of translation methods. The former merely relies on the single person to do tranlation, while the latter is based on the vast corpus and developed technique. Since this enormous contrast, some people put forward a question that “Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation?” The answer is absolutely “no”. Actually, these two approaches are not incompatible. Instead, they both have their own advantages and disadvantages and through analysis,we can find that they can remedy their shortbacks by learning the valuable aspects from the other so as to form a “perfect pitch”. In other words,they are complementary to each other. <br /> <br /> Based on these viewpoints, first of all , the pros and cons of human translation and machine translation will be displayed one by one and then the new type of translation---computer-aided translation will be analyzed in detail. At last,confronted with the constantly changing world there are somes personal suggestions for those who work in the translation industry or those who are preparing to march into this field as well as government, colleges and universities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Pros and Cons of Human Translation and Machine Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Human Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 The Advantages =====<br /> <br /> As the traditional main force of translation, mankind own some irreplaceable edges. <br /> <br /> Firstly, they master a sordid foundation about the translation work, including extensive vocabularies, complex grammars, the construction of sentences and so on and so forth. Therefore, it’s hardly for them to make such mistakes.<br /> <br /> Secondly, due to the advanced education they have received, a great number of them has an encyclopedic knowledge about many fileds. Furthmore, during the years of learning foreign languages, they have acquired not only the language knowledge but also the histories and cultures of these countries so that they are able to handle with the problems of cultural differences in translation very well.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, people have an capacity of rich emotion and thoughtful mind. When facing with some obscure translation materials, at the beginning they will make a transformation about it and then translate it with their understanding yet maintaining the main idea of the original texts. <br /> <br /> What is more, people are able to summarize the experiences and lessons in the process of translation and then form their own theory. Until now, there have existed a bunch of translation theories to guide the subsequent translators. Such as “faithfulness”(translation should convey the content of the original faithfully and accurately), “expressiveness”(smooth and fluent translation) and “elegance”(the translation should be exquisite) by Yanfu, &quot;functional equivalence&quot; by Eugene Nida, skopos theory by Hans Vermeer, etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Disadvantages=====<br /> <br /> However, the volume of brain is limited and it is impossible for mankind to memorize all the things in the world. Sometimes, they may forget what they have translated and in result cause a repetition of the same work they have done before.<br /> <br /> It is showed from some data that the output of human translation is 2000 words per person in eight hours. Actually that speed is a little bit slow especially when there are strenuous tasks waiting for them. Besides, editors have to check and revise their translations which is quite time-wasting.(Chen Yi 2018,30)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most translators work for governments, institutions, companies or some rich indivuduals. And right now in the translation market ,the standard price are several hundred Yuan per thousand characters. And the wage of intepreting is even more expensive. As a result, ordinary people won’t bother to hire a private translator. Under some circumstances, human translation can’t give a hand to the needed immediately. For instance, when Chinese people are travelling in the foreign countries, they can’t understand the words of those foreigners. At that time, an opportune and cheap translation tool is more desirable.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Machine Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Superiorities=====<br /> <br /> In the condition mentioned above, machine translation can meet tourists' needs perfectly. There are many translation applications in the app store, just like Baidu Translation, Google Translation, Youdao Translation, Hujiang Translation and so on. All of them are free for using and able to translate the language you input in just 1 second. And these applications have covered dozens of foreign languages so as to be the optimizing choice for many people. <br /> <br /> Besides the adoptation in daily life, machine translation has also been utilized in some important conferences. &quot;Translation headset&quot; is one of the most popular translation tools. It is usually combined with a smartphone application to translate the foreign language it heard to users. &quot;After decades of research, we have created an algorithmic framework to recognize language patterns in the same way as the human brain (neural network),&quot; said Andrew Ochoa, CEO of Waverly labs. By combining it with speech recognition technology, we have greatly improved the accuracy of translation. &quot; Therefore, Wearable translation machines made by companies like Waverly labs are really popular at conferences(Global Collections 2020,17).<br /> <br /> With the development of science and technology as well as the artificial intelligence, the system of machine translation has been polished step by step. Nowadays, it has built a huge corpus which contains tens of millions of storations, and translation with high accuracy can be available in some non-literary texts. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 The Inferiorities=====<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, a lot of noticeable defects still remain in machine translation. When it comes to the literary genres just like proses, poems and ancient essays, machine translation is not familiar with the language habits of these genres so as to incline to a failure in comprehending the latent meaning of the words thus nor it can work out an outstanding translation. In most cases it will adopt the method of literal translation, which is a confusing version, which can not express the idea of source language and the images in it can be missed. Take the following poem for example:<br /> <br /> 江雪<br /> <br /> 唐 柳宗元<br /> <br /> 千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br /> <br /> 孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。<br /> <br /> '''Version of Baidu Translation'''<br /> <br /> River Snow<br /> <br /> Birds flying away,<br /> <br /> The trail of thousands of people;<br /> <br /> A lone boat with a straw hat,<br /> <br /> Fishing alone in cold river snow.<br /> <br /> '''Version of Xu Yuanchong'''<br /> <br /> Fishing in snow<br /> <br /> From hill to hill no bird in flight,<br /> <br /> From path to path no man in sight;<br /> <br /> A lonely fisherman afloat<br /> <br /> Is fishing snow in lonely boat.<br /> <br /> Between these two versions, we can easily identify which one is better. In Xu’s translation, he translates “鸟飞绝” &amp;“人踪灭”into “no bird in flight” and “no man in sight”, which get rid of the form of the original text, not only expressing the deep meaning, but also conforming to the English expression habit. In addition, due to the repetition of two sentences in the same pattern, readers can feel a strong sense of monotony. And The most splendid point is the rhyme of first two sentences and last two sentences, which makes the whole poem cathy and add the musical beauty of the translation. On the contrast, the first version by machine is inferior in that it fails to express the artistic conception of the poem. People can’t feel the beauty descriped in the poem. What’s worse, some readers may puzzle about its imcomplete images and incoherent sentences!(Dong Wugang &amp; Xue Jiabao 1996, 56)<br /> <br /> Nor is this all, machines can’t grasp the rich emotions of mankind. Thus they incline to misundersand of tone and deep meaning of the words(Liang Jie 2020,18). Nay, China has a broad and profound civilization and there are numerous of polysemous words in Chinese.Just like “意思”and “方便”.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> <br /> When Zhang San send money to his leader, an interesting dialogue occurs between them. Please explain the different meanings of “意思”in the following sentences.<br /> <br /> 领导(leader)：“你这是什么意思？”(Why do you send me money?)<br /> <br /> 张三(Zhang San)：“没什么意思，意思意思。”(No special purpose, just a small gift.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这就不够意思了。” (Why don’t you tell me your true purpose?)<br /> <br /> 张三：“小意思，小意思。”(Not a big deal.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这人真有意思。” (It’s so interesting of you.)<br /> <br /> 张三：“其实也没有别的意思。”(I don’t have other special intentions on you.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“那我就不好意思了。”(Well, since that, I will accept your money.)<br /> <br /> Apparently, it may even be difficult for some people to get the deep meaning behind this dialogue let alone the senseless machine. Machine translation derived from science and technology are always under the control of human beings, they are always working under the manipulation of humanbeings. Mankind possess an intelligible brain and they can cteate new things according to their needs and imaginations. While machine can not achieve the rich creativity as human brain.<br /> <br /> From all the analysis above, it can be easily seen that human translation and machine translation are strongly complementary. Thus, the best way is to combine them together to learn from the other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies.<br /> <br /> ====3. Computer-Aided Translation====<br /> <br /> To meet the constantly-increasing demand of the market, a new type of translation method named Computer-aided translation (CAT) emerges at the right moment. It is the combination of the two translation methods mentioned above and can help translators complete the translation work with high quality, efficiency and ease. Different from the previous machine translation software, it does not rely on the automatic translation of the computer, but accomplishes the whole translation process with the participation of human beings. Besides, its translation speed can be twice of the human translation, with the quality being the same standard or better. CAT makes a change from the arduous human translation to an automatic process, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Preponderance of This Method====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Translation Memory=====<br /> <br /> Translation memory system, the main tool of computer-aided translation, is a &quot;language database storing the original text and its translation&quot;. During the time when people are working out a translation, CAT are also constructing a translation memory corpus in the backstage. The corpus can automatically store all the translated content. What contributes to our great convenience is that the translation memory system will automatically search the contents in the translation memory database in the later translation. The system will automatically output the translation results if the contents are the same as the sentences and language fragments in the memory corpus; and if the structures or vocabularies of the materials are similar to the sentences in the translation memory database, it will also show corresponding translation references and suggestions. In a word, translation memory system can benifit translators to utilize the contents of previous translation effectively and avoid repeated work, thus greatly improving the speed and quality of translation and saving translation time. According to the statistics, the application of translation memory system can increase the average productivity by 30%, and reduce the translation cost by 15-30%(Chen Yi 2018,31).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Terminology Database=====<br /> <br /> When stepping into the translation industry and becoming a professional translator. It is inevitable that people will be confronted with materials from various fields, just like iatrology, law and science. All of these industries have a great number of terminologies. While human’s brain are limited that they can’t remember all the terms. Under this condition, a ready-made terminology database can be extremely helpful.<br /> <br /> Terminology management system provides a shortcut for translators to automatically search for terms appearing in the translation materials by displaying terms in the interface window of translation memory database or using hotkeys to search the entries in terminology database. Some programs have other hotkey combinations that enable translators to add new terms to the terminology database at the same time during translation. Some more advanced systems allow translators to check interactively or in batch if the correct source / target word combination is used within and between translation memory fragments of a given project. There is also an independent term management system, which can provide workflow functions, visual taxonomy, and be used as a term Checker (similar to a spelling checker to mark terms that are not used correctly), and can also support other types of multilingual term categories, such as pictures, videos or sounds(Global Encyclopedia).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Revise and Automatic Alignment=====<br /> <br /> After translators finish their task on CAT system, it will scan the translation and figure out the numbers of mistakes including spelling, punctuation and so on. This proofeading can make one’s translation more accurate. In addition, the aligner can divide the source text and the target text into multiple fragments and make sure the right match of them so as to build a translation memory database or other reference resources. Many aligners also enable translators to manually realign mismatched fragments (Global Encyclopedia).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Current Situation====<br /> <br /> Right now, due to the tremendous market demand, CAT steps into the golden era of development. There are several popular CAT softwares such as Trados、Déjà V、TransStar、IBM Translation Manager、WordFisher、Wordfast，OmegaT, among which the most famous is the first one. Theses softwares have experienced a long period of development and are relatively mature. They make the translation progress much more convenient than before. However, CAT is not yet a consummate system right now. It has a few drawbacks to be solved. To begin with, CAT is insufficient in the construction of the corpus. Right now, most domestic CAT softwares only restore hundreds of thousands of entries in the database, which is far from enough to meet the needs of translators. In a result, many people gradually emerge the idea that CAT is not workable. People still have to rely on themselves to search the complicated documents and their work are not able to decrease as they want. Nor is this all, sometimes it can be hard for people to extract the terms they need becauese of the failure of identification and although some easy mistakes can be found out, it may be difficult for the system to check out the sophisticated errors, thus people have to spend more time to tackle with the problems in person. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Prospect====<br /> <br /> Despite of the insufficiency of CAT right now, the defects can’t obscure the virtues. CAT has greatly emancipated the productivity of translation industry. Not only that, it has played an important role in reducing translation time, cutting down labor costs, standardizing translation documents, maintaining terminology consistency and ensuring translation quality, etc. In the near future, it is bound to become the main trend of translation development with its wide application all over the world and the functional improvement of various translation software. And the problems mentioned above can be effectively polished with the advancement of science and technology.(Chen Yi 2018,32)<br /> <br /> ===4. Suggestions===<br /> <br /> Facing with the unstoppable trend of artificial intelligence and CAT, should mankind repulse it or accept it? Apparently, the second attitude is more reasonable. For one thing, we can’t hinder the inexorable trend. For another thing, this is a good opportunity for people to utilize the tool to improve themselves.<br /> <br /> So, first and foremost, people should set up an open attitude, accepting CAT with an embracing mentality. It is no need to be afraid that machine will surpass human. Instead mankind is always the master of science and technology. Putting oneself on a pedestal is not a good way to make progress. And holding fast to one’s established ideas will eventually be sifted out by the era. In Qing Dynasty(1636-1912), the emperor and even the whole country praised the nation as the great kingdom. Since ancient time, China was abundant in natural resources and they were self-sufficient and self-contained. Thus the government constantly puesued a policy of “cutting off the country from the outside world”. At that time, the Western countries were going on an unprececedentedly industrial revolution. Through the renovation, the westerners immensely improved their productive forces and their countries got a rapid development. When the trend were heard by the Chinese emperor, they disdained to learn from the technology and regarded it as a diabolic trick. In this way, the gap between the East and the West was larger and larger. It was not until the breaking of the Opium War that Chinese people realized they have lagged behind a lot. Once a country was backward, it would be insulted by anyone else. After that, the Qing government was constantly forced to sign treaties of humiliating the country and forfeiting its sovereignty. The citizens were plunged into dire suffering. Under this circumstance, social conflicts intensified. Finally, the revolution of 1911 broke out and overthrew the Qing Dynasty. A feudal dynasty of more than 200 years fell down. Since the principle that lagging behind leaves one vulnerable to attacks is even applicable to a country, let alone the ordinary people. There is an old saying that “He who goes with the tide prospers, and he who goes against it dies”. The power of science and technology should never be looked down upon. The original purpose of this is to benifit the mankind rather than overthrow us. It is a powerful tool to help us scale new heights. If tranlators refuse to acquire the new skill, they will one day be weeded out by the industry.<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of market, the quality of translation talents should be improved accordingly. The span for talent training of translation majors in China is relatively short that it has only been 10 years since the establishment of Bachelor of Translation and Interpreting(BTI) and Master of Translation and Interpreting(MTI) in Colleges and universities across the country. The current situation of translation technology education in the cultivation of translation professionals is not optimistic either. First of all, compared with foreign universities and domestic universities in Hongkong, Macao and Taiwan, there is still a long way to open translation technology courses in domestic universities. According to the research by Lv Lisong and Mu Lei(2007,37), universities in Hong Kong and Taiwan of China work closely with translation companies to provide translation technology teaching for students. However, Manchester, London University, Ottawa University of Canada and other foreign universities have established a developed system in terms of machine translation, terminology management, translation technology training curriculum, personnel training mode and translation testing, and formed an effective model. On the contrary, many domestic colleges and universities still do not pay enough attention to translation technology education, which leads to the failure of translation technology education courses in some colleges and universities. A survey of 12 universities in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Chongqing, Liaoning, Jilin, Henan, Hebei, Hubei, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Sichuan and other provinces and universities found that 11 of the 43 universities (a large part of which are &quot;985&quot; universities and &quot;211&quot; universities) with MTI have not yet opened translation technology courses, accounting for 25%. If the scope of the survey is extended to the secondary and tertiary institutions, the situation may be even worse(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106).<br /> <br /> In this regard, the education of Chinese mainland is a little bit backward. There are several reasons for this phenomenon. To begin with, the perception of the educators and education system are rather outdated. The existing education system pay much attention to the translation and interpreting ability of students. This is a common pattern in many middle schools, high schools and even colleges and universities. As an English major student, the writer has the personal experience. During the university period. The most courses still focus on the cultivation of the basic skills of students. Although there are translation and interpreting classes every week, the normal model is that at first teachers will teach some translation theories or techniques, and then there will be some exercises for students to practice. Students are almost inaccessible to computing courses. This may resulted from the short of appropriate funds for education. China is a nation with a great number of population, and its population growth rate is also fast. As a result, the pressure on education has been relatively high. The commonly used index to measure whether a country's financial education funds are sufficient or not is the proportion of financial education funds in Gross Domestic Product(GDP). In China, this proportion has been at a low level for a long time. Although the education funds have been increasing with the continuous development of China's economy after the Reform and Opening up, yet the fact is that “There are too many monks and too little gruel.”---the funds allocated to each school are still far from enough. Take Hunan province as an example. In the year of 2000, China's financial education funds accounted for 2.87% of GDP, which failed to reach the target of 4% of GDP in 2000 as proposed in the outline of China's education reform and development. In 2003, the GDP of Hunan Province was 463.4 billion yuan, and the national financial expenditure on education was 11.179 billion yuan, accounting for 2.44% of GDP, an increase of 0.01 percentage points over the previous year. However, in 2004, the proportion of national financial education expenditure in GDP decreased to 2.34%, which is still far from the target of 4%.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15).<br /> <br /> Besides the deficiency of educational funds, the allocation of it is also a cause. Usually, colleges and universities tend to use the fund to ameliorate the living condition and the construction of infrastructures, and then stuents’ scholarship and subsideies are indispensible. What is more, the salaries of teachers and all the staffs are also a big expenditure. Besides these, many colleges and universities attaches great importance to the scientific research items so that more money will be involved in these projects. Opposely, the development of the liberal arts may be less highlighted. In response to this problem, the writer deems that government and universities should both make some changes. As for government, they should carry out a policy that encourage the cultivation of computer skills; when it comes to the colleges and universities, they are supposed to enlarge the investment in the multimedia intelligent classrooms, and more techers who are sufficient in the operation of CAT should be enrolled. So far, Peking University has open a major named CAT, which is aimed to cultivate the professional talents to meet the needs of market.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Will machine translation replace human translation or not? Toward this question, the answer is an absolute “No”. As far as I am concerned, both the human tranlation and machine translation have their pros and cons. Human are able to comprehend the complex emotions in the texts and handle it with flexible expressions. In this aspect, machine can’t reach the human standard just like examples of “《江雪》”and “意思”mentioned above. Besides, mankind are familiar with the differences between various of countries so as to minimize the rate of committing a blunder, while the machine doesn’t have a brain like human’s. Their work is to translate the materials according to the superficial meanings. However, machine owns a huge volume (much more larger than human brain)which can store numerous materials and its working speed is hundreds of times of human’s(Pang Yingyu 2019,165). In the contemporary era, translators should first of all polish their translation skills and improve their ability to flexibly use various translation strategies and skills(Yao Li 2020,201-202). The old saying goes that “It takes a good blacksmith to make steel.” By the time, people are still the main force in the translation industry and machine translation stays in an auxiliary position. Human should not rely on machine to do all the works. The translators should improve their competitiveness through sordid multi-lingual knowledge, translation practice as well as stronger learning capacity and so on and so forth. At the same time, translators are also supposed to adopt an embracing attitude to acquire the comouter-aided translation skills. After all, with the further advancement of science and technology, the trend is inevitable. Actually, human translation and machine translation are highly compatible, which can greatly improve the translation efficiency and reduce people’s workload. Thus, the combination of the two methods is highly appreciated and the new type of CAT is bound to become the tide of the future.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Yi,Fan Jiaolian. 陈谊,范姣莲.(2018). 计算机辅助翻译——新世纪翻译的趋势[Computer-Aided Translation-the Trend of Translation in the New Era] 中国现代教育装备[China mordern educational equipment] 30-32.<br /> <br /> Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao. 董务刚,薛家宝.(1996). 评许渊冲诗《江雪》[Appreciation of Xu Yuanchong's Translation &quot;Fishing in Snow&quot;] 盐城师专学报[Journal of Yancheng Normal School] 56.<br /> <br /> 计算机翻译会取代人工翻译吗？[Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not?] (2020) 环球采风[Globe Collections] 17.<br /> <br /> Liang Jie. 梁洁.(2020). 人工智能对翻译行业的影响[The Influence of Artificial Intelligence on Translation Industry] 家庭科技[Family Science and Technology] 17-18.<br /> <br /> Lv Lisong,Mu Lei. 吕立松,穆雷.(2007) 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[Technique of Translation-Aided Translation and Translation Education] 外语界[The Field of Foreign Language] 37.<br /> <br /> Pang Yingyu. 庞盈羽. (2019) 谈机器翻译与人工翻译的关系—从机器翻译与计算机辅助翻译的发展角度[Analysis of the Relationship Between Machine Translation and Human Translation--From the Perspective of the Development of Machine Translation and Computer-Aided Translation]. 科学大众·科学教育[Scientific Masses·Scientific Education] 164-165.<br /> <br /> 计算机辅助翻译[Computer-aided translation].(2020). 全球百科[Global Encyclopedia] https://vibaike.com/.<br /> <br /> Wu Sheng. 吴晟.(2016) 湖南省省属普通高校财政拨款体制研究[Research on the Financial Allocation System of Provincial Colleges and Universities in Hunan Province] 湖南师范大学[Hunnu Normal University] 14-16.<br /> <br /> Yaoli. 姚莉.(2020) 机器翻译时代,译者应该坚持技能与技术的融合[Translators Should Keep the Compatibility Between Skills and Technique in the Era of Machine Translation]. 科技经济导刊[Technology and Economic Guide] 201-202.<br /> <br /> Zhu Chaowei. 祝朝伟.（2018）机器翻译要取代作为人的译者了吗？—兼谈翻译人才培养中科技与人文的关系[Is Machine Translation Going to Replace Human Translators? -On the relationship between science and technology and Humanities in the cultivation of translation talents]. 外国语文[Foreign Literature] 106-108.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation 袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi==<br /> <br /> '''浅析汉语公示语的英译'''<br /> <br /> 英语笔译 袁天翼<br /> <br /> 摘 要：在这个经济全球化、政治多极化、文化全球化、科技现代化、信息共享化的时代，全球经济纵深发展，人类命运共同体日趋形成，人与人、国家与国家间的联系日益密切，这时，汉语公示语的英译问题便被提上了议程。尽管中国汉语公示语的英译翻译员越来越多，但是汉语公示语的英译问题层出不穷。本文简析了汉语公示语定义，例举了生活中常见的一些汉语公示语的英译典型问题，并针对此给出了一些翻译方法与策略，并进行了未来展望。<br /> <br /> 关键词：汉英翻译；公示语；翻译策略<br /> <br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': In this economic globalization, political polarization, cultural globalization, technological modernization and informative sharing age, the global economy is deeply developing, and the human community with a shared future is coming into shape day by day. The relations among people and among countries are increasing day by day. At this time, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation become the topic of us. Though the number of Chinese-English public sign translators in China grows daily, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation emerge endlessly. This passage offers a brief analysis of the definition of Chinese-English public sign, points out some typical problems in Chinese-English public sign translation we see in daily life, analyzes some methods and strategies of Chinese-English public sign translation, and gives some outlooks on the future of Chinese-English public sign translation. <br /> <br /> '''Key Words''': Chinese-English translation; public sign; translation strategies<br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> '''I. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> &quot;The public sign is a specially applied literary form that was formed in modern times, which has a long history. It is used in public places and seen by the masses thus realizing unique communicative purposes. The public sign has become a crucial link in the communication between China and other countries in the international community. In the meantime, there are increasingly more experts and scholars paying attention to the translation of Chinese public signs into English.&quot; (Reiss 2004,12). <br /> <br /> &quot;As an important tool for international communication, Chinese-English public sign translation plays an extremely important role in foreign friends’ understanding of Chinese culture&quot;.（Wang Huili 2019,31） Its applied range is so wide that nearly covers every aspect of our daily life, including: Introductions of tourism trips, propaganda languages, warning languages, road signs, shop signs and advertising boards. It is mostly used on public infrastructure: Subway, airport, taxi, pier, tourist spot, park, street, community, shop, supermarket, restaurant, bank, hotel, cinema, hospital and etc. It uses simple words or sentences, or pictures only, or combines words and pictures to pass useful information to the masses, which not only serves Chinese people, but also is shown to the foreigners, which can help foreigners in China study, work and live. <br /> <br /> '''II. The Current Situation of Chinese-English Public Sign'''<br /> <br /> Public signs are an art of convincing others through effective verbal means, which are also components of language activities. They, in essence, belong to a special kind of communication. However, it is not a kind of face-to-face communication that takes place in a specific period of time, and none of the participants will appear as individuals. The object is for all the people with social behaviors in the place, regardless of gender, age, class or education level. Public signs belong to “one-way communication”, and its binding force or influence will not be as big as direct communication, but it is also used to act with words and deeds, and affects the behavior of the audience with a clear purpose. &quot;Public signs have become a natural window for Chinese and other languages in various economic, trade and cultural activities.&quot;（Yang Yang 2020, 34）<br /> <br /> Public signs are everywhere, so what are their functions? &quot;Their functions can be divided into showing, warning, profiting, encouraging and eulogizing such five functions. (Zhou Shuxia 2017,239)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the public sign that has showing function offers all-round information about service, order, or informing service. Such as “Car Rental” and “Children and Senior Citizens Free”.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the public sign that has warning function comes up with restrictive or obligatory demands to typical people, which is often used through order, ban, information or persuasion tones. Such as: “Stand in Line” , and “Thieves Beware”. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the public sign that has profiting function promotes consumption, thus realizing enterprises’ economic profits. Such as: “Daily Special”, “Daily Service”. <br /> <br /> Fourthly, the public sign that has encouraging function calls for or encourages people to take actions for certain goals or tasks. Such as: “One Family, One Child”, and “Working together, we can make a world of difference”. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, the public sign that has eulogizing function gives wishes and chants to certain events or people to reach the goals of propaganda or education. Such as: “One World, One Dream”. &quot;<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (Eugene Nida 2004, 15) said, &quot;Chinese-English translation of public signs embraces the conversion of two different languages and two different cultures, which is not only to achieve the language equivalence, cultural equivalence, but also to enhance the possibility of understanding and the reading of Chinese-English translation of public signs.&quot;<br /> <br /> However, there are many problems in Chinese-English public sign translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In 2003, Clive W. J. Granger, a Nobel Economics Prize Winner talked of the settings and problems of public signs in Beijing when he was interviewed by a program of Beijing TV Station. He said: “Foreigners will feel a little bit nervous when they come to China, because they can not understand public signs in China. ” Clive’s comment extremely shows current problems in Chinese-English public sign translation .&quot;(Lv Hefa 2005,38)<br /> <br /> On June 20th, 2017, a national standard conference of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service was held in Beijing. The Vice Minister of the Education Ministry and Director of the National Language Commission stressed in the meeting: “The language and character industry of China is expanding from ‘striving to promote and normally use the national common language, scientifically protecting every nation’s language and character’ to ‘managing social foreign language use and improving foreign language service quality’. ” The national standard of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service is the standard of English translation and writing quality in public service fields, which stipulates the English translation principles, methods and requirements of transportation, tourism, culture, entertainment, physical exercise, education, medical health, postal service, telecommunication, catering, accommodation, commerce and finance these thirteen service fields. &quot;Nowadays, public signs are often bilingual to meet the needs of international communication.&quot;(Wang Xunian 2020,69)<br /> <br /> To sum up, there are still many major problems in China’s public sign translation, common and ubiquitous, which make foreign experts comment like that and the government use national force to normalize translation standards. &quot;Whether the translation of public signs in scenic spots into English is harmonious and unified has a great influence on cross-cultural communication &quot;.(Pinkham John 2000, 156)<br /> <br /> '''III. The Causes of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> '''3. 1 The Basic Linguistic Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> To be a proficient Chinese-English public sign translator, one must, fundamentally, grasp basic linguistic rules of English and Chinese, otherwise he or she must make stupid mistakes, and some even primary learners will not make. &quot;There are many problems in the translation of public signs from English to Chinese, which should not be limited to the translation of the original text, but should pay attention to the context of public signs.&quot;(Chen Daobin 2020, 9)<br /> <br /> [[File:No.1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.1<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3684466622,1422277554&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.1 is a public sign put on a glass wall in a mall, the Chinese reads“全年无休(QUAN NIAN WU XIU)”, and it tries to use English to express that “This business runs the whole year”, so the precise translation should be “NO REST DAY ALL YEAR”. But there, we can see it was translated as“365DAY SA TEAR”, which does not belong to the grammatical law of English. So this is a big mistake. Only one who understands Chinese can understand. But for ordinary foreigners, they can not. So, when translating Chinese-English public sign, the translator must be clear about the target language, and know the basic grammatical venation, then begin to translate, instead of randomly putting some letters together and finishing. Otherwise, the translator will make a big mistake like this picture.<br /> <br /> A public sign in Haichang Ocean Park of Chengdu City, Sichuan Province reads &quot;Jellyfish Museum, the 2th floor&quot;. More specifically, it is a floor direction sign. Here, the correct English for the second floor should be “2nd”, not “2th”. Apparently that the translator has poor knowledge of English vocabulary, which led he or she to make such a ridiculous mistake. Actually, in English language, if there is a number contains “11”, “12”or “13”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “11th”, “12th” or “13th” respectively; And if there is a number contains“1”, “2”or “3”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “1st”, “2nd” or “3rd” respectively. For example, “101st”, “111th”, “201st”, “211th” and etc. <br /> <br /> No.3 is a warning sign of a tourist spot, reads &quot;The rockery danger, pleases no climb&quot;, whose Chinese meaning is “There stands a rockery, it is dangerous to climb, every one is forbidden from climbing it. ” The Chinese meaning is alright. But, when it was translated into English, a big mistake occurred: “The rockery danger Pleases no climb.”<br /> <br /> First, there should be “climbing” after “no”, not “climb”, this is just English grammar knowledge that can be learned in primary school; And the “Please” is followed by a “s”, why does the translator use third person singular at the top of a imperative sentence? Second, if the translator wants to tell the tourists that the rockery is dangerous and mustn’t be climbed, he or she should write: “The rockery is dangerous. Please don’t climb” or “Dangerous rockery. No climbing” or just “No climbing”. Unless the foreigners who see this sign have supreme understanding ability, they will not easily make sense of it. <br /> <br /> 3. 2 The Tendency Towards Chinglish and Mechanical Translation<br /> <br /> Knowing a little about English, then begin to translate public sign. This is ridiculous, which is definitely going to cause obvious mistakes. Especially when translating, there is a high probability that the translator will make Chinglish errors, or tend to seek for mechanical translation, which are the most common public sign translation problems in mainland China. With regard to the tendency towards Chinglish, it only proves that the translator’s basic skills of English are not so proficient, and he or she does not fit for translation work. For the tendency towards mechanical translation, on the one hand, it demonstrates that the translator is lazy, who is not willing to think about how to translate. On the other hand, it reveals his or her lack of basic English language knowledge. In fact, these two both can be easily avoided, only if the translator pays a little more attention to it or is earnest and dedicated to their work. All those mistakes should not have been made. &quot;To understand the language style of Public signs in English, it is imperative to carry out idiomatic and standardized translation of public signs in Chinese.&quot;(Pang Yan 2020, 34)<br /> <br /> No.4, this is a sign that is hung in an Internet celebrity milk tea shop: Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province. It reads &quot;out of the cup area&quot;. It originally means that the customers should queue here to get their milk tea after finishing paying. The translator should have easily translated “出杯区（CHU BEI QU）”into “FETCH AREA”, but it was translated as “OUT OF THE CUP AREA”, what a joke! Purely it was translated word-for-word. The translator did not understand its true meaning. Probably it was translated by a machine. As an Internet celebrity milk tea shop runner, when dealing with such kind of cultural issues, he or she should be extremely careful, earnest and cautious, instead of casually simply copying the contents given by a machine or hiring a third-rate translator and asking him or her to randomly translate. Large scale milk tea shops must shoulder their required obligations, and undertake necessary responsibilities and duties on public sign translation. Imagine that a foreigner, who can not understand it, stand there and think: What? Standing here is standing outside the cup? Maybe something interesting would happen. Let me try!<br /> All those will bring big and standing jokes. <br /> <br /> No.5 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province. It reads&quot; tourists get off area&quot;. Its Chinese meaning is: This is the place that tourists get off from a bus. But, it was translated as “Tourists get off area”, which fully shows the ignorance and lack of English language knowledge of the translators. People may can not help doubting whether it is copied from the translation given by a machine. Famous tourist spots like this, especially this kind of 5A tourist spot, can not even shoulder the cultural obligations, let alone developing in the long run. They should make big mistakes in such a little public sign translation! Do they only want to serve Chinese well while ignoring foreigners?<br /> <br /> Similarly, No.6 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province, and it reads &quot;up the mountain&quot;. The Chinese meaning is “This is the passage that leads tourists to climb the mountain”. The translation should have been a very easy and fun job, but when the sign is showed to tourists, a big big joke was born: “Up the mountain”. We can say “uphill way” or “uphill passage”, but, the translator obviously did not realize it. What’s more, when “up” is used as a verb, it is completely another meaning. It is also the symbol of such irresponsible spot management. <br /> <br /> No.7, it is a napkin given by an Internet celebrity milk tea shop (Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province ) for free after buying its milk tea. It reads &quot;more China, more fashion&quot;. At first glance, everything seems okay. But more carefully, we can find the mistake. The Chinese meaning is “If there are more elements with Chinese characteristics, it will be more fashionable.” But when translating, maybe with the aid of machine, or lack of a solid English knowledge foundation, it becomes “More China, more fashion”. If the customer is a Chinese, it does not matter, for he or she can understand it, and just shows a smile. But if foreigners see, they will be pretty shocked by the sight: What the hell is this? They will think that this shop lacks money to hire a good translator, and the managers are stupid. Furthermore, the Chinese national image will be badly affected. In fact, this sentence can be translated as “The more sinicization there is, the more fashion there will be” or “With greater Chinese characteristics come more fashion”. Easier? It can be “More sinicization breeds more fashion”. Translated like these, won’t it be much more correct and intelligible?<br /> <br /> '''3. 3 The Misunderstanding of the Public Sign Translators'''<br /> <br /> It is the little knowledge of English of the translators that makes them can not even spell a basic word correctly; Or due to carelessness, they make mistakes on public sign translation, thus causing mistakes on the meaning of the sign. All these are significant reasons why there are so many mistakes in Chinese-English public signs. &quot;Errors and ambiguities in public signs are not allowed, as they can lead to disorientation, confusion, and lessening of the force of the warning.&quot;(Pan Xutong 2020, 251)<br /> <br /> [[File:No.8.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.8<br /> [https://www.sinaimg.cn/edu/cr/2015/0316/3124267229.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.8. The Chinese meaning of it is “The door or passage that leads you to the outside”, in short, “EXIT”. But the public sign was translated as“EXPORT”, so, what is “EXPORT”? In a word, it means trade among different countries. The commercial goods pass through the customs, being transported from one country to another country. Distinctly, the maker was careless, who has mixed the meaning of “出口（Chu Kou）”in Chinese, thus resulting in an obvious translation error. As for public sign translation, translators must weigh every word, and think over and over and over again, not just search online, and grab all the words you “discover”, which is a highly irresponsible behavior, an extremely irresponsible behavior to the society and the country . <br /> <br /> [[File:No.9.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.9<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4069547043,45136776&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.9 is from a hospital department. Its Chinese meaning is: Here is neurology emergency department. It uses a special logogram in Chinese. But, the maker was misled, so, he or she translated it as “God Medical”. If a person has a little common sense, he or she will be made to laugh wildly. It is completely the “Understanding of a sentence simply by a word”! That should be translated as “ Department of Emergency Neurology”. Such a casual translation will make Christians think that they can see God for real. Whether can he see death here or a way to heaven with a passionate God serving you? To some extent, this is disrespect for Christians, which can even cause disputes. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.10.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.10<br /> [https://ss0.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4055489075,1169617432&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.10 is photographed in a company building. Here, the Chinese means: this is the place where you can get boiled water. However, the translator of this public <br /> sign made a huge mistake, because he or she disintegrated the three Chinese words one by one, and thus translating them one by one, which can not be understood as a whole, let alone enable foreigners to understand the meaning of this public sign, and as a result, foreigners may not receive the service that they deserve. What’s worse, many people, including intelligent Chinese, when seeing this disqualified translation, will definitely be amused, and feel funny: What is this guy’s literate level?<br /> <br /> As a matter of fact, this public sign can be translated as “Boiled Water Room”. “开水”means “boiled water” in English. Certainly, the translator treated the “开”as a verb “open”, which is absolutely wrong. <br /> <br /> Further, this is a single room, not two or more, so we must use “room”, which is the plural form, instead of the singular form “rooms”. <br /> <br /> 3. 4 The Falsification and Loss of Information<br /> <br /> Originally, the managers want to use signs to warn people, but due to mistranslation, the information is tampered and missed, resulting in an opposite consequence, and producing big jokes.&quot;Standardized translation of public signs can improve the international language environment of cities, on the other hand, it is responsible for improving the level of urban opening to the outside world.&quot;(Liu Peiyu 2020, 67)<br /> <br /> No.11 is a public warning sign in Liuxiang Barbecue Restaurant. It reads &quot; carefully hot&quot;. Is it a true warning? In the foreigners’ opinion, it is not. People who speak Chinese can realize that this sign was designed to warn customers not to be burned by the hot oven. However, the English translation is far from what it originally means. The correct translation can be “Careful! Hot!” or “Be Careful of the Hot Oven!” But according to the translation on the sign, it means “Carefully burn yourself”. Luckily, this is a small scale restaurant, if it were a large one, its reputation would be badly affected. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.12.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.12<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3765137851,1011242048&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.12 is a public sign in a large shopping center. As we all know, modern shopping centers now always use smooth and shiny tile floor as the ground, which makes the shopping centers look beautiful and attractive. However, smooth though it is, one big safety problem then comes into shape: The ground is too smooth to make shoppers slide and fall. Later, the managers made public signs like No.12 to warn people not to fall. The Chinese warning is okay, Chinese shoppers can understand, but when foreigners see this, he or she will burst out laughing: What? You order me to slide on the floor with care? What on earth do you mean? I have even seen an Internet celebrity girl posting an video clip that tells us a story that satirizes this mistranslation: The girl and her father slide joyfully on the ground in a shopping center while murmuring “Carefully slide! Carefully slide!” As a matter of fact, The correct Chinese-English translation should be “Caution! Slippery!” or “Beware of Wet Floor” or “Caution! Wet Floor”. Each one of the three is okay. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.13.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.13<br /> [https://ss2.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=461657809,3986868053&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.13 is a public sign that is put on the ceiling of a restaurant’s stair. Here, the translator wanted to pass such information by Chinese and English: Watch <br /> your head, do not hit the low ceiling of the stair. Be careful. Though the Chinese information is okay, the English, however, can not by understood by others, especially foreigners. <br /> <br /> Here, the makers wanted to warn the danger of the low ceiling, not to ask people to purposely hit the ceiling. So we can correct it as: “Watch Your Head”, or “Be Careful”. Both are okay. <br /> <br /> Here, the translator made a mistranslation, which reversed the original meaning when translating, thus producing a huge laughingstock. First, “碰”is not “meet”, but “hit”, according to this specific environment. It does not mean “meet someone”. Second, “小心碰头” means not to hit the ceiling, not to “meet carefully”. <br /> <br /> Throughout so many examples, every one can see that the mistakes of public sign translation are ubiquitous and common in daily life, which you can even randomly pick up one from any store you meet. Pervasive errors like these in public signs will negatively affect China’s reform and opening-up and the integration into international community, which will not only make foreigners misunderstand the meaning, but also seriously damage China’s national image. Therefore, the study of the public sign translation is extremely urgent and imperative. At present, translators must start from basic demand of Chinese-English public sign translation, endeavor to learn English well, cultivate a good sense of utilizing English and a great mindset of English utilization, proactively take part in English translation practice, and be highly alert and form a sense of “Using English language in a proper, correct, suitable and decent way”. Only then will the situation of Chinese-English public sign translation turn better. &quot;Due to the specific role of public signs, their translation is different from literary translation and has powerful functional characteristics.&quot;(Liu Hui 2020, 43)<br /> <br /> IV. Public Sign Translation Methods<br /> <br /> There is a saying goes: “Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards. ” So is the Chinese-English public sign translation. Zhang Yan (Zhang Yan 2015,44) maintains in her paper that, &quot;the public sign translation methods can be summarized as four kinds. <br /> <br /> '''4. 1 Amplification'''<br /> <br /> Many new words that are with Chinese characteristics, especially combined with numbers, need using amplification to introduce to foreign readers. For example, in the past, “五讲四美三热爱(Wu Jiang Si Mei San Re Ai）”was translated as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves”. Many foreigners said that they could not understand it. Later, it was revised as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves” with the notation “ stress on decorum, manners, hygiene, discipline and morals; beauty of the mind, language, behavior and the environment; love of the motherland, socialism and the Communist Party”. Hence, foreigners can easily understand its connotation. Public signs are information-type and calling-type texts, which should focus on the information transmission of the original text in translation. Therefore, communicative translation can be regarded as a good theoretical basis.(Shen Jianwen 2020, 69)<br /> <br /> '''4. 2 Ellipsis'''<br /> <br /> To make sure that the translation is concise and intelligible, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators must properly delete unnecessary words according to English expressing habits to achieve overall generalization. Such as: “Food Paradise”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 3 Re-translation'''<br /> <br /> Due to cultural differences, many folk adages with Chinese characteristics will not be understood by readers once simply read literally. So translators can moderately reorganize those sentences that can not be translated or understood. Such as: “Drinking and Driving Costs Your Life”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 4 Backward Translation'''<br /> <br /> There are two cases: Translating the cultural expressions that are borrowed from translation back into their original forms in the target language; Translating the expressions with obvious cultural characteristics into the idiomatic expressions in the target language. Such as: “Venus Florist”. <br /> The English public sign has its own cultural and pragmatic meanings. When doing the Chinese-English public sign translation, translators should consider about the cultural differences and avoid any form of ambiguity, misunderstanding or mistranslation, and offer high quality information service, thus making public sign translation advance with the times. &quot;<br /> <br /> '''V. Public Sign Translation Strategies'''<br /> <br /> He Xueyun (He Xueyun, 2006) holds in her thesis that, &quot;theoretically, semantic translation and communicative translation differ much. Semantic translation strives to keep the language specialty and unique express method of the original work, in order to express the original work’s thinking process; However, communicative translation’s key point lies in spreading information and enabling people to think, feel and act, giving play to the function of information that language conveys and the consequences it causes. &quot;Public sign translation must focus on results, and put readers first, only by this can we improve the current situation of public sign translation, thus achieving the purposes of public sign translation. <br /> <br /> Before beginning to do anything, we all need a world view and methodology to guide us to behave well. Likewise, when doing Chinese-English public sign translation, we also need guiding ideology to direct us. Here, I will show you four Chinese-English public sign translation strategies, which act as guiding ideology, which are definitely going to be a powerful weapon for you. Just remember them and practice them, you will gain a lot. &quot;To strengthen the research on the Translation of public signs into English, improve the translation quality of bilingual public signs and improve the translation of bilingual public signs are the urgent tasks to promote the cross-cultural communication of city image.&quot;(Niu Haihua 2020, 118)<br /> <br /> '''5.1 No Grammatical, Semantic and Logical Error'''<br /> <br /> The most basic prerequisite of public sign translation is that there is no language error: No grammatical error, no vocabulary spelling error, no language context error, no Chinglish or machine-aided translation error. <br /> <br /> “This is office area, tourists mustn’t enter” can be translated as “Staff Only”, not “OFFICE AREA PLEASE DON’T COMING”, or you will make a grammatical and redundant error. “Be careful, don’t slip into water” can be translated as “Caution! Deep Water!” instead of “TAKE CARE! FALL INTO WATER CAREFULLY!” Otherwise, people will can not help laughing. <br /> <br /> One translator was not able to translate “The grass is so beautiful, are you sure you wan to walk on it?” into English public sign, so here comes <br /> “Fangcaoqiqi riding the Heren”. What a laughingstock! This is a combination between Chinese and English, without any grammar structure. Not to translate it will be a much better choice. We can concisely translate it as “Don’t Walk on the Beautiful Grass!”<br /> <br /> '''5. 2 Concise and Intelligible Translation'''<br /> <br /> One prominent character of public sign is conciseness. It asks people to ensure the translation is crystal clear and precise, without any compound or obscure sentence. Only by achieving this can the signs become popularized, instead of making people think over and over and over again to discover their cryptic meaning. <br /> <br /> The public sign translation must be concise and intelligible, which means that you not only need to precisely convey what the maker means to people, but also must be concise. People can understand it immediately without comprehension deviation or ambiguity. <br /> <br /> '''5. 3 Understanding of Cultural Background Differences'''<br /> <br /> When translating, every translator must thoroughly understand the culture of the targeted language. Translators must comprehensively understand each specific use of the targeted language under different cultural backgrounds. If not doing so, it may cause severe disputes, and even cause irresistible outcomes. Here are several examples. <br /> <br /> “Dragon” is a legendary animal in traditional Chinese culture. Chinese people often view themselves as “dragon”, and even say that they are “Descendants of the Dragon”. Thus, “Dragon” means holy and sacred thing in Chinese culture. But in English speaking countries, the meaning of “dragon” is not so. In these countries, “dragon” means something evil like Satan, sometimes it is even used to describe thugs, scoundrels or other bad behaviorists. Therefore, invariably coping the icon of “dragon” and using it in other cultures is a definite mistake. In a word, a public sign language translator must totally comprehend the cultural background differences. <br /> <br /> '''5. 4 Obedience to Certain Norms and Standards'''<br /> <br /> As long as someone is translating, he or she must obey certain rules, norms and standards. He mustn’t translate according to his will. This is a truth. <br /> For example, according to China’s first set of standards on how to regulate the use of foreign languages in China, which was jointly issued by the State Standards Commission and the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine on November 20, 2017 and officially implemented on December 1, 2017, some of the standards have been specified in detail. <br /> <br /> Names of tourist spots: Names of mountains, rivers and lakes should be written in Chinese pinyin. Translations of names of temples should vary according to different situations, so are the towers’ names. In line with external service needs, English explanations can be added. <br /> <br /> '''VI. The Future of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> China is a major powerful country, and is the country with the second highest Gross Domestic Product in the world, which is why China should keep close economic and cultural relationships with other countries. &quot;In order to integrate China with international community in a better way, there must be high quality public sign translation. To optimize the translation quality of public signs, the most important way is to realize the standardization of the translation of public signs.&quot;(Ding Ying 2020,78)<br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation must improve the China’s influence power in international community. High quality public sign translation represents that China is rich in translators and intellects, and shows that China can fulfill obligations and shoulder responsibilities as a major country. Achieving this means China not only takes responsibilities for Chinese people, but also for all human beings. Good quality public sign translation is definitely going to significantly synergize the course of reform and opening-up. High quality public sign translation is obliged to facilitate foreigners to travel in China, boost domestic consumption demand, form a new growth point for economy, promote the rise of Gross Domestic Product, and accelerate the comprehensive, coordinated and sustainable development. High quality public sign translation is also an integral part of the New Development Philosophy: Innovation, coordination, green, open and share. High quality public sign translation corresponds to the New Normal of Chinese economy. At present, the economy of China has been changing from developing at a high speed to develop at high quality, and is at the stage of changing economic development mode, transforming driving forces of economic development and optimizing the economic structure, so high quality public sign translation is badly needed. Thus, considering the big change of Chinese economy, achieving high quality public sign translation is an urgent affair. &quot;Public signs have a strong linguistic function and social value. Pragmatic or social pragmatic failures caused by cultural differences often occur in the translation of public signs. Therefore, it is necessary to fully understand the cultural connotation of the original text in translation.&quot;(Li Jing 2020, 229)<br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation has the duty to embody a city’s humanism spirit, cultural speciality and charm, which is the inevitable requirement of core socialist values and system. It also promotes the spreading of Chinese culture, and improves the influence power of Chinese culture. High quality public sign translation also levels up Chinese people and overseas Chinese’s sense of identity and belonging. What’s more, it can narrow the gap between Chinese and foreigners, and acquire more recognition from them towards China. Domestically, high quality public sign translation can strengthen national cohesion; Externally, it will strengthen China’s soft power, and increase China’s international speaking right while creating national radiation power. <br /> &quot;It is an important measure to improve China’s public service and governance capability by establishing an evaluation mechanism and promoting the standardization of English translation. It is of great benefit to further improve China’s service level of opening to the outside world, demonstrate its cultural soft power and enhance its international image&quot; .(Guo Jinghong 2019, 154)<br /> <br /> In short, looking forward to the future of Chinese-English public sign translation from a strategic perspective, translators must remain true to their original aspiration and keep their mission firmly in mind, which is: To be devoted to the future of socialism with Chinese characteristics, to be dedicated to the landscape of translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and to be committed to the sustainable development of Chinese-English public sign translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics. &quot;The translation of public signs from Chinese to English needs to consider the actual situation of English speakers and abide by international uniform rules, so that foreign friends can directly understand the contents of public signs.&quot;(Song Yanbei 2020,64)<br /> <br /> The English translation of public signs of tourist attractions belongs to the category of cross-cultural communication, and the translator should have certain cross-cultural knowledge and awareness, so that the English translation can be more understood and accepted by the audience and truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication&quot;. (Yang Hongyu, 2019) Since reform and opening-up, China has been integrating into the international community day by day. To fully achieve this, as regards of Chinese-English public sign translation, we still have a long way to go. There is no time for us to delay the work of strengthening, proceeding, and improving public sign translation. The rising level of quality of Chinese-English public sign translation will improve both city image and urbanization level. He Xueyun contends in her article that, many people take it for granted that if one knows a foreign language, he then can translate. As a matter of fact, basic skills of public sign translation not only includes foreign language level, but also the knowledge of foreign cultures. <br /> <br /> '''VII. Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> So, how to facilitate the overall development of Chinese-English public sign translation？Firstly, we need to keep pace with the times. Language is constantly changing, so are many words and idioms, and so are public signs. In order to accurately convey information to the audience, it is essential to integrate the latest, most reliable and most accepted language into public signs. Secondly, it is necessary to fully understand the idiomatic usage of public signs, because public signs are mainly aimed at English speakers, so it is necessary to strengthen the accumulation of words, phrases and idioms, which is also the basis of translation. Thirdly, the translators of Chinese-English public signs should use accurate words and phrases in combination with specific environment and objects, and should not fail to convey the meaning or deviate from the original meaning, which otherwise will result in misunderstanding. Of course, only achieving the above is not enough. In order to do a good job in the translation of Chinese-English public signs, we need to keep improving our translation attitude and spirit of study, and constantly improve and summarize and innovate on the basis of the original, so as to make the translation of Chinese-English public signs more perfect and recognized by the international audience. &quot;It is very important for the academic community and people from all walks of life to analyze the problems in the application of public signs and put forward corresponding improvement countermeasures&quot;. (Liu Xiaoping, 2019) A Chinese-English public sign translator must fully realize and shoulder the responsibilities that translators must carry, form a sense of community of a shared future, fully acknowledge the current situation of Chinese-English public sign translation, completely learn lessons from the predecessors who have made mistakes in Chinese-English public sign translation, totally implement the four public sign translation strategies I mentioned before, to make Chinese-English public sign translation serve the construction of a moderately prosperous society in all respect, the construction of modern powerful socialist country, the construction of building China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and the realization of the great Chinese dream, that is: the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> [1]Eugene Nida &amp; Charles Taber.（2004） [The Theory and Practice of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [2]Gutt &amp; Ernst, Agust. （1991）[Translation and Relevance: Cognition and Context] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> [3]Newmark, Peter. （2001）[Textbook of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [4]Pinkham, John.（2000） [The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br /> <br /> [5]Reiss. （2004）[Translation Criticism: the Potentials and Limitations] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [6]陈道彬.（2020） 规范公示语双语标识 营造高品质横琴国际休闲旅游岛环境 珠海特区报,2020-11-09(009).<br /> <br /> [7]国家标准委.（2017） 公共服务领域英文译写规范<br /> <br /> [8]郭京红.（2019）公示语英译中的错误观点与评价方式 海外英语(23)154-155. <br /> <br /> [9]贺学耘. （2006）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略外语与外语教学,(03)57-59. <br /> <br /> [10]刘小平. （2019）公示语翻译中存在的问题及对策. 凯里学院学报, (04)72-74.<br /> <br /> [11]刘慧.（2020）公示语的汉译英翻译研究 海外英语,(16):43-44.<br /> <br /> [12]刘培钰,殷嘉媛,翟晓琳,张美琪,谢慧英.（2020）公示语英文译写与城市国际形象构建 百科知识 (27):26-27.<br /> <br /> [13]吕和发. （2005）公示语汉英翻译研究——以2012年奥运会主办城市伦敦为例 北京:中国翻译,(06)38. <br /> <br /> [14]牛海花.（2020）公示语翻译质量的提高对促进齐齐哈尔市旅游城市形象的跨文化传播的意义 理论观察 (07):118-120.<br /> <br /> [15]潘栩童,郭亚卿.（2020）交通公示语英译现状分析及策略研究 农家参谋,(21):251-252+262<br /> <br /> [16]庞燕.（2020）从语言风格谈公示语规范化翻译 海外英语,(20):34-35+41.<br /> <br /> [17]田国民. （2019）谈汉语公示语的英译英语教师(22)110-113. <br /> <br /> [18]王回力. （2019）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略 延边教育学院学报(05)31-33. <br /> <br /> [19]王旭年.（2020）社会符号学翻译法视域下西安高校公示语英译研究 渭南师范学院学报35(11):69-76.<br /> <br /> [20]杨洪玉.（2019） 旅游景点公共标识语的英文翻译 北京工业职业技术学院学报(04)122-126. <br /> <br /> [21]杨阳.（2020）“一带一路”战略视域下公示语翻译现状及策略研究 公关世界(22):34-35.<br /> <br /> [22]张焱. （2015）汉英翻译过程中的难译现象处理 北京:中国社会科学出版社(16)44-46<br /> <br /> [23]周树霞. （2017）浅析公示语的汉英翻译 校园英语(42)239-239.<br /> <br /> == A Study of Translation of Movie Titles in the Light of Venuti's Theory 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan==</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Translation_Studies&diff=110128 2020-12-11T09:41:19Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century */</p> <hr /> <div>[[Media: Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]Quicklinks: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual]<br /> <br /> Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is welcome!<br /> <br /> 欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………<br /> <br /> =Organizational Things=<br /> *Please register for the Course Wiki.<br /> *Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.<br /> <br /> Welcome Message on WeChat: 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、20级、方向）就好。Welcome to our course. I am excited to meet you on Monday online on http://bit.ly/ZOOMCOURSE (573 941 6744, course). First, there are some organizational things to get everybody joining the class.<br /> In preparation, please register with our course wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TS_INTRO and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session. <br /> Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.<br /> <br /> =Edits=<br /> Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:<br /> * Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.<br /> * Correct an earlier translation.<br /> * Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.<br /> <br /> =Material=<br /> Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.<br /> <br /> *Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013<br /> *Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991 <br /> *Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.<br /> *Chen, Fukang. &quot;Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory).&quot; (1992).<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> *Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.<br /> *Huang, Chending黄振定. &quot;文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论.&quot; 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定. &quot;翻译学是一门人文科学.&quot; 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008<br /> *Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.<br /> *Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.<br /> *Pan Wenguo 潘文国. &quot;当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题.&quot; 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> *Toury, Gideon. &quot;Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company.&quot; Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.<br /> *Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Zhao, Wei 赵巍. &quot;翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思.&quot; 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.<br /> <br /> (We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br /> <br /> '''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''<br /> <br /> Recommendations:<br /> <br /> Topic Book/Paper<br /> <br /> 1 Introduction <br /> <br /> 2 Emergence<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> <br /> 3a History of Translation <br /> *3a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.<br /> *3b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.<br /> *3c History of Chinese Translation Theories *陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 4 Early understanding <br /> *Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.<br /> *Sourcebook Bassnett, Susan and Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge, <br /> 1990.<br /> *Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br /> *Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> 5 Translation Studies<br /> *5a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980. <br /> * 5b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.<br /> *5c Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.<br /> *5d Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.<br /> <br /> 6 Translation Theories<br /> * 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.<br /> *6a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.<br /> *6b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.<br /> *6c Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.<br /> *6d TS 谭载喜. 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 7 Theory and Practise <br /> *7a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.<br /> *7b Theory and Practise Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.<br /> *7c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.<br /> *7d Theory and practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> *7e Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.<br /> <br /> 8<br /> *8a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.<br /> *8b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.<br /> *8c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.<br /> *8d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.<br /> <br /> 9 Theories<br /> *9a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.<br /> *9b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.<br /> <br /> =Main class project=<br /> Please help to edit the publication [[History of Translation Studies]].<br /> <br /> =Schedule=<br /> '''All sessions''': 1 9/21 Organizational things, 2 Emergence, 3 History, 4 Development, 5 Early literary examples, 6 early theories, 7 (Western) Theories, 8 Methods, 9 Style, 10 Translation Studies, 11 Theory and Practice, 12 Different Aspects, 13 East West comparison, 14 Strategies, 15 Contemporary Translation Theories, 16 Final Discussion <br /> <br /> ==1st Session==<br /> Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.<br /> <br /> === Homework from Session 1 due on Sep 27, 2020 ===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of a paper on Qing Translation Policies. Here is the [[20200921_trans|homework page]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200921_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!<br /> <br /> ===Homework for later===<br /> 4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. It has to be a new topic, not yet used in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.<br /> <br /> 5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.<br /> <br /> ==2nd Session: Emergence==<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 1: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation===<br /> *Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.doc|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏<br /> *Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===<br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==3rd Session: History==<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===<br /> *Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==Session 4: Development==<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> * Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.<br /> <br /> ==Session 5: ==<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Session 6: Early Theories==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 7: Western theories=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 3： 后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 4： 布拉格学派 Prague School===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 5： 目的论 Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 6： 语言学派 Linguistic School===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 8: Methods=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 1： 正说反译与反说正译 Negation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 3： 交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 4： 直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 5： 增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 6： 影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 9: Style=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==<br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu<br /> <br /> [[Media:Example.ogg]]<br /> <br /> =Session 10: Translation Studies=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability &amp; Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 11: Theory and Practice=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation=== <br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===<br /> <br /> Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]<br /> <br /> =Session 12: Different Aspects=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie&amp; Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei <br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br /> <br /> =Session 13: East West comparison=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Topic 1:严复“信、达、雅”和泰特勒三原则之比较Comparison Between Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Tytler's Three Principles===<br /> <br /> ===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===<br /> ===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> [[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Mo Ling.pptx]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 09:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> [[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Yuan Tianyi.doc]]<br /> <br /> ===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] --[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 14: Strategies=<br /> =Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories=<br /> =Session 16: Final Discussion=<br /> <br /> --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:52, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==<br /> 1 Emergence: <br /> 孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源<br /> <br /> 2 History: <br /> 周思庆 张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟 刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆 张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾 李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷 余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿 纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史<br /> <br /> 3 Development: <br /> 韩宛真 邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮 胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼 张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思 龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君 李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋 彭育志：圣经翻译的发展<br /> <br /> 4 Early Literary Examples: <br /> 许鹏飞 肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶 李凌月; 袁诗琦 姚佳; 邹鑫雨 曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨 肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳 周玉娟<br /> <br /> 5 Early Theories: <br /> 徐梦蝶 杨逸; 陈涵 曾心媛; 陈静静 高明珠; 文晓艺 韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇 漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺 邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试<br /> <br /> 6 (Western) Theories: <br /> 康灵凤 莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪 常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜 姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静 游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲 王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽 王源: 语言学派<br /> <br /> 7 Methods: <br /> 甘奉玉 丁代凤; 赵晓燕 张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜 谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露 司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇 李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏 刘金惺琦<br /> <br /> 8 Style: <br /> 孔祥慧 孔亚楠; 罗雨晴 娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比； 林鑫 李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖 胡慧芳<br /> <br /> 9 Translation Studies: <br /> 罗维嘉 桂一枝; 彭小玲 彭丹; 全美欣 宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文 易欢; 姚诚 张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧 陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略<br /> <br /> 10 Theory and Practice: <br /> 彭娟 陶冶; 吴子佳 雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓 王美玲; 蒋凤仪 顾东方; 周园曲 祝美梅; 阳慧 张佩闻; <br /> <br /> 11 Different Aspects: <br /> 周艺文 陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁 魏亚菲; 张毓婕 杨海容; <br /> <br /> 12 East West Comparison: <br /> 唐铭 欧蓉; 谭媛媛 刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦 义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷 徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲 袁天翼; 陈莎 陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。<br /> <br /> 13 Strategies: <br /> 吴恺 马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然 杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮 谢子熠<br /> <br /> 14 Contemporary translation Theories: <br /> Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)<br /> <br /> ==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> Ideas<br /> *literal vs. free<br /> *Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization<br /> *unit of translation<br /> *contrastive analysis<br /> *the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)<br /> *translatability vs untranslatability <br /> *SLT vs TLT relation<br /> *translation types, strategies, styles, methods<br /> *communication factors, translator role in social setting<br /> *cognitive factors<br /> *machine translation<br /> *translation quality assessment<br /> *translation ethics / manipulation etc.<br /> <br /> <br /> Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)<br /> <br /> Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.<br /> <br /> Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]<br /> <br /> =Final Exam Papers=<br /> <br /> ==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==<br /> *You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.<br /> *Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:<br /> <br /> [1] dsalkfkdsa<br /> <br /> [2] adsfadsfag<br /> <br /> But only the following way:<br /> <br /> (Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text<br /> <br /> and then<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> *Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):<br /> = = Topic = =<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Student Name, Student no. &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> = = = Abstract = = =<br /> This chapter is on ....<br /> = = = Key Words = = =<br /> Egg, Hen<br /> = = = 题目 = = =<br /> = = = 摘要 = = =<br /> = = = 关键词 = = =<br /> = = = Introduction = = =<br /> Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.<br /> = = = The Egg = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = The Hen = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = Conclusion = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = References = = =<br /> Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT <br /> <br /> ==Sample papers==<br /> You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with &quot;Sample paper&quot;.<br /> * A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories<br /> * An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications<br /> * Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy<br /> * Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View<br /> * Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish<br /> * On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functonal Equivalence&quot; Theories<br /> * Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics<br /> * The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication<br /> * Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior<br /> <br /> ==Websites to write your final exam paper on==<br /> The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).<br /> <br /> &lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;==Here you can write your Final Exam Papers==<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi, 解帆 Xie Fan, 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning, 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen, 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan， 莫南 Mo Nan]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，孟莹 Meng Ying，文偲荇 Wen Sixing， 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan，张虎 Zhang Hu]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian， 陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia， 刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，李璐伊 Li Luyi，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin]<br /> <br /> =Benefits=<br /> This course is registered as a &quot;EU Expert&quot; diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Translation_Studies&diff=110121 2020-12-11T09:38:54Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century */</p> <hr /> <div>[[Media: Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]Quicklinks: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual]<br /> <br /> Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is welcome!<br /> <br /> 欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………<br /> <br /> =Organizational Things=<br /> *Please register for the Course Wiki.<br /> *Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.<br /> <br /> Welcome Message on WeChat: 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、20级、方向）就好。Welcome to our course. I am excited to meet you on Monday online on http://bit.ly/ZOOMCOURSE (573 941 6744, course). First, there are some organizational things to get everybody joining the class.<br /> In preparation, please register with our course wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TS_INTRO and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session. <br /> Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.<br /> <br /> =Edits=<br /> Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:<br /> * Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.<br /> * Correct an earlier translation.<br /> * Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.<br /> <br /> =Material=<br /> Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.<br /> <br /> *Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013<br /> *Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991 <br /> *Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.<br /> *Chen, Fukang. &quot;Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory).&quot; (1992).<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> *Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.<br /> *Huang, Chending黄振定. &quot;文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论.&quot; 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定. &quot;翻译学是一门人文科学.&quot; 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008<br /> *Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.<br /> *Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.<br /> *Pan Wenguo 潘文国. &quot;当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题.&quot; 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> *Toury, Gideon. &quot;Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company.&quot; Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.<br /> *Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Zhao, Wei 赵巍. &quot;翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思.&quot; 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.<br /> <br /> (We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br /> <br /> '''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''<br /> <br /> Recommendations:<br /> <br /> Topic Book/Paper<br /> <br /> 1 Introduction <br /> <br /> 2 Emergence<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> <br /> 3a History of Translation <br /> *3a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.<br /> *3b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.<br /> *3c History of Chinese Translation Theories *陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 4 Early understanding <br /> *Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.<br /> *Sourcebook Bassnett, Susan and Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge, <br /> 1990.<br /> *Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br /> *Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> 5 Translation Studies<br /> *5a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980. <br /> * 5b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.<br /> *5c Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.<br /> *5d Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.<br /> <br /> 6 Translation Theories<br /> * 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.<br /> *6a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.<br /> *6b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.<br /> *6c Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.<br /> *6d TS 谭载喜. 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 7 Theory and Practise <br /> *7a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.<br /> *7b Theory and Practise Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.<br /> *7c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.<br /> *7d Theory and practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> *7e Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.<br /> <br /> 8<br /> *8a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.<br /> *8b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.<br /> *8c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.<br /> *8d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.<br /> <br /> 9 Theories<br /> *9a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.<br /> *9b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.<br /> <br /> =Main class project=<br /> Please help to edit the publication [[History of Translation Studies]].<br /> <br /> =Schedule=<br /> '''All sessions''': 1 9/21 Organizational things, 2 Emergence, 3 History, 4 Development, 5 Early literary examples, 6 early theories, 7 (Western) Theories, 8 Methods, 9 Style, 10 Translation Studies, 11 Theory and Practice, 12 Different Aspects, 13 East West comparison, 14 Strategies, 15 Contemporary Translation Theories, 16 Final Discussion <br /> <br /> ==1st Session==<br /> Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.<br /> <br /> === Homework from Session 1 due on Sep 27, 2020 ===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of a paper on Qing Translation Policies. Here is the [[20200921_trans|homework page]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200921_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!<br /> <br /> ===Homework for later===<br /> 4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. It has to be a new topic, not yet used in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.<br /> <br /> 5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.<br /> <br /> ==2nd Session: Emergence==<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 1: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation===<br /> *Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.doc|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏<br /> *Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===<br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==3rd Session: History==<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===<br /> *Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==Session 4: Development==<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> * Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.<br /> <br /> ==Session 5: ==<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Session 6: Early Theories==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 7: Western theories=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 3： 后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 4： 布拉格学派 Prague School===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 5： 目的论 Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 6： 语言学派 Linguistic School===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 8: Methods=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 1： 正说反译与反说正译 Negation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 3： 交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 4： 直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 5： 增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 6： 影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 9: Style=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==<br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu<br /> <br /> [[Media:Example.ogg]]<br /> <br /> =Session 10: Translation Studies=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability &amp; Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 11: Theory and Practice=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation=== <br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===<br /> <br /> Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]<br /> <br /> =Session 12: Different Aspects=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie&amp; Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei <br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br /> <br /> =Session 13: East West comparison=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Topic 1:严复“信、达、雅”和泰特勒三原则之比较Comparison Between Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Tytler's Three Principles===<br /> <br /> ===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===<br /> ===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> [[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century.pptx by Mo Ling]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 09:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> [[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Yuan Tianyi.doc]]<br /> <br /> ===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] --[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 14: Strategies=<br /> =Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories=<br /> =Session 16: Final Discussion=<br /> <br /> --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:52, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==<br /> 1 Emergence: <br /> 孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源<br /> <br /> 2 History: <br /> 周思庆 张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟 刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆 张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾 李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷 余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿 纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史<br /> <br /> 3 Development: <br /> 韩宛真 邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮 胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼 张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思 龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君 李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋 彭育志：圣经翻译的发展<br /> <br /> 4 Early Literary Examples: <br /> 许鹏飞 肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶 李凌月; 袁诗琦 姚佳; 邹鑫雨 曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨 肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳 周玉娟<br /> <br /> 5 Early Theories: <br /> 徐梦蝶 杨逸; 陈涵 曾心媛; 陈静静 高明珠; 文晓艺 韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇 漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺 邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试<br /> <br /> 6 (Western) Theories: <br /> 康灵凤 莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪 常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜 姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静 游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲 王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽 王源: 语言学派<br /> <br /> 7 Methods: <br /> 甘奉玉 丁代凤; 赵晓燕 张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜 谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露 司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇 李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏 刘金惺琦<br /> <br /> 8 Style: <br /> 孔祥慧 孔亚楠; 罗雨晴 娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比； 林鑫 李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖 胡慧芳<br /> <br /> 9 Translation Studies: <br /> 罗维嘉 桂一枝; 彭小玲 彭丹; 全美欣 宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文 易欢; 姚诚 张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧 陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略<br /> <br /> 10 Theory and Practice: <br /> 彭娟 陶冶; 吴子佳 雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓 王美玲; 蒋凤仪 顾东方; 周园曲 祝美梅; 阳慧 张佩闻; <br /> <br /> 11 Different Aspects: <br /> 周艺文 陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁 魏亚菲; 张毓婕 杨海容; <br /> <br /> 12 East West Comparison: <br /> 唐铭 欧蓉; 谭媛媛 刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦 义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷 徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲 袁天翼; 陈莎 陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。<br /> <br /> 13 Strategies: <br /> 吴恺 马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然 杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮 谢子熠<br /> <br /> 14 Contemporary translation Theories: <br /> Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)<br /> <br /> ==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> Ideas<br /> *literal vs. free<br /> *Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization<br /> *unit of translation<br /> *contrastive analysis<br /> *the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)<br /> *translatability vs untranslatability <br /> *SLT vs TLT relation<br /> *translation types, strategies, styles, methods<br /> *communication factors, translator role in social setting<br /> *cognitive factors<br /> *machine translation<br /> *translation quality assessment<br /> *translation ethics / manipulation etc.<br /> <br /> <br /> Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)<br /> <br /> Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.<br /> <br /> Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]<br /> <br /> =Final Exam Papers=<br /> <br /> ==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==<br /> *You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.<br /> *Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:<br /> <br /> [1] dsalkfkdsa<br /> <br /> [2] adsfadsfag<br /> <br /> But only the following way:<br /> <br /> (Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text<br /> <br /> and then<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> *Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):<br /> = = Topic = =<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Student Name, Student no. &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> = = = Abstract = = =<br /> This chapter is on ....<br /> = = = Key Words = = =<br /> Egg, Hen<br /> = = = 题目 = = =<br /> = = = 摘要 = = =<br /> = = = 关键词 = = =<br /> = = = Introduction = = =<br /> Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.<br /> = = = The Egg = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = The Hen = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = Conclusion = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = References = = =<br /> Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT <br /> <br /> ==Sample papers==<br /> You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with &quot;Sample paper&quot;.<br /> * A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories<br /> * An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications<br /> * Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy<br /> * Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View<br /> * Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish<br /> * On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functonal Equivalence&quot; Theories<br /> * Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics<br /> * The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication<br /> * Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior<br /> <br /> ==Websites to write your final exam paper on==<br /> The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).<br /> <br /> &lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;==Here you can write your Final Exam Papers==<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi, 解帆 Xie Fan, 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning, 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen, 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan， 莫南 Mo Nan]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，孟莹 Meng Ying，文偲荇 Wen Sixing， 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan，张虎 Zhang Hu]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian， 陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia， 刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，李璐伊 Li Luyi，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin]<br /> <br /> =Benefits=<br /> This course is registered as a &quot;EU Expert&quot; diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Translation_Studies&diff=110116 2020-12-11T09:35:38Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century */</p> <hr /> <div>[[Media: Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]Quicklinks: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual]<br /> <br /> Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is welcome!<br /> <br /> 欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………<br /> <br /> =Organizational Things=<br /> *Please register for the Course Wiki.<br /> *Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.<br /> <br /> Welcome Message on WeChat: 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、20级、方向）就好。Welcome to our course. I am excited to meet you on Monday online on http://bit.ly/ZOOMCOURSE (573 941 6744, course). First, there are some organizational things to get everybody joining the class.<br /> In preparation, please register with our course wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TS_INTRO and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session. <br /> Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.<br /> <br /> =Edits=<br /> Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:<br /> * Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.<br /> * Correct an earlier translation.<br /> * Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.<br /> <br /> =Material=<br /> Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.<br /> <br /> *Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013<br /> *Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991 <br /> *Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.<br /> *Chen, Fukang. &quot;Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory).&quot; (1992).<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> *Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.<br /> *Huang, Chending黄振定. &quot;文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论.&quot; 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定. &quot;翻译学是一门人文科学.&quot; 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008<br /> *Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.<br /> *Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.<br /> *Pan Wenguo 潘文国. &quot;当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题.&quot; 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> *Toury, Gideon. &quot;Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company.&quot; Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.<br /> *Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Zhao, Wei 赵巍. &quot;翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思.&quot; 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.<br /> <br /> (We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br /> <br /> '''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''<br /> <br /> Recommendations:<br /> <br /> Topic Book/Paper<br /> <br /> 1 Introduction <br /> <br /> 2 Emergence<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> <br /> 3a History of Translation <br /> *3a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.<br /> *3b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.<br /> *3c History of Chinese Translation Theories *陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 4 Early understanding <br /> *Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.<br /> *Sourcebook Bassnett, Susan and Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge, <br /> 1990.<br /> *Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br /> *Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> 5 Translation Studies<br /> *5a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980. <br /> * 5b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.<br /> *5c Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.<br /> *5d Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.<br /> <br /> 6 Translation Theories<br /> * 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.<br /> *6a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.<br /> *6b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.<br /> *6c Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.<br /> *6d TS 谭载喜. 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 7 Theory and Practise <br /> *7a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.<br /> *7b Theory and Practise Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.<br /> *7c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.<br /> *7d Theory and practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> *7e Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.<br /> <br /> 8<br /> *8a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.<br /> *8b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.<br /> *8c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.<br /> *8d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.<br /> <br /> 9 Theories<br /> *9a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.<br /> *9b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.<br /> <br /> =Main class project=<br /> Please help to edit the publication [[History of Translation Studies]].<br /> <br /> =Schedule=<br /> '''All sessions''': 1 9/21 Organizational things, 2 Emergence, 3 History, 4 Development, 5 Early literary examples, 6 early theories, 7 (Western) Theories, 8 Methods, 9 Style, 10 Translation Studies, 11 Theory and Practice, 12 Different Aspects, 13 East West comparison, 14 Strategies, 15 Contemporary Translation Theories, 16 Final Discussion <br /> <br /> ==1st Session==<br /> Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.<br /> <br /> === Homework from Session 1 due on Sep 27, 2020 ===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of a paper on Qing Translation Policies. Here is the [[20200921_trans|homework page]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200921_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!<br /> <br /> ===Homework for later===<br /> 4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. It has to be a new topic, not yet used in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.<br /> <br /> 5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.<br /> <br /> ==2nd Session: Emergence==<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 1: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation===<br /> *Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.doc|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏<br /> *Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===<br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==3rd Session: History==<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===<br /> *Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==Session 4: Development==<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> * Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.<br /> <br /> ==Session 5: ==<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Session 6: Early Theories==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 7: Western theories=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 3： 后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 4： 布拉格学派 Prague School===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 5： 目的论 Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 6： 语言学派 Linguistic School===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 8: Methods=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 1： 正说反译与反说正译 Negation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 3： 交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 4： 直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 5： 增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 6： 影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 9: Style=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==<br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu<br /> <br /> [[Media:Example.ogg]]<br /> <br /> =Session 10: Translation Studies=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability &amp; Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 11: Theory and Practice=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation=== <br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===<br /> <br /> Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]<br /> <br /> =Session 12: Different Aspects=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie&amp; Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei <br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br /> <br /> =Session 13: East West comparison=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Topic 1:严复“信、达、雅”和泰特勒三原则之比较Comparison Between Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Tytler's Three Principles===<br /> <br /> ===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===<br /> ===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> [[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century.pptx]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 09:35, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> [[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Yuan Tianyi.doc]]<br /> <br /> ===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] --[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 14: Strategies=<br /> =Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories=<br /> =Session 16: Final Discussion=<br /> <br /> --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:52, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==<br /> 1 Emergence: <br /> 孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源<br /> <br /> 2 History: <br /> 周思庆 张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟 刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆 张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾 李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷 余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿 纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史<br /> <br /> 3 Development: <br /> 韩宛真 邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮 胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼 张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思 龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君 李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋 彭育志：圣经翻译的发展<br /> <br /> 4 Early Literary Examples: <br /> 许鹏飞 肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶 李凌月; 袁诗琦 姚佳; 邹鑫雨 曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨 肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳 周玉娟<br /> <br /> 5 Early Theories: <br /> 徐梦蝶 杨逸; 陈涵 曾心媛; 陈静静 高明珠; 文晓艺 韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇 漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺 邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试<br /> <br /> 6 (Western) Theories: <br /> 康灵凤 莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪 常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜 姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静 游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲 王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽 王源: 语言学派<br /> <br /> 7 Methods: <br /> 甘奉玉 丁代凤; 赵晓燕 张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜 谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露 司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇 李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏 刘金惺琦<br /> <br /> 8 Style: <br /> 孔祥慧 孔亚楠; 罗雨晴 娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比； 林鑫 李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖 胡慧芳<br /> <br /> 9 Translation Studies: <br /> 罗维嘉 桂一枝; 彭小玲 彭丹; 全美欣 宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文 易欢; 姚诚 张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧 陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略<br /> <br /> 10 Theory and Practice: <br /> 彭娟 陶冶; 吴子佳 雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓 王美玲; 蒋凤仪 顾东方; 周园曲 祝美梅; 阳慧 张佩闻; <br /> <br /> 11 Different Aspects: <br /> 周艺文 陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁 魏亚菲; 张毓婕 杨海容; <br /> <br /> 12 East West Comparison: <br /> 唐铭 欧蓉; 谭媛媛 刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦 义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷 徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲 袁天翼; 陈莎 陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。<br /> <br /> 13 Strategies: <br /> 吴恺 马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然 杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮 谢子熠<br /> <br /> 14 Contemporary translation Theories: <br /> Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)<br /> <br /> ==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> Ideas<br /> *literal vs. free<br /> *Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization<br /> *unit of translation<br /> *contrastive analysis<br /> *the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)<br /> *translatability vs untranslatability <br /> *SLT vs TLT relation<br /> *translation types, strategies, styles, methods<br /> *communication factors, translator role in social setting<br /> *cognitive factors<br /> *machine translation<br /> *translation quality assessment<br /> *translation ethics / manipulation etc.<br /> <br /> <br /> Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)<br /> <br /> Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.<br /> <br /> Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]<br /> <br /> =Final Exam Papers=<br /> <br /> ==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==<br /> *You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.<br /> *Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:<br /> <br /> [1] dsalkfkdsa<br /> <br /> [2] adsfadsfag<br /> <br /> But only the following way:<br /> <br /> (Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text<br /> <br /> and then<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> *Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):<br /> = = Topic = =<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Student Name, Student no. &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> = = = Abstract = = =<br /> This chapter is on ....<br /> = = = Key Words = = =<br /> Egg, Hen<br /> = = = 题目 = = =<br /> = = = 摘要 = = =<br /> = = = 关键词 = = =<br /> = = = Introduction = = =<br /> Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.<br /> = = = The Egg = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = The Hen = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = Conclusion = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = References = = =<br /> Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT <br /> <br /> ==Sample papers==<br /> You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with &quot;Sample paper&quot;.<br /> * A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories<br /> * An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications<br /> * Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy<br /> * Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View<br /> * Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish<br /> * On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functonal Equivalence&quot; Theories<br /> * Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics<br /> * The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication<br /> * Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior<br /> <br /> ==Websites to write your final exam paper on==<br /> The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).<br /> <br /> &lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;==Here you can write your Final Exam Papers==<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi, 解帆 Xie Fan, 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning, 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen, 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan， 莫南 Mo Nan]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，孟莹 Meng Ying，文偲荇 Wen Sixing， 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan，张虎 Zhang Hu]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian， 陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia， 刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，李璐伊 Li Luyi，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin]<br /> <br /> =Benefits=<br /> This course is registered as a &quot;EU Expert&quot; diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Handout_of_comparison_of_Chinese_and_Western_translation_theories_since_the_mid-term_of_the_20th_century_by_Yuan_Tianyi.doc&diff=110115 2020-12-11T09:33:47Z

<p>Mo Ling: </p> <hr /> <div></div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Translation_Studies&diff=110114 2020-12-11T09:33:01Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century */</p> <hr /> <div>[[Media: Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]Quicklinks: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual]<br /> <br /> Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is welcome!<br /> <br /> 欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………<br /> <br /> =Organizational Things=<br /> *Please register for the Course Wiki.<br /> *Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.<br /> <br /> Welcome Message on WeChat: 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、20级、方向）就好。Welcome to our course. I am excited to meet you on Monday online on http://bit.ly/ZOOMCOURSE (573 941 6744, course). First, there are some organizational things to get everybody joining the class.<br /> In preparation, please register with our course wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TS_INTRO and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session. <br /> Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.<br /> <br /> =Edits=<br /> Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:<br /> * Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.<br /> * Correct an earlier translation.<br /> * Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.<br /> <br /> =Material=<br /> Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.<br /> <br /> *Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013<br /> *Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991 <br /> *Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.<br /> *Chen, Fukang. &quot;Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory).&quot; (1992).<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> *Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.<br /> *Huang, Chending黄振定. &quot;文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论.&quot; 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定. &quot;翻译学是一门人文科学.&quot; 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008<br /> *Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.<br /> *Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.<br /> *Pan Wenguo 潘文国. &quot;当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题.&quot; 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> *Toury, Gideon. &quot;Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company.&quot; Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.<br /> *Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Zhao, Wei 赵巍. &quot;翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思.&quot; 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.<br /> <br /> (We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br /> <br /> '''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''<br /> <br /> Recommendations:<br /> <br /> Topic Book/Paper<br /> <br /> 1 Introduction <br /> <br /> 2 Emergence<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> <br /> 3a History of Translation <br /> *3a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.<br /> *3b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.<br /> *3c History of Chinese Translation Theories *陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 4 Early understanding <br /> *Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.<br /> *Sourcebook Bassnett, Susan and Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge, <br /> 1990.<br /> *Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br /> *Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> 5 Translation Studies<br /> *5a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980. <br /> * 5b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.<br /> *5c Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.<br /> *5d Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.<br /> <br /> 6 Translation Theories<br /> * 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.<br /> *6a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.<br /> *6b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.<br /> *6c Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.<br /> *6d TS 谭载喜. 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 7 Theory and Practise <br /> *7a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.<br /> *7b Theory and Practise Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.<br /> *7c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.<br /> *7d Theory and practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> *7e Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.<br /> <br /> 8<br /> *8a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.<br /> *8b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.<br /> *8c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.<br /> *8d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.<br /> <br /> 9 Theories<br /> *9a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.<br /> *9b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.<br /> <br /> =Main class project=<br /> Please help to edit the publication [[History of Translation Studies]].<br /> <br /> =Schedule=<br /> '''All sessions''': 1 9/21 Organizational things, 2 Emergence, 3 History, 4 Development, 5 Early literary examples, 6 early theories, 7 (Western) Theories, 8 Methods, 9 Style, 10 Translation Studies, 11 Theory and Practice, 12 Different Aspects, 13 East West comparison, 14 Strategies, 15 Contemporary Translation Theories, 16 Final Discussion <br /> <br /> ==1st Session==<br /> Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.<br /> <br /> === Homework from Session 1 due on Sep 27, 2020 ===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of a paper on Qing Translation Policies. Here is the [[20200921_trans|homework page]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200921_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!<br /> <br /> ===Homework for later===<br /> 4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. It has to be a new topic, not yet used in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.<br /> <br /> 5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.<br /> <br /> ==2nd Session: Emergence==<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 1: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation===<br /> *Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.doc|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏<br /> *Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===<br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==3rd Session: History==<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===<br /> *Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==Session 4: Development==<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> * Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.<br /> <br /> ==Session 5: ==<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Session 6: Early Theories==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 7: Western theories=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 3： 后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 4： 布拉格学派 Prague School===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 5： 目的论 Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 6： 语言学派 Linguistic School===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 8: Methods=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 1： 正说反译与反说正译 Negation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 3： 交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 4： 直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 5： 增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 6： 影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 9: Style=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==<br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu<br /> <br /> [[Media:Example.ogg]]<br /> <br /> =Session 10: Translation Studies=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability &amp; Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 11: Theory and Practice=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation=== <br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===<br /> <br /> Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]<br /> <br /> =Session 12: Different Aspects=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie&amp; Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei <br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br /> <br /> =Session 13: East West comparison=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Topic 1:严复“信、达、雅”和泰特勒三原则之比较Comparison Between Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Tytler's Three Principles===<br /> <br /> ===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===<br /> ===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> [[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Mo Ling.pptx]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 09:32, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> [[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Yuan Tianyi.doc]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 09:32, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Yuan Tianyi<br /> <br /> ===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] --[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 14: Strategies=<br /> =Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories=<br /> =Session 16: Final Discussion=<br /> <br /> --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:52, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==<br /> 1 Emergence: <br /> 孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源<br /> <br /> 2 History: <br /> 周思庆 张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟 刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆 张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾 李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷 余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿 纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史<br /> <br /> 3 Development: <br /> 韩宛真 邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮 胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼 张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思 龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君 李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋 彭育志：圣经翻译的发展<br /> <br /> 4 Early Literary Examples: <br /> 许鹏飞 肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶 李凌月; 袁诗琦 姚佳; 邹鑫雨 曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨 肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳 周玉娟<br /> <br /> 5 Early Theories: <br /> 徐梦蝶 杨逸; 陈涵 曾心媛; 陈静静 高明珠; 文晓艺 韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇 漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺 邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试<br /> <br /> 6 (Western) Theories: <br /> 康灵凤 莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪 常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜 姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静 游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲 王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽 王源: 语言学派<br /> <br /> 7 Methods: <br /> 甘奉玉 丁代凤; 赵晓燕 张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜 谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露 司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇 李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏 刘金惺琦<br /> <br /> 8 Style: <br /> 孔祥慧 孔亚楠; 罗雨晴 娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比； 林鑫 李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖 胡慧芳<br /> <br /> 9 Translation Studies: <br /> 罗维嘉 桂一枝; 彭小玲 彭丹; 全美欣 宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文 易欢; 姚诚 张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧 陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略<br /> <br /> 10 Theory and Practice: <br /> 彭娟 陶冶; 吴子佳 雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓 王美玲; 蒋凤仪 顾东方; 周园曲 祝美梅; 阳慧 张佩闻; <br /> <br /> 11 Different Aspects: <br /> 周艺文 陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁 魏亚菲; 张毓婕 杨海容; <br /> <br /> 12 East West Comparison: <br /> 唐铭 欧蓉; 谭媛媛 刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦 义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷 徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲 袁天翼; 陈莎 陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。<br /> <br /> 13 Strategies: <br /> 吴恺 马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然 杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮 谢子熠<br /> <br /> 14 Contemporary translation Theories: <br /> Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)<br /> <br /> ==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> Ideas<br /> *literal vs. free<br /> *Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization<br /> *unit of translation<br /> *contrastive analysis<br /> *the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)<br /> *translatability vs untranslatability <br /> *SLT vs TLT relation<br /> *translation types, strategies, styles, methods<br /> *communication factors, translator role in social setting<br /> *cognitive factors<br /> *machine translation<br /> *translation quality assessment<br /> *translation ethics / manipulation etc.<br /> <br /> <br /> Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)<br /> <br /> Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.<br /> <br /> Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]<br /> <br /> =Final Exam Papers=<br /> <br /> ==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==<br /> *You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.<br /> *Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:<br /> <br /> [1] dsalkfkdsa<br /> <br /> [2] adsfadsfag<br /> <br /> But only the following way:<br /> <br /> (Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text<br /> <br /> and then<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> *Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):<br /> = = Topic = =<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Student Name, Student no. &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> = = = Abstract = = =<br /> This chapter is on ....<br /> = = = Key Words = = =<br /> Egg, Hen<br /> = = = 题目 = = =<br /> = = = 摘要 = = =<br /> = = = 关键词 = = =<br /> = = = Introduction = = =<br /> Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.<br /> = = = The Egg = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = The Hen = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = Conclusion = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = References = = =<br /> Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT <br /> <br /> ==Sample papers==<br /> You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with &quot;Sample paper&quot;.<br /> * A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories<br /> * An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications<br /> * Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy<br /> * Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View<br /> * Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish<br /> * On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functonal Equivalence&quot; Theories<br /> * Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics<br /> * The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication<br /> * Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior<br /> <br /> ==Websites to write your final exam paper on==<br /> The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).<br /> <br /> &lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;==Here you can write your Final Exam Papers==<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi, 解帆 Xie Fan, 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning, 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen, 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan， 莫南 Mo Nan]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，孟莹 Meng Ying，文偲荇 Wen Sixing， 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan，张虎 Zhang Hu]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian， 陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia， 刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，李璐伊 Li Luyi，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin]<br /> <br /> =Benefits=<br /> This course is registered as a &quot;EU Expert&quot; diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Translation_Studies&diff=110111 2020-12-11T09:25:08Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century */</p> <hr /> <div>[[Media: Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]Quicklinks: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual]<br /> <br /> Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is welcome!<br /> <br /> 欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………<br /> <br /> =Organizational Things=<br /> *Please register for the Course Wiki.<br /> *Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.<br /> <br /> Welcome Message on WeChat: 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、20级、方向）就好。Welcome to our course. I am excited to meet you on Monday online on http://bit.ly/ZOOMCOURSE (573 941 6744, course). First, there are some organizational things to get everybody joining the class.<br /> In preparation, please register with our course wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TS_INTRO and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session. <br /> Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.<br /> <br /> =Edits=<br /> Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:<br /> * Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.<br /> * Correct an earlier translation.<br /> * Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.<br /> <br /> =Material=<br /> Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.<br /> <br /> *Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013<br /> *Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991 <br /> *Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.<br /> *Chen, Fukang. &quot;Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory).&quot; (1992).<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> *Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.<br /> *Huang, Chending黄振定. &quot;文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论.&quot; 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定. &quot;翻译学是一门人文科学.&quot; 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008<br /> *Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.<br /> *Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.<br /> *Pan Wenguo 潘文国. &quot;当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题.&quot; 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> *Toury, Gideon. &quot;Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company.&quot; Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.<br /> *Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Zhao, Wei 赵巍. &quot;翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思.&quot; 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.<br /> <br /> (We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br /> <br /> '''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''<br /> <br /> Recommendations:<br /> <br /> Topic Book/Paper<br /> <br /> 1 Introduction <br /> <br /> 2 Emergence<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> <br /> 3a History of Translation <br /> *3a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.<br /> *3b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.<br /> *3c History of Chinese Translation Theories *陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 4 Early understanding <br /> *Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.<br /> *Sourcebook Bassnett, Susan and Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge, <br /> 1990.<br /> *Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br /> *Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> 5 Translation Studies<br /> *5a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980. <br /> * 5b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.<br /> *5c Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.<br /> *5d Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.<br /> <br /> 6 Translation Theories<br /> * 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.<br /> *6a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.<br /> *6b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.<br /> *6c Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.<br /> *6d TS 谭载喜. 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 7 Theory and Practise <br /> *7a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.<br /> *7b Theory and Practise Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.<br /> *7c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.<br /> *7d Theory and practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> *7e Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.<br /> <br /> 8<br /> *8a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.<br /> *8b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.<br /> *8c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.<br /> *8d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.<br /> <br /> 9 Theories<br /> *9a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.<br /> *9b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.<br /> <br /> =Main class project=<br /> Please help to edit the publication [[History of Translation Studies]].<br /> <br /> =Schedule=<br /> '''All sessions''': 1 9/21 Organizational things, 2 Emergence, 3 History, 4 Development, 5 Early literary examples, 6 early theories, 7 (Western) Theories, 8 Methods, 9 Style, 10 Translation Studies, 11 Theory and Practice, 12 Different Aspects, 13 East West comparison, 14 Strategies, 15 Contemporary Translation Theories, 16 Final Discussion <br /> <br /> ==1st Session==<br /> Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.<br /> <br /> === Homework from Session 1 due on Sep 27, 2020 ===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of a paper on Qing Translation Policies. Here is the [[20200921_trans|homework page]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200921_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!<br /> <br /> ===Homework for later===<br /> 4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. It has to be a new topic, not yet used in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.<br /> <br /> 5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.<br /> <br /> ==2nd Session: Emergence==<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 1: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation===<br /> *Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.doc|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏<br /> *Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===<br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==3rd Session: History==<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===<br /> *Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==Session 4: Development==<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> * Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.<br /> <br /> ==Session 5: ==<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Session 6: Early Theories==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 7: Western theories=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 3： 后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 4： 布拉格学派 Prague School===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 5： 目的论 Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 6： 语言学派 Linguistic School===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 8: Methods=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 1： 正说反译与反说正译 Negation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 3： 交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 4： 直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 5： 增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 6： 影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 9: Style=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==<br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu<br /> <br /> [[Media:Example.ogg]]<br /> <br /> =Session 10: Translation Studies=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability &amp; Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 11: Theory and Practice=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation=== <br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===<br /> <br /> Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]<br /> <br /> =Session 12: Different Aspects=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie&amp; Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei <br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br /> <br /> =Session 13: East West comparison=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Topic 1:严复“信、达、雅”和泰特勒三原则之比较Comparison Between Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Tytler's Three Principles===<br /> <br /> ===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===<br /> ===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> [[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Mo Ling.pptx]]<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century.doc]] by Yuan Tianyi<br /> <br /> ===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] --[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 14: Strategies=<br /> =Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories=<br /> =Session 16: Final Discussion=<br /> <br /> --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:52, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==<br /> 1 Emergence: <br /> 孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源<br /> <br /> 2 History: <br /> 周思庆 张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟 刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆 张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾 李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷 余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿 纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史<br /> <br /> 3 Development: <br /> 韩宛真 邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮 胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼 张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思 龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君 李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋 彭育志：圣经翻译的发展<br /> <br /> 4 Early Literary Examples: <br /> 许鹏飞 肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶 李凌月; 袁诗琦 姚佳; 邹鑫雨 曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨 肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳 周玉娟<br /> <br /> 5 Early Theories: <br /> 徐梦蝶 杨逸; 陈涵 曾心媛; 陈静静 高明珠; 文晓艺 韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇 漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺 邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试<br /> <br /> 6 (Western) Theories: <br /> 康灵凤 莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪 常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜 姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静 游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲 王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽 王源: 语言学派<br /> <br /> 7 Methods: <br /> 甘奉玉 丁代凤; 赵晓燕 张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜 谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露 司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇 李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏 刘金惺琦<br /> <br /> 8 Style: <br /> 孔祥慧 孔亚楠; 罗雨晴 娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比； 林鑫 李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖 胡慧芳<br /> <br /> 9 Translation Studies: <br /> 罗维嘉 桂一枝; 彭小玲 彭丹; 全美欣 宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文 易欢; 姚诚 张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧 陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略<br /> <br /> 10 Theory and Practice: <br /> 彭娟 陶冶; 吴子佳 雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓 王美玲; 蒋凤仪 顾东方; 周园曲 祝美梅; 阳慧 张佩闻; <br /> <br /> 11 Different Aspects: <br /> 周艺文 陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁 魏亚菲; 张毓婕 杨海容; <br /> <br /> 12 East West Comparison: <br /> 唐铭 欧蓉; 谭媛媛 刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦 义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷 徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲 袁天翼; 陈莎 陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。<br /> <br /> 13 Strategies: <br /> 吴恺 马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然 杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮 谢子熠<br /> <br /> 14 Contemporary translation Theories: <br /> Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)<br /> <br /> ==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> Ideas<br /> *literal vs. free<br /> *Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization<br /> *unit of translation<br /> *contrastive analysis<br /> *the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)<br /> *translatability vs untranslatability <br /> *SLT vs TLT relation<br /> *translation types, strategies, styles, methods<br /> *communication factors, translator role in social setting<br /> *cognitive factors<br /> *machine translation<br /> *translation quality assessment<br /> *translation ethics / manipulation etc.<br /> <br /> <br /> Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)<br /> <br /> Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.<br /> <br /> Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]<br /> <br /> =Final Exam Papers=<br /> <br /> ==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==<br /> *You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.<br /> *Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:<br /> <br /> [1] dsalkfkdsa<br /> <br /> [2] adsfadsfag<br /> <br /> But only the following way:<br /> <br /> (Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text<br /> <br /> and then<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> *Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):<br /> = = Topic = =<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Student Name, Student no. &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> = = = Abstract = = =<br /> This chapter is on ....<br /> = = = Key Words = = =<br /> Egg, Hen<br /> = = = 题目 = = =<br /> = = = 摘要 = = =<br /> = = = 关键词 = = =<br /> = = = Introduction = = =<br /> Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.<br /> = = = The Egg = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = The Hen = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = Conclusion = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = References = = =<br /> Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT <br /> <br /> ==Sample papers==<br /> You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with &quot;Sample paper&quot;.<br /> * A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories<br /> * An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications<br /> * Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy<br /> * Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View<br /> * Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish<br /> * On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functonal Equivalence&quot; Theories<br /> * Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics<br /> * The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication<br /> * Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior<br /> <br /> ==Websites to write your final exam paper on==<br /> The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).<br /> <br /> &lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;==Here you can write your Final Exam Papers==<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi, 解帆 Xie Fan, 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning, 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen, 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan， 莫南 Mo Nan]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，孟莹 Meng Ying，文偲荇 Wen Sixing， 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan，张虎 Zhang Hu]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian， 陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia， 刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，李璐伊 Li Luyi，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin]<br /> <br /> =Benefits=<br /> This course is registered as a &quot;EU Expert&quot; diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Comparison_of_Chinese_and_Western_translation_theories_since_the_mid-term_of_the_20th_century_by_Mo_Ling.pptx&diff=110108 2020-12-11T09:22:28Z

<p>Mo Ling: </p> <hr /> <div></div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Translation_Studies&diff=110107 2020-12-11T09:21:44Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century */</p> <hr /> <div>[[Media: Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]Quicklinks: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual]<br /> <br /> Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is welcome!<br /> <br /> 欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………<br /> <br /> =Organizational Things=<br /> *Please register for the Course Wiki.<br /> *Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.<br /> <br /> Welcome Message on WeChat: 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、20级、方向）就好。Welcome to our course. I am excited to meet you on Monday online on http://bit.ly/ZOOMCOURSE (573 941 6744, course). First, there are some organizational things to get everybody joining the class.<br /> In preparation, please register with our course wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TS_INTRO and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session. <br /> Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.<br /> <br /> =Edits=<br /> Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:<br /> * Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.<br /> * Correct an earlier translation.<br /> * Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.<br /> <br /> =Material=<br /> Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.<br /> <br /> *Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013<br /> *Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991 <br /> *Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.<br /> *Chen, Fukang. &quot;Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory).&quot; (1992).<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> *Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.<br /> *Huang, Chending黄振定. &quot;文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论.&quot; 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定. &quot;翻译学是一门人文科学.&quot; 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008<br /> *Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.<br /> *Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.<br /> *Pan Wenguo 潘文国. &quot;当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题.&quot; 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> *Toury, Gideon. &quot;Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company.&quot; Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.<br /> *Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Zhao, Wei 赵巍. &quot;翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思.&quot; 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.<br /> <br /> (We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br /> <br /> '''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''<br /> <br /> Recommendations:<br /> <br /> Topic Book/Paper<br /> <br /> 1 Introduction <br /> <br /> 2 Emergence<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> <br /> 3a History of Translation <br /> *3a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.<br /> *3b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.<br /> *3c History of Chinese Translation Theories *陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 4 Early understanding <br /> *Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.<br /> *Sourcebook Bassnett, Susan and Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge, <br /> 1990.<br /> *Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br /> *Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> 5 Translation Studies<br /> *5a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980. <br /> * 5b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.<br /> *5c Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.<br /> *5d Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.<br /> <br /> 6 Translation Theories<br /> * 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.<br /> *6a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.<br /> *6b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.<br /> *6c Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.<br /> *6d TS 谭载喜. 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 7 Theory and Practise <br /> *7a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.<br /> *7b Theory and Practise Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.<br /> *7c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.<br /> *7d Theory and practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> *7e Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.<br /> <br /> 8<br /> *8a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.<br /> *8b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.<br /> *8c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.<br /> *8d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.<br /> <br /> 9 Theories<br /> *9a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.<br /> *9b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.<br /> <br /> =Main class project=<br /> Please help to edit the publication [[History of Translation Studies]].<br /> <br /> =Schedule=<br /> '''All sessions''': 1 9/21 Organizational things, 2 Emergence, 3 History, 4 Development, 5 Early literary examples, 6 early theories, 7 (Western) Theories, 8 Methods, 9 Style, 10 Translation Studies, 11 Theory and Practice, 12 Different Aspects, 13 East West comparison, 14 Strategies, 15 Contemporary Translation Theories, 16 Final Discussion <br /> <br /> ==1st Session==<br /> Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.<br /> <br /> === Homework from Session 1 due on Sep 27, 2020 ===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of a paper on Qing Translation Policies. Here is the [[20200921_trans|homework page]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200921_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!<br /> <br /> ===Homework for later===<br /> 4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. It has to be a new topic, not yet used in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.<br /> <br /> 5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.<br /> <br /> ==2nd Session: Emergence==<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 1: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation===<br /> *Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.doc|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏<br /> *Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===<br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==3rd Session: History==<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===<br /> *Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==Session 4: Development==<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> * Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.<br /> <br /> ==Session 5: ==<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Session 6: Early Theories==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 7: Western theories=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 3： 后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 4： 布拉格学派 Prague School===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 5： 目的论 Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 6： 语言学派 Linguistic School===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 8: Methods=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 1： 正说反译与反说正译 Negation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 3： 交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 4： 直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 5： 增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 6： 影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 9: Style=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==<br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu<br /> <br /> [[Media:Example.ogg]]<br /> <br /> =Session 10: Translation Studies=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability &amp; Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 11: Theory and Practice=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation=== <br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===<br /> <br /> Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]<br /> <br /> =Session 12: Different Aspects=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie&amp; Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei <br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br /> <br /> =Session 13: East West comparison=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Topic 1:严复“信、达、雅”和泰特勒三原则之比较Comparison Between Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Tytler's Three Principles===<br /> <br /> ===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===<br /> ===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> [[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===<br /> <br /> [[Media:comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Mo Ling.pptx]]<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century.doc]] by Yuan Tianyi<br /> <br /> ===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] --[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 14: Strategies=<br /> =Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories=<br /> =Session 16: Final Discussion=<br /> <br /> --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:52, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==<br /> 1 Emergence: <br /> 孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源<br /> <br /> 2 History: <br /> 周思庆 张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟 刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆 张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾 李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷 余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿 纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史<br /> <br /> 3 Development: <br /> 韩宛真 邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮 胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼 张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思 龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君 李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋 彭育志：圣经翻译的发展<br /> <br /> 4 Early Literary Examples: <br /> 许鹏飞 肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶 李凌月; 袁诗琦 姚佳; 邹鑫雨 曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨 肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳 周玉娟<br /> <br /> 5 Early Theories: <br /> 徐梦蝶 杨逸; 陈涵 曾心媛; 陈静静 高明珠; 文晓艺 韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇 漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺 邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试<br /> <br /> 6 (Western) Theories: <br /> 康灵凤 莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪 常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜 姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静 游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲 王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽 王源: 语言学派<br /> <br /> 7 Methods: <br /> 甘奉玉 丁代凤; 赵晓燕 张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜 谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露 司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇 李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏 刘金惺琦<br /> <br /> 8 Style: <br /> 孔祥慧 孔亚楠; 罗雨晴 娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比； 林鑫 李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖 胡慧芳<br /> <br /> 9 Translation Studies: <br /> 罗维嘉 桂一枝; 彭小玲 彭丹; 全美欣 宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文 易欢; 姚诚 张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧 陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略<br /> <br /> 10 Theory and Practice: <br /> 彭娟 陶冶; 吴子佳 雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓 王美玲; 蒋凤仪 顾东方; 周园曲 祝美梅; 阳慧 张佩闻; <br /> <br /> 11 Different Aspects: <br /> 周艺文 陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁 魏亚菲; 张毓婕 杨海容; <br /> <br /> 12 East West Comparison: <br /> 唐铭 欧蓉; 谭媛媛 刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦 义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷 徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲 袁天翼; 陈莎 陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。<br /> <br /> 13 Strategies: <br /> 吴恺 马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然 杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮 谢子熠<br /> <br /> 14 Contemporary translation Theories: <br /> Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)<br /> <br /> ==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> Ideas<br /> *literal vs. free<br /> *Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization<br /> *unit of translation<br /> *contrastive analysis<br /> *the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)<br /> *translatability vs untranslatability <br /> *SLT vs TLT relation<br /> *translation types, strategies, styles, methods<br /> *communication factors, translator role in social setting<br /> *cognitive factors<br /> *machine translation<br /> *translation quality assessment<br /> *translation ethics / manipulation etc.<br /> <br /> <br /> Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)<br /> <br /> Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.<br /> <br /> Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]<br /> <br /> =Final Exam Papers=<br /> <br /> ==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==<br /> *You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.<br /> *Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:<br /> <br /> [1] dsalkfkdsa<br /> <br /> [2] adsfadsfag<br /> <br /> But only the following way:<br /> <br /> (Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text<br /> <br /> and then<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> *Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):<br /> = = Topic = =<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Student Name, Student no. &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> = = = Abstract = = =<br /> This chapter is on ....<br /> = = = Key Words = = =<br /> Egg, Hen<br /> = = = 题目 = = =<br /> = = = 摘要 = = =<br /> = = = 关键词 = = =<br /> = = = Introduction = = =<br /> Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.<br /> = = = The Egg = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = The Hen = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = Conclusion = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = References = = =<br /> Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT <br /> <br /> ==Sample papers==<br /> You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with &quot;Sample paper&quot;.<br /> * A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories<br /> * An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications<br /> * Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy<br /> * Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View<br /> * Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish<br /> * On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functonal Equivalence&quot; Theories<br /> * Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics<br /> * The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication<br /> * Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior<br /> <br /> ==Websites to write your final exam paper on==<br /> The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).<br /> <br /> &lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;==Here you can write your Final Exam Papers==<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi, 解帆 Xie Fan, 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning, 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen, 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan， 莫南 Mo Nan]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，孟莹 Meng Ying，文偲荇 Wen Sixing， 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan，张虎 Zhang Hu]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian， 陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia， 刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，李璐伊 Li Luyi，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin]<br /> <br /> =Benefits=<br /> This course is registered as a &quot;EU Expert&quot; diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Translation_Studies&diff=110106 2020-12-11T09:20:59Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century */</p> <hr /> <div>[[Media: Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]Quicklinks: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual]<br /> <br /> Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is welcome!<br /> <br /> 欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………<br /> <br /> =Organizational Things=<br /> *Please register for the Course Wiki.<br /> *Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.<br /> <br /> Welcome Message on WeChat: 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、20级、方向）就好。Welcome to our course. I am excited to meet you on Monday online on http://bit.ly/ZOOMCOURSE (573 941 6744, course). First, there are some organizational things to get everybody joining the class.<br /> In preparation, please register with our course wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TS_INTRO and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session. <br /> Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.<br /> <br /> =Edits=<br /> Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:<br /> * Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.<br /> * Correct an earlier translation.<br /> * Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.<br /> <br /> =Material=<br /> Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.<br /> <br /> *Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013<br /> *Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991 <br /> *Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.<br /> *Chen, Fukang. &quot;Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory).&quot; (1992).<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> *Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.<br /> *Huang, Chending黄振定. &quot;文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论.&quot; 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定. &quot;翻译学是一门人文科学.&quot; 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008<br /> *Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.<br /> *Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.<br /> *Pan Wenguo 潘文国. &quot;当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题.&quot; 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> *Toury, Gideon. &quot;Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company.&quot; Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.<br /> *Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Zhao, Wei 赵巍. &quot;翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思.&quot; 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.<br /> <br /> (We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br /> <br /> '''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''<br /> <br /> Recommendations:<br /> <br /> Topic Book/Paper<br /> <br /> 1 Introduction <br /> <br /> 2 Emergence<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> <br /> 3a History of Translation <br /> *3a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.<br /> *3b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.<br /> *3c History of Chinese Translation Theories *陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 4 Early understanding <br /> *Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.<br /> *Sourcebook Bassnett, Susan and Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge, <br /> 1990.<br /> *Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br /> *Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> 5 Translation Studies<br /> *5a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980. <br /> * 5b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.<br /> *5c Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.<br /> *5d Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.<br /> <br /> 6 Translation Theories<br /> * 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.<br /> *6a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.<br /> *6b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.<br /> *6c Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.<br /> *6d TS 谭载喜. 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 7 Theory and Practise <br /> *7a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.<br /> *7b Theory and Practise Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.<br /> *7c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.<br /> *7d Theory and practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> *7e Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.<br /> <br /> 8<br /> *8a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.<br /> *8b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.<br /> *8c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.<br /> *8d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.<br /> <br /> 9 Theories<br /> *9a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.<br /> *9b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.<br /> <br /> =Main class project=<br /> Please help to edit the publication [[History of Translation Studies]].<br /> <br /> =Schedule=<br /> '''All sessions''': 1 9/21 Organizational things, 2 Emergence, 3 History, 4 Development, 5 Early literary examples, 6 early theories, 7 (Western) Theories, 8 Methods, 9 Style, 10 Translation Studies, 11 Theory and Practice, 12 Different Aspects, 13 East West comparison, 14 Strategies, 15 Contemporary Translation Theories, 16 Final Discussion <br /> <br /> ==1st Session==<br /> Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.<br /> <br /> === Homework from Session 1 due on Sep 27, 2020 ===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of a paper on Qing Translation Policies. Here is the [[20200921_trans|homework page]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200921_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!<br /> <br /> ===Homework for later===<br /> 4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. It has to be a new topic, not yet used in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.<br /> <br /> 5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.<br /> <br /> ==2nd Session: Emergence==<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 1: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation===<br /> *Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.doc|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏<br /> *Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===<br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==3rd Session: History==<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===<br /> *Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==Session 4: Development==<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> * Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.<br /> <br /> ==Session 5: ==<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Session 6: Early Theories==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 7: Western theories=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 3： 后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 4： 布拉格学派 Prague School===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 5： 目的论 Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 6： 语言学派 Linguistic School===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 8: Methods=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 1： 正说反译与反说正译 Negation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 3： 交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 4： 直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 5： 增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 6： 影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 9: Style=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==<br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu<br /> <br /> [[Media:Example.ogg]]<br /> <br /> =Session 10: Translation Studies=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability &amp; Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 11: Theory and Practice=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation=== <br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===<br /> <br /> Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]<br /> <br /> =Session 12: Different Aspects=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie&amp; Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei <br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br /> <br /> =Session 13: East West comparison=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Topic 1:严复“信、达、雅”和泰特勒三原则之比较Comparison Between Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Tytler's Three Principles===<br /> <br /> ===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===<br /> ===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> [[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===<br /> <br /> [[Media:comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century.pptx]]<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century.doc]] by Yuan Tianyi<br /> <br /> ===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] --[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 14: Strategies=<br /> =Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories=<br /> =Session 16: Final Discussion=<br /> <br /> --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:52, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==<br /> 1 Emergence: <br /> 孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源<br /> <br /> 2 History: <br /> 周思庆 张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟 刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆 张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾 李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷 余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿 纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史<br /> <br /> 3 Development: <br /> 韩宛真 邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮 胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼 张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思 龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君 李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋 彭育志：圣经翻译的发展<br /> <br /> 4 Early Literary Examples: <br /> 许鹏飞 肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶 李凌月; 袁诗琦 姚佳; 邹鑫雨 曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨 肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳 周玉娟<br /> <br /> 5 Early Theories: <br /> 徐梦蝶 杨逸; 陈涵 曾心媛; 陈静静 高明珠; 文晓艺 韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇 漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺 邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试<br /> <br /> 6 (Western) Theories: <br /> 康灵凤 莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪 常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜 姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静 游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲 王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽 王源: 语言学派<br /> <br /> 7 Methods: <br /> 甘奉玉 丁代凤; 赵晓燕 张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜 谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露 司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇 李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏 刘金惺琦<br /> <br /> 8 Style: <br /> 孔祥慧 孔亚楠; 罗雨晴 娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比； 林鑫 李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖 胡慧芳<br /> <br /> 9 Translation Studies: <br /> 罗维嘉 桂一枝; 彭小玲 彭丹; 全美欣 宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文 易欢; 姚诚 张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧 陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略<br /> <br /> 10 Theory and Practice: <br /> 彭娟 陶冶; 吴子佳 雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓 王美玲; 蒋凤仪 顾东方; 周园曲 祝美梅; 阳慧 张佩闻; <br /> <br /> 11 Different Aspects: <br /> 周艺文 陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁 魏亚菲; 张毓婕 杨海容; <br /> <br /> 12 East West Comparison: <br /> 唐铭 欧蓉; 谭媛媛 刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦 义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷 徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲 袁天翼; 陈莎 陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。<br /> <br /> 13 Strategies: <br /> 吴恺 马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然 杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮 谢子熠<br /> <br /> 14 Contemporary translation Theories: <br /> Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)<br /> <br /> ==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> Ideas<br /> *literal vs. free<br /> *Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization<br /> *unit of translation<br /> *contrastive analysis<br /> *the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)<br /> *translatability vs untranslatability <br /> *SLT vs TLT relation<br /> *translation types, strategies, styles, methods<br /> *communication factors, translator role in social setting<br /> *cognitive factors<br /> *machine translation<br /> *translation quality assessment<br /> *translation ethics / manipulation etc.<br /> <br /> <br /> Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)<br /> <br /> Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.<br /> <br /> Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]<br /> <br /> =Final Exam Papers=<br /> <br /> ==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==<br /> *You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.<br /> *Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:<br /> <br /> [1] dsalkfkdsa<br /> <br /> [2] adsfadsfag<br /> <br /> But only the following way:<br /> <br /> (Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text<br /> <br /> and then<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> *Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):<br /> = = Topic = =<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Student Name, Student no. &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> = = = Abstract = = =<br /> This chapter is on ....<br /> = = = Key Words = = =<br /> Egg, Hen<br /> = = = 题目 = = =<br /> = = = 摘要 = = =<br /> = = = 关键词 = = =<br /> = = = Introduction = = =<br /> Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.<br /> = = = The Egg = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = The Hen = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = Conclusion = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = References = = =<br /> Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT <br /> <br /> ==Sample papers==<br /> You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with &quot;Sample paper&quot;.<br /> * A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories<br /> * An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications<br /> * Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy<br /> * Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View<br /> * Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish<br /> * On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functonal Equivalence&quot; Theories<br /> * Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics<br /> * The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication<br /> * Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior<br /> <br /> ==Websites to write your final exam paper on==<br /> The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).<br /> <br /> &lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;==Here you can write your Final Exam Papers==<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi, 解帆 Xie Fan, 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning, 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen, 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan， 莫南 Mo Nan]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，孟莹 Meng Ying，文偲荇 Wen Sixing， 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan，张虎 Zhang Hu]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian， 陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia， 刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，李璐伊 Li Luyi，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin]<br /> <br /> =Benefits=<br /> This course is registered as a &quot;EU Expert&quot; diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Translation_Studies&diff=110104 2020-12-11T09:19:15Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century */</p> <hr /> <div>[[Media: Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]Quicklinks: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual]<br /> <br /> Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is welcome!<br /> <br /> 欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………<br /> <br /> =Organizational Things=<br /> *Please register for the Course Wiki.<br /> *Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.<br /> <br /> Welcome Message on WeChat: 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、20级、方向）就好。Welcome to our course. I am excited to meet you on Monday online on http://bit.ly/ZOOMCOURSE (573 941 6744, course). First, there are some organizational things to get everybody joining the class.<br /> In preparation, please register with our course wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TS_INTRO and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session. <br /> Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.<br /> <br /> =Edits=<br /> Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:<br /> * Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.<br /> * Correct an earlier translation.<br /> * Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.<br /> <br /> =Material=<br /> Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.<br /> <br /> *Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013<br /> *Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991 <br /> *Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.<br /> *Chen, Fukang. &quot;Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory).&quot; (1992).<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> *Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.<br /> *Huang, Chending黄振定. &quot;文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论.&quot; 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定. &quot;翻译学是一门人文科学.&quot; 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008<br /> *Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.<br /> *Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.<br /> *Pan Wenguo 潘文国. &quot;当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题.&quot; 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> *Toury, Gideon. &quot;Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company.&quot; Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.<br /> *Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Zhao, Wei 赵巍. &quot;翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思.&quot; 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.<br /> <br /> (We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br /> <br /> '''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''<br /> <br /> Recommendations:<br /> <br /> Topic Book/Paper<br /> <br /> 1 Introduction <br /> <br /> 2 Emergence<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> <br /> 3a History of Translation <br /> *3a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.<br /> *3b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.<br /> *3c History of Chinese Translation Theories *陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 4 Early understanding <br /> *Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.<br /> *Sourcebook Bassnett, Susan and Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge, <br /> 1990.<br /> *Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br /> *Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> 5 Translation Studies<br /> *5a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980. <br /> * 5b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.<br /> *5c Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.<br /> *5d Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.<br /> <br /> 6 Translation Theories<br /> * 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.<br /> *6a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.<br /> *6b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.<br /> *6c Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.<br /> *6d TS 谭载喜. 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 7 Theory and Practise <br /> *7a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.<br /> *7b Theory and Practise Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.<br /> *7c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.<br /> *7d Theory and practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> *7e Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.<br /> <br /> 8<br /> *8a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.<br /> *8b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.<br /> *8c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.<br /> *8d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.<br /> <br /> 9 Theories<br /> *9a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.<br /> *9b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.<br /> <br /> =Main class project=<br /> Please help to edit the publication [[History of Translation Studies]].<br /> <br /> =Schedule=<br /> '''All sessions''': 1 9/21 Organizational things, 2 Emergence, 3 History, 4 Development, 5 Early literary examples, 6 early theories, 7 (Western) Theories, 8 Methods, 9 Style, 10 Translation Studies, 11 Theory and Practice, 12 Different Aspects, 13 East West comparison, 14 Strategies, 15 Contemporary Translation Theories, 16 Final Discussion <br /> <br /> ==1st Session==<br /> Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.<br /> <br /> === Homework from Session 1 due on Sep 27, 2020 ===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of a paper on Qing Translation Policies. Here is the [[20200921_trans|homework page]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200921_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!<br /> <br /> ===Homework for later===<br /> 4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. It has to be a new topic, not yet used in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.<br /> <br /> 5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.<br /> <br /> ==2nd Session: Emergence==<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 1: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation===<br /> *Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.doc|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏<br /> *Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===<br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==3rd Session: History==<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===<br /> *Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==Session 4: Development==<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> * Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.<br /> <br /> ==Session 5: ==<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Session 6: Early Theories==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 7: Western theories=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 3： 后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 4： 布拉格学派 Prague School===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 5： 目的论 Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 6： 语言学派 Linguistic School===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 8: Methods=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 1： 正说反译与反说正译 Negation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 3： 交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 4： 直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 5： 增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 6： 影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 9: Style=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==<br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu<br /> <br /> [[Media:Example.ogg]]<br /> <br /> =Session 10: Translation Studies=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability &amp; Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 11: Theory and Practice=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation=== <br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===<br /> <br /> Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]<br /> <br /> =Session 12: Different Aspects=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie&amp; Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei <br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br /> <br /> =Session 13: East West comparison=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Topic 1:严复“信、达、雅”和泰特勒三原则之比较Comparison Between Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Tytler's Three Principles===<br /> <br /> ===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===<br /> ===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> [[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century.doc]] by Yuan Tianyi<br /> <br /> ===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] --[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 14: Strategies=<br /> =Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories=<br /> =Session 16: Final Discussion=<br /> <br /> --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:52, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==<br /> 1 Emergence: <br /> 孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源<br /> <br /> 2 History: <br /> 周思庆 张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟 刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆 张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾 李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷 余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿 纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史<br /> <br /> 3 Development: <br /> 韩宛真 邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮 胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼 张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思 龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君 李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋 彭育志：圣经翻译的发展<br /> <br /> 4 Early Literary Examples: <br /> 许鹏飞 肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶 李凌月; 袁诗琦 姚佳; 邹鑫雨 曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨 肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳 周玉娟<br /> <br /> 5 Early Theories: <br /> 徐梦蝶 杨逸; 陈涵 曾心媛; 陈静静 高明珠; 文晓艺 韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇 漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺 邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试<br /> <br /> 6 (Western) Theories: <br /> 康灵凤 莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪 常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜 姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静 游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲 王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽 王源: 语言学派<br /> <br /> 7 Methods: <br /> 甘奉玉 丁代凤; 赵晓燕 张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜 谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露 司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇 李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏 刘金惺琦<br /> <br /> 8 Style: <br /> 孔祥慧 孔亚楠; 罗雨晴 娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比； 林鑫 李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖 胡慧芳<br /> <br /> 9 Translation Studies: <br /> 罗维嘉 桂一枝; 彭小玲 彭丹; 全美欣 宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文 易欢; 姚诚 张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧 陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略<br /> <br /> 10 Theory and Practice: <br /> 彭娟 陶冶; 吴子佳 雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓 王美玲; 蒋凤仪 顾东方; 周园曲 祝美梅; 阳慧 张佩闻; <br /> <br /> 11 Different Aspects: <br /> 周艺文 陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁 魏亚菲; 张毓婕 杨海容; <br /> <br /> 12 East West Comparison: <br /> 唐铭 欧蓉; 谭媛媛 刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦 义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷 徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲 袁天翼; 陈莎 陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。<br /> <br /> 13 Strategies: <br /> 吴恺 马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然 杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮 谢子熠<br /> <br /> 14 Contemporary translation Theories: <br /> Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)<br /> <br /> ==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> Ideas<br /> *literal vs. free<br /> *Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization<br /> *unit of translation<br /> *contrastive analysis<br /> *the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)<br /> *translatability vs untranslatability <br /> *SLT vs TLT relation<br /> *translation types, strategies, styles, methods<br /> *communication factors, translator role in social setting<br /> *cognitive factors<br /> *machine translation<br /> *translation quality assessment<br /> *translation ethics / manipulation etc.<br /> <br /> <br /> Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)<br /> <br /> Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.<br /> <br /> Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]<br /> <br /> =Final Exam Papers=<br /> <br /> ==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==<br /> *You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.<br /> *Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:<br /> <br /> [1] dsalkfkdsa<br /> <br /> [2] adsfadsfag<br /> <br /> But only the following way:<br /> <br /> (Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text<br /> <br /> and then<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> *Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):<br /> = = Topic = =<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Student Name, Student no. &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> = = = Abstract = = =<br /> This chapter is on ....<br /> = = = Key Words = = =<br /> Egg, Hen<br /> = = = 题目 = = =<br /> = = = 摘要 = = =<br /> = = = 关键词 = = =<br /> = = = Introduction = = =<br /> Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.<br /> = = = The Egg = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = The Hen = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = Conclusion = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = References = = =<br /> Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT <br /> <br /> ==Sample papers==<br /> You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with &quot;Sample paper&quot;.<br /> * A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories<br /> * An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications<br /> * Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy<br /> * Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View<br /> * Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish<br /> * On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functonal Equivalence&quot; Theories<br /> * Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics<br /> * The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication<br /> * Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior<br /> <br /> ==Websites to write your final exam paper on==<br /> The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).<br /> <br /> &lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;==Here you can write your Final Exam Papers==<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi, 解帆 Xie Fan, 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning, 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen, 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan， 莫南 Mo Nan]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，孟莹 Meng Ying，文偲荇 Wen Sixing， 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan，张虎 Zhang Hu]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian， 陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia， 刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，李璐伊 Li Luyi，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin]<br /> <br /> =Benefits=<br /> This course is registered as a &quot;EU Expert&quot; diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Translation_Studies&diff=110034 2020-12-11T08:11:46Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Topic 5：20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century */</p> <hr /> <div>[[Media: Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]Quicklinks: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual]<br /> <br /> Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is welcome!<br /> <br /> 欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………<br /> <br /> =Organizational Things=<br /> *Please register for the Course Wiki.<br /> *Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.<br /> <br /> Welcome Message on WeChat: 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、20级、方向）就好。Welcome to our course. I am excited to meet you on Monday online on http://bit.ly/ZOOMCOURSE (573 941 6744, course). First, there are some organizational things to get everybody joining the class.<br /> In preparation, please register with our course wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TS_INTRO and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session. <br /> Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.<br /> <br /> =Edits=<br /> Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:<br /> * Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.<br /> * Correct an earlier translation.<br /> * Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.<br /> <br /> =Material=<br /> Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.<br /> <br /> *Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013<br /> *Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991 <br /> *Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.<br /> *Chen, Fukang. &quot;Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory).&quot; (1992).<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> *Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.<br /> *Huang, Chending黄振定. &quot;文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论.&quot; 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定. &quot;翻译学是一门人文科学.&quot; 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008<br /> *Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.<br /> *Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.<br /> *Pan Wenguo 潘文国. &quot;当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题.&quot; 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> *Toury, Gideon. &quot;Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company.&quot; Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.<br /> *Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Zhao, Wei 赵巍. &quot;翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思.&quot; 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.<br /> <br /> (We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br /> <br /> '''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''<br /> <br /> Recommendations:<br /> <br /> Topic Book/Paper<br /> <br /> 1 Introduction <br /> <br /> 2 Emergence<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> <br /> 3a History of Translation <br /> *3a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.<br /> *3b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.<br /> *3c History of Chinese Translation Theories *陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 4 Early understanding <br /> *Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.<br /> *Sourcebook Bassnett, Susan and Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge, <br /> 1990.<br /> *Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br /> *Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> 5 Translation Studies<br /> *5a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980. <br /> * 5b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.<br /> *5c Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.<br /> *5d Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.<br /> <br /> 6 Translation Theories<br /> * 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.<br /> *6a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.<br /> *6b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.<br /> *6c Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.<br /> *6d TS 谭载喜. 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 7 Theory and Practise <br /> *7a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.<br /> *7b Theory and Practise Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.<br /> *7c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.<br /> *7d Theory and practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> *7e Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.<br /> <br /> 8<br /> *8a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.<br /> *8b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.<br /> *8c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.<br /> *8d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.<br /> <br /> 9 Theories<br /> *9a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.<br /> *9b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.<br /> <br /> =Main class project=<br /> Please help to edit the publication [[History of Translation Studies]].<br /> <br /> =Schedule=<br /> '''All sessions''': 1 9/21 Organizational things, 2 Emergence, 3 History, 4 Development, 5 Early literary examples, 6 early theories, 7 (Western) Theories, 8 Methods, 9 Style, 10 Translation Studies, 11 Theory and Practice, 12 Different Aspects, 13 East West comparison, 14 Strategies, 15 Contemporary Translation Theories, 16 Final Discussion <br /> <br /> ==1st Session==<br /> Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.<br /> <br /> === Homework from Session 1 due on Sep 27, 2020 ===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of a paper on Qing Translation Policies. Here is the [[20200921_trans|homework page]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200921_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!<br /> <br /> ===Homework for later===<br /> 4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. It has to be a new topic, not yet used in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.<br /> <br /> 5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.<br /> <br /> ==2nd Session: Emergence==<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 1: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation===<br /> *Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.doc|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏<br /> *Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===<br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==3rd Session: History==<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===<br /> *Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==Session 4: Development==<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> * Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.<br /> <br /> ==Session 5: ==<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Session 6: Early Theories==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 7: Western theories=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 3： 后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 4： 布拉格学派 Prague School===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 5： 目的论 Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 6： 语言学派 Linguistic School===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 8: Methods=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 1： 正说反译与反说正译 Negation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 3： 交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 4： 直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 5： 增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 6： 影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 9: Style=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==<br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu<br /> <br /> [[Media:Example.ogg]]<br /> <br /> =Session 10: Translation Studies=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability &amp; Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 11: Theory and Practice=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation=== <br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===<br /> <br /> Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]<br /> <br /> =Session 12: Different Aspects=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie&amp; Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei <br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br /> <br /> =Session 13: East West comparison=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Topic 1:严复“信、达、雅”和泰特勒三原则之比较Comparison Between Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Tytler's Three Principles===<br /> <br /> ===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===<br /> ===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> [[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century.pptx]] by Mo Ling<br /> <br /> [[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century.doc]] by Yuan Tianyi<br /> <br /> ===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] --[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 14: Strategies=<br /> =Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories=<br /> =Session 16: Final Discussion=<br /> <br /> --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:52, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==<br /> 1 Emergence: <br /> 孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源<br /> <br /> 2 History: <br /> 周思庆 张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟 刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆 张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾 李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷 余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿 纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史<br /> <br /> 3 Development: <br /> 韩宛真 邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮 胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼 张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思 龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君 李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋 彭育志：圣经翻译的发展<br /> <br /> 4 Early Literary Examples: <br /> 许鹏飞 肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶 李凌月; 袁诗琦 姚佳; 邹鑫雨 曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨 肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳 周玉娟<br /> <br /> 5 Early Theories: <br /> 徐梦蝶 杨逸; 陈涵 曾心媛; 陈静静 高明珠; 文晓艺 韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇 漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺 邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试<br /> <br /> 6 (Western) Theories: <br /> 康灵凤 莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪 常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜 姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静 游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲 王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽 王源: 语言学派<br /> <br /> 7 Methods: <br /> 甘奉玉 丁代凤; 赵晓燕 张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜 谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露 司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇 李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏 刘金惺琦<br /> <br /> 8 Style: <br /> 孔祥慧 孔亚楠; 罗雨晴 娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比； 林鑫 李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖 胡慧芳<br /> <br /> 9 Translation Studies: <br /> 罗维嘉 桂一枝; 彭小玲 彭丹; 全美欣 宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文 易欢; 姚诚 张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧 陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略<br /> <br /> 10 Theory and Practice: <br /> 彭娟 陶冶; 吴子佳 雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓 王美玲; 蒋凤仪 顾东方; 周园曲 祝美梅; 阳慧 张佩闻; <br /> <br /> 11 Different Aspects: <br /> 周艺文 陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁 魏亚菲; 张毓婕 杨海容; <br /> <br /> 12 East West Comparison: <br /> 唐铭 欧蓉; 谭媛媛 刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦 义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷 徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲 袁天翼; 陈莎 陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。<br /> <br /> 13 Strategies: <br /> 吴恺 马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然 杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮 谢子熠<br /> <br /> 14 Contemporary translation Theories: <br /> Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)<br /> <br /> ==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> Ideas<br /> *literal vs. free<br /> *Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization<br /> *unit of translation<br /> *contrastive analysis<br /> *the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)<br /> *translatability vs untranslatability <br /> *SLT vs TLT relation<br /> *translation types, strategies, styles, methods<br /> *communication factors, translator role in social setting<br /> *cognitive factors<br /> *machine translation<br /> *translation quality assessment<br /> *translation ethics / manipulation etc.<br /> <br /> <br /> Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)<br /> <br /> Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.<br /> <br /> Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]<br /> <br /> =Final Exam Papers=<br /> <br /> ==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==<br /> *You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.<br /> *Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:<br /> <br /> [1] dsalkfkdsa<br /> <br /> [2] adsfadsfag<br /> <br /> But only the following way:<br /> <br /> (Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text<br /> <br /> and then<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> *Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):<br /> = = Topic = =<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Student Name, Student no. &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> = = = Abstract = = =<br /> This chapter is on ....<br /> = = = Key Words = = =<br /> Egg, Hen<br /> = = = 题目 = = =<br /> = = = 摘要 = = =<br /> = = = 关键词 = = =<br /> = = = Introduction = = =<br /> Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.<br /> = = = The Egg = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = The Hen = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = Conclusion = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = References = = =<br /> Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT <br /> <br /> ==Sample papers==<br /> You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with &quot;Sample paper&quot;.<br /> * A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories<br /> * An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications<br /> * Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy<br /> * Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View<br /> * Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish<br /> * On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functonal Equivalence&quot; Theories<br /> * Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics<br /> * The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication<br /> * Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior<br /> <br /> ==Websites to write your final exam paper on==<br /> The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).<br /> <br /> &lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;==Here you can write your Final Exam Papers==<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi, 解帆 Xie Fan, 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning, 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen, 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan， 莫南 Mo Nan]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，孟莹 Meng Ying，文偲荇 Wen Sixing， 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian， 陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia， 刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，李璐伊 Li Luyi，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin]<br /> <br /> =Benefits=<br /> This course is registered as a &quot;EU Expert&quot; diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Translation_Studies&diff=110032 2020-12-11T08:10:03Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Topic 5：中西翻译理论对比——20世纪中期以来 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century */</p> <hr /> <div>[[Media: Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]Quicklinks: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual]<br /> <br /> Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is welcome!<br /> <br /> 欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………<br /> <br /> =Organizational Things=<br /> *Please register for the Course Wiki.<br /> *Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.<br /> <br /> Welcome Message on WeChat: 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、20级、方向）就好。Welcome to our course. I am excited to meet you on Monday online on http://bit.ly/ZOOMCOURSE (573 941 6744, course). First, there are some organizational things to get everybody joining the class.<br /> In preparation, please register with our course wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TS_INTRO and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session. <br /> Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.<br /> <br /> =Edits=<br /> Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:<br /> * Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.<br /> * Correct an earlier translation.<br /> * Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.<br /> <br /> =Material=<br /> Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.<br /> <br /> *Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013<br /> *Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991 <br /> *Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.<br /> *Chen, Fukang. &quot;Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory).&quot; (1992).<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> *Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.<br /> *Huang, Chending黄振定. &quot;文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论.&quot; 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定. &quot;翻译学是一门人文科学.&quot; 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008<br /> *Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.<br /> *Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.<br /> *Pan Wenguo 潘文国. &quot;当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题.&quot; 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> *Toury, Gideon. &quot;Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company.&quot; Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.<br /> *Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Zhao, Wei 赵巍. &quot;翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思.&quot; 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.<br /> <br /> (We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br /> <br /> '''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''<br /> <br /> Recommendations:<br /> <br /> Topic Book/Paper<br /> <br /> 1 Introduction <br /> <br /> 2 Emergence<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> <br /> 3a History of Translation <br /> *3a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.<br /> *3b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.<br /> *3c History of Chinese Translation Theories *陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 4 Early understanding <br /> *Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.<br /> *Sourcebook Bassnett, Susan and Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge, <br /> 1990.<br /> *Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br /> *Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> 5 Translation Studies<br /> *5a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980. <br /> * 5b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.<br /> *5c Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.<br /> *5d Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.<br /> <br /> 6 Translation Theories<br /> * 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.<br /> *6a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.<br /> *6b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.<br /> *6c Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.<br /> *6d TS 谭载喜. 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 7 Theory and Practise <br /> *7a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.<br /> *7b Theory and Practise Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.<br /> *7c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.<br /> *7d Theory and practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> *7e Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.<br /> <br /> 8<br /> *8a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.<br /> *8b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.<br /> *8c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.<br /> *8d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.<br /> <br /> 9 Theories<br /> *9a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.<br /> *9b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.<br /> <br /> =Main class project=<br /> Please help to edit the publication [[History of Translation Studies]].<br /> <br /> =Schedule=<br /> '''All sessions''': 1 9/21 Organizational things, 2 Emergence, 3 History, 4 Development, 5 Early literary examples, 6 early theories, 7 (Western) Theories, 8 Methods, 9 Style, 10 Translation Studies, 11 Theory and Practice, 12 Different Aspects, 13 East West comparison, 14 Strategies, 15 Contemporary Translation Theories, 16 Final Discussion <br /> <br /> ==1st Session==<br /> Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.<br /> <br /> === Homework from Session 1 due on Sep 27, 2020 ===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of a paper on Qing Translation Policies. Here is the [[20200921_trans|homework page]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200921_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!<br /> <br /> ===Homework for later===<br /> 4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. It has to be a new topic, not yet used in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.<br /> <br /> 5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.<br /> <br /> ==2nd Session: Emergence==<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 1: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation===<br /> *Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.doc|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏<br /> *Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===<br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==3rd Session: History==<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===<br /> *Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==Session 4: Development==<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> * Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.<br /> <br /> ==Session 5: ==<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Session 6: Early Theories==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 7: Western theories=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 3： 后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 4： 布拉格学派 Prague School===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 5： 目的论 Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 6： 语言学派 Linguistic School===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 8: Methods=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 1： 正说反译与反说正译 Negation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 3： 交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 4： 直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 5： 增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 6： 影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 9: Style=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==<br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu<br /> <br /> [[Media:Example.ogg]]<br /> <br /> =Session 10: Translation Studies=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability &amp; Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 11: Theory and Practice=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation=== <br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===<br /> <br /> Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]<br /> <br /> =Session 12: Different Aspects=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie&amp; Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei <br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br /> <br /> =Session 13: East West comparison=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Topic 1:严复“信、达、雅”和泰特勒三原则之比较Comparison Between Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Tytler's Three Principles===<br /> <br /> ===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===<br /> ===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> [[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 5：20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century.pptx]] by Mo Ling<br /> [[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century.doc]] by Yuan Tianyi<br /> <br /> ===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] --[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 14: Strategies=<br /> =Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories=<br /> =Session 16: Final Discussion=<br /> <br /> --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:52, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==<br /> 1 Emergence: <br /> 孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源<br /> <br /> 2 History: <br /> 周思庆 张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟 刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆 张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾 李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷 余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿 纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史<br /> <br /> 3 Development: <br /> 韩宛真 邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮 胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼 张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思 龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君 李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋 彭育志：圣经翻译的发展<br /> <br /> 4 Early Literary Examples: <br /> 许鹏飞 肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶 李凌月; 袁诗琦 姚佳; 邹鑫雨 曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨 肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳 周玉娟<br /> <br /> 5 Early Theories: <br /> 徐梦蝶 杨逸; 陈涵 曾心媛; 陈静静 高明珠; 文晓艺 韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇 漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺 邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试<br /> <br /> 6 (Western) Theories: <br /> 康灵凤 莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪 常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜 姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静 游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲 王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽 王源: 语言学派<br /> <br /> 7 Methods: <br /> 甘奉玉 丁代凤; 赵晓燕 张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜 谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露 司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇 李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏 刘金惺琦<br /> <br /> 8 Style: <br /> 孔祥慧 孔亚楠; 罗雨晴 娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比； 林鑫 李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖 胡慧芳<br /> <br /> 9 Translation Studies: <br /> 罗维嘉 桂一枝; 彭小玲 彭丹; 全美欣 宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文 易欢; 姚诚 张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧 陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略<br /> <br /> 10 Theory and Practice: <br /> 彭娟 陶冶; 吴子佳 雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓 王美玲; 蒋凤仪 顾东方; 周园曲 祝美梅; 阳慧 张佩闻; <br /> <br /> 11 Different Aspects: <br /> 周艺文 陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁 魏亚菲; 张毓婕 杨海容; <br /> <br /> 12 East West Comparison: <br /> 唐铭 欧蓉; 谭媛媛 刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦 义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷 徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲 袁天翼; 陈莎 陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。<br /> <br /> 13 Strategies: <br /> 吴恺 马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然 杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮 谢子熠<br /> <br /> 14 Contemporary translation Theories: <br /> Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)<br /> <br /> ==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> Ideas<br /> *literal vs. free<br /> *Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization<br /> *unit of translation<br /> *contrastive analysis<br /> *the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)<br /> *translatability vs untranslatability <br /> *SLT vs TLT relation<br /> *translation types, strategies, styles, methods<br /> *communication factors, translator role in social setting<br /> *cognitive factors<br /> *machine translation<br /> *translation quality assessment<br /> *translation ethics / manipulation etc.<br /> <br /> <br /> Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)<br /> <br /> Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.<br /> <br /> Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]<br /> <br /> =Final Exam Papers=<br /> <br /> ==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==<br /> *You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.<br /> *Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:<br /> <br /> [1] dsalkfkdsa<br /> <br /> [2] adsfadsfag<br /> <br /> But only the following way:<br /> <br /> (Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text<br /> <br /> and then<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> *Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):<br /> = = Topic = =<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Student Name, Student no. &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> = = = Abstract = = =<br /> This chapter is on ....<br /> = = = Key Words = = =<br /> Egg, Hen<br /> = = = 题目 = = =<br /> = = = 摘要 = = =<br /> = = = 关键词 = = =<br /> = = = Introduction = = =<br /> Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.<br /> = = = The Egg = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = The Hen = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = Conclusion = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = References = = =<br /> Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT <br /> <br /> ==Sample papers==<br /> You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with &quot;Sample paper&quot;.<br /> * A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories<br /> * An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications<br /> * Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy<br /> * Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View<br /> * Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish<br /> * On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functonal Equivalence&quot; Theories<br /> * Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics<br /> * The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication<br /> * Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior<br /> <br /> ==Websites to write your final exam paper on==<br /> The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).<br /> <br /> &lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;==Here you can write your Final Exam Papers==<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi, 解帆 Xie Fan, 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning, 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen, 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan， 莫南 Mo Nan]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，孟莹 Meng Ying，文偲荇 Wen Sixing， 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian， 陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia， 刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，李璐伊 Li Luyi，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin]<br /> <br /> =Benefits=<br /> This course is registered as a &quot;EU Expert&quot; diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_2&diff=109676 2020-12-10T11:27:13Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Chinese Marriage Customs Mo Ling 莫玲 202070080602 */</p> <hr /> <div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br /> *Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br /> <br /> '''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br /> *You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like &quot;Longevity Noodles&quot;) or Text B (&quot;Mooncakes&quot;), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title (&quot;Festival Meals&quot;) and arrange it accordingly.<br /> *In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br /> *For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br /> *Add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Please also add a list &quot;Terms and Expressions&quot;.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Questions&quot; section.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Answers&quot; section.<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Red Culture - Kang Haoyu 康浩宇, student no.==<br /> ===Chinese Red Culture===<br /> Chinese red culture is unique in the world. As a very important cultural resource, it has both tangible culture and intangible culture. Red culture in China refers to the advance culture with Chinese characteristics created by party and people in revolutionary years.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ====1. Development====<br /> <br /> China has brilliant history and splendid civilization in ancient times. However, with the Opium War of 1840, China was plunged into the darkness of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression. Despite of all efforts that countless dedicated patriots had made, they still failed to change the plight. The October Revolution in Russia brought Marxism-Leninism. With Communism as the the highest ideal and ultimate goal, the Communist Party of China shouldered the historic mission of national rejuvenation. With the firm leadership of the party, Chinese people embraced national independence, people's liberation, national reunification and social stability, and stepped into a new era of prosperity and happiness.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> Red culture is condensed by the Communist Party of China in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. It is an advanced Marxism culture that was inherited and developed in the new period of socialist construction. It's a collectivism culture of bravery, sacrifice and devotion that seeks happiness for the Chinese people and rejuvenation for the Chinese nation.Red culture is embodied in the aspects of ideal belief, value pursuit and spiritual outlook, and is integrated into material remains, mechanism behaviors and cultural and artistic forms.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> First of all, red culture is a revolutionary culture, which was formed by the Chinese Communist Party in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. After the founding of People's Republic of China, the Communist Party of China led the Chinese people to inherit and carry forward the revolutionary culture. In the new period of socialist construction and reform and opening up, a vigorous and advanced socialist culture was formed, which enriched and developed the connotation of red culture. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture, and are the core value and spiritual subject of contemporary Chinese culture. As for Chinese red culture, Among them, Marxism is the soul, the common ideal of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the theme, the national spirit and the spirit of the times are the essence, and the socialist concept of honor and disgrace is the foundation. These four aspects influence, infiltrate and interact with each other, revealing the essential characteristics of red culture scientifically and completely.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ====2. Symbols====<br /> <br /> The word “red” in “red culture” has many symbols. Chinese people have “red” complex since ancient time. Red represents authority. For, example, official documents are also called red heading documents. Red represents courage. Red is the color of Chinese national flag. Chinese military strategists and generals have a deep understanding of the role of red in war, so they use red flags to unite their morale, inspire their fighting and their courage, and summon the spirit of going forward bravely and not fearing sacrifice. Red represents honor and auspiciousness. For instance, the places are always adorned with red for conference and ceremony. People are awarded with red flower and red certificates. Red represents revolution. When Marx was asked about &quot;favorite color&quot; in his early years, he clearly answered &quot;red&quot;. In 1864, First International was founded, and its logo was red. The first army of Communist Party of China was named Red Army, and Ruijin, the first revolutionary base area, was called Red Capital. There were also red boats in South Lake and red flags in Jinggangshan.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ====3. Values====<br /> <br /> Red culture has many values. Red culture has the value of history. It witnesses the early development history of the Communist Party of China. It shows the inevitability of the socialist road in China. And it is an important weapon to guide the success of Chinese revolution. Besides, red culture has the value of civilization. Carrying forward the red culture is an urgent need to cultivate a new national spirit. Red culture is important for the construction of socialism culture and ideology. Moreover, red culture has the value of economy. Red culture is a powerful driving force for the development of socialist market economy. It is an important medium of economic development under the new historical conditions. The red cultural industry has become a new economic growth point.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ====4. Red Culture in Nanchang====<br /> <br /> Nanchang is the capital city of Jiangxi Province and it is where August 1st uprising took place. Nanchang is renowned as the cradle of Chinese revolution and the place where the military flag rose. Because in August 1st uprising, communist party of china formed its first army in Nanchang. There are lots of red culture resources in Nanchang. <br /> Bayi Square is at the center of Nanchang city. It was built to memorize August 1st uprising. Bayi Square highlights the theme of &quot;Bayi History and Culture&quot; in all directions. The memorial area, cultural area, reminiscence area and leisure area of Bayi Square show Bayi Uprising in different forms. The landmark in the square is Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower. Besides, Nangchang August 1st Memorial Hall is a special memorial hall established to commemorate Nanchang Uprising.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''References missing.'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> red culture 红色文化<br /> <br /> Opium War 鸦片战争<br /> <br /> red heading documents 红头文件<br /> <br /> red army 红军<br /> <br /> August 1st uprising 八一起义<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1. What is the historical background of the birth of red culture?<br /> <br /> 2. What are two major components of red culture?<br /> <br /> 3. How many symbols dose the word &quot;red&quot; in red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 4. How many values dose red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 5. What is the landmark in Bayi Square?<br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> ==Landscape, The Ancient Tea Horse Road - Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> <br /> ===The Ancient Tea Horse Road===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. The ancient tea horse road is divided into two routes: the Sichuan-Tibet line and the Yunnan-Tibet line. The ancient tea horse road originated from the ancient southwest frontier of the tea horse mutual market, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and most prosperous in the middle and late World War II. The ancient Tea Horse Road divided into Shanxi-Gan, Shanxi-Kangtang (folk called wade ancient road, Sichuan-Tibet line is part of it), Yunnan-Tibet and other three main routes, connecting Sichuan, Yunnan-Tibet, extending into the territory of Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal, India, until reaching West Asia, West Africa, the Red Sea coast. 5 March 2013, the Tea Horse Road was listed by the State Council as the seventh batch of national key cultural relics conservation units.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> ====Historical Routes====<br /> China’s ancient tea horse road is divided into:<br /> 1. The Shanxi-Gansu tea horse road is the main route for tea to travel westward in mainland China and exchange for horses. It is one of the main routes of the ancient Silk Road.<br /> <br /> 2. Shanxi and Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road), began in the Han Dynasty, formed by the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse each other. Due to the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government control of tea trafficking, tea trafficking sub-regional, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road.((Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 3. the ancient Yunnan-Tibet Tea Horse Road. Formed around the late sixth century AD, it is south of Yunnan's main tea producing areas in Xishuangbanna Yiwu, Pu'er City, intermediate through today's Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture and Lijiang City, Shangri-La into Tibet, directly to Lhasa. Some also re-exported from Tibet to India and Nepal, is an important trade channel between ancient China and South Asia.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 4.Sichuan-Tibet Tea Horse Road is a part of the Shan-Kang-Tibet Tea Horse Road, east of Yazhou edge tea production Ya'an, after playing arrow furnace (now Kangding), west to Lhasa, Tibet, and finally through to Bhutan, Nepal and India, a total length of nearly four thousand kilometers, is an essential bridge and link between ancient Tibet and the interior.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> There are three main routes of the ancient tea-horse road: The Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line. <br /> <br /> Among the three ancient tea-horse roads, the Qinghai-Tibet line was established in the Tang Dynasty and developed earlier, while the Sichuan-Tibet line was the most influential and well-known later. These three routes are closely related to Chengdu, among them, the Yunnan-Tibet route and the Sichuan-Tibet route must pass through Chengdu, and their development is closely related to the tea-horse trade.<br /> <br /> Shanxi- Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road), was formed in the Han dynasty through the efforts of the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government controlled tea traffickin along the tea trafficking sub-region, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:02, 7 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> ====Historical Value====<br /> The Silk Road in the north and the ancient Tea Horse Road in the south. The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization. However, its history and value will always shine brightly.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 1.The Golden Road of Tourism<br /> <br /> The ancient tea-horse road tour has unique scenery, profound cultural connotation, exclusive resources and is unparalleled in the world.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 2. Ancient Roads for the Propagation of Civilization<br /> <br /> The ancient Tea Horse Road was not only an important migration corridor for the ancient ancestors between Wei-Tibet and present Sichuan and Yunnan, but also an important aperture for the spread and exchange of ancient civilizations between present Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 3.Migration Corridor of National Cultures<br /> <br /> On this ancient road, which stretches for more than 10,000 miles, Chinese, Tibetan, Yi, Naxi, Lisu, Hani, Kino, Qiang, Pumi, Bai, Nu, Jingpo, Achang and other ethnic groups have flourished here for thousands of years, highlighting the diversity and original form of ethnic culture in southwest China.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 4.Religious Propagation Road<br /> <br /> With the development of the tea-horse trade and the extension of the ancient tea-horse route, Tibetan Buddhism spread widely along this route on the Tibetan Plateau and surrounding areas. The development and spread of Tibetan stupas can be roughly divided into two routes: one is Tibet - Qinghai - Gansu - Inner Mongolia - the other is Tibet - Qinghai - Gansu - Inner Mongolia. -Liaoning--Jilin--Heilongjiang--Beijing--Hebei --Henan--Jiangsu; second, Tibet--Yunnan--Sichuan. --Guangxi--Hubei.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 5. The Path of National Spirituality<br /> <br /> You can't talk about the ancient tea-horse road without mentioning the horse gangs. The horse gangs have formed a unique cultural carrier in the course of thousands of years. Their spirit is attached to this ancient road, and become part of the Chinese national spirit.(Baidu Baike)<br /> 6.The Road of National Unity and Integration<br /> <br /> The ancient tea-horse road is like a huge net in southwest China, through which people of all nationalities strengthen their ties and communication, promote political, economic and cultural interaction, development and integration among all nationalities, and enhance the emotional ties between them.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 7.The Road of Securing the Borders<br /> <br /> The expansion of the ancient tea-horse road and the flourishing of the tea-horse trade contributed to the stability and consolidation of China's southwest frontier.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 8.The road to economic development<br /> <br /> The Thousand-Year Tea Horse Trail contributed to the formation of many towns in the region through the tea and horse trade, which greatly contributed to the economic development of the region.(Baidu Baike)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:42, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road(茶马古道)<br /> <br /> 2.Sichuan-Tibet Line（川藏线）<br /> <br /> 3.Yunnan-Tibet line（滇藏线）<br /> <br /> 4.wade ancient road（蹚古道）<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What is the ancient tea horse road ?<br /> <br /> 2.How many main routes does the ancient tea-horse road conclude?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the historical value?<br /> --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 04:15, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. <br /> <br /> 2.There are three main routes, including the Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line.<br /> <br /> 3.The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> The Chinese text rooted in Baidu Baike. The website as following:https://baike.baidu.com.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:15, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Literature, Novels - Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> <br /> ===Four satirical novels in ancient China===<br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.<br /> <br /> ==== Nie Hai Hua====<br /> Nie Hai Hua was written by Zen Pu (1872-1935).A total of 35 chapters.it is a novel of condemnation, historical fiction and political fiction. In the novel, Jin yun (wen qing) is the main character.After won the scholarship, he took a famous courtesan, Fu Caiyun, as his concubine in Suzhou.He was then ordered to travel to Russia, Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands. After returning to China, Jin Wenqing died of illness in Beijing, and Fu Caiyun left the Jin family to resume her old profession in Shanghai, changing her name to Cao Menglan then went to Tianjin to work as a prostitute, calling herself Sai Jinhua.<br /> The novel takes the story of Jin Wenqing and Fu Caiyun as the main line, vividly describes the historical and cultural changes as well as political and social changes from Tongzhi to Guangxu more than 30 years, exposing the decay and decline of the rulers, criticizing the feudal system of imperial examination, satirizing the officials, truly reflecting their spiritual life and cultural mentality. at the same time also enthusiastically glorifies Feng Zicai, Liu Yongfu and other war heroes and Sun Yat-sen and so on. The revolutionary activities of the Democratic Revolutionaries express the author's patriotic thoughts against the feudal dictatorship and advocate national democratic revolution. In specific writing, the author adopts the modern popular block novel structure combined with the traditional mesh novel structure to unfold the plot, with ups and downs, twists and turns, touching and orderly, always around the main line.<br /> As a historical novel, Nie Hai Hua draws on the spirit of the ancient &quot;good history&quot; of China to portray its characters. At the same time, it draws on the satirical approach of &quot;The History of Confucianism&quot; in which &quot;the fair-minded accuse the evils of the times&quot;, commenting on events and weighing characters in a realistic manner. In terms of art, Nie Hai Hua also has many shortcomings.However, it is a skillful structure and outstanding novel at that time.<br /> <br /> ==== the Travels of an Old Man====<br /> The Travels of an Old Man was written by Liu E (1857-1909) and a total of 20 chapters. Liu E was an entrepreneur and scholar, not a professional writer, but his reputation as a literary figure was far greater than that of an entrepreneur and scholar. This novel is an unfinished work of his that was written in his later years with an autobiographical nature.<br /> The novel takes a bell-ringing mountebank, Lao can (Tie Ying), as its main character, and narrates his experiences and activities during his travels in northern China, exposing the decadence and darkness of the Qing government, the brutality and lethargy of the officials, and the poverty and oppression of the people, especially attacking the abusive behavior of those &quot;Qing officials&quot; who are actually cruel officials, and expressing the author's strong views on the perilous reality of society and the country. <br /> The artistic achievement of the novel is very high. The first is the superb descriptive skills, whether it is a description, a landscape, or a narrative, can be vividly depicted, such as the scenery of Thousand Buddha Mountain, Daming Lake etc., which makes people have a sense of being in the real world. Secondly, its psychological description and psychological analysis, with appropriate language, can brilliantly show the inner world of the characters. Thirdly, the exquisite structural art. The novel is in the form of a Travel Journal, with travel as a clue,and organic combined of what he see, hear, think and do along the way forms a unique structural feature of the novel.<br /> <br /> ==== The Records of Officialdom Exposure====<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure by Li Baojia (1867-1906), five editions and a total of 60 chapters. This is the first long chapter novel in China's modern era that was published serially in newspapers and magazines and achieved a social sensation, creating a culture of critical reality in modern fiction.<br /> The novel consists of more than 30 relatively independent bureaucratic stories linked together,involving the Qing government from the emperor, down to the minor officials and so on,and these various bureaucrats of all kinds of evil behavior were exposed:They embezzled public funds, corrupt and pervert the law or the named &quot;expedition bandits&quot;, but is harmful to the people. The work is like a scroll of the officialdom at the end of the feudal society, touching on the main contradictions of that time.<br /> The novel's writing method is modelled on &quot;The Scholars&quot; and has been developed, making full use of exaggeration, comic style and satirical techniques. only a few strokes will outline the character's voice and physical appearance. And the author also good at describing the details, so that the characters are vivid and evocative, with a strong artistic impact. Therefore, the subsequent imitation of the work is quite a lot, it become a great view.<br /> <br /> ==== 20 years witness strange present situation====<br /> The Strange Situation Witnessed in Twenty Years was written by Wu Woyao(1866-1910), A total of 60 chapters. This is a long novel with autobiographical flavor.it through nearly 200 short stories that the protagonist hears and witnesses from the death of his father to his failure in business. it outlines the strange realities of late Qing society during the 20 years from the Sino-French War to the beginning of the 20th century.<br /> The scope of social life is much broader than The Records of Officialdom Exposure. In addition to describing the officialdom, there are also involving the shopping malls, foreign markets, science fields, medical and astrological practices. It exposes the political situation, moral outlook, social customs, and human conditions of the increasingly colonized Chinese feudal society, and is of high cognitive value in helping readers to see the irreparable historical destiny of the late Qing society and feudal system.<br /> The novel adopts the first-person narrative story, structured in a way that makes the reader feel intimate and trustworthy, setting a precedent in the history of Chinese fiction. The structure is also very clever: &quot;nine deaths and a lifetime&quot; is not only the narrator of the book story, but also the backbone of the structure of the book, and at the same time uses flashbacks, interpolations and other methods, combining it organically together, making the whole book complex and simple appropriate, muddle together.<br /> <br /> ==== Conclution====<br /> As a result of the bourgeois reformists and democratic revolutionaries strongly advocated, the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty got unprecedented development, and a large number of influential novels emerged, forming a prosperous situation of the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty.The emergence of the &quot;Four satirical novels&quot; in the late Qing Dynasty is an important sign that The creation of Chinese novels has entered another prosperous period.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E6%99%9A%E6%B8%85%E5%9B%9B%E5%A4%A7%E8%B0%B4%E8%B4%A3%E5%B0%8F%E8%AF%B4/702907?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure 《官场现形记》<br /> <br /> The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years 《二十年之目睹怪现象》<br /> <br /> the Travels of an Old Man 《老残游记》<br /> <br /> Nai Hai Hua 《孽海花》<br /> <br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty 晚清四大谴责小说<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1、what are The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty ?<br /> <br /> 2、which novel is modeled the &quot;The Scholars&quot;?<br /> <br /> 3、what’s the common characteristic of these four novels? <br /> <br /> 4、what other satirical novels do you know?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1、They are Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua.<br /> <br /> 2、The Records of Officialdom Exposure<br /> <br /> 3、The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time.<br /> <br /> 4、E.g.The Scholars<br /> <br /> ==Shadow Puppets - Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> ===Shadow Puppets===<br /> ====The Origin of Shadow Play====<br /> Shadow play has a history of more than 2000 years from the written records. Legend has it that Madame Li, the wife of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, died of illness. Emperor Wu's yearning was so intense that he was in a trance and ignored the government's affairs all day. Minister Li Shaoweng went out one day when he came across a child playing with a doll in his hand, with its shadow being vivid. So he came up with an idea that he could cut the image of Mrs. Li from cotton and silk, painted it with color, and installed wooden poles on her hands and feet. After seeing it, Emperor Wu was glued to it and couldn't put it down. This love story written in Hanshu is considered to be the earliest origin of shadow play. There are also some views that shadow play originated in Xi'an of Tang Dynasty, however, it is worth discussing that although there were an variety of operas in the Tang Dynasty, yet there were no any records of shadow play mentioned in the Tang Dynasty. Up to now, the earliest shadow play we can see is recorded in Song Dynasty. Its rise and development in Bianjing of the Northern Song Dynasty is closely related to Bianjing’s superior geographical environment, the development of commodity trade and commercial transportation at that time(Wei Liqun 2019,14).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====[[File:Shadow play]]<br /> More than 2,000 years ago, Chinese began to give performances using puppets against an illuminated screen. This is “shadow puppets”, also known as “lamp and shadow play”. It is considered as “precursor of movie” because it was the earliest moving part of form dubbed with human voice in the world.<br /> During a play, puppeteers hide behind the white screen and move puppets, while narrating the story, usually through singing. Performances are accompanied by musicians playing percussion and stringed instruments. A shadow puppet can perform actions such as “serving drinks” , “waving a sword and a spear, ” or even “smoking ”by puppeteer holding and moving manipulating rods on its body. Typically, a shadow puppet has three rods, some may have five or seven rods. It can create rich designs such as shadow puppets, animals and stage props, for example, buildings, imperial palaces, chariots, tables and chairs as well as weapons. It is so rich that it includes almost everything under the sun.<br /> It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools. The well-known ones include Tangshan Shadow Play in Hebei Province, Beijing Shadow Play as well as Shaanxi, Shanxi and Hunan Shadow Play. etc.<br /> So how to make a puppet? First. Draw pictures of the various parts of the shadow puppets; second, finish carving with a knife and a hard board underneath the design; third, color the puppet with watercolor pens; forth, paint the body parts with a brush dipped in oil. This can make the puppet transparent and better reflect colors under the light.; fifth, connect joint sections with the cotton thread; sixth, make the manipulating rods; finally, attach the manipulating rods to the shadow puppet with cotton thread. The “head” is the most important part of a shadow puppet and its total component number is about four times that of the “body”. A shadow puppet’s “head”. And the “body” can be mixed and matched with each other. <br /> The eyes and the eyebrows of a shadow puppet’s five facial features represent different personalities. The good and positive people are typical of a benevolent and kind countenance, with nice-looking eyebrows and eyes, while the villain or the general are ferocious look, with sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes. And the former are often concealed teeth and the latter are revealed teeth. The middle-aged person are short beard, but the elderly man are long beard. The decorative designs on the shadow puppets are very important and match the character’s social status. In a shadow play, female characters are usually decorated with patters such as flowers, grass, clouds and phoenix, while male characters are often decorated with dragons, tigers, water and clouds. Shadows puppets look colorful under the light. To achieve a better visual effect, the translucent puppets need to be painted on both sides. The head of color can also represent different characters’ personalities. The red is symbol of a heroic and upstanding character. The black is a sign of a just, honest and selfless personality. The yellow shows a brave and irascible character, also are used in fantasy plays to represent people with magic power. To make a shadow puppet move flexibly, a complete figure often has many components such as a head, a chest,a belly, two legs, two arms, two elbows, two hands. <br /> <br /> ====1.3. The Present Situation of Contemporary Shadow Play====<br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, shadow play, as an art form, has undergone a series of reforms under the guidance of the Party's principles, including the organization of theatrical troupes, the compilation and creation of plays, the drawing and performing forms of shadow play. With the advent of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, the prosperity of shadow play came to an abrupt end. The troupe was disbanded, the repertoire was banned, and the artists were transferred to work. A large number of precious shadow puppet props and documents were damaged. This situation, except for some places, lasted until 1976. After the end of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, shadow puppet art recovered rapidly, However, with the economic development being put in the first place of social activities and the popularity of television and the richness of artistic forms, shadow play is declining day by day with an irresistible trend, because shadow play arts are unable to keep pace with the times and get the appreciation of the audience. As a result, the prospect of shadow play art is becoming increasingly bleak.<br /> In order to inherit Chinese excellent culture and protect the ancient art forms such as shadow play. On May 20, 2006, it was approved by the State Council to be included in the first part of national intangible cultural heritage list. On November 27, 2011, UNESCO put Chinese shadow play on the &quot;list of representative works of human intangible cultural heritage&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===References：===<br /> 《皮影戏》王业霞编著<br /> 《小书大传承-皮影》魏力群著<br /> <br /> ===Words and Expressions===<br /> shadow puppet皮影戏 <br /> paper cutting 剪纸<br /> ventriloquism 口技<br /> manipulating rod 操纵杆<br /> five facial features 五官<br /> sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes 尖眉杏眼<br /> Cultural Revolution 文化大革命<br /> intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1.When is the earliest shadow puppet’s record?<br /> <br /> 2.What art of forms do shadow play use?<br /> <br /> 3. What does a red head stand for in a play?<br /> <br /> 4.When is it put on the list of intangible cultural heritage&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.Song dynasty.<br /> <br /> 2.It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools.<br /> <br /> 3.The red is symbol of a heroic and upstanding character.<br /> <br /> 4. On November 27, 2011.<br /> <br /> ==Confucian Culture - Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Confucian Culture ===<br /> <br /> <br /> ==== Introduction ====<br /> Confucian school is an academic school founded by Confucius, developed by Mencius, and composed by Xunzi. Today, it still retains a certain vitality. Confucian school takes Confucianism as its guiding ideology whose central ideas are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith. <br /> Confucian school was on an equal footing with the other hundred schools in the pre-Qin period. After the First Emperor of Qin, also called Qin Shihuang, burned books and buried scholars alive, the development of the Confucian school suffered a serious defeat. Then, in order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's advice of &quot;banishing other schools of thought and worshiping Confucianism only&quot; and imposed restrictions on thought, which led to the revival of Confucian school. The concepts of &quot;Confucian school&quot;, &quot;Confucianism&quot;, and &quot;Confucian Religion&quot; should be distinguished since Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism a social stratification, and Confucian religion a belief. <br /> Laozi founded Chinese Taoist school; Confucius started Chinese Confucian school; Sun Tzu initiated Chinese military strategist school; Mozi was the founder of Mohism in the early Warring States. Confucianism contributes to guiding the code of conduct and constructing social order; Daoism focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalism serves the system construction of national political management.; the concepts of Universal Love and utilitarianism are two cornerstones for the Mohism. The General Unity idea of Confucianism has played an important role in the unification of a nation, the enhancement of national cohesion and the integration of cultural values. After more than two thousand years of development and evolution, Confucian culture has built up a complete ideological system, involving politics, education, morality, ethics, code of conduct, life skills and other aspects. It has cultivated the wisdom and soul of the Chinese people throughout the history, and formed deep-rooted set patterns of thinking, psychology and survival. <br /> <br /> ==== Analysis of Confucian culture ====<br /> <br /> ===== Intelligence development =====<br /> Confucius is a great educator, as well as a pioneer and practitioner of mass education. After Confucianism was established as a dominant culture, both the rulers and the public respected the teachings of the sage and attached great importance to education. In this context, a basic requirement is to stay highly cultured and steeped in propriety. After the Emperor Wen initiated the imperial examination system in the Sui Dynasty, those who are good scholars could make an official, which inspired students of poor families to change their lives by studying hard and diligent. For generations, the Chinese people have attached great importance to the education of their children, which is conducive to the improvement of the thinking ability of the whole nation. <br /> However, the corrupt of bureaucracy and the darkness of officialdom in metaphase and anaphase made many literati feel despairing about official career and discredit about the concept. In addition, the Four Books and Five Classics were the main learning content of Confucianism. Apart from government-run schools, private schools and self-study can hardly meet the requirements of the Six Classical Arts. Therefore, the Four Books and Five Classics were the focus of students, while the Six Classical Arts were not highly valued. <br /> <br /> =====Spiritual guidance =====<br /> In terms of spirit, Confucianism contends that &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.&quot; Benevolent people love each other, which reflects the essence of “Unity of Man and Nature” and also the most brilliant connotation of Confucianism. This philosophy calls for people’s active contributions to the society. It is still alive in modern times, and is the fundamental requirement of people's spiritual orientation in the future. <br /> <br /> ===== Order construction =====<br /> In the age of barbarism and backwardness, a common feature was that a small number of people used power and force to suppress and enslave the majority, thus resulting in labor division and unfair distribution of wealth and generating corresponding social hierarchy and concepts. Given the fact that Confucianism developed in the transitional period of feudal society, the thoughts of Confucius and Mencius were rooted in the idealist view of destiny and did not break the shackles of social hierarchy. In addition, they even advocated the distinguish between the noble and the humble and highlighted the importance of hierarchy division. In this context, the benevolence they advocated had great limitations in political management. The public could not be treated equally in terms of political status. Instead, the so-called benevolence calls for improvement of the living conditions of the public and more benefits from the ruling class. However, its purpose was to maintain social order and reconcile social contradictions. This is also the root cause of feudal rulers’ favoring of Confucianism. In essence, Confucianism did not promote social equality, instead, it worked to maintain the unequal feudal hierarchy that aggravated servitude. In fact, after a long history of feudal rule, the sense of hierarchy would be part of the national psyche. With the progress of times and civilization, the view of destiny and the thought of social order have become psychological shackles of the Chinese people. <br /> After eliminating the ideology of feudal hierarchy and formalism, some philosophies of Confucianism still generate positive effects on modern society. Specifically, the spirit of benevolence and universal love is conducive to cultivate people’s spirits; the concept of “the country belongs to the public” reflects a sense of social responsibility to make contributions for society, which can be expanded into a sharing social and political philosophy for different countries. Filial piety and brotherhood increase the harmony and stability of family; Loyalty, faithfulness, propriety and forgiveness are conducive to the relationship between different countries, societies and people. &quot;Loyalty&quot; means that people should stay loyal to the country and people; &quot;Friendliness&quot; and &quot;forgiveness&quot; play an important role in resolving various contradictions and animosities; when it comes to &quot;filial piety&quot; and &quot;propriety&quot;, many redundant forms inherited from feudal society should be eradicated and be more practical.<br /> <br /> ====The contemporary value of Confucian culture ====<br /> Today, Confucian culture is still of great significance. We must explore the value of Confucian culture on the basis of the excellent tradition of the Chinese nation and by combining the characteristics of the times with and the actual situation. The Confucian culture has affected Chinese more than two thousand years and gone deep into each aspect of Chinese society.<br /> <br /> =====Ideological and political education =====<br /> Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy, and it places a high priority on human value and dignity. Over the years, the Chinese nation has been influenced by this excellent philosophy. On this occasion, its behavioral pattern and psychological structure are endowed with uniqueness, which is mainly manifested in two aspects. One is to respect yourself, learn how to love and care yourself. Moreover, gain dignity and achieve the development of human value through the continuous improvement of moral cultivation. Second, respect others and show respect for others' personality by respecting, understanding and caring for others.<br /> <br /> ===== Modern economic construction=====<br /> Under today’s circumstance, some ideological contents are still alive and produce positive effects on promoting the economic construction of modernization and fostering modern patriotism emotion of the Chinese people.<br /> First of all, Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of &quot;benevolence&quot; and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy. Since Confucian culture reflects a collectivist view on life, individuals are full of sense of duty and responsibility towards others and groups. In this context, their self-cultivation targets at regulating the family, country and the world. Thus, the value of individual is closely linked with the rise and fall of the country, so they have a strong sense of responsibility. &quot;Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country&quot; has been a common belief for thousands of years. Such a social responsibility will give rise to a huge driving force for the development of the country and society.<br /> Second, the consciousness of &quot;self-improvement&quot; and the proposition of &quot;seeking truth&quot; in the Confucian culture strengthen the national spirit and provide a source power for China’s economic modernization. Yi Zhuan put forward: &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection.’’ It means that continuous development is the law of nature and that a gentleman should pursue progress and be strong, unyielding resilient and positive. For thousands of years, the Chinese nation has formed a fine tradition of working hard and striving for strength under the influence of these thoughts. Today, we carry forward the spirits of “self-improvement” and &quot;seeking truth&quot; in ways that further enhance national spirits and provide a strong driving force for the socialist modernization.<br /> Third, the &quot;reform and innovation&quot; concept in Confucian culture is conducive to the expansion of the reform and opening up and the acceleration of China's socialist modernization. On the basis of admitting the fact that the continuous development is the universal law of nature, Confucian culture puts forward the &quot;innovation idea&quot;. The Book of Rites said, &quot;If you can in one day renovate yourself; do so from day to day and let there be daily renovation.&quot; The Book of Changes said, &quot;Reform refers to destroy the old, while innovation means to establish the new.” The concept is not only serves as the theoretical basis for reform and innovation throughout the history, but also provides valuable lessons for the reform in socialist economic and political systems today. Domestically, promoting the innovative spirits can greatly enhance the reform consciousness of the Chinese people. Externally, it is conducive to advancing the opening up by leveraging the global influence of Confucian culture.<br /> <br /> ===== Legal construction =====<br /> Confucian culture places a high priority on personal cultivation, while a highly civilized society under the rule of law must be composed of highly educated citizens. Confucian school, a school with thousands of years of history in China, has become an integral part of the Chinese culture. Nowadays, since China has called for the policy of combining the rule of virtue with the rule of law, it is the time for Confucian culture to find its historical position and fully play its role. Exploring the influence of Confucian culture on the construction of contemporary Chinese rule by law, not only can we help us more deeply understand the traditional culture, but also can promote the process of building the rule of law in contemporary China. <br /> The rule by virtue thought is an important part of Confucian culture and it emphasizes the importance of moral education. It is a national strategy pursued by ancient Chinese rulers and a method of national governance embodying reference significance in today’s China. In terms of national governance, Confucianism emphasizes the importance of morality, believing that national governance should not mainly rely on harsh punishment, instead, moral education should be applied to reform people. Confucius said, &quot;By governing with virtue, rulers will be loved by the public, just like stars surround the North Star.&quot; By comparing rulers to the North Star and people to the stars, Confucius emphasized the importance of moral governance. <br /> How to rule by virtue? First of all, rulers should pay attention to their personal cultivation and develop good moral characters, so that they can set a good example for the public. Only when officials and common people obey the ruler sincerely, can a good social atmosphere be formed. Secondly, since Confucianism takes &quot;benevolence&quot; as its core and calls for the rule of virtue, many people subconsciously believe that Confucianism denies the role of criminal law and that Confucian culture does not call for the rule of law. In fact, this is not the case. While Confucianism advocates the rule of virtue, it also emphasizes the supplementary role of rule of law. Confucius said, &quot;Sages believe that national governance must combine the rule of virtue and law.&quot; That is to say, if people are governed by systems and laws, they seek for impunity but lack of conscience; however, if they are guided by morality and etiquette, they will have a sense of right and wrong and will impose strict requirements on themselves.<br /> In a word, we should clearly realize that, although Confucian culture is an excellent traditional culture in China, it was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. Under this circumstance, we must analyse Confucian culture dialectically and explore the value of Confucian culture. At the same time, we should discard the bad habits and unfavorable factors left by it, so as to better carry forward our traditional culture and accelerate the construction of the rule of law in contemporary China.<br /> <br /> ====The Confucius institute ====<br /> With the improvement of China's international status and the increasingly extensive international exchanges, Chinese culture has won wider foreign attention and the world is more eager to learn and understand the Chinese culture. The Confucius Institute project, founded in 2004, emerges in response to the call of the times. Today, Confucius Institutes have spread throughout Asia, Africa, The Americas, Europe and Oceania. Fundamentally speaking, its is conducive to the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture since language is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is of positive significance to the construction of China's national image, the promotion of China's international influence, the realization of wider international communication.<br /> The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Today, countries are committed to spreading their own language and culture, so there is a fierce competition in international cultural promotion. In addition, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. At present, Confucius Institutes are prevalent all over the world, but the promotion strategy seeking for quantity and speed results in a serious shortage of teachers capable of teaching Chinese as a foreign language. According to statistics, there is a global shortage of at least five million TCSL teachers. Secondly, the lack of high-quality and localized teaching materials for Chinese has also become a bottleneck for the development of Confucius Institutes. The shortage of Chinese textbooks affects the depth of cultural communication of Confucius Institutes directly. Thirdly, Confucius Institutes are not capable of spreading the ideological depth of the Chinese culture. Although the textbooks are rich in content, they mainly focus on promoting folk culture by introducing Chinese food, tea and wine, traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts. Meanwhile, they rarely involve the ideological essence of traditional Chinese culture and the modern value of Chinese culture.<br /> The Confucius Institutes should fully explore the modern significance of Confucianism and cast the quintessence of Chinese culture, and strengthen the spread of the core idea of Chinese culture and its modern cultural value. The connotation of Chinese culture is very rich. What Confucius Institutes should spread is not all the contents of Chinese culture, but the contents with universal value that are different from other countries and represent the essence of Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Terms and expressions ====<br /> <br /> 儒家Confucian school<br /> <br /> 儒学Confucianism<br /> <br /> 儒教Confucian religion <br /> <br /> 兼爱 Universal love<br /> <br /> 恕、忠、孝、悌、勇forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage<br /> <br /> 仁、义、礼、智、信benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith<br /> <br /> 学而优则仕 A good scholar will make an official<br /> <br /> 四书五经 the Four Books and Five Classics<br /> <br /> 天行健，君子当自强不息；地势坤，君子以厚德载物。As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.<br /> <br /> 天下兴亡，匹夫有责 Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Questions ====<br /> <br /> What’s the central ideas of Confucian culture?<br /> <br /> What’s the difference among Confucian school, Confucianism and Confucian religion?<br /> <br /> What do you think of the relationship between Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school, Legalist school?<br /> <br /> What’s the Six Classical Arts?<br /> <br /> What you think of the ancient influence of Confucian culture?<br /> <br /> Do you think Confucian culture still has its contemporary values in China? And why?<br /> <br /> What do you think of the current situation of the development of the Confucian institute?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> <br /> ====Ch'ien Chung-shu====<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu (1910-1998), a well-known scholar, writer, translator and literary researcher, was born into an education family in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province. In Chinese academic circles, Qian was ranked with Rao Zongyi, a master in academic circles, and both were called &quot;South Rao and North Qian&quot;. He was admitted to Tsinghua University in 1929 and got to know Yang Jiang in 1932. Qian became famous soon after the enrolment, not only for the 15 mark of his mathematics, but for his excellent Chinese and English, especially full marks in English. Qian had an engagement with Yang the year after their acquaintance and went to study at Oxford University in England along with her. In 1937, he obtained the bachelor's degree from Oxford with the treatise ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries'', and his daughter Qian Yuan was born the same year. He wrote a great many profound literary works in his lifetime. When it comes to Ch'ien Chung-shu, people would think of his representative work ''Fortress Besieged'', which was published in 1947.<br /> <br /> As a realistic satirical novel, ''Fortress Besieged'' is known as &quot;The New Scholars&quot; in the 1940s. The novel is centralized on Fang Hongjian,who returned from studying abroad at the beginning of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression. It depicts the struggles in love, marriage,career and life of a group of intellectuals who were far away from the times and the people during the War of Resistance against Japanese Agression. It reveals their inner poverty, emptiness and lowliness, criticizes the dark reality of the Kuomintang-controlled areas, and reveals the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life. In the preface of the book, Qian said that, &quot;In this book I intended to write about a certain segment of society and a certain kind of people in modern China. In writing about these people, I didn’t forget they are human beings, still human beings with the basic nature of hairless, two-legged animals. &quot;The novel is like an X-ray mirror that reveals the deformed characters and ugly souls of those &quot;hairless and two-legged animals&quot; and analyzes the cultural matrix which is responsible for the deformed characters and ugly souls of these &quot;latest style&quot; literati. Yang Jiang said, &quot;The main connotation of ''Fortress Besieged'' is that those who are besieged by the city want to escape, while those outside want to rush in. This is what most people wish for in life, whether in marriage or career. &quot;The meaning of &quot;fortress besieged&quot; is also stated several times in the novel. It tells people that life is a besieged city everywhere, people have marriage and divorce, divorce and marriage in endless succession,with everlasting confusion and dilemma. The questions that Qian raised in the novel refer to a question of universal significance, which is the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life as a whole. In December 1990, the television series ''Fortress Besieged'' was broadcast on China Central Television(CCTV) and enjoyed great popularity.<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu has made significant achievements in literary research and literary creation. In particular, it is of great significance to carry forward and deny traditional Chinese culture scientifically and learn from foreign culture selectively. He has wrote the collection of essays ''Written in the Margins of Life''(1941), the collection of short stories ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts''(1946), and the novel ''Fortress Besieged''(1947). Both his essays and novels are wise and meaningful. Qian has read Chinese history, philosophy and literary classics in depth and has studied western old and new literature, philosophy and psychology. Many of his works, such as ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideaas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', have enjoyed high reputation in academic circles both at home and abroad.<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu viewd China and the world with a cultural criticism spirit. Based on his profound knowledge of Chinese and world culture, Qian has always shown a clear mind and a deep insight when observing Chinese and Western culture. He didn't reject any theories or doctrines, nor did he blindly follow any authorities. He devoted his life to promoting Chinese literature and art to the world. To this end, he not only explicated the profound meaning and unique value of Chinese culture in depth, but also pointed out its historical and regional limitations. He not only criticized the Chinese for their arrogance towards the local culture due to certain illusions, but also mercilessly eliminated the Westerners' prejudice centered on European and American culture due to ignorance. It is Ch'ien Chung-shu who has promoted cultural communication between China and other countries.<br /> <br /> November 21st,2020 is the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu. People often call him a well-informed scholar, but he is more of a down-to-earth writer and scholar. He was indifferent to fame and wealth and alaways took a rigorous and serious attitude towards academic research. We feel ourselves in an entirely new world when we read the subtle metaphors in ''Fortress Besieged'', while we read ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', we are amazed at Qian's erudition. People all over the world admire his talent, but in fact,it is his meticulous and diligent reading spirit that makes him a well-informed scholar. Many of his life experiences and the question of whether his scholarship was systematic or not have attracted much attention. Wang Shuizhao, professor of Chinese Department of Fudan University, who has studied and worked with Ch'ien Chung-shu for a long time, has recently published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'', in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements based on the first-hand historical data, his personal experiences and his own understanding of academia, and gives answers to the questions discueesed widely, such as Qian's experience of being falsely accused, whether there exists system in his scholarship and the collision of viewpoints between Qian and Chen Yinke.<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries'' 《十七十八世纪英国文学中的中国》<br /> <br /> ''Fortress Besieged'' 《围城》<br /> <br /> Kuomintang-controlled areas 国统区<br /> <br /> ''Written in the Margins of Life'' 《写在人生边上》<br /> <br /> ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts'' 《人·兽·鬼》<br /> <br /> ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' 《管锥编》<br /> <br /> ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'' 《谈艺录》<br /> <br /> the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu 钱钟书诞辰110周年纪念日<br /> <br /> ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu '' 《钱钟书的学术人生》<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.What is Ch'ien Chung-shu's representative work? When was it published?<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu's representive work is ''Fortress Besieged''. It was published in 1947.<br /> <br /> 2.When was the TV series ''Fortress Besieged'' broadcast?<br /> <br /> It was broadcast in December 1990.<br /> <br /> 3.Do you know other works about Ch'ien Chung-shu? Can you list some of them?<br /> <br /> ''Patchwork:Seven Essays on Art and Literature''（《七缀集》） and ''Poetic Remains of an Ephemeral Life''（《槐聚诗存》）.<br /> <br /> 4.Which book did Wang Shuizhao publish in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu? What does he talk about in this book?<br /> <br /> Wang Shuizhao published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'' in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu, in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements.<br /> <br /> 5.Which sentence is your favoriate in ''Fortress Besieged''? <br /> <br /> &quot;I want to be able to occupy the whole life of the man I love. Before meeting me, he would have had no past and would be waiting for me with a clean slate.&quot; <br /> --[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:19, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> <br /> ===相声 Cross Talk===<br /> <br /> ===The History of Cross Talk===<br /> <br /> Cross talk, in the ancient time was known as onomatopoeia, originally refers to imitate other's voices, also known as neighboring cross talk. It was evolved and further developed from the folk music in North China, and integrated with imitating oral skills and other folk art forms. It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng （1850—1861）and Emperor Tongzhi（1861—1874）period in Qing dynasty. It’s a folk vocal art that uses jokes or funny questioning and answering to make the audience laugh. In the early years of the Republic of China, cross talk gradually developed from one-person ventriloquism to stand-up one person talk, and the name changed to cross talk. Later, it gradually developed into stand-up cross talk, dual cross talk, and group cross talk. And become a veritable form of art. After years of development, dual cross talk has finally become the most popular form of cross talk among audiences.--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 06:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Famous Artists of Cross Talk===<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> Go 围棋--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:04, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===GO===<br /> Go is an adversarial game with the objective of surrounding a larger total area of the board with one's stones than the opponent. As the game progresses, the players position stones on the board to map out formations and potential territories. Contests between opposing formations are often extremely complex and may result in the expansion, reduction, or wholesale capture and loss of formation stones.<br /> A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board. One or more liberties enclosed within a group is called an eye, and a group with two or more eyes cannot be captured, even if surrounded. Such groups are said to be unconditionally alive.<br /> <br /> The general strategy is to expand one's territory, attack the opponent's weak groups (groups that can be killed), and always stay mindful of the &quot;life status&quot; of one's own groups. The liberties of groups are countable. Situations where mutually opposing groups must capture each other or die are called capturing races, or semeai. In a capturing race, the group with more liberties (and/or better &quot;shape&quot;) will ultimately be able to capture the opponent's stones. Capturing races and the elements of life or death are the primary challenges of Go.<br /> <br /> Players may pass rather than place a stone if they think there are no further opportunities for profitable play. The game ends when both players pass or when one player resigns. In general, to score the game, each player counts the number of unoccupied points surrounded by their stones and then subtracts the number of stones that were captured by the opponent. The player with the greater score (after adjusting for komi) wins the game.<br /> <br /> In the opening stages of the game, players typically establish positions (or &quot;bases&quot;) in the corners and around the sides of the board. These bases help to quickly develop strong shapes which have many options for life (self-viability for a group of stones that prevents capture) and establish formations for potential territory. Players usually start in the corners because establishing territory is easier with the aid of two edges of the board. Established corner opening sequences are called &quot;joseki&quot; and are often studied independently.<br /> <br /> &quot;Dame&quot; are points that lie in between the boundary walls of black and white, and as such are considered to be of no value to either side. &quot;Seki&quot; are mutually alive pairs of white and black groups where neither has two eyes. A &quot;ko&quot; (Chinese and Japanese: 劫) is a repeated-position shape that may be contested by making forcing moves elsewhere. After the forcing move is played, the ko may be &quot;taken back&quot; and returned to its original position.[30] Some &quot;ko fights&quot; may be important and decide the life of a large group, while others may be worth just one or two points. Some ko fights are referred to as &quot;picnic kos&quot; when only one side has a lot to lose. The Japanese call it a hanami (flower-viewing) ko. <br /> <br /> Playing with others usually requires a knowledge of each player's strength, indicated by the player's rank (increasing from 30 kyu to 1 kyu, then 1 dan to 7 dan, then 1 dan pro to 9 dan pro). A difference in rank may be compensated by a handicap—Black is allowed to place two or more stones on the board to compensate for White's greater strength. There are different rule-sets (Korean, Japanese, Chinese, AGA, etc.), which are almost entirely equivalent, except for certain special-case positions.<br /> <br /> Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, there are essentially only two rules in Go:<br /> • Rule 1 (the rule of liberty) states that every stone remaining on the board must have at least one open &quot;point&quot; (an intersection, called a &quot;liberty&quot;) directly orthogonally adjacent (up, down, left, or right), or must be part of a connected group that has at least one such open point (&quot;liberty&quot;) next to it. Stones or groups of stones which lose their last liberty are removed from the board.<br /> • Rule 2 (the &quot;ko rule&quot;) states that the stones on the board must never repeat a previous position of stones. Moves which would do so are forbidden, and thus only moves elsewhere on the board are permitted that turn.<br /> Almost all other information about how the game is played is a heuristic, meaning it is learned information about how the game is played, rather than a rule. Other rules are specialized, as they come about through different rule-sets, but the above two rules cover almost all of any played game.<br /> Although there are some minor differences between rule-sets used in different countries, most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules, these differences do not greatly affect the tactics and strategy of the game.<br /> <br /> Except where noted, the basic rules presented here are valid independent of the scoring rules used. The scoring rules are explained separately. Go terms for which there is no ready English equivalent are commonly called by their Japanese names.<br /> <br /> The two players, Black and White, take turns placing stones of their colour on the intersections of the board, one stone at a time. The usual board size is a 19×19 grid but for beginners, or for playing quick games, the smaller board sizes of 13×13 and 9×9 are also popular. The board is empty to begin with. Black plays first, unless black is given a handicap of two stones or more (in which case, white plays first). The players may choose any unoccupied intersection to play on, except for those forbidden by the ko and suicide rules (see below). Once played, a stone can never be moved and can be taken off the board only if it is captured. A player may also pass, declining to place a stone, though this is usually only done at the end of the game when both players believe nothing more can be accomplished with further play. When both players pass consecutively, the game ends and is then scored.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Go 围棋 heuristic 启发式的<br /> adversarial game 对抗性游戏 intersection 交叉点<br /> board 棋盘 black 黑棋<br /> formation 阵型 white 白棋<br /> move 走棋 scoring rule 计分规则<br /> liberty 自由度 player 棋手<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1, What’s the basic principle of Go?<br /> <br /> <br /> 2,Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, What are other two essential rules in Go？<br /> <br /> <br /> 3, What countries have the most notable scoring rules differences?--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1, A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board.<br /> <br /> 2,The rule of liberty and the &quot;ko rule&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3, Most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cho Chikun (1997). Go: A Complete Introduction to the Game. Tokyo: Kiseido Publishers. ISBN 978-4-906574-50-6.<br /> <br /> [2]NRICH Team, Going First, University of Cambridge, retrieved 2007-06-16<br /> <br /> [3]Iwamoto, Kaoru (1977). Go for Beginners. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 978-0-394-73331-9.<br /> <br /> [4]British Go Association, Comparison of some go rules, retrieved 2007-12-20<br /> <br /> [5]Kim, Janice; Jeong, Soo-hyun (1997). Learn to Play Go. Five volumes (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Good Move Press. ISBN 978-0-9644796-1-6.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：围棋<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> ===The Four Most Handsome men in Ancient China===<br /> It is said that there were four most beautiful women in ancient times, and corresponding to that, it is worth mentioning that there were four most attractive men at that time.Despite that we consider these four men as attractive, this refers to more than just their appearance. They have a common feature: it proves that while their appearance is marvelous, they are also outstanding in literature. Namely, as a Chinese saying goes, they are endowed with both beauty and talent.<br /> These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> The allusion of “throwing fruit to fill a carriage” originates from Pan An, which resembles movie fans nowadays to see their idols. There is a comment on Pan An’s appearance: &quot;No more and no less.&quot; The history books also describe Pan An with three words “good-looking, well-mannered, and graceful”. Although these did not describe Pan An’s appearance in details, such as eyebrows and eyes or lips, from these side descriptions, we can know that Pan An’s appearance is far above ordinary people, and even his styles draw imitation from others. At the same time, Pan An is known as “the flower of a county in Heyang”, and he is also one of the few men who are compared with flowers to be praised for excellent appearance. The beauty of exterior only fails to last long in this world. Pan An's talent and temperament and the devotion to his wife are also often eulogized. Pan Yue showed his unusual talent since he was a child, and he was called a child prodigy by the villagers. In his early years, he was appreciated by an official and recommended as a scholar. Later, served as the magistrate of Heyang (now Meng County, Henan), he was diligent in political affairs, and advocated the people to plant more fruits and trees. The county was full of trees and peaches and plums everywhere, known as “Flower County”. During his administration, his political achievements were remarkable. Besides, Pan An holds a special place in the history of literature. He was good at composing verse and orders, expatiation, and skilled in the choice of words and building of sentences, which fully reflects the characteristics of Taikang literature that pays attention to the beauty of form. He was expert in composing Ci lyric of sorrow and admonishment, and his current works such as Widow's Fu, Mourning Poem and other famous works are all known for their narration and empathy. Pan An can be described as both internally and externally blessed.（Liu Xixue 2003,63-64）<br /> <br /> Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. There is a very popular legend about King Lanling. It's believed that King Lanling was a brave and supremely skilled general. However, because he looked very sweet and it seemed hard to frighten the enemy, he often wore a half-mask when fighting, which sounds very fairytale. Nevertheless, the beauty of King Lanling is beyond doubt and otherworldly. Book of Northern Qi Dynasty described that he was friendly looking and mentally strong, with beautiful voice and appearance. King Lanling spent half his life in military affairs, and made great achievements. While this gave him glory, it also brought bad luck. There is an old Chinese saying that the glow of a inferior from massive achievements will overshadow his superior. Although the King Lanling did not have the idea of usurping the throne, but the incumbent felt threatened because of his existence itself. In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> Song Yu (about 322 BC-298 BC), as it is widely rumored, a student of Qu Yuan, was born in the capital city of Song Dynasty during the Warring States Period (now Shangqiu, Henan). Song Yu was a writer of Ci lyric of State Chu in the late Warring States period, adept in Ci lyric and even acclaimed as a great poet after Qu Yuan' reputation. Later generations often referred to them as “Qu Song”. Rumors circulate that there are many Ci lyrics from him, and Book of Han records about 16 works, but many of them are lost today. His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on. He was the first to write about sadness from Autumn and to write about women. His description of women's nature exerts a great influence on later generations such as Cao Zhi. The goddess in Song Yu's The Fu poetry of Goddess embodies the essence of pre-Qin female beauty, recounting the beauty of the goddess of Wushan Mountain in details so much so that later generations have coveted for it for thousands of years. 16 works survived, among which Nine Discriminations is believed to be truly composed by him. It is equivalent to Qu Yuan's Li Sao or A lament in the history of Chinese literature. Both poets can be called the two shining pearls in Ci lyric at their times.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> <br /> Wei Jie (286-June 20, 312), a metaphysician and an official of the Jin Dynasty. Wei Jie was a noted talker and metaphysicist during the Wei and Jin Dynasties. He was appointed as an assistant of the prince in the matter of politics. In the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Yongjia(AD310), Wei Jie died at the age of 27. Both ancient books and ancients commented on Wei Jie's appearance. Wang Ji reckoned that, “A jade is on my side, and I feel like I am nobody”; “Wandering with Jiu is like sauntering with a pearl on the side, with him shining brightly.” History Retold as a Mirror for rulers authored by Sima Guang goes into detail: &quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot; Wei Jie not only have a mere marvelous exterior, but also he can discern metaphysics from his perspective. Wei Jie’s views always amaze the concerned parties. It is said that even three sons of the Wang family, are not as good as the first son of the Wei family, and the three sons of the Wang family were all well-known scholars at that time, and the Wei Jie could be regarded as unmatchable compared with the three in family background, appearance, and talents.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Pan An 潘安<br /> <br /> King Lanling 兰陵王<br /> <br /> Ji Kang 嵇康 <br /> <br /> Wei Jie 卫玠 <br /> <br /> throwing fruit to fill a carriage 掷果盈车<br /> <br /> scholar 秀才<br /> <br /> expatiation 铺陈<br /> <br /> Book of Northern Qi Dynasty 《北齐书》<br /> <br /> the Warring States Period 战国时期<br /> <br /> Book of Han 《汉书》<br /> <br /> Nine Discriminations 《九辨》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Wind 《风赋》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Goddess 《神女赋》<br /> <br /> the goddess of Wushan Mountain 巫山神女<br /> <br /> metaphysician 玄学家<br /> <br /> a noted talker 清谈名士<br /> <br /> History Retold as a Mirror for rulers 《资治通鉴》<br /> <br /> Widow's Fu 《寡妇赋》<br /> <br /> Mourning Poem 《悼亡诗》<br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1.Who are the four most handsome men at ancient time in China?<br /> <br /> 2.Who is Gao Changgong?<br /> <br /> 3.How did Lanlin King die?<br /> <br /> 4.What works did Song Yu compose?<br /> <br /> 5.Who are the two shining pearls in Ci lyric according to the passage?<br /> <br /> 6.What History Retold as a Mirror for rulers comment on Wei Jie?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.<br /> <br /> 2.Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. <br /> <br /> 3.In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King. <br /> <br /> 4.His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on.<br /> <br /> 5.Qu Yuan and Song Yu<br /> <br /> 6.&quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]刘细学.古代四大美男[J].文史天地,2003(06):63-64.<br /> <br /> [2]王真波.四大美男都是怎么死的[J].青年文学家,2008(11):59-60.<br /> <br /> ==Lo, Minh Thao==<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Mogao Grottoes--Lou Cancan 娄灿灿 student no.202070080599==<br /> <br /> ===Mogao Grottoes===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The Mogao Grottoes, known as the Thousand Buddhas Caves, were built on the eastern cliff of Mingsha Mountain, 25 kilometers to the southeast of Dunhuang city. There are 492 caves (well preserved) today, containing over 2,400 painted clay statues and 45,000 square meters of murals and 5 timber structures on the cliff of the southern district. There are also more than 300 caves used as both living room and burying place for monks and painters on the cliff of the northern district. Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes,so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes. From the 4th until the 14th century, caves were constructed by monks to serve as shrines with funds from donors.(Fan Jinshi 2010，170)The major caves were sponsored by patrons such as important asclergies, local ruling elites, foreign dignitaries, as well as Chinese emperors. Other caves may have been funded by merchants and other local people such as women's groups. (Sha Wutian 2020, 122)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes]]====<br /> <br /> ===History===<br /> <br /> Mogao Grottoes were not built in one day. According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff. Later, monk Faliang（法良）came here and joined him cultivating in caves. Since then more and more caves have been excavated over a thousand year. (Whitfield 1990, 8) <br /> <br /> By the time of Northern Liang, small community of monks had formed at this site. The caves initially served only as a place of meditation for hermit monks. Later, they were developed to serve the monasteries that sprang up nearby. Members of the ruling families of Northern Wei and Northern Zhou constructed many caves here, and it flourished in the short-lived Sui Dynasty. By the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Mogao Caves had become a place of worship and pilgrimage for the public. In the Sui Dynasty, Hexi Corridor was controlled by central authority. The emperors were pious followers of Buddhism and they ordered to build stupas across the country. Therefore, more than 100 caves were excavated in Mogao Grottoes within 37 years. By the Tang Dynasty, the number of caves had reached over a thousand. During this period, Dunhuang became the main hub of commerce of the Silk Road and a major religious center. A large number of the caves were constructed during this era, including the two large statues of Buddha at the site, the largest one constructed in 695 following an edict a year earlier by Tang Empress Wu Zitian to build giant statues across the country. The site escaped the persecution of Buddhists ordered by Emperor Wuzong in 845 as it was then under Tibetan control. As a frontier town, Dunhuang had been occupied at various times by other non-Han Chinese people. <br /> <br /> After the Tang Dynasty, the site went into a gradual decline, and construction of new caves ceased entirely after the Yuan Dynasty. In the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, Mogao Grottoes were preserved and kept by Cao Yijin（曹议金).(MA Shichang 2010, 303)After that, his later generations governed Dunhuang Prefecture and constructed multiple family caves such as Cave 55.(Gao Xiujun 2016, 9) During the Ming Dynasty, the Silk Road was finally abandoned and Dunhuang slowly became depolulated and was forgotten by the outside world. Most of the Mogao caves were abandoned. The site, however, went back to a place of pilgrimage and worship by local people at the beginning of the twentieth century. On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings. Since then, Dunhuang has become well known throughout the world. Both Chinese and foreign scholars have made extensive studies on the findings.(Stein 1912, volume 2)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Taoist Wang Yuanlu.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Taoist Wang Yuanlu]]====<br /> <br /> ===Art===<br /> <br /> The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture and they vary from dynasty to dynasty. There are mainly three types of structural forms of Mogao Grottoes: Vihara, Chaitya and Hall with inverted funnel shaped ceiling. A Chaitya with a central pillar is the main form of the caves in the early period of the Sixteen States, with Northern Wei, Western Wei and Northern Zhou Dynasties included. The murals may be divided into seven sorts:Buddhist figures, Sutra illustration, Buddhist stories, Buddhist historical pictures, Chinese mythologies, donors and decorative designs. Buddhist stories in the murals can be divided into three types:Jataka（佛本生), Buddha’s life and fate story. A Jataka is a narrative which tells of the good deeds performed by Sakyamuni during his perious existence such as prince Sudanda giving up his body to feed the hungry tigers. As to sculptures, initially, they were constructed on a wooden frame, padded with reed, then modelled in clay stucco and finished with paint.（Duan Wenjie 1994, 163) <br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Chaitya with a Central Pillar.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Chaitya with a Central Pillar]]==== <br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body]]====<br /> <br /> The artistic styles in the Sixteen States, which gradually turned away from being primitive and simple to an easy and graceful styles in the Northern Wei, manifested in figures with well-chiseled builds and emaciated looks. In Northern Zhou, the styles of figures show that Chinese art combining the influence of foreign and native styles gradually became more nationalized. The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs. The caves become spacious and more suited for large paintings, such as the Sutra illustrations and huge pictures of Buddha expounding sermons. Bold and vigorous, brush work was painted with intricate and flowing lines. For example, Lotus Sutra on the ceiling of Cave 420 displays a lot of episodes of mountains, forests, rivers, buildings and so on in a limitated space. The theme and art in the Sui Dynasty show an important devdelopment in traditional art and indicate a comimg glorious new era. In Tang Dynasty, the caves are large with an inverted funnel shaped ceiling. The murals consist mostly of huge paintings of stories from Buddhist Sutras with well-regulated scenes and well-balanced composition. The figures at that time have round and plump faces and curved eyebrows which expresses the aesthetical taste of the people living in Tang. The mural in Cave 220 contains vivid portraits of the Emperor and his ministers listening to a sermon. The ministers attending to Emperor are each bestowed with differrent appearances and expressions. Some are natural and graceful and some cautious. The well-proportioned painted statues were made with more consummate care and attention to the detail, showing us the solemn Buddha. In addition, very tall and colossal statues of Buddha began to be made. The outstanding one is an early Tang Dynasty statue 34 metres high in Cave 96.( Fan Jinshi 2010, 175) In 781-848A.D.,Hexi region fell into the Tibetan. Hence, there was an interesting changes: the king of the Tibetan took the place of central-plain emperors in the wall-painting. <br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 251 in Northern Wei.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 251 in Northern Wei]]====<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty]]====<br /> <br /> <br /> By the time of the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, the grottoes carved in this period are very large and different in form and layout. The subject and style of the statues and murals remain the influence from Tang Dynasty, but the use of colours and the drawing techniques show a simple folk style. From the 9th century to 12th, the Uygur had been in Dunhuang. The artistic styles bear the imprint of both Han and Uygur. The Uygur murals are benerally characterized by the simplicity of the subject, the looseness of the arrangement, the direct and rough brush strokes. The human figures have features of certain minority groups. In the Western Xia Dynasty(1036-1227), most of caves were repaired and renovated, and only 10 caves were built because of the limited cliffs. Compared to the Yulin Grottoes at the same time, painting of Dunhuang display the Pure-land Sutra, containing simpler content. Only 27 caves are extant in Yuan times(1227-1372). The murals in Cave 3, however, still remain the Tang and Song techniques, namely using different types of drawing to depict different parts of human figures such as iron-wire lines, orchid-leaf strokes and broken-reef strokes, etc. Since the 15th century, the Mogaoo Grottoes had gradually fallen into neglect in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.(Rong Xinjiang 1999, 248)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty]]====<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> hermit 隐士<br /> <br /> stupas 舍利塔<br /> <br /> Emperor Wuzong 唐武宗<br /> <br /> Vihara 精舍<br /> <br /> Chaitya 支提窟<br /> <br /> stucco 灰泥<br /> <br /> Sakyamuni 释迦牟尼<br /> <br /> Sutras 佛经<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What do Dunhuang Grottoes refer to?<br /> <br /> 2.Who built the first cave and when?<br /> <br /> 3.In 1900, who found the treasure-house in Mogao Grottoes and what were stored in it?<br /> <br /> 4.How many aspects does the art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of and what are they respectively?<br /> <br /> 5.What are the characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes, so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes.<br /> <br /> 2.According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff.<br /> <br /> 3.On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings.<br /> <br /> 4.The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture.<br /> <br /> 5.The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Fan Jinshi 樊锦诗.(2010). 敦煌石窟 [The Caves of Dunhuang]. Gansu: The Dunhuang Academy敦煌研究院. <br /> <br /> Gao Xiujun 高秀军.(2016). 敦煌莫高窟第55窟研究 [Research on the 55th Grotto of Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang].Lanzhou University兰州大学.<br /> <br /> MA Shichang.(2010).Buddhist Cave-temples and the Cao Family at Mogao Ku, Dunhuang.MA Shichang,27(2),303-317.<br /> <br /> Rong Xinjiang 荣新江. (2010). 敦煌藏经洞的性质及其封闭原因 [The Nature of the Dunhuang Library Cave and the Reasons for Its Sealing]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Sha Wutian 沙武田. (2020). 佛教供养与政治宣传——敦煌莫高窟第156窟供养人画像研究 [Buddhist offerings and Political Propaganda -- A Study on the Portrait of the Patron of the 156th Grottoes in Dunhuang].中原文物 Cultural Relics in Central Plain,No.215,118-128.<br /> <br /> Stein, M. Aurel. Ruins of Desert Cathay.(1912). Personal Narrative of Explorations in Central Asia and Westernmost China, volume 2. London: Macmillan.<br /> <br /> Suemori Kaoru. (2020).&quot;Thousand-Buddha images in Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes: Religious spaces created by polychromatic patterns&quot;. Kyoto: Hozokan. <br /> <br /> DuanWenjie. (1994). Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie. Abhinav Publications. p. 163.<br /> <br /> Whitfield, Roderick and Farrer, Anne, Caves of the Thousand Buddhas. (1990). Chinese Art from the Silk Route, British Museum Publications. P . 5-20.<br /> <br /> https://books.google.ru/books?hl=zh-CN&amp;lr=&amp;id=vYPNqlAMZWAC&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PP7&amp;dq=info:9v6pr21oST8J:scholar.google.com/&amp;ots=s-uXhnyDBp&amp;sig=u3H7MAh_OpGRS6Iwxoqx0rC5_fo&amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false<br /> <br /> https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogao_Caves<br /> <br /> https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=zh-CN&amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;q=mogao+grottoes&amp;oq=<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> <br /> ====Civil Service Examination System====<br /> <br /> --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:27, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> == The Forbidden City Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴 Student No.202070080601==<br /> <br /> ===The Forbidden City===--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 08:30, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====I.Introduction==== <br /> The Forbidden City (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng) is a palace complex in Dongcheng District, Beijing, China, and with a total area of 720,000 square meters (180 acres). It lies in the center of Beijing's central axis. Today, the Forbidden City houses the Palace Museum, and was the former Chinese imperial palace and residence of the Emperor of China from the Ming dynasty (since the Yong Le Emperor) to the end of the Qing dynasty, between 1420 and 1924. The Forbidden City served as the home of Chinese emperors and their households and was the ceremonial and political center of the Chinese government.(Barmé, Geremie R 2018,26)<br /> The Forbidden City is a national AAAAA tourist attraction and was listed as the first batch of key cultural relics under national protection in 1961. What’s more, it was declared a world cultural heritage in 1987, and listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.(UNESCO,2007)<br /> ====[[File:A Panaroma view of the Forbidden City.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A Panaroma view of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====II.The Name of the Forbidden City====<br /> The common English name &quot;Forbidden City&quot; is a translation of the Chinese name Zijin Cheng (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng; English: Purple Forbidden City). The name Zijin Cheng first formally appeared in the period of Jia Jing. (Li Xieping1997, (04)29-31) In ancient China, the planning concept of &quot;harmony between man and nature&quot; was emphasized. The stars in the sky were used to correspond with the capital planning to highlight the legitimacy of the regime and the supremacy of imperial power. “ Zi ”, or &quot;Purple&quot;, refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star, The emperor of heaven lived in Ziwei palace, while the human emperor claimed to be the &quot;son of heaven&quot; who was ordered by heaven. His residence should be a symbol of Ziwei palace to correspond to the heaven emperor. “Jin” means that this splendid palace symbolizes supreme power and status of the royal family. In that case, this palace was forbidden, no one could enter and leave the palace without the emperor’s permission. Cheng means a city. Today, the site is most commonly known in Chinese as Gùgōng (故宫), which means the &quot;Former Palace&quot;. The museum which is based in these buildings is known as the &quot;Palace Museum&quot; (Chinese: 故宫博物院; pinyin: Gùgōng Bówùyùan).<br /> <br /> ====III.The History of the Forbidden City====<br /> <br /> When Hongwu’s son Zhu Di became the Yong Le Emperor, he moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, and construction began in 1406 on what would become the Forbidden City. Construction lasted 14 years and required more than a million workers. From 1420 to 1644, the Forbidden City was the seat of the Ming dynasty. (Yu Zhuoyun1984,18)In April 1644, it was captured by rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. He set fire to parts of the Forbidden City in the process of retreating to Shannxi. By October, the Manchus had achieved supremacy in northern China, and a ceremony was held at the Forbidden City to proclaim the Emperor Shunzhi as ruler of all China under the Qing dynasty. (Guo Moruo 1944,3.14) In the 22nd year of Kangxi's reign (1683), the reconstruction of the rest of the destroyed buildings of the Forbidden City was started, and it was basically completed in 1695.After being the home of 24 emperors – 14 of the Ming dynasty and 10 of the Qing dynasty – the Forbidden City ceased being the political centre of China in 1912 with the abdication of Puyi, the last Emperor of China. In 1933, the Japanese invasion of China forced the evacuation of the national treasures in the Forbidden City. Part of the collection was returned at the end of World War II, but the other part was evacuated to Taiwan in 1948 under orders of Chiang Kai-shek.After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, some damage was done to the Forbidden City as the country was swept up in revolutionary zeal. During the Cultural Revolution, however, further destruction was prevented when Premier Zhou Enlai sent an army battalion to guard the city.( Xie Mengyin&amp;Qu Wanlin2006, 11.7)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====IV.The Structure of the Forbidden City==== <br /> Firstly, The Forbidden City is a rectangle and symmetric in its layout. Its palaces are arranged along a north-south axis, on which the three main halls, the rear three palaces and the imperial garden are all located. This central axis not only runs through the Forbidden City, but also reaches Yongding Gate in the south, Drum Tower and bell tower in the north, and runs through the whole city.(Xie Li 2005,(03)100-102)<br /> Secondly, the Forbidden City is divided into two parts, the Outer Court and Inner Court. The Outer Court is the place where the emperor deals with political affairs. There are mainly three halls: the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony, and the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The Inner Court or Back Palace includes the northern sections, and was the residence of the Emperor and his family, and was used for day-to-day affairs of state. The inner court takes Palace of Heavenly Purity, Hall of Union and Palace of Earthly Tranquility as its center with six palaces in the east and six palaces in the west.<br /> <br /> ====[[File:The layout of the Forbidden City.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The layout of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====VI The Collections of the Forbidden City==== <br /> The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925, whose extensive collection of artwork and artifacts were built upon the imperial collections of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Part of the museum's former collection is now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. Both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.(Li Wei &amp; Wang Shuo 2005,6-22) <br /> The collections of the Palace Museum are based on the Qing imperial collection, including paintings, ceramics, seals, steles, sculptures, inscribed wares, bronze wares, enamel objects, etc. According to latest audit, it has 1,863,404 pieces of art. They are numbered by &quot;Gu&quot;, &quot;Xin&quot; and &quot;Shu&quot;. Except for the ancient books and documents, all the other collections are labeled with &quot;Gu&quot; and &quot;Xin&quot;. The number of ordinary cultural relics begins with the word &quot;Zi&quot;, and the ceramic specimens begin with the word &quot;Biao&quot;. The general catalogue is divided into 25 categories, and the numbers in each category are sorted from small to large. Many collections once lost and was brought to the Palace Museum, For example, Han Banquet map. And there are some exquisite collections like Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer, Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems and Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.(Website:The Collection of the Palace Museum )In addition, The Palace Museum has one of the largest collections of mechanical timepieces of the 18th and 19th centuries in the world, with more than 1,000 pieces. (Meng Fuxia 2012, (21) 73-74)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Han Banquet map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Han Banquet map]]====<br /> ====[[File:Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance]]====<br /> ====[[File:Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems]]====<br /> ====[[File:Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women]]====<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions==== <br /> palace complex 宫殿群<br /> <br /> central axis 中心轴<br /> <br /> the Palace Museum故宫博物院<br /> <br /> the Yong Le Emperor 永乐皇帝<br /> <br /> key cultural relics under national protection 国家重点文物保护单位<br /> <br /> world cultural heritage 世界文化遗产<br /> <br /> harmony between man and nature 天人合一<br /> <br /> the imperial garden 御花园<br /> <br /> the Hall of Supreme Harmony 太和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Central Harmony 中和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Preserving Harmony 保和殿<br /> <br /> Palace of Heavenly Purity (乾清宮)<br /> <br /> Hall of Union 交泰宫<br /> <br /> Palace of Earthly Tranquility 坤宁宫<br /> <br /> Han Banquet map 韩熙载夜宴图<br /> <br /> Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer陶彩绘女舞俑<br /> <br /> Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems十二生肖镜<br /> <br /> Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women画珐琅西洋人物鼻烟壶<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> 1. What’ s the meaning of “Zi” in the Chinese name Zijin Cheng?<br /> <br /> 2. When was the Forbidden City listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.<br /> <br /> 3.How many emperors have been lived in the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 4.How long did it take to build the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 5.Why some parts of national treasures are in the National Palace Museum in Taipei now.<br /> <br /> 6. What two parts can the Forbidden City be divided into?<br /> <br /> 7.When was the Palace Museum established?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.“Zi” refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star<br /> <br /> 2.In 1897.<br /> <br /> 3.24 emperors.<br /> <br /> 4.14 years.<br /> <br /> 5.Because both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.<br /> <br /> 6.They are the Outer Court and Inner Court.<br /> <br /> 7.The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Barmé, Geremie R(2008). The Forbidden City. Harvard University Press.26.<br /> <br /> UNESCO(2007). &quot;UNESCO World Heritage List: Imperial Palaces of the Ming and Qing Dynasties in Beijing and Shenyang&quot;.<br /> <br /> Li Xieping 李燮平. (1997) &quot;紫禁城&quot;名称始于何时[When did the name of the Forbidden City come into being?]. 紫禁城Forbidden City, (04) 29-31.<br /> <br /> Yu Zhuoyun(1984), Palaces of the Forbidden City, New York: Viking Press,p18.<br /> <br /> Guo Moruo 郭沫若.(1994) 甲申三百年祭[Commemorating 300th Anniversary of the Jia-Sheng Year]. 新华日报 New China Daily, 3.19.<br /> <br /> Xie Li 谢丽.(2005) 北京中轴线上的十七座门[Seventeen doors on the central axis of Beijing].紫禁城 Forbidden City, (03)100-102.<br /> <br /> Meng Fuxia 孟福霞. (2012)北京故宫空间布局构思探源——论中国古代宫殿建筑的美学精神[On the Origin of the Space Layout of the Palace Museum in Beijing--On the Aesthetic Spirit of Ancient Chinese Palace Architecture]大众文艺Popular Literature and Art, (21) 73-74. <br /> <br /> Li Wei&amp;Wang Shuo 刘薇,王硕.2005故宫文物南迁路线图揭秘[Unveiling the Route Map of the Cultural Relics of the Imperial Palace to the South] 华夏经纬网Jinwei Network, 6.22 http://www.huaxia.com/wh/gjzt/2005/00333230.html <br /> <br /> The Collection of the Palace Museum 故宫博物院馆藏https://www. dpm.org.cn /Home.html<br /> <br /> Xie Mengyin &amp; Qu Wanlin 谢荫明,瞿宛林. (2006) “文化大革命” 中谁保护了故宫 [Who protected the Forbidden City in the Cultural Revolution? ].人民网People’s Daily Online,11,7. http://history.people.com.cn/n/2014/0811/c372327-25441615.html<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Marriage Customs Mo Ling 莫玲 202070080602==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 莫玲 Mo Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Marriage Customs===<br /> <br /> China is an ancient country of rites. When it comes to the most important thing in one’s life---marriage, Chinese people have developed a set of unique and grand ceremonies. Generally speaking, weddings in ancient China needed to be approved by parents and arranged by parents.<br /> <br /> ===Six Procedures===<br /> <br /> There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying. Na Cai is the begining of all the marriage procedures. It refers that if a boy intends to marry a girl, firstly his family must invite a matchmaker to the girl's home to propose marriage. After obtaining the consent of the girl's family , the boy's family should entrust the matchmaker to make a proposal formally with some gifts. Usually, the most common gift is wild goose,which represents fidelity. Besides, mandarin ducks, phoenix and sheep are also frequently-used gifts. Wen Ming means that the boy's family ask the matchmaker to fetch the girl's name and date of birth. There are two purposes of this step: the one is to prevent the marriage of close relatives with the same surname; the other is to assure the compatibility of the potential bride and bridegroom through their “eight characters” of the birth moment. Naji happens after the matchmaker takes back the woman's name and eight characters. If divining an auspicious omen, the boy's family will inform it to the girl’s parents and decide to engage the marriage. What is more, Na Zheng is an important step when the boy sends betrothal presents to the girl and for courtesy the girl will send back part of the presents such as food and some clothes. Qing Qi means that the boy's family choose an auspicious day to hold the wedding ceremony and then dispatch the matchmaker to tell the girl’s family. Qin Ying is the last procedure of the six etiquettes, that is, the groom goes to the bride's home to take the bride to his home.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ===Customs===<br /> <br /> In addition to the six steps mentioned above, there are many other customs in the traditional Chinese wedding ceremony. Generally speaking, ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker, many young people could not master their own marriage. Before wedding ceremony, men and women were not allowed to meet each other in that ancient people were very conservative and most girls were kept in boudoirs. If they met in private before marriage, it would be regarded as a kind of female infidelity and parents would also think it quite unlucky. Under this circumstance, newlyweds could only see each other until the day of marriage.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47-48)<br /> <br /> On the wedding day, the boy’s family will hold a big banquet at home. Before setting out to pick up bride, the bridegroom should first worship his ancestors for the sake of safety and auspice during the process of picking up the bride. After that, the following step is the most grand one among the whole ceremony --- at the dusk moment, the groom and the bride, his parents as well as all the guests will gather together at the central room to witness the kneeling etiquettes of the couple, which consists of 4 steps: The first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber : the bride will be sent into the bridal chamber and the groom will drink with guests until night.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> After wedding ceremony, the couple must return to the girl’s home together at the third day, which is called “Huimen” or “Guiling”. This etiquette is indispensable. The groom should take some gifts for respect and change the way that he calls the bride’s parents, and the latter will also prepare a good meal for the couple’s coming.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ===Development===<br /> <br /> As time goes by, there are many reforms about marriage right now. Adults own the freedom to choose their spouse and they can meet each other every day if possible. Parents can’t master their “life event” any more.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47) In addition, many couples skip the cumbersome rites in the wedding ceremony. Some of them choose to hold the ceremony in the church with some close relatives and friends and some even finish it through travel.(Zhou Dandi &amp; Yue Shufa 2012,15)Nevertheless, most young people still adopt the main procedures of the traditional Chinese customs, some of which are handed down until right now. There still exist betrothal gifts and dowry, and many couples choose to wear red costumes. The groom should go to the bride’s home to escort her to the wedding and so on. Thus it can be seen that most traditional Chinese marriage customs are deep rooted in the hearts of Chinese people and shows a unique Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Gao Xiaoqian. 高筱倩.(2017) 中国传统婚嫁习俗研究［The Research on Traditional Chinese Marriage Customs］戏剧之家[Drama House] 235.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yueyong. 张月莹.(2013) 中国近代婚嫁礼俗及婚姻观念转变的探索[A Study on the Change of Marriage customs and Marriage Concepts in Modern China] 松州学刊［Songzhou Academic Journal］ 47-48.<br /> <br /> Zhou Dandi, Yue Shufa. 周丹迪, 岳书法.(2012) 浅析近代以来中国婚嫁民俗的演变[On the evolution of Chinese marriage customs since modern times] 文化学刊[Cultural Academic Journal] 15.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> Na Cai 纳彩 <br /> <br /> Wen Ming 问名<br /> <br /> Na Ji 纳吉 <br /> <br /> Na Zheng 纳征<br /> <br /> Qing Qi 纳征 <br /> <br /> Qin Ying 亲迎<br /> <br /> Huimen 回门 <br /> <br /> Guiling 归宁 <br /> <br /> betrothal presents 彩礼<br /> <br /> the central room 堂屋<br /> <br /> bridal chamber 婚房<br /> <br /> “eight characters” of the birth moment 生辰八字<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.How many procedures are needed from the negotiation to the completion of marriage?<br /> <br /> 2.Did the ancient young people have the rights to decide their own marriage or not and why?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the kneeling etiquettes?<br /> <br /> 4.When the couple have to return to the girl’s home?<br /> <br /> 5.What changes have been made nowadays?<br /> <br /> 6.Please list some new wedding customs.<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying.<br /> <br /> 2.No, they didn’t have the right to decide their own marriage because ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker.<br /> <br /> 3.It consists of 4 steps: the first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber.<br /> <br /> 4.At the third day of the wedding ceremony.<br /> <br /> 5.Adults can choose their spouse by themselves and they can meet each other whenever they want; Some couples choose to hold the ceremony in the church some even finish it through travel, etc.<br /> <br /> 6.Examples:couple can choose to live in the either part of the two families; wedding ceremony can be hold in hotel; the bride can wear white wedding dress rather than the single red in the ancient time.<br /> <br /> ==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br /> <br /> ====Topic: Chinese cinema (dramas and movies) and its popularity and affection in Vietnam====<br /> <br /> ==Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac - Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 202070080603==<br /> <br /> ===Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac===<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:oyltacz.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]2020 is the year of rat according to the Chinese zodiac which consists of twelve animals used by people to name years. The traditional Chinese <br /> zodiac has been passed down for more than 2200 years since its origin before 221 B.C. when the first Dynasty of Qin ( 221 B.C. to 207 B.C.) was <br /> established. The twelve zodiac signs are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig, which are assigned in a <br /> repeating 12-year cycle. This traditional Chinese scheme was originated from China and then has enjoyed a popularity in many other Asian countries. <br /> With its cultural connotation and time-honored impact, the Chinese zodiac have been engraved in every Chinese people. <br /> <br /> ====Origin====<br /> <br /> Regarding the origin of the Chinese zodiac, there are various opinions but many of them are presented with no sufficient evidence. There are many myths explaining these animal signs and their arrangement. Among them the most enduring one is the Great Race. In this story, the Jade Emperor, Ruler of the Heavens, wanted to devise a way to measure time, so he organized a race. At the end, the first twelve animals who made it across the river were the winners and so they earned themselves a spot on the zodiac calender in the order they arrived. Besides this folk story, some scholars claim the zodiac scheme was indeed derived from the Twelve Earthly Branches but did not occur at the same time while the Earthly Branches appeared. Since the Han Dynasty, the Earthly Branches have been used to record the time of day. Therefore some hold until that time, the 12 zodiac came into being as a supplementary to refer to the 12 periods of 24 hours. Since the original meaning of the Earthly Branches at that time was obliterated due to the passage of time, the ancient Chinese attached the Earthly Branches and the Ten Heavenly Stems to the zodiac. There also stands an opinion that the zodiac signs were originated from the totem worship in the primitive society. According to some research on the origin of Chinese zodiac, there were only twelve earliest surnames in ancient China, which were derived from the names of the twelve animals in the Chinese zodiac scheme. Here the twelve animals refer to the totems at ancient times and different surname tribes use different animals as their totems. Therefore, the twelve animals of Chinese zodiac was developed from the totems of ancient tribes.<br /> <br /> ====Folk Culture and Belief ====<br /> <br /> The zodiac sign not only can reveal one’s age, but also represents his or her personality, career prospects and way of life according to Chinese superstition. <br /> <br /> The Chinese seem to believe that they have some affinity with the animals of the years in which they were born and that their personal traits and fortunes come under their mysterious influence. Zodiac animals are deemed to have certain advantages and disadvantages. For example, people born in the years of rat are smart, adaptable, and have the will to fight, but, on the other hand, they are so over-ambitious and easy to fail. And if you are born in the years of ox, you are deemed to be humble and likely to be someone who always put their families first but also dedicate time to their career. <br /> <br /> Besides, since the zodiac is determined by the year of birth, there are many implications of one’s birth year. For example, some zodiacal preferences prevail in Chinese population. Chinese have always had a strong affection for the Dragon, so married couples prefer to give births in the Year of Dragon. Since dragon is regarded as the auspicious and divine creatures, the children born in these years of dragon are believed to have fortune. These cultural preferences and folk beliefs have influenced prospective parents’ reproductive behavior in the Chinese society.<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese people believe certain animals get on better than the others, so the zodiac has had a great impact on marriage as well. Specifically, people who is born in the Year of Tiger would have perfect romance with Pigs, Rabbit with Dogs and Dragon with Roosters. On the contrary, some zodiac signs are believed to have misfortune if they are married with people of certain zodiac. As the Chinese idiom goes, if a dragon and a tiger fight each other, there will be one injured. This old says reflects that dragon and tiger are natural enemies according to the belief. And this is the reason why men and women would like to evaluate their Bazi, the Eight Characters, before they get married. However, in reality, personality is related to one’s experience through the life journey rather than the pre-written zodiac signs. People born in the same year would have very distinctive personalities. Similarly, the destiny is also a result of people’s character and most decisions they’ll be making along the way. Of course the marriage is a more complex thing that cannot be deemed to have a pre-given outcome brought by the zodiac. <br /> <br /> ====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Chinese zodiac is a complex scheme which combines the traditional Chinese astrology in it. Based on the Five Elements theory, Yin and Yang system and Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches system, the traditional scheme have developed a profound connotation and implications through generation. Over thousands of years, this popular culture has affected people’s major decisions in naming, marriage, giving birth and attitude towards each other. But people have to consider zodiac in a rational and scientific way. Perhaps the zodiac may help us to understand what we’re given, but it cannot determine our destiny. We should treat it as the precious cultural heritage and explore the profound culture and historical traces embodied in it.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Paul Yip, Joseph Lee, Y.B Cheung.(2002).The influence of the Chinese zodiac on fertility in Hong Kong SAR. ''Social Science &amp; Medicine'', Volume 55, Issue 10, 1803-1812.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions=== <br /> <br /> Jade Emperor 玉皇大帝<br /> <br /> Ten Heavenly Stems 十天干<br /> <br /> Twelve Earthly Branches 十二地支<br /> <br /> Eight Characters 八字<br /> <br /> Five Elements 五行<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.How long is the history of Chinese zodiac?<br /> <br /> 2.What are the twelve zodiac signs in order? <br /> <br /> 3.From what time the Earthly Branches was used to record time?<br /> <br /> 4.According to Chinese folk belief, what kind of characteristics do people born in year of rat have?<br /> <br /> 5.Which zodiac animal is mostly praised in China?<br /> <br /> 6.Can you name some pairs of zodiac animal that get along well with each other according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> 7.Which pair of animals that are natural enemies according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.More than 2200 years.<br /> <br /> 2.Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig.<br /> <br /> 3.Han Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 4.They are smart, adaptable, and have the will to fight, but, on the other hand, they are so over-ambitious and easy to fail.<br /> <br /> 5.Dragon.<br /> <br /> 6.Tiger and pig, rabbit and dog and dragon and rooster. <br /> <br /> 7.Dragon and tiger.<br /> <br /> ==Lisu People and Daogan Festival of Lisu Ethnic Minority Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏 Student No.202070080641==<br /> --[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 08:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Lisu people and Daogan festival====<br /> <br /> The Lisu people are a Tibeto-Burman ethnic group who inhabit mountainous regions of Myanmar (Burma), southwest China, Thailand, and the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh.<br /> <br /> [[File:Example1.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> About 730,000 Lisu live in Lijiang, Baoshan, Nujiang, Diqing and Dehong prefectures in Yunnan Province and Sichuan Province, China. The Lisu form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by China. In Myanmar, the Lisu are recognized as one of 135 ethnic groups and an estimated population of 600,000. Lisu live in the north of the country; Kachin State (Putao, Myitkyina, Danai, Waingmaw, Bhamo), Shan State, (Momeik), (Namhsan, Lashio, Hopang, and Kokang) and southern Shan State (Namsang, Loilem, Mongton) and, Sagaing Division (Katha and Khamti), Mandalay Division (Mogok and Pyin Oo Lwin). Approximately 55,000 live in Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. They mainly inhabit remote mountainous areas.[2]<br /> <br /> The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans. Each family clan has its own name or surname. The biggest family clans well known among the tribe clans are Laemae pha, Bya pha, Thorne pha, Ngwa Pha (Ngwazah), Naw pha, Seu pha, Khaw pha. Most of the family names came from their own work as hunters in the primitive time. However, later, they adopted many Chinese family names. Their culture has traits shared with the Yi people or Nuosu (Lolo) culture.<br /> <br /> Daogan Festival (刀杆节) is a traditional festival of Lisu ethnic groups living in Lushui County(泸水县), Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture(怒江傈僳族自治州).Due to the death of the old artists, they were once lost in Nujiang Prefecture and recovered in recent years. They are mainly distributed in Luzhang Village(鲁掌镇), Luzu Village(鲁祖村) and Loma Village(洛玛村) of Lushui County(泸水县).<br /> <br /> ====Legend====<br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, when the people who is not in the same clan of feudal China invaded the frontier in Yunnan, The King dispatched Wang Ji(王骥), the Ministry of War in feudal China, to take troops to resist the enemy. Wang Ji fought in unity with the local Lisu ethnic groups and soon expelled the invaders. Later, Wang Ji was murdered by a traitor. In order to commemorate Wang Ji’s great achievements and pray sacrifices to the souls of the brave soldiers who died bravely to defend the frontier, Lisu ethnic groups held the activities of Going up to Daoshan and Going down to Sea of Fire(上刀山,下火海), and designated the fifteenth day of the first lunar month of each year as Daogan Festival.<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Going up to Daoshan and Going down to the Sea of Fire is the main custom performance activity of Daogan Festival, which reproduces the life experience of people who live in mountain crossing mountains, as well as the arduous spirit and skills of climbing mountain.<br /> <br /> ====Performing====<br /> <br /> Use pine tree as tool pole, iron knife as tool ladder, wrinkle paper as flower, and bamboo as flower stick.When Going up to Daoshan and Going down to the sea of fire, we play with cowhide drums(鼓), gongs(锣), hairpins(钗), suonas(唢呐) and other musical instruments under the knife pole. There are strict procedures and sacrificial ceremonies from flower-lighting(点花), knife-pointing(点刀), knife-playing(耍刀), knife-piercing(扎刀), flower-greeting(迎花), altar-setting(设坛), knife pole(祭刀杆), vertical pole(竖杆), dragon-sacrificing(祭龙), knife-mounting(上刀) and knife-disassembling(拆刀) to the sea of fire. Knife pole is commonly known as gold pillar, silver pillar or male pillar, mother pillar, respectively, representing the deceased and the living. Thirty-six long sharp knives, representing 365 days a year, are tied on both sides of the knife ladder with paper flowers made of five-color paper.<br /> After the knife pole is tied up, Xiangtong /香通(sorcerer) recites words in his mouth and performs knife dance in drum music. After the knife dance, in the sound of Suona and gongs and drums, the knife-bearer grasps the knife edge with both hands, treads barefoot on the knife edge and climbs up. When he reaches the top through three scissors, the knife-bearer opens the sky lock(天锁), takes out the grains and flowers and spreads them to the boiling crowd, and puts the red silk ribbon ,which is on the colored door, on his body, he sang the old prayer song, then,he came down from the knife pole in turn. After that, he stepped barefoot into the burning charcoal fire, licked the burning plough with the tip of his tongue, and bit the burning iron chain with his teeth, which showed the Lisu ethnic national spirit and superb performance skills.<br /> --[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 04:06, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br /> Chinese Clothing== Phyo, Su Kyi, Student No-20191108000<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> <br /> Chinese Clothing has many ethnic groups with a long history while Han people dominate most periods in history. For thousands of years, generations of clothing designers have devoted themselves to building the Kingdom of Clothes, making the garments that cover the human body into an important component of Chinese culture. The progress of nation can be seen through its changes in clothing styles.Clothing manufacture in China dates back to prehistoric times, at least 7,000years ago. Archaeological findings of 18,000 years-old artifacts such as bone sewing needles and stone beads and shells with holes bored in them attest to the existence of ornamentation and of sewing extremely early in Chinese civilization. (www.topchinatravel. com, 2004)<br /> <br /> Chinese clothing has undergone continuous transformations throughout history,providing a reflection of the culture in place at any given time. A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry, and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive Chinese fashions through the ages. This illustrated introductory survey takes the reader through traditional Chinese clothing,ornamentation,and ceremonial wear, and discusses the importance of silk and the diverse costumes of China's ethnic groups before considering modern trends and China's place in the fashion world today.(Mei Hua-2010-page-1)<br /> <br /> A-Chinese traditional clothing<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional clothing contains rich cultural connotations.Today, after the reform and opening up, the clothing industry has developed vigorously. People gradually start pay attention to the local clothing culture, and pursue cultural connotation contained in clothing. For modern designers, the traditional clothing and its cultural background are their creation inspirations during creation phases,and they are also one of the expressive elements preferred by designers at home and abroad. Inheriting traditional clothing culture not only means that it needs us to turn the traditional clothing elements into a symbol, but also needs us to further understand the background and connotations of traditional clothing culture. The work of design without culture is like a gorgeous shell that can't stand the test of history. Only by grasping the inner spirit of traditional clothing culture, abandoning simple piled up work and patch-up work without connotation and learning the modern expressive methods of traditional clothing elements, one can design out the works which can touch people's heartstrings. (Jiangsu,2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Traditional clothing is the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics. Traditional clothing mutually integrates its unique style, comfortable fabric, bright colors,rich designs and exquisite craft elements to bring people impulsive feelings with visual communication. Traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics enjoys its unique artistic features in the style, color,fabrics,decoration and craft, ect. They are profoundly influenced by Chinese traditional culture ideas in the process of their formation and development and finally condensed into the national culture bearing Chinese culture features. These elements are the source of our inspiration in contemporary clothing design, and the use of these Chinese elements can help people to design out the clothing Chinese style.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional culture is an indispensable source of inspiration in fashion design. Putting the traditional elements into fashion design not only helps the native culture to extend itself, but also greatly promotes the culture exchanges in nationalities. Therefore, we should advocate the national advanced culture,make the Chinese traditional culture achieve the development in the clothing design, use the common language to express Chinese traditional culture essence, and integrate Chinese traditional element symbol into the spiritual elements of fashion design to make the national culture spirit and the language of the world integrate into the mainstream of modern clothing design.(Jiangsu,2016, page -3)<br /> <br /> ==Traditional Han Chinese Clothing (Han Fu):It refers to the attire worn byvthe Han people from the enthronement of the Yellow Emperor(about 2698BC) till the late Ming Dynasty (1368-1644AD).It became known as the Han Fu(fu means 'clothes&quot; in Chinese)because the fashion was improved and popularized during the Han Dynasty. It is usually in the from of long gown,cross collar, wrapping the right lapel over the left, loose wide sleeves and no buttons but a sash. Although simple in design, it gives different feelings to different wearers.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019-Aug-2)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Suit(Tang Zhuang):It is a combination of the Manchu male jacket ofvthe Qing Dynasty and the western style suit. It is usually straight collared,with coiled buttons down the front. Its color and design are in traditional Chinese style but tailoring is western.(www.topchinatravel. com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> ==Cheongsam(Qi Pao):Originated from the Manchu female clothes, it evolved by merging with western patterns that show off the beauty of a female body. Its features are straight collar, strain on the waist,coiled buttons and slits on both sides ofvthe dress. Materials used are usually silk, cotton and linen.Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire in the world today.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Tunic Suit(Zhongshan Zhuang) :Also called the Yat-sen Suit , it is designed by Dr.Sun Yat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire. It has a turn-down collar and four pockets with flaps. As Chairman Mao Zedong worn it quite frequently, it is also called the Mao Suit by westerners. It is the main attire from the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 till 1980,s. The country's leaders still wear it today when attending important occasions, such as military parades.(www.topchinatravel. com,2016,Auge-2.)<br /> <br /> B-Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements<br /> <br /> There are many old stories in ancient Chinese civilization, and Chinese traditional elements come up with the tenacity of the Chinese nations long history. Different times has their unique cultural connotations and form elements,which include Chinese architecture, costumes, traditional Chinese painting and folk art etc., and those cultural connotations and form elements are precious heritage that the ancestors leave to their off-springs. The change of dynasties in the history of our country lead to changes of cultural centers, which finally lead to the appearance Chinese traditional elements with different representative features in each historical periods, nations and regions. These elements include: Chinese silk ,cloth of brocade, hemp,blue printed fabric; chirpaur, Chinese -style chest covering, Chinese tunic suit, collar,surplice, mandarin and split etc.; colorful ethnic colors: such as bright red,green,yellow and blueetc.;Neolithic patterns, bronze patterns in Shang and Chou dynasties, ancient lacquer were pattern in Qin and Han dynasties, Buddhism patterns in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties and traditional decorative patterns in Tang,Sing and Qing dynasties. The essence of Chinese traditional culture which bear the role of inheriting national culture, and is the unique and external characteristic of Chinese nation.(Jiangsu,2016, page-3)<br /> <br /> Trems and Expressions<br /> <br /> 历史-history, <br /> <br /> 期-period, <br /> <br /> 世代-generations, <br /> <br /> 服装-clothing, <br /> <br /> 设计师-designers , <br /> <br /> 装饰-ornamentation<br /> <br /> 中国服饰- Chinese clothing<br /> <br /> 服饰-Costumes <br /> <br /> 传统服装-Traditional clothing<br /> <br /> 服装设计-Clothing design<br /> <br /> 时尚设计-Fashion design <br /> <br /> 几代服装设计师-Generations of clothing designers <br /> <br /> 中国西装-Chinese Suit<br /> <br /> 旗袍-Cheongsam<br /> <br /> 中山装-Chinese Tunic Suit <br /> <br /> 中国传统元素-Chinese traditional elements <br /> <br /> ===Questions ===<br /> <br /> 1-What’s archaeological findings in Chinese fashions through the ages?<br /> <br /> 2-What's Traditional Clothing?<br /> <br /> 3-What's Traditional culture indispensable?<br /> <br /> 4-How is means Han Fu?<br /> <br /> 5-What's the popular Chinese attire?<br /> <br /> 6-How called was Chinese Tunic Suit?<br /> <br /> 7-What'are include Chinese traditional elements? <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 04:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Answers===<br /> 1- A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry,<br /> and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive chinese fanshions through the ages.<br /> <br /> 2-Traditional clothingis the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing<br /> culture with Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> 3-Chineset traditional culture is an indispensablevsource of inspirationin fashion<br /> design.<br /> <br /> 4-Han Fu is fu means clothes in Chinese. <br /> <br /> 5-Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire inthe world today.<br /> <br /> 6-It is also called the Yat-sen Suit,it is designed byDr.SunYat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire.<br /> <br /> 7-Chinese traditional elements include: Chinese silk,cloth of brocade, hemp, blue printed fabric.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 11:56, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> 1.Jiangsu.“Influences of Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements on Modern Clothing Design”,<br /> <br /> Nanjing University of Finance and Economics,Soochow University,Published by Atlantic Press,2016.<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.Mei Hua, `Chinese Clothing´, Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building,Cambridge CB28RU,UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press,NewYork<br /> www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title:www.cambridge.org/9780521186896<br /> Originally published byChina Intercontinental Press as Cinese Clothing(9787508516615)in2010©ChinaIntercontinentalPress2010<br /> <br /> 3.https://www.topchinatravel.com/china-guide/history-of-chinese-clothing.htm<br /> <br /> 4.https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/clothing/--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 10:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br /> Chinese traditional dance--[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 02:46, 12 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br /> Chinese Traditional women clothing<br /> 1- History of Chinese clothing<br /> History of Chinese clothing China has many ethnic groups with a long history while Han people dominate most periods in history. For thousands of years, generations of clothing designers have devoted themselves to building the Kingdom of Clothes, making the garments that cover the human body into an important component of Chinese culture. The progress of nation can be seen through its changes in clothing styles.Clothing manufacture in China dates back to prehistoric times, at least 7,000 years ago. Archaeological findings of 18,000 year-old artifacts such as bone sewing needles and stone beads and shells with holes bored in them attest to the existence of ornamentation and of sewing extremely early in Chinese civilization.<br /> A- Chinese Clothing during Qin and Han Dynasties (221 B.C - 220 A.D)<br /> The Qin and Han dynasties (221 B.C. - A.D. 220) witnessed the unification of territory as well as written language. Qin Shihuang, the First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty, established many social systems, including one for uniforms to distinguish people's ranks and social positions. China's complete code of costume and trappings was established in the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD). The yarn-dyeing, embroidering and metal-processing technologies developed rapidly in the period, spurring changes in costume and adornments.<br /> B-Chinese Clothing during Wei,Jin, South and North Dynasties(220-589)<br /> Chinese clothing experienced a rapid development during the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern dynasties (220-589). Before 265, the cultures and esthetic views of the peoples in north and south China merged because of the moves initiated by frequent wars. Many philosophical schools of thought influenced both people's lives and the conceptions of clothing design.<br /> C- Chinese Clothing during Tang Dynasty(618-907)<br /> The Tang Dynasty (618-907) wrote the most brilliant page in the history of Chinese clothing. People's clothes were more varied than before because the state was more open to the outside world and people became more cosmopolitan in their thinking. The clothes for women could be called fashionable because they changed rapidly and were showy. Once only a new style came out, many people would be willing to take it.<br /> D-Chinese Clothing during Song, Yuan, Ming Dynasties<br /> Casual wear appeared during the Song Dynasty (960-1279), and clothes were simple and elegant.During the Yuan Dynasty (1206-1368), the Mongolian ethnic group, known as the People on Horseback, was in power. The style of clothing was mainly a combination of Mongolian and Han. Clothes were luxurious for upper class yet simple and unadorned in design.Dramatic changes took place during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). A new conception came into being in clothing design, with no limitation to one style and advocating natural beauty, thus bringing vigor and vitality to the clothing culture.<br /> E- Chinese Clothing during Qing Dynasty<br /> During the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), clothes became elegant, poised, and glorious. During the 200 years of the Qing Empire, the entire world witnessed dramatic changes such as the Renaissance in Italy and Columbus's discovery of the Americas, but the changes did not affect traditional Chinese clothing because China had a closed-door policy. People still wore clothes showing rank and lifestyle. The retreat from outside cultures has left a precious heritage for traditional Chinese clothes.<br /> F-Chinese Clothing from 1930s till Modern Era<br /> Chinese clothing from 1930s till now, Qipao has become into fashion since then. During 1930s to 1940s, dress is further westernized, tailored to flatter body shape. During 1940s to 1960s, Qipao(Cheongsam) survives as everyday wear in Hong Kong until the late 1960s. <br /> <br /> Terms and Expressions <br /> Questions <br /> References.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 17:37, 25 November 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> Chinese wine culture--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 08:28, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Rajabov, Anushervon==<br /> <br /> ===China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH)===<br /> <br /> China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH) is a high-speed rail service operated by the China Railway. The introduction of the CRH series was an important part of the 6th National Rail Acceleration, which took place on April 18, 2007. By the end of 2018, China Railway High Speed ​​served all provinces in China except Taiwan and covered over 29,000 km. (18,000 miles) the length of passenger routes, which make up about two-thirds of the world's high-speed rail routes served by commercial enterprises. It is the most widely used rail transport in the world, with 1.713 billion flights in 2017, bringing the total cumulative number of flights to 7 billion. More than 1000 sets of rolling stock are operated under the CRH brand, including the Hexie CRH1 / 2A / 5, which are rated for a top speed of 250 km / h (160 mph), and the CRH2C / 3 has a top speed of 350 km / h. ( 220 mph). The in-house developed CRH380A has a maximum test speed of 416.6 km / h (258.9 mph) at a commercial speed of 350 km / h.The fastest CRH380BL train reaches a maximum test speed of 487.3 km / h (302.8 mph) ). In 2017, China Standardized EMU brand, including CR400AF / BF and CR200J, joined China Railway High Speed ​​and is designated Fuxing along with the letters CR (China Railway). With gradual planning, the CR brand will replace the existing CRH brand in service. Depending on the speed, there are 3 categories of high-speed trains: G, D and C (G and some C are the fastest at 350 km / h, D at 250 km / h and C at 200 km / h). <br /> High speed rail network. <br /> High speed rail services were first introduced in 2007 on CRH rolling stock. They operate on existing lines that have been upgraded to speeds of up to 250 km / h (160 mph), and on newer dedicated high-speed routes rated up to 350 km / h (220 mph). <br /> CRH service on dedicated high-speed lines<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Language, The Chinese Language - Seydou, Sagara, student no. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''no. missing'''&lt;/span&gt; ==<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Chinese is a very big country with large population. Each may have its own lingo, or dialects. There are great differences between these dialects. If people in different places use their dialects to talk, they may not be able to understand each, and the situation may lead to embarrassment and understanding. Therefore, the Chinese people communicate with each other in a common language, Putonghua, also known as Mandarin in Western countries.<br /> Putonghua is the modern standard Chinese language with the Beijing pronunciation as its standard pronunciation, the northern dialect (also known as Mandarin, the official language in the past) as its basic dialect, and the modern vernacular as its grammatical norm.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> Therefore, the northern dialect sounds more like Putonghua than other dialects. Putonghua is a standardized language, which is legally used all over the country. In 2000, the law of the People’s Republic of China on common languages and characters established the legal status of Putonghua and standardized Chinese Characters as the national language and writing system. Putonghua is also one of the six working language of the United Nation and an important means of communication between China and foreign countries.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> According to statistics, in 2015, 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, but there were still about 400 million people who spoke dialects or minority languages. Article 19 of the constitution of the People’s Republic of China stipulates that ‘’ Putonghua is widely used by the state ‘’&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;, and the third week of September is the national Putonghua Publicity week. We often hear some sayings like this: ‘’ Learn Putonghua well and you will have friend all over the world.’’&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> Chinese dialects are usually divided into seven groups: northern dialect Wu dialect, Hunan dialect, Jiangxi dialect, Hakka dialect, and Cantonese dialect and Fujian dialect. Most northern are close to Putonghua and easy to understand a non-native speaker.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> The dialects in China differ greatly. Speaking Putonghua allows the Chinese people to communicate better with each other and promote the development of economy and culture everywhere. However, the promotion of Putonghua cannot be achieved in a short time. The Chinese government plans to enable more than 80% of Chinese people to speak Putonghua by 2020.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> Only by learning Putonghua can you communicate with people from all parts of China and event with Chinese –speaking people all over the world. While striving to promote Putonghua among the people of the whole country, China also pays special attention to the protection of dialects, which should not be lost after learning Putonghua.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> --[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 14:09, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> --[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 02:24, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1 Putonghua and Dialects===<br /> &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Text missing.'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> ===2 Ancient Chinese and Modern Chinese ===<br /> &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Text missing.'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ===3 Idiomatic Phrases - Idioms, Common Sayings, and Allegorical Sayings===<br /> &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Text missing.'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ===4 Language Policy===<br /> &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Text missing.'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Text missing.'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Text missing.'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Text missing.'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Answers===</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_2&diff=109671 2020-12-10T11:23:42Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Mo Ling 莫玲 */</p> <hr /> <div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br /> *Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br /> <br /> '''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br /> *You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like &quot;Longevity Noodles&quot;) or Text B (&quot;Mooncakes&quot;), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title (&quot;Festival Meals&quot;) and arrange it accordingly.<br /> *In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br /> *For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br /> *Add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Please also add a list &quot;Terms and Expressions&quot;.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Questions&quot; section.<br /> *Please add a &quot;Answers&quot; section.<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Red Culture - Kang Haoyu 康浩宇, student no.==<br /> ===Chinese Red Culture===<br /> Chinese red culture is unique in the world. As a very important cultural resource, it has both tangible culture and intangible culture. Red culture in China refers to the advance culture with Chinese characteristics created by party and people in revolutionary years.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ====1. Development====<br /> <br /> China has brilliant history and splendid civilization in ancient times. However, with the Opium War of 1840, China was plunged into the darkness of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression. Despite of all efforts that countless dedicated patriots had made, they still failed to change the plight. The October Revolution in Russia brought Marxism-Leninism. With Communism as the the highest ideal and ultimate goal, the Communist Party of China shouldered the historic mission of national rejuvenation. With the firm leadership of the party, Chinese people embraced national independence, people's liberation, national reunification and social stability, and stepped into a new era of prosperity and happiness.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> Red culture is condensed by the Communist Party of China in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. It is an advanced Marxism culture that was inherited and developed in the new period of socialist construction. It's a collectivism culture of bravery, sacrifice and devotion that seeks happiness for the Chinese people and rejuvenation for the Chinese nation.Red culture is embodied in the aspects of ideal belief, value pursuit and spiritual outlook, and is integrated into material remains, mechanism behaviors and cultural and artistic forms.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> First of all, red culture is a revolutionary culture, which was formed by the Chinese Communist Party in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. After the founding of People's Republic of China, the Communist Party of China led the Chinese people to inherit and carry forward the revolutionary culture. In the new period of socialist construction and reform and opening up, a vigorous and advanced socialist culture was formed, which enriched and developed the connotation of red culture. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture, and are the core value and spiritual subject of contemporary Chinese culture. As for Chinese red culture, Among them, Marxism is the soul, the common ideal of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the theme, the national spirit and the spirit of the times are the essence, and the socialist concept of honor and disgrace is the foundation. These four aspects influence, infiltrate and interact with each other, revealing the essential characteristics of red culture scientifically and completely.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ====2. Symbols====<br /> <br /> The word “red” in “red culture” has many symbols. Chinese people have “red” complex since ancient time. Red represents authority. For, example, official documents are also called red heading documents. Red represents courage. Red is the color of Chinese national flag. Chinese military strategists and generals have a deep understanding of the role of red in war, so they use red flags to unite their morale, inspire their fighting and their courage, and summon the spirit of going forward bravely and not fearing sacrifice. Red represents honor and auspiciousness. For instance, the places are always adorned with red for conference and ceremony. People are awarded with red flower and red certificates. Red represents revolution. When Marx was asked about &quot;favorite color&quot; in his early years, he clearly answered &quot;red&quot;. In 1864, First International was founded, and its logo was red. The first army of Communist Party of China was named Red Army, and Ruijin, the first revolutionary base area, was called Red Capital. There were also red boats in South Lake and red flags in Jinggangshan.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ====3. Values====<br /> <br /> Red culture has many values. Red culture has the value of history. It witnesses the early development history of the Communist Party of China. It shows the inevitability of the socialist road in China. And it is an important weapon to guide the success of Chinese revolution. Besides, red culture has the value of civilization. Carrying forward the red culture is an urgent need to cultivate a new national spirit. Red culture is important for the construction of socialism culture and ideology. Moreover, red culture has the value of economy. Red culture is a powerful driving force for the development of socialist market economy. It is an important medium of economic development under the new historical conditions. The red cultural industry has become a new economic growth point.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ====4. Red Culture in Nanchang====<br /> <br /> Nanchang is the capital city of Jiangxi Province and it is where August 1st uprising took place. Nanchang is renowned as the cradle of Chinese revolution and the place where the military flag rose. Because in August 1st uprising, communist party of china formed its first army in Nanchang. There are lots of red culture resources in Nanchang. <br /> Bayi Square is at the center of Nanchang city. It was built to memorize August 1st uprising. Bayi Square highlights the theme of &quot;Bayi History and Culture&quot; in all directions. The memorial area, cultural area, reminiscence area and leisure area of Bayi Square show Bayi Uprising in different forms. The landmark in the square is Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower. Besides, Nangchang August 1st Memorial Hall is a special memorial hall established to commemorate Nanchang Uprising.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''References missing.'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> red culture 红色文化<br /> <br /> Opium War 鸦片战争<br /> <br /> red heading documents 红头文件<br /> <br /> red army 红军<br /> <br /> August 1st uprising 八一起义<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1. What is the historical background of the birth of red culture?<br /> <br /> 2. What are two major components of red culture?<br /> <br /> 3. How many symbols dose the word &quot;red&quot; in red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 4. How many values dose red culture has? What are they?<br /> <br /> 5. What is the landmark in Bayi Square?<br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> ==Landscape, The Ancient Tea Horse Road - Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> <br /> ===The Ancient Tea Horse Road===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. The ancient tea horse road is divided into two routes: the Sichuan-Tibet line and the Yunnan-Tibet line. The ancient tea horse road originated from the ancient southwest frontier of the tea horse mutual market, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and most prosperous in the middle and late World War II. The ancient Tea Horse Road divided into Shanxi-Gan, Shanxi-Kangtang (folk called wade ancient road, Sichuan-Tibet line is part of it), Yunnan-Tibet and other three main routes, connecting Sichuan, Yunnan-Tibet, extending into the territory of Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal, India, until reaching West Asia, West Africa, the Red Sea coast. 5 March 2013, the Tea Horse Road was listed by the State Council as the seventh batch of national key cultural relics conservation units.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> ====Historical Routes====<br /> China’s ancient tea horse road is divided into:<br /> 1. The Shanxi-Gansu tea horse road is the main route for tea to travel westward in mainland China and exchange for horses. It is one of the main routes of the ancient Silk Road.<br /> <br /> 2. Shanxi and Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road), began in the Han Dynasty, formed by the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse each other. Due to the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government control of tea trafficking, tea trafficking sub-regional, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road.((Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 3. the ancient Yunnan-Tibet Tea Horse Road. Formed around the late sixth century AD, it is south of Yunnan's main tea producing areas in Xishuangbanna Yiwu, Pu'er City, intermediate through today's Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture and Lijiang City, Shangri-La into Tibet, directly to Lhasa. Some also re-exported from Tibet to India and Nepal, is an important trade channel between ancient China and South Asia.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 4.Sichuan-Tibet Tea Horse Road is a part of the Shan-Kang-Tibet Tea Horse Road, east of Yazhou edge tea production Ya'an, after playing arrow furnace (now Kangding), west to Lhasa, Tibet, and finally through to Bhutan, Nepal and India, a total length of nearly four thousand kilometers, is an essential bridge and link between ancient Tibet and the interior.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> There are three main routes of the ancient tea-horse road: The Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line. <br /> <br /> Among the three ancient tea-horse roads, the Qinghai-Tibet line was established in the Tang Dynasty and developed earlier, while the Sichuan-Tibet line was the most influential and well-known later. These three routes are closely related to Chengdu, among them, the Yunnan-Tibet route and the Sichuan-Tibet route must pass through Chengdu, and their development is closely related to the tea-horse trade.<br /> <br /> Shanxi- Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road), was formed in the Han dynasty through the efforts of the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government controlled tea traffickin along the tea trafficking sub-region, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:02, 7 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> ====Historical Value====<br /> The Silk Road in the north and the ancient Tea Horse Road in the south. The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization. However, its history and value will always shine brightly.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 1.The Golden Road of Tourism<br /> <br /> The ancient tea-horse road tour has unique scenery, profound cultural connotation, exclusive resources and is unparalleled in the world.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 2. Ancient Roads for the Propagation of Civilization<br /> <br /> The ancient Tea Horse Road was not only an important migration corridor for the ancient ancestors between Wei-Tibet and present Sichuan and Yunnan, but also an important aperture for the spread and exchange of ancient civilizations between present Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 3.Migration Corridor of National Cultures<br /> <br /> On this ancient road, which stretches for more than 10,000 miles, Chinese, Tibetan, Yi, Naxi, Lisu, Hani, Kino, Qiang, Pumi, Bai, Nu, Jingpo, Achang and other ethnic groups have flourished here for thousands of years, highlighting the diversity and original form of ethnic culture in southwest China.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 4.Religious Propagation Road<br /> <br /> With the development of the tea-horse trade and the extension of the ancient tea-horse route, Tibetan Buddhism spread widely along this route on the Tibetan Plateau and surrounding areas. The development and spread of Tibetan stupas can be roughly divided into two routes: one is Tibet - Qinghai - Gansu - Inner Mongolia - the other is Tibet - Qinghai - Gansu - Inner Mongolia. -Liaoning--Jilin--Heilongjiang--Beijing--Hebei --Henan--Jiangsu; second, Tibet--Yunnan--Sichuan. --Guangxi--Hubei.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 5. The Path of National Spirituality<br /> <br /> You can't talk about the ancient tea-horse road without mentioning the horse gangs. The horse gangs have formed a unique cultural carrier in the course of thousands of years. Their spirit is attached to this ancient road, and become part of the Chinese national spirit.(Baidu Baike)<br /> 6.The Road of National Unity and Integration<br /> <br /> The ancient tea-horse road is like a huge net in southwest China, through which people of all nationalities strengthen their ties and communication, promote political, economic and cultural interaction, development and integration among all nationalities, and enhance the emotional ties between them.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 7.The Road of Securing the Borders<br /> <br /> The expansion of the ancient tea-horse road and the flourishing of the tea-horse trade contributed to the stability and consolidation of China's southwest frontier.(Baidu Baike)<br /> <br /> 8.The road to economic development<br /> <br /> The Thousand-Year Tea Horse Trail contributed to the formation of many towns in the region through the tea and horse trade, which greatly contributed to the economic development of the region.(Baidu Baike)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:42, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road(茶马古道)<br /> <br /> 2.Sichuan-Tibet Line（川藏线）<br /> <br /> 3.Yunnan-Tibet line（滇藏线）<br /> <br /> 4.wade ancient road（蹚古道）<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What is the ancient tea horse road ?<br /> <br /> 2.How many main routes does the ancient tea-horse road conclude?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the historical value?<br /> --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 04:15, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. <br /> <br /> 2.There are three main routes, including the Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line.<br /> <br /> 3.The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> The Chinese text rooted in Baidu Baike. The website as following:https://baike.baidu.com.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:15, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Literature, Novels - Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> <br /> ===Four satirical novels in ancient China===<br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====<br /> At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as &quot;the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty&quot;. They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.<br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, &quot;the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much&quot;, they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.<br /> <br /> ==== Nie Hai Hua====<br /> Nie Hai Hua was written by Zen Pu (1872-1935).A total of 35 chapters.it is a novel of condemnation, historical fiction and political fiction. In the novel, Jin yun (wen qing) is the main character.After won the scholarship, he took a famous courtesan, Fu Caiyun, as his concubine in Suzhou.He was then ordered to travel to Russia, Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands. After returning to China, Jin Wenqing died of illness in Beijing, and Fu Caiyun left the Jin family to resume her old profession in Shanghai, changing her name to Cao Menglan then went to Tianjin to work as a prostitute, calling herself Sai Jinhua.<br /> The novel takes the story of Jin Wenqing and Fu Caiyun as the main line, vividly describes the historical and cultural changes as well as political and social changes from Tongzhi to Guangxu more than 30 years, exposing the decay and decline of the rulers, criticizing the feudal system of imperial examination, satirizing the officials, truly reflecting their spiritual life and cultural mentality. at the same time also enthusiastically glorifies Feng Zicai, Liu Yongfu and other war heroes and Sun Yat-sen and so on. The revolutionary activities of the Democratic Revolutionaries express the author's patriotic thoughts against the feudal dictatorship and advocate national democratic revolution. In specific writing, the author adopts the modern popular block novel structure combined with the traditional mesh novel structure to unfold the plot, with ups and downs, twists and turns, touching and orderly, always around the main line.<br /> As a historical novel, Nie Hai Hua draws on the spirit of the ancient &quot;good history&quot; of China to portray its characters. At the same time, it draws on the satirical approach of &quot;The History of Confucianism&quot; in which &quot;the fair-minded accuse the evils of the times&quot;, commenting on events and weighing characters in a realistic manner. In terms of art, Nie Hai Hua also has many shortcomings.However, it is a skillful structure and outstanding novel at that time.<br /> <br /> ==== the Travels of an Old Man====<br /> The Travels of an Old Man was written by Liu E (1857-1909) and a total of 20 chapters. Liu E was an entrepreneur and scholar, not a professional writer, but his reputation as a literary figure was far greater than that of an entrepreneur and scholar. This novel is an unfinished work of his that was written in his later years with an autobiographical nature.<br /> The novel takes a bell-ringing mountebank, Lao can (Tie Ying), as its main character, and narrates his experiences and activities during his travels in northern China, exposing the decadence and darkness of the Qing government, the brutality and lethargy of the officials, and the poverty and oppression of the people, especially attacking the abusive behavior of those &quot;Qing officials&quot; who are actually cruel officials, and expressing the author's strong views on the perilous reality of society and the country. <br /> The artistic achievement of the novel is very high. The first is the superb descriptive skills, whether it is a description, a landscape, or a narrative, can be vividly depicted, such as the scenery of Thousand Buddha Mountain, Daming Lake etc., which makes people have a sense of being in the real world. Secondly, its psychological description and psychological analysis, with appropriate language, can brilliantly show the inner world of the characters. Thirdly, the exquisite structural art. The novel is in the form of a Travel Journal, with travel as a clue,and organic combined of what he see, hear, think and do along the way forms a unique structural feature of the novel.<br /> <br /> ==== The Records of Officialdom Exposure====<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure by Li Baojia (1867-1906), five editions and a total of 60 chapters. This is the first long chapter novel in China's modern era that was published serially in newspapers and magazines and achieved a social sensation, creating a culture of critical reality in modern fiction.<br /> The novel consists of more than 30 relatively independent bureaucratic stories linked together,involving the Qing government from the emperor, down to the minor officials and so on,and these various bureaucrats of all kinds of evil behavior were exposed:They embezzled public funds, corrupt and pervert the law or the named &quot;expedition bandits&quot;, but is harmful to the people. The work is like a scroll of the officialdom at the end of the feudal society, touching on the main contradictions of that time.<br /> The novel's writing method is modelled on &quot;The Scholars&quot; and has been developed, making full use of exaggeration, comic style and satirical techniques. only a few strokes will outline the character's voice and physical appearance. And the author also good at describing the details, so that the characters are vivid and evocative, with a strong artistic impact. Therefore, the subsequent imitation of the work is quite a lot, it become a great view.<br /> <br /> ==== 20 years witness strange present situation====<br /> The Strange Situation Witnessed in Twenty Years was written by Wu Woyao(1866-1910), A total of 60 chapters. This is a long novel with autobiographical flavor.it through nearly 200 short stories that the protagonist hears and witnesses from the death of his father to his failure in business. it outlines the strange realities of late Qing society during the 20 years from the Sino-French War to the beginning of the 20th century.<br /> The scope of social life is much broader than The Records of Officialdom Exposure. In addition to describing the officialdom, there are also involving the shopping malls, foreign markets, science fields, medical and astrological practices. It exposes the political situation, moral outlook, social customs, and human conditions of the increasingly colonized Chinese feudal society, and is of high cognitive value in helping readers to see the irreparable historical destiny of the late Qing society and feudal system.<br /> The novel adopts the first-person narrative story, structured in a way that makes the reader feel intimate and trustworthy, setting a precedent in the history of Chinese fiction. The structure is also very clever: &quot;nine deaths and a lifetime&quot; is not only the narrator of the book story, but also the backbone of the structure of the book, and at the same time uses flashbacks, interpolations and other methods, combining it organically together, making the whole book complex and simple appropriate, muddle together.<br /> <br /> ==== Conclution====<br /> As a result of the bourgeois reformists and democratic revolutionaries strongly advocated, the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty got unprecedented development, and a large number of influential novels emerged, forming a prosperous situation of the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty.The emergence of the &quot;Four satirical novels&quot; in the late Qing Dynasty is an important sign that The creation of Chinese novels has entered another prosperous period.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E6%99%9A%E6%B8%85%E5%9B%9B%E5%A4%A7%E8%B0%B4%E8%B4%A3%E5%B0%8F%E8%AF%B4/702907?fr=aladdin<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> The Records of Officialdom Exposure 《官场现形记》<br /> <br /> The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years 《二十年之目睹怪现象》<br /> <br /> the Travels of an Old Man 《老残游记》<br /> <br /> Nai Hai Hua 《孽海花》<br /> <br /> The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty 晚清四大谴责小说<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1、what are The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty ?<br /> <br /> 2、which novel is modeled the &quot;The Scholars&quot;?<br /> <br /> 3、what’s the common characteristic of these four novels? <br /> <br /> 4、what other satirical novels do you know?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1、They are Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua.<br /> <br /> 2、The Records of Officialdom Exposure<br /> <br /> 3、The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time.<br /> <br /> 4、E.g.The Scholars<br /> <br /> ==Shadow Puppets - Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> ===Shadow Puppets===<br /> ====The Origin of Shadow Play====<br /> Shadow play has a history of more than 2000 years from the written records. Legend has it that Madame Li, the wife of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, died of illness. Emperor Wu's yearning was so intense that he was in a trance and ignored the government's affairs all day. Minister Li Shaoweng went out one day when he came across a child playing with a doll in his hand, with its shadow being vivid. So he came up with an idea that he could cut the image of Mrs. Li from cotton and silk, painted it with color, and installed wooden poles on her hands and feet. After seeing it, Emperor Wu was glued to it and couldn't put it down. This love story written in Hanshu is considered to be the earliest origin of shadow play. There are also some views that shadow play originated in Xi'an of Tang Dynasty, however, it is worth discussing that although there were an variety of operas in the Tang Dynasty, yet there were no any records of shadow play mentioned in the Tang Dynasty. Up to now, the earliest shadow play we can see is recorded in Song Dynasty. Its rise and development in Bianjing of the Northern Song Dynasty is closely related to Bianjing’s superior geographical environment, the development of commodity trade and commercial transportation at that time(Wei Liqun 2019,14).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction====[[File:Shadow play]]<br /> More than 2,000 years ago, Chinese began to give performances using puppets against an illuminated screen. This is “shadow puppets”, also known as “lamp and shadow play”. It is considered as “precursor of movie” because it was the earliest moving part of form dubbed with human voice in the world.<br /> During a play, puppeteers hide behind the white screen and move puppets, while narrating the story, usually through singing. Performances are accompanied by musicians playing percussion and stringed instruments. A shadow puppet can perform actions such as “serving drinks” , “waving a sword and a spear, ” or even “smoking ”by puppeteer holding and moving manipulating rods on its body. Typically, a shadow puppet has three rods, some may have five or seven rods. It can create rich designs such as shadow puppets, animals and stage props, for example, buildings, imperial palaces, chariots, tables and chairs as well as weapons. It is so rich that it includes almost everything under the sun.<br /> It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools. The well-known ones include Tangshan Shadow Play in Hebei Province, Beijing Shadow Play as well as Shaanxi, Shanxi and Hunan Shadow Play. etc.<br /> So how to make a puppet? First. Draw pictures of the various parts of the shadow puppets; second, finish carving with a knife and a hard board underneath the design; third, color the puppet with watercolor pens; forth, paint the body parts with a brush dipped in oil. This can make the puppet transparent and better reflect colors under the light.; fifth, connect joint sections with the cotton thread; sixth, make the manipulating rods; finally, attach the manipulating rods to the shadow puppet with cotton thread. The “head” is the most important part of a shadow puppet and its total component number is about four times that of the “body”. A shadow puppet’s “head”. And the “body” can be mixed and matched with each other. <br /> The eyes and the eyebrows of a shadow puppet’s five facial features represent different personalities. The good and positive people are typical of a benevolent and kind countenance, with nice-looking eyebrows and eyes, while the villain or the general are ferocious look, with sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes. And the former are often concealed teeth and the latter are revealed teeth. The middle-aged person are short beard, but the elderly man are long beard. The decorative designs on the shadow puppets are very important and match the character’s social status. In a shadow play, female characters are usually decorated with patters such as flowers, grass, clouds and phoenix, while male characters are often decorated with dragons, tigers, water and clouds. Shadows puppets look colorful under the light. To achieve a better visual effect, the translucent puppets need to be painted on both sides. The head of color can also represent different characters’ personalities. The red is symbol of a heroic and upstanding character. The black is a sign of a just, honest and selfless personality. The yellow shows a brave and irascible character, also are used in fantasy plays to represent people with magic power. To make a shadow puppet move flexibly, a complete figure often has many components such as a head, a chest,a belly, two legs, two arms, two elbows, two hands. <br /> <br /> ====1.3. The Present Situation of Contemporary Shadow Play====<br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, shadow play, as an art form, has undergone a series of reforms under the guidance of the Party's principles, including the organization of theatrical troupes, the compilation and creation of plays, the drawing and performing forms of shadow play. With the advent of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, the prosperity of shadow play came to an abrupt end. The troupe was disbanded, the repertoire was banned, and the artists were transferred to work. A large number of precious shadow puppet props and documents were damaged. This situation, except for some places, lasted until 1976. After the end of the &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;, shadow puppet art recovered rapidly, However, with the economic development being put in the first place of social activities and the popularity of television and the richness of artistic forms, shadow play is declining day by day with an irresistible trend, because shadow play arts are unable to keep pace with the times and get the appreciation of the audience. As a result, the prospect of shadow play art is becoming increasingly bleak.<br /> In order to inherit Chinese excellent culture and protect the ancient art forms such as shadow play. On May 20, 2006, it was approved by the State Council to be included in the first part of national intangible cultural heritage list. On November 27, 2011, UNESCO put Chinese shadow play on the &quot;list of representative works of human intangible cultural heritage&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===References：===<br /> 《皮影戏》王业霞编著<br /> 《小书大传承-皮影》魏力群著<br /> <br /> ===Words and Expressions===<br /> shadow puppet皮影戏 <br /> paper cutting 剪纸<br /> ventriloquism 口技<br /> manipulating rod 操纵杆<br /> five facial features 五官<br /> sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes 尖眉杏眼<br /> Cultural Revolution 文化大革命<br /> intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1.When is the earliest shadow puppet’s record?<br /> <br /> 2.What art of forms do shadow play use?<br /> <br /> 3. What does a red head stand for in a play?<br /> <br /> 4.When is it put on the list of intangible cultural heritage&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.Song dynasty.<br /> <br /> 2.It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools.<br /> <br /> 3.The red is symbol of a heroic and upstanding character.<br /> <br /> 4. On November 27, 2011.<br /> <br /> ==Confucian Culture - Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Confucian Culture ===<br /> <br /> <br /> ==== Introduction ====<br /> Confucian school is an academic school founded by Confucius, developed by Mencius, and composed by Xunzi. Today, it still retains a certain vitality. Confucian school takes Confucianism as its guiding ideology whose central ideas are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith. <br /> Confucian school was on an equal footing with the other hundred schools in the pre-Qin period. After the First Emperor of Qin, also called Qin Shihuang, burned books and buried scholars alive, the development of the Confucian school suffered a serious defeat. Then, in order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's advice of &quot;banishing other schools of thought and worshiping Confucianism only&quot; and imposed restrictions on thought, which led to the revival of Confucian school. The concepts of &quot;Confucian school&quot;, &quot;Confucianism&quot;, and &quot;Confucian Religion&quot; should be distinguished since Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism a social stratification, and Confucian religion a belief. <br /> Laozi founded Chinese Taoist school; Confucius started Chinese Confucian school; Sun Tzu initiated Chinese military strategist school; Mozi was the founder of Mohism in the early Warring States. Confucianism contributes to guiding the code of conduct and constructing social order; Daoism focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalism serves the system construction of national political management.; the concepts of Universal Love and utilitarianism are two cornerstones for the Mohism. The General Unity idea of Confucianism has played an important role in the unification of a nation, the enhancement of national cohesion and the integration of cultural values. After more than two thousand years of development and evolution, Confucian culture has built up a complete ideological system, involving politics, education, morality, ethics, code of conduct, life skills and other aspects. It has cultivated the wisdom and soul of the Chinese people throughout the history, and formed deep-rooted set patterns of thinking, psychology and survival. <br /> <br /> ==== Analysis of Confucian culture ====<br /> <br /> ===== Intelligence development =====<br /> Confucius is a great educator, as well as a pioneer and practitioner of mass education. After Confucianism was established as a dominant culture, both the rulers and the public respected the teachings of the sage and attached great importance to education. In this context, a basic requirement is to stay highly cultured and steeped in propriety. After the Emperor Wen initiated the imperial examination system in the Sui Dynasty, those who are good scholars could make an official, which inspired students of poor families to change their lives by studying hard and diligent. For generations, the Chinese people have attached great importance to the education of their children, which is conducive to the improvement of the thinking ability of the whole nation. <br /> However, the corrupt of bureaucracy and the darkness of officialdom in metaphase and anaphase made many literati feel despairing about official career and discredit about the concept. In addition, the Four Books and Five Classics were the main learning content of Confucianism. Apart from government-run schools, private schools and self-study can hardly meet the requirements of the Six Classical Arts. Therefore, the Four Books and Five Classics were the focus of students, while the Six Classical Arts were not highly valued. <br /> <br /> =====Spiritual guidance =====<br /> In terms of spirit, Confucianism contends that &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.&quot; Benevolent people love each other, which reflects the essence of “Unity of Man and Nature” and also the most brilliant connotation of Confucianism. This philosophy calls for people’s active contributions to the society. It is still alive in modern times, and is the fundamental requirement of people's spiritual orientation in the future. <br /> <br /> ===== Order construction =====<br /> In the age of barbarism and backwardness, a common feature was that a small number of people used power and force to suppress and enslave the majority, thus resulting in labor division and unfair distribution of wealth and generating corresponding social hierarchy and concepts. Given the fact that Confucianism developed in the transitional period of feudal society, the thoughts of Confucius and Mencius were rooted in the idealist view of destiny and did not break the shackles of social hierarchy. In addition, they even advocated the distinguish between the noble and the humble and highlighted the importance of hierarchy division. In this context, the benevolence they advocated had great limitations in political management. The public could not be treated equally in terms of political status. Instead, the so-called benevolence calls for improvement of the living conditions of the public and more benefits from the ruling class. However, its purpose was to maintain social order and reconcile social contradictions. This is also the root cause of feudal rulers’ favoring of Confucianism. In essence, Confucianism did not promote social equality, instead, it worked to maintain the unequal feudal hierarchy that aggravated servitude. In fact, after a long history of feudal rule, the sense of hierarchy would be part of the national psyche. With the progress of times and civilization, the view of destiny and the thought of social order have become psychological shackles of the Chinese people. <br /> After eliminating the ideology of feudal hierarchy and formalism, some philosophies of Confucianism still generate positive effects on modern society. Specifically, the spirit of benevolence and universal love is conducive to cultivate people’s spirits; the concept of “the country belongs to the public” reflects a sense of social responsibility to make contributions for society, which can be expanded into a sharing social and political philosophy for different countries. Filial piety and brotherhood increase the harmony and stability of family; Loyalty, faithfulness, propriety and forgiveness are conducive to the relationship between different countries, societies and people. &quot;Loyalty&quot; means that people should stay loyal to the country and people; &quot;Friendliness&quot; and &quot;forgiveness&quot; play an important role in resolving various contradictions and animosities; when it comes to &quot;filial piety&quot; and &quot;propriety&quot;, many redundant forms inherited from feudal society should be eradicated and be more practical.<br /> <br /> ====The contemporary value of Confucian culture ====<br /> Today, Confucian culture is still of great significance. We must explore the value of Confucian culture on the basis of the excellent tradition of the Chinese nation and by combining the characteristics of the times with and the actual situation. The Confucian culture has affected Chinese more than two thousand years and gone deep into each aspect of Chinese society.<br /> <br /> =====Ideological and political education =====<br /> Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy, and it places a high priority on human value and dignity. Over the years, the Chinese nation has been influenced by this excellent philosophy. On this occasion, its behavioral pattern and psychological structure are endowed with uniqueness, which is mainly manifested in two aspects. One is to respect yourself, learn how to love and care yourself. Moreover, gain dignity and achieve the development of human value through the continuous improvement of moral cultivation. Second, respect others and show respect for others' personality by respecting, understanding and caring for others.<br /> <br /> ===== Modern economic construction=====<br /> Under today’s circumstance, some ideological contents are still alive and produce positive effects on promoting the economic construction of modernization and fostering modern patriotism emotion of the Chinese people.<br /> First of all, Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of &quot;benevolence&quot; and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy. Since Confucian culture reflects a collectivist view on life, individuals are full of sense of duty and responsibility towards others and groups. In this context, their self-cultivation targets at regulating the family, country and the world. Thus, the value of individual is closely linked with the rise and fall of the country, so they have a strong sense of responsibility. &quot;Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country&quot; has been a common belief for thousands of years. Such a social responsibility will give rise to a huge driving force for the development of the country and society.<br /> Second, the consciousness of &quot;self-improvement&quot; and the proposition of &quot;seeking truth&quot; in the Confucian culture strengthen the national spirit and provide a source power for China’s economic modernization. Yi Zhuan put forward: &quot;As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection.’’ It means that continuous development is the law of nature and that a gentleman should pursue progress and be strong, unyielding resilient and positive. For thousands of years, the Chinese nation has formed a fine tradition of working hard and striving for strength under the influence of these thoughts. Today, we carry forward the spirits of “self-improvement” and &quot;seeking truth&quot; in ways that further enhance national spirits and provide a strong driving force for the socialist modernization.<br /> Third, the &quot;reform and innovation&quot; concept in Confucian culture is conducive to the expansion of the reform and opening up and the acceleration of China's socialist modernization. On the basis of admitting the fact that the continuous development is the universal law of nature, Confucian culture puts forward the &quot;innovation idea&quot;. The Book of Rites said, &quot;If you can in one day renovate yourself; do so from day to day and let there be daily renovation.&quot; The Book of Changes said, &quot;Reform refers to destroy the old, while innovation means to establish the new.” The concept is not only serves as the theoretical basis for reform and innovation throughout the history, but also provides valuable lessons for the reform in socialist economic and political systems today. Domestically, promoting the innovative spirits can greatly enhance the reform consciousness of the Chinese people. Externally, it is conducive to advancing the opening up by leveraging the global influence of Confucian culture.<br /> <br /> ===== Legal construction =====<br /> Confucian culture places a high priority on personal cultivation, while a highly civilized society under the rule of law must be composed of highly educated citizens. Confucian school, a school with thousands of years of history in China, has become an integral part of the Chinese culture. Nowadays, since China has called for the policy of combining the rule of virtue with the rule of law, it is the time for Confucian culture to find its historical position and fully play its role. Exploring the influence of Confucian culture on the construction of contemporary Chinese rule by law, not only can we help us more deeply understand the traditional culture, but also can promote the process of building the rule of law in contemporary China. <br /> The rule by virtue thought is an important part of Confucian culture and it emphasizes the importance of moral education. It is a national strategy pursued by ancient Chinese rulers and a method of national governance embodying reference significance in today’s China. In terms of national governance, Confucianism emphasizes the importance of morality, believing that national governance should not mainly rely on harsh punishment, instead, moral education should be applied to reform people. Confucius said, &quot;By governing with virtue, rulers will be loved by the public, just like stars surround the North Star.&quot; By comparing rulers to the North Star and people to the stars, Confucius emphasized the importance of moral governance. <br /> How to rule by virtue? First of all, rulers should pay attention to their personal cultivation and develop good moral characters, so that they can set a good example for the public. Only when officials and common people obey the ruler sincerely, can a good social atmosphere be formed. Secondly, since Confucianism takes &quot;benevolence&quot; as its core and calls for the rule of virtue, many people subconsciously believe that Confucianism denies the role of criminal law and that Confucian culture does not call for the rule of law. In fact, this is not the case. While Confucianism advocates the rule of virtue, it also emphasizes the supplementary role of rule of law. Confucius said, &quot;Sages believe that national governance must combine the rule of virtue and law.&quot; That is to say, if people are governed by systems and laws, they seek for impunity but lack of conscience; however, if they are guided by morality and etiquette, they will have a sense of right and wrong and will impose strict requirements on themselves.<br /> In a word, we should clearly realize that, although Confucian culture is an excellent traditional culture in China, it was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. Under this circumstance, we must analyse Confucian culture dialectically and explore the value of Confucian culture. At the same time, we should discard the bad habits and unfavorable factors left by it, so as to better carry forward our traditional culture and accelerate the construction of the rule of law in contemporary China.<br /> <br /> ====The Confucius institute ====<br /> With the improvement of China's international status and the increasingly extensive international exchanges, Chinese culture has won wider foreign attention and the world is more eager to learn and understand the Chinese culture. The Confucius Institute project, founded in 2004, emerges in response to the call of the times. Today, Confucius Institutes have spread throughout Asia, Africa, The Americas, Europe and Oceania. Fundamentally speaking, its is conducive to the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture since language is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is of positive significance to the construction of China's national image, the promotion of China's international influence, the realization of wider international communication.<br /> The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Today, countries are committed to spreading their own language and culture, so there is a fierce competition in international cultural promotion. In addition, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. At present, Confucius Institutes are prevalent all over the world, but the promotion strategy seeking for quantity and speed results in a serious shortage of teachers capable of teaching Chinese as a foreign language. According to statistics, there is a global shortage of at least five million TCSL teachers. Secondly, the lack of high-quality and localized teaching materials for Chinese has also become a bottleneck for the development of Confucius Institutes. The shortage of Chinese textbooks affects the depth of cultural communication of Confucius Institutes directly. Thirdly, Confucius Institutes are not capable of spreading the ideological depth of the Chinese culture. Although the textbooks are rich in content, they mainly focus on promoting folk culture by introducing Chinese food, tea and wine, traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts. Meanwhile, they rarely involve the ideological essence of traditional Chinese culture and the modern value of Chinese culture.<br /> The Confucius Institutes should fully explore the modern significance of Confucianism and cast the quintessence of Chinese culture, and strengthen the spread of the core idea of Chinese culture and its modern cultural value. The connotation of Chinese culture is very rich. What Confucius Institutes should spread is not all the contents of Chinese culture, but the contents with universal value that are different from other countries and represent the essence of Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Terms and expressions ====<br /> <br /> 儒家Confucian school<br /> <br /> 儒学Confucianism<br /> <br /> 儒教Confucian religion <br /> <br /> 兼爱 Universal love<br /> <br /> 恕、忠、孝、悌、勇forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage<br /> <br /> 仁、义、礼、智、信benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith<br /> <br /> 学而优则仕 A good scholar will make an official<br /> <br /> 四书五经 the Four Books and Five Classics<br /> <br /> 天行健，君子当自强不息；地势坤，君子以厚德载物。As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.<br /> <br /> 天下兴亡，匹夫有责 Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Questions ====<br /> <br /> What’s the central ideas of Confucian culture?<br /> <br /> What’s the difference among Confucian school, Confucianism and Confucian religion?<br /> <br /> What do you think of the relationship between Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school, Legalist school?<br /> <br /> What’s the Six Classical Arts?<br /> <br /> What you think of the ancient influence of Confucian culture?<br /> <br /> Do you think Confucian culture still has its contemporary values in China? And why?<br /> <br /> What do you think of the current situation of the development of the Confucian institute?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> <br /> ====Ch'ien Chung-shu====<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu (1910-1998), a well-known scholar, writer, translator and literary researcher, was born into an education family in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province. In Chinese academic circles, Qian was ranked with Rao Zongyi, a master in academic circles, and both were called &quot;South Rao and North Qian&quot;. He was admitted to Tsinghua University in 1929 and got to know Yang Jiang in 1932. Qian became famous soon after the enrolment, not only for the 15 mark of his mathematics, but for his excellent Chinese and English, especially full marks in English. Qian had an engagement with Yang the year after their acquaintance and went to study at Oxford University in England along with her. In 1937, he obtained the bachelor's degree from Oxford with the treatise ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries'', and his daughter Qian Yuan was born the same year. He wrote a great many profound literary works in his lifetime. When it comes to Ch'ien Chung-shu, people would think of his representative work ''Fortress Besieged'', which was published in 1947.<br /> <br /> As a realistic satirical novel, ''Fortress Besieged'' is known as &quot;The New Scholars&quot; in the 1940s. The novel is centralized on Fang Hongjian,who returned from studying abroad at the beginning of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression. It depicts the struggles in love, marriage,career and life of a group of intellectuals who were far away from the times and the people during the War of Resistance against Japanese Agression. It reveals their inner poverty, emptiness and lowliness, criticizes the dark reality of the Kuomintang-controlled areas, and reveals the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life. In the preface of the book, Qian said that, &quot;In this book I intended to write about a certain segment of society and a certain kind of people in modern China. In writing about these people, I didn’t forget they are human beings, still human beings with the basic nature of hairless, two-legged animals. &quot;The novel is like an X-ray mirror that reveals the deformed characters and ugly souls of those &quot;hairless and two-legged animals&quot; and analyzes the cultural matrix which is responsible for the deformed characters and ugly souls of these &quot;latest style&quot; literati. Yang Jiang said, &quot;The main connotation of ''Fortress Besieged'' is that those who are besieged by the city want to escape, while those outside want to rush in. This is what most people wish for in life, whether in marriage or career. &quot;The meaning of &quot;fortress besieged&quot; is also stated several times in the novel. It tells people that life is a besieged city everywhere, people have marriage and divorce, divorce and marriage in endless succession,with everlasting confusion and dilemma. The questions that Qian raised in the novel refer to a question of universal significance, which is the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life as a whole. In December 1990, the television series ''Fortress Besieged'' was broadcast on China Central Television(CCTV) and enjoyed great popularity.<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu has made significant achievements in literary research and literary creation. In particular, it is of great significance to carry forward and deny traditional Chinese culture scientifically and learn from foreign culture selectively. He has wrote the collection of essays ''Written in the Margins of Life''(1941), the collection of short stories ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts''(1946), and the novel ''Fortress Besieged''(1947). Both his essays and novels are wise and meaningful. Qian has read Chinese history, philosophy and literary classics in depth and has studied western old and new literature, philosophy and psychology. Many of his works, such as ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideaas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', have enjoyed high reputation in academic circles both at home and abroad.<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu viewd China and the world with a cultural criticism spirit. Based on his profound knowledge of Chinese and world culture, Qian has always shown a clear mind and a deep insight when observing Chinese and Western culture. He didn't reject any theories or doctrines, nor did he blindly follow any authorities. He devoted his life to promoting Chinese literature and art to the world. To this end, he not only explicated the profound meaning and unique value of Chinese culture in depth, but also pointed out its historical and regional limitations. He not only criticized the Chinese for their arrogance towards the local culture due to certain illusions, but also mercilessly eliminated the Westerners' prejudice centered on European and American culture due to ignorance. It is Ch'ien Chung-shu who has promoted cultural communication between China and other countries.<br /> <br /> November 21st,2020 is the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu. People often call him a well-informed scholar, but he is more of a down-to-earth writer and scholar. He was indifferent to fame and wealth and alaways took a rigorous and serious attitude towards academic research. We feel ourselves in an entirely new world when we read the subtle metaphors in ''Fortress Besieged'', while we read ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', we are amazed at Qian's erudition. People all over the world admire his talent, but in fact,it is his meticulous and diligent reading spirit that makes him a well-informed scholar. Many of his life experiences and the question of whether his scholarship was systematic or not have attracted much attention. Wang Shuizhao, professor of Chinese Department of Fudan University, who has studied and worked with Ch'ien Chung-shu for a long time, has recently published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'', in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements based on the first-hand historical data, his personal experiences and his own understanding of academia, and gives answers to the questions discueesed widely, such as Qian's experience of being falsely accused, whether there exists system in his scholarship and the collision of viewpoints between Qian and Chen Yinke.<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions====<br /> <br /> ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries'' 《十七十八世纪英国文学中的中国》<br /> <br /> ''Fortress Besieged'' 《围城》<br /> <br /> Kuomintang-controlled areas 国统区<br /> <br /> ''Written in the Margins of Life'' 《写在人生边上》<br /> <br /> ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts'' 《人·兽·鬼》<br /> <br /> ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' 《管锥编》<br /> <br /> ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'' 《谈艺录》<br /> <br /> the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu 钱钟书诞辰110周年纪念日<br /> <br /> ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu '' 《钱钟书的学术人生》<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> <br /> 1.What is Ch'ien Chung-shu's representative work? When was it published?<br /> <br /> Ch'ien Chung-shu's representive work is ''Fortress Besieged''. It was published in 1947.<br /> <br /> 2.When was the TV series ''Fortress Besieged'' broadcast?<br /> <br /> It was broadcast in December 1990.<br /> <br /> 3.Do you know other works about Ch'ien Chung-shu? Can you list some of them?<br /> <br /> ''Patchwork:Seven Essays on Art and Literature''（《七缀集》） and ''Poetic Remains of an Ephemeral Life''（《槐聚诗存》）.<br /> <br /> 4.Which book did Wang Shuizhao publish in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu? What does he talk about in this book?<br /> <br /> Wang Shuizhao published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'' in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu, in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements.<br /> <br /> 5.Which sentence is your favoriate in ''Fortress Besieged''? <br /> <br /> &quot;I want to be able to occupy the whole life of the man I love. Before meeting me, he would have had no past and would be waiting for me with a clean slate.&quot; <br /> --[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:19, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> <br /> ===相声 Cross Talk===<br /> <br /> ===The History of Cross Talk===<br /> <br /> Cross talk, in the ancient time was known as onomatopoeia, originally refers to imitate other's voices, also known as neighboring cross talk. It was evolved and further developed from the folk music in North China, and integrated with imitating oral skills and other folk art forms. It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng （1850—1861）and Emperor Tongzhi（1861—1874）period in Qing dynasty. It’s a folk vocal art that uses jokes or funny questioning and answering to make the audience laugh. In the early years of the Republic of China, cross talk gradually developed from one-person ventriloquism to stand-up one person talk, and the name changed to cross talk. Later, it gradually developed into stand-up cross talk, dual cross talk, and group cross talk. And become a veritable form of art. After years of development, dual cross talk has finally become the most popular form of cross talk among audiences.--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 06:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Famous Artists of Cross Talk===<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> Go 围棋--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:04, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===GO===<br /> Go is an adversarial game with the objective of surrounding a larger total area of the board with one's stones than the opponent. As the game progresses, the players position stones on the board to map out formations and potential territories. Contests between opposing formations are often extremely complex and may result in the expansion, reduction, or wholesale capture and loss of formation stones.<br /> A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board. One or more liberties enclosed within a group is called an eye, and a group with two or more eyes cannot be captured, even if surrounded. Such groups are said to be unconditionally alive.<br /> <br /> The general strategy is to expand one's territory, attack the opponent's weak groups (groups that can be killed), and always stay mindful of the &quot;life status&quot; of one's own groups. The liberties of groups are countable. Situations where mutually opposing groups must capture each other or die are called capturing races, or semeai. In a capturing race, the group with more liberties (and/or better &quot;shape&quot;) will ultimately be able to capture the opponent's stones. Capturing races and the elements of life or death are the primary challenges of Go.<br /> <br /> Players may pass rather than place a stone if they think there are no further opportunities for profitable play. The game ends when both players pass or when one player resigns. In general, to score the game, each player counts the number of unoccupied points surrounded by their stones and then subtracts the number of stones that were captured by the opponent. The player with the greater score (after adjusting for komi) wins the game.<br /> <br /> In the opening stages of the game, players typically establish positions (or &quot;bases&quot;) in the corners and around the sides of the board. These bases help to quickly develop strong shapes which have many options for life (self-viability for a group of stones that prevents capture) and establish formations for potential territory. Players usually start in the corners because establishing territory is easier with the aid of two edges of the board. Established corner opening sequences are called &quot;joseki&quot; and are often studied independently.<br /> <br /> &quot;Dame&quot; are points that lie in between the boundary walls of black and white, and as such are considered to be of no value to either side. &quot;Seki&quot; are mutually alive pairs of white and black groups where neither has two eyes. A &quot;ko&quot; (Chinese and Japanese: 劫) is a repeated-position shape that may be contested by making forcing moves elsewhere. After the forcing move is played, the ko may be &quot;taken back&quot; and returned to its original position.[30] Some &quot;ko fights&quot; may be important and decide the life of a large group, while others may be worth just one or two points. Some ko fights are referred to as &quot;picnic kos&quot; when only one side has a lot to lose. The Japanese call it a hanami (flower-viewing) ko. <br /> <br /> Playing with others usually requires a knowledge of each player's strength, indicated by the player's rank (increasing from 30 kyu to 1 kyu, then 1 dan to 7 dan, then 1 dan pro to 9 dan pro). A difference in rank may be compensated by a handicap—Black is allowed to place two or more stones on the board to compensate for White's greater strength. There are different rule-sets (Korean, Japanese, Chinese, AGA, etc.), which are almost entirely equivalent, except for certain special-case positions.<br /> <br /> Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, there are essentially only two rules in Go:<br /> • Rule 1 (the rule of liberty) states that every stone remaining on the board must have at least one open &quot;point&quot; (an intersection, called a &quot;liberty&quot;) directly orthogonally adjacent (up, down, left, or right), or must be part of a connected group that has at least one such open point (&quot;liberty&quot;) next to it. Stones or groups of stones which lose their last liberty are removed from the board.<br /> • Rule 2 (the &quot;ko rule&quot;) states that the stones on the board must never repeat a previous position of stones. Moves which would do so are forbidden, and thus only moves elsewhere on the board are permitted that turn.<br /> Almost all other information about how the game is played is a heuristic, meaning it is learned information about how the game is played, rather than a rule. Other rules are specialized, as they come about through different rule-sets, but the above two rules cover almost all of any played game.<br /> Although there are some minor differences between rule-sets used in different countries, most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules, these differences do not greatly affect the tactics and strategy of the game.<br /> <br /> Except where noted, the basic rules presented here are valid independent of the scoring rules used. The scoring rules are explained separately. Go terms for which there is no ready English equivalent are commonly called by their Japanese names.<br /> <br /> The two players, Black and White, take turns placing stones of their colour on the intersections of the board, one stone at a time. The usual board size is a 19×19 grid but for beginners, or for playing quick games, the smaller board sizes of 13×13 and 9×9 are also popular. The board is empty to begin with. Black plays first, unless black is given a handicap of two stones or more (in which case, white plays first). The players may choose any unoccupied intersection to play on, except for those forbidden by the ko and suicide rules (see below). Once played, a stone can never be moved and can be taken off the board only if it is captured. A player may also pass, declining to place a stone, though this is usually only done at the end of the game when both players believe nothing more can be accomplished with further play. When both players pass consecutively, the game ends and is then scored.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Go 围棋 heuristic 启发式的<br /> adversarial game 对抗性游戏 intersection 交叉点<br /> board 棋盘 black 黑棋<br /> formation 阵型 white 白棋<br /> move 走棋 scoring rule 计分规则<br /> liberty 自由度 player 棋手<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1, What’s the basic principle of Go?<br /> <br /> <br /> 2,Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, What are other two essential rules in Go？<br /> <br /> <br /> 3, What countries have the most notable scoring rules differences?--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1, A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board.<br /> <br /> 2,The rule of liberty and the &quot;ko rule&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3, Most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Cho Chikun (1997). Go: A Complete Introduction to the Game. Tokyo: Kiseido Publishers. ISBN 978-4-906574-50-6.<br /> <br /> [2]NRICH Team, Going First, University of Cambridge, retrieved 2007-06-16<br /> <br /> [3]Iwamoto, Kaoru (1977). Go for Beginners. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 978-0-394-73331-9.<br /> <br /> [4]British Go Association, Comparison of some go rules, retrieved 2007-12-20<br /> <br /> [5]Kim, Janice; Jeong, Soo-hyun (1997). Learn to Play Go. Five volumes (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Good Move Press. ISBN 978-0-9644796-1-6.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：围棋<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> ===The Four Most Handsome men in Ancient China===<br /> It is said that there were four most beautiful women in ancient times, and corresponding to that, it is worth mentioning that there were four most attractive men at that time.Despite that we consider these four men as attractive, this refers to more than just their appearance. They have a common feature: it proves that while their appearance is marvelous, they are also outstanding in literature. Namely, as a Chinese saying goes, they are endowed with both beauty and talent.<br /> These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> The allusion of “throwing fruit to fill a carriage” originates from Pan An, which resembles movie fans nowadays to see their idols. There is a comment on Pan An’s appearance: &quot;No more and no less.&quot; The history books also describe Pan An with three words “good-looking, well-mannered, and graceful”. Although these did not describe Pan An’s appearance in details, such as eyebrows and eyes or lips, from these side descriptions, we can know that Pan An’s appearance is far above ordinary people, and even his styles draw imitation from others. At the same time, Pan An is known as “the flower of a county in Heyang”, and he is also one of the few men who are compared with flowers to be praised for excellent appearance. The beauty of exterior only fails to last long in this world. Pan An's talent and temperament and the devotion to his wife are also often eulogized. Pan Yue showed his unusual talent since he was a child, and he was called a child prodigy by the villagers. In his early years, he was appreciated by an official and recommended as a scholar. Later, served as the magistrate of Heyang (now Meng County, Henan), he was diligent in political affairs, and advocated the people to plant more fruits and trees. The county was full of trees and peaches and plums everywhere, known as “Flower County”. During his administration, his political achievements were remarkable. Besides, Pan An holds a special place in the history of literature. He was good at composing verse and orders, expatiation, and skilled in the choice of words and building of sentences, which fully reflects the characteristics of Taikang literature that pays attention to the beauty of form. He was expert in composing Ci lyric of sorrow and admonishment, and his current works such as Widow's Fu, Mourning Poem and other famous works are all known for their narration and empathy. Pan An can be described as both internally and externally blessed.（Liu Xixue 2003,63-64）<br /> <br /> Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. There is a very popular legend about King Lanling. It's believed that King Lanling was a brave and supremely skilled general. However, because he looked very sweet and it seemed hard to frighten the enemy, he often wore a half-mask when fighting, which sounds very fairytale. Nevertheless, the beauty of King Lanling is beyond doubt and otherworldly. Book of Northern Qi Dynasty described that he was friendly looking and mentally strong, with beautiful voice and appearance. King Lanling spent half his life in military affairs, and made great achievements. While this gave him glory, it also brought bad luck. There is an old Chinese saying that the glow of a inferior from massive achievements will overshadow his superior. Although the King Lanling did not have the idea of usurping the throne, but the incumbent felt threatened because of his existence itself. In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60） <br /> <br /> Song Yu (about 322 BC-298 BC), as it is widely rumored, a student of Qu Yuan, was born in the capital city of Song Dynasty during the Warring States Period (now Shangqiu, Henan). Song Yu was a writer of Ci lyric of State Chu in the late Warring States period, adept in Ci lyric and even acclaimed as a great poet after Qu Yuan' reputation. Later generations often referred to them as “Qu Song”. Rumors circulate that there are many Ci lyrics from him, and Book of Han records about 16 works, but many of them are lost today. His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on. He was the first to write about sadness from Autumn and to write about women. His description of women's nature exerts a great influence on later generations such as Cao Zhi. The goddess in Song Yu's The Fu poetry of Goddess embodies the essence of pre-Qin female beauty, recounting the beauty of the goddess of Wushan Mountain in details so much so that later generations have coveted for it for thousands of years. 16 works survived, among which Nine Discriminations is believed to be truly composed by him. It is equivalent to Qu Yuan's Li Sao or A lament in the history of Chinese literature. Both poets can be called the two shining pearls in Ci lyric at their times.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> <br /> Wei Jie (286-June 20, 312), a metaphysician and an official of the Jin Dynasty. Wei Jie was a noted talker and metaphysicist during the Wei and Jin Dynasties. He was appointed as an assistant of the prince in the matter of politics. In the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Yongjia(AD310), Wei Jie died at the age of 27. Both ancient books and ancients commented on Wei Jie's appearance. Wang Ji reckoned that, “A jade is on my side, and I feel like I am nobody”; “Wandering with Jiu is like sauntering with a pearl on the side, with him shining brightly.” History Retold as a Mirror for rulers authored by Sima Guang goes into detail: &quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot; Wei Jie not only have a mere marvelous exterior, but also he can discern metaphysics from his perspective. Wei Jie’s views always amaze the concerned parties. It is said that even three sons of the Wang family, are not as good as the first son of the Wei family, and the three sons of the Wang family were all well-known scholars at that time, and the Wei Jie could be regarded as unmatchable compared with the three in family background, appearance, and talents.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）<br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> Pan An 潘安<br /> <br /> King Lanling 兰陵王<br /> <br /> Ji Kang 嵇康 <br /> <br /> Wei Jie 卫玠 <br /> <br /> throwing fruit to fill a carriage 掷果盈车<br /> <br /> scholar 秀才<br /> <br /> expatiation 铺陈<br /> <br /> Book of Northern Qi Dynasty 《北齐书》<br /> <br /> the Warring States Period 战国时期<br /> <br /> Book of Han 《汉书》<br /> <br /> Nine Discriminations 《九辨》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Wind 《风赋》<br /> <br /> The Fu poetry of Goddess 《神女赋》<br /> <br /> the goddess of Wushan Mountain 巫山神女<br /> <br /> metaphysician 玄学家<br /> <br /> a noted talker 清谈名士<br /> <br /> History Retold as a Mirror for rulers 《资治通鉴》<br /> <br /> Widow's Fu 《寡妇赋》<br /> <br /> Mourning Poem 《悼亡诗》<br /> ===Questions===<br /> 1.Who are the four most handsome men at ancient time in China?<br /> <br /> 2.Who is Gao Changgong?<br /> <br /> 3.How did Lanlin King die?<br /> <br /> 4.What works did Song Yu compose?<br /> <br /> 5.Who are the two shining pearls in Ci lyric according to the passage?<br /> <br /> 6.What History Retold as a Mirror for rulers comment on Wei Jie?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.<br /> <br /> 2.Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. <br /> <br /> 3.In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King. <br /> <br /> 4.His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on.<br /> <br /> 5.Qu Yuan and Song Yu<br /> <br /> 6.&quot;Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior...&quot;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]刘细学.古代四大美男[J].文史天地,2003(06):63-64.<br /> <br /> [2]王真波.四大美男都是怎么死的[J].青年文学家,2008(11):59-60.<br /> <br /> ==Lo, Minh Thao==<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Mogao Grottoes--Lou Cancan 娄灿灿 student no.202070080599==<br /> <br /> ===Mogao Grottoes===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The Mogao Grottoes, known as the Thousand Buddhas Caves, were built on the eastern cliff of Mingsha Mountain, 25 kilometers to the southeast of Dunhuang city. There are 492 caves (well preserved) today, containing over 2,400 painted clay statues and 45,000 square meters of murals and 5 timber structures on the cliff of the southern district. There are also more than 300 caves used as both living room and burying place for monks and painters on the cliff of the northern district. Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes,so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes. From the 4th until the 14th century, caves were constructed by monks to serve as shrines with funds from donors.(Fan Jinshi 2010，170)The major caves were sponsored by patrons such as important asclergies, local ruling elites, foreign dignitaries, as well as Chinese emperors. Other caves may have been funded by merchants and other local people such as women's groups. (Sha Wutian 2020, 122)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes]]====<br /> <br /> ===History===<br /> <br /> Mogao Grottoes were not built in one day. According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff. Later, monk Faliang（法良）came here and joined him cultivating in caves. Since then more and more caves have been excavated over a thousand year. (Whitfield 1990, 8) <br /> <br /> By the time of Northern Liang, small community of monks had formed at this site. The caves initially served only as a place of meditation for hermit monks. Later, they were developed to serve the monasteries that sprang up nearby. Members of the ruling families of Northern Wei and Northern Zhou constructed many caves here, and it flourished in the short-lived Sui Dynasty. By the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Mogao Caves had become a place of worship and pilgrimage for the public. In the Sui Dynasty, Hexi Corridor was controlled by central authority. The emperors were pious followers of Buddhism and they ordered to build stupas across the country. Therefore, more than 100 caves were excavated in Mogao Grottoes within 37 years. By the Tang Dynasty, the number of caves had reached over a thousand. During this period, Dunhuang became the main hub of commerce of the Silk Road and a major religious center. A large number of the caves were constructed during this era, including the two large statues of Buddha at the site, the largest one constructed in 695 following an edict a year earlier by Tang Empress Wu Zitian to build giant statues across the country. The site escaped the persecution of Buddhists ordered by Emperor Wuzong in 845 as it was then under Tibetan control. As a frontier town, Dunhuang had been occupied at various times by other non-Han Chinese people. <br /> <br /> After the Tang Dynasty, the site went into a gradual decline, and construction of new caves ceased entirely after the Yuan Dynasty. In the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, Mogao Grottoes were preserved and kept by Cao Yijin（曹议金).(MA Shichang 2010, 303)After that, his later generations governed Dunhuang Prefecture and constructed multiple family caves such as Cave 55.(Gao Xiujun 2016, 9) During the Ming Dynasty, the Silk Road was finally abandoned and Dunhuang slowly became depolulated and was forgotten by the outside world. Most of the Mogao caves were abandoned. The site, however, went back to a place of pilgrimage and worship by local people at the beginning of the twentieth century. On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings. Since then, Dunhuang has become well known throughout the world. Both Chinese and foreign scholars have made extensive studies on the findings.(Stein 1912, volume 2)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Taoist Wang Yuanlu.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Taoist Wang Yuanlu]]====<br /> <br /> ===Art===<br /> <br /> The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture and they vary from dynasty to dynasty. There are mainly three types of structural forms of Mogao Grottoes: Vihara, Chaitya and Hall with inverted funnel shaped ceiling. A Chaitya with a central pillar is the main form of the caves in the early period of the Sixteen States, with Northern Wei, Western Wei and Northern Zhou Dynasties included. The murals may be divided into seven sorts:Buddhist figures, Sutra illustration, Buddhist stories, Buddhist historical pictures, Chinese mythologies, donors and decorative designs. Buddhist stories in the murals can be divided into three types:Jataka（佛本生), Buddha’s life and fate story. A Jataka is a narrative which tells of the good deeds performed by Sakyamuni during his perious existence such as prince Sudanda giving up his body to feed the hungry tigers. As to sculptures, initially, they were constructed on a wooden frame, padded with reed, then modelled in clay stucco and finished with paint.（Duan Wenjie 1994, 163) <br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Chaitya with a Central Pillar.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Chaitya with a Central Pillar]]==== <br /> <br /> ====[[File:A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body]]====<br /> <br /> The artistic styles in the Sixteen States, which gradually turned away from being primitive and simple to an easy and graceful styles in the Northern Wei, manifested in figures with well-chiseled builds and emaciated looks. In Northern Zhou, the styles of figures show that Chinese art combining the influence of foreign and native styles gradually became more nationalized. The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs. The caves become spacious and more suited for large paintings, such as the Sutra illustrations and huge pictures of Buddha expounding sermons. Bold and vigorous, brush work was painted with intricate and flowing lines. For example, Lotus Sutra on the ceiling of Cave 420 displays a lot of episodes of mountains, forests, rivers, buildings and so on in a limitated space. The theme and art in the Sui Dynasty show an important devdelopment in traditional art and indicate a comimg glorious new era. In Tang Dynasty, the caves are large with an inverted funnel shaped ceiling. The murals consist mostly of huge paintings of stories from Buddhist Sutras with well-regulated scenes and well-balanced composition. The figures at that time have round and plump faces and curved eyebrows which expresses the aesthetical taste of the people living in Tang. The mural in Cave 220 contains vivid portraits of the Emperor and his ministers listening to a sermon. The ministers attending to Emperor are each bestowed with differrent appearances and expressions. Some are natural and graceful and some cautious. The well-proportioned painted statues were made with more consummate care and attention to the detail, showing us the solemn Buddha. In addition, very tall and colossal statues of Buddha began to be made. The outstanding one is an early Tang Dynasty statue 34 metres high in Cave 96.( Fan Jinshi 2010, 175) In 781-848A.D.,Hexi region fell into the Tibetan. Hence, there was an interesting changes: the king of the Tibetan took the place of central-plain emperors in the wall-painting. <br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 251 in Northern Wei.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 251 in Northern Wei]]====<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty]]====<br /> <br /> <br /> By the time of the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, the grottoes carved in this period are very large and different in form and layout. The subject and style of the statues and murals remain the influence from Tang Dynasty, but the use of colours and the drawing techniques show a simple folk style. From the 9th century to 12th, the Uygur had been in Dunhuang. The artistic styles bear the imprint of both Han and Uygur. The Uygur murals are benerally characterized by the simplicity of the subject, the looseness of the arrangement, the direct and rough brush strokes. The human figures have features of certain minority groups. In the Western Xia Dynasty(1036-1227), most of caves were repaired and renovated, and only 10 caves were built because of the limited cliffs. Compared to the Yulin Grottoes at the same time, painting of Dunhuang display the Pure-land Sutra, containing simpler content. Only 27 caves are extant in Yuan times(1227-1372). The murals in Cave 3, however, still remain the Tang and Song techniques, namely using different types of drawing to depict different parts of human figures such as iron-wire lines, orchid-leaf strokes and broken-reef strokes, etc. Since the 15th century, the Mogaoo Grottoes had gradually fallen into neglect in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.(Rong Xinjiang 1999, 248)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty]]====<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> hermit 隐士<br /> <br /> stupas 舍利塔<br /> <br /> Emperor Wuzong 唐武宗<br /> <br /> Vihara 精舍<br /> <br /> Chaitya 支提窟<br /> <br /> stucco 灰泥<br /> <br /> Sakyamuni 释迦牟尼<br /> <br /> Sutras 佛经<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.What do Dunhuang Grottoes refer to?<br /> <br /> 2.Who built the first cave and when?<br /> <br /> 3.In 1900, who found the treasure-house in Mogao Grottoes and what were stored in it?<br /> <br /> 4.How many aspects does the art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of and what are they respectively?<br /> <br /> 5.What are the characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes, so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes.<br /> <br /> 2.According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff.<br /> <br /> 3.On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings.<br /> <br /> 4.The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture.<br /> <br /> 5.The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Fan Jinshi 樊锦诗.(2010). 敦煌石窟 [The Caves of Dunhuang]. Gansu: The Dunhuang Academy敦煌研究院. <br /> <br /> Gao Xiujun 高秀军.(2016). 敦煌莫高窟第55窟研究 [Research on the 55th Grotto of Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang].Lanzhou University兰州大学.<br /> <br /> MA Shichang.(2010).Buddhist Cave-temples and the Cao Family at Mogao Ku, Dunhuang.MA Shichang,27(2),303-317.<br /> <br /> Rong Xinjiang 荣新江. (2010). 敦煌藏经洞的性质及其封闭原因 [The Nature of the Dunhuang Library Cave and the Reasons for Its Sealing]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Sha Wutian 沙武田. (2020). 佛教供养与政治宣传——敦煌莫高窟第156窟供养人画像研究 [Buddhist offerings and Political Propaganda -- A Study on the Portrait of the Patron of the 156th Grottoes in Dunhuang].中原文物 Cultural Relics in Central Plain,No.215,118-128.<br /> <br /> Stein, M. Aurel. Ruins of Desert Cathay.(1912). Personal Narrative of Explorations in Central Asia and Westernmost China, volume 2. London: Macmillan.<br /> <br /> Suemori Kaoru. (2020).&quot;Thousand-Buddha images in Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes: Religious spaces created by polychromatic patterns&quot;. Kyoto: Hozokan. <br /> <br /> DuanWenjie. (1994). Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie. Abhinav Publications. p. 163.<br /> <br /> Whitfield, Roderick and Farrer, Anne, Caves of the Thousand Buddhas. (1990). Chinese Art from the Silk Route, British Museum Publications. P . 5-20.<br /> <br /> https://books.google.ru/books?hl=zh-CN&amp;lr=&amp;id=vYPNqlAMZWAC&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PP7&amp;dq=info:9v6pr21oST8J:scholar.google.com/&amp;ots=s-uXhnyDBp&amp;sig=u3H7MAh_OpGRS6Iwxoqx0rC5_fo&amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false<br /> <br /> https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogao_Caves<br /> <br /> https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=zh-CN&amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;q=mogao+grottoes&amp;oq=<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> <br /> ====Civil Service Examination System====<br /> <br /> --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:27, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> == The Forbidden City Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴 Student No.202070080601==<br /> <br /> ===The Forbidden City===--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 08:30, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====I.Introduction==== <br /> The Forbidden City (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng) is a palace complex in Dongcheng District, Beijing, China, and with a total area of 720,000 square meters (180 acres). It lies in the center of Beijing's central axis. Today, the Forbidden City houses the Palace Museum, and was the former Chinese imperial palace and residence of the Emperor of China from the Ming dynasty (since the Yong Le Emperor) to the end of the Qing dynasty, between 1420 and 1924. The Forbidden City served as the home of Chinese emperors and their households and was the ceremonial and political center of the Chinese government.(Barmé, Geremie R 2018,26)<br /> The Forbidden City is a national AAAAA tourist attraction and was listed as the first batch of key cultural relics under national protection in 1961. What’s more, it was declared a world cultural heritage in 1987, and listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.(UNESCO,2007)<br /> ====[[File:A Panaroma view of the Forbidden City.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A Panaroma view of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====II.The Name of the Forbidden City====<br /> The common English name &quot;Forbidden City&quot; is a translation of the Chinese name Zijin Cheng (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng; English: Purple Forbidden City). The name Zijin Cheng first formally appeared in the period of Jia Jing. (Li Xieping1997, (04)29-31) In ancient China, the planning concept of &quot;harmony between man and nature&quot; was emphasized. The stars in the sky were used to correspond with the capital planning to highlight the legitimacy of the regime and the supremacy of imperial power. “ Zi ”, or &quot;Purple&quot;, refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star, The emperor of heaven lived in Ziwei palace, while the human emperor claimed to be the &quot;son of heaven&quot; who was ordered by heaven. His residence should be a symbol of Ziwei palace to correspond to the heaven emperor. “Jin” means that this splendid palace symbolizes supreme power and status of the royal family. In that case, this palace was forbidden, no one could enter and leave the palace without the emperor’s permission. Cheng means a city. Today, the site is most commonly known in Chinese as Gùgōng (故宫), which means the &quot;Former Palace&quot;. The museum which is based in these buildings is known as the &quot;Palace Museum&quot; (Chinese: 故宫博物院; pinyin: Gùgōng Bówùyùan).<br /> <br /> ====III.The History of the Forbidden City====<br /> <br /> When Hongwu’s son Zhu Di became the Yong Le Emperor, he moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, and construction began in 1406 on what would become the Forbidden City. Construction lasted 14 years and required more than a million workers. From 1420 to 1644, the Forbidden City was the seat of the Ming dynasty. (Yu Zhuoyun1984,18)In April 1644, it was captured by rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. He set fire to parts of the Forbidden City in the process of retreating to Shannxi. By October, the Manchus had achieved supremacy in northern China, and a ceremony was held at the Forbidden City to proclaim the Emperor Shunzhi as ruler of all China under the Qing dynasty. (Guo Moruo 1944,3.14) In the 22nd year of Kangxi's reign (1683), the reconstruction of the rest of the destroyed buildings of the Forbidden City was started, and it was basically completed in 1695.After being the home of 24 emperors – 14 of the Ming dynasty and 10 of the Qing dynasty – the Forbidden City ceased being the political centre of China in 1912 with the abdication of Puyi, the last Emperor of China. In 1933, the Japanese invasion of China forced the evacuation of the national treasures in the Forbidden City. Part of the collection was returned at the end of World War II, but the other part was evacuated to Taiwan in 1948 under orders of Chiang Kai-shek.After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, some damage was done to the Forbidden City as the country was swept up in revolutionary zeal. During the Cultural Revolution, however, further destruction was prevented when Premier Zhou Enlai sent an army battalion to guard the city.( Xie Mengyin&amp;Qu Wanlin2006, 11.7)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====IV.The Structure of the Forbidden City==== <br /> Firstly, The Forbidden City is a rectangle and symmetric in its layout. Its palaces are arranged along a north-south axis, on which the three main halls, the rear three palaces and the imperial garden are all located. This central axis not only runs through the Forbidden City, but also reaches Yongding Gate in the south, Drum Tower and bell tower in the north, and runs through the whole city.(Xie Li 2005,(03)100-102)<br /> Secondly, the Forbidden City is divided into two parts, the Outer Court and Inner Court. The Outer Court is the place where the emperor deals with political affairs. There are mainly three halls: the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony, and the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The Inner Court or Back Palace includes the northern sections, and was the residence of the Emperor and his family, and was used for day-to-day affairs of state. The inner court takes Palace of Heavenly Purity, Hall of Union and Palace of Earthly Tranquility as its center with six palaces in the east and six palaces in the west.<br /> <br /> ====[[File:The layout of the Forbidden City.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The layout of the Forbidden City]]====<br /> <br /> ====VI The Collections of the Forbidden City==== <br /> The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925, whose extensive collection of artwork and artifacts were built upon the imperial collections of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Part of the museum's former collection is now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. Both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.(Li Wei &amp; Wang Shuo 2005,6-22) <br /> The collections of the Palace Museum are based on the Qing imperial collection, including paintings, ceramics, seals, steles, sculptures, inscribed wares, bronze wares, enamel objects, etc. According to latest audit, it has 1,863,404 pieces of art. They are numbered by &quot;Gu&quot;, &quot;Xin&quot; and &quot;Shu&quot;. Except for the ancient books and documents, all the other collections are labeled with &quot;Gu&quot; and &quot;Xin&quot;. The number of ordinary cultural relics begins with the word &quot;Zi&quot;, and the ceramic specimens begin with the word &quot;Biao&quot;. The general catalogue is divided into 25 categories, and the numbers in each category are sorted from small to large. Many collections once lost and was brought to the Palace Museum, For example, Han Banquet map. And there are some exquisite collections like Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer, Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems and Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.(Website:The Collection of the Palace Museum )In addition, The Palace Museum has one of the largest collections of mechanical timepieces of the 18th and 19th centuries in the world, with more than 1,000 pieces. (Meng Fuxia 2012, (21) 73-74)<br /> <br /> ====[[File:Han Banquet map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Han Banquet map]]====<br /> ====[[File:Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance]]====<br /> ====[[File:Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems]]====<br /> ====[[File:Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women]]====<br /> <br /> ====Terms and Expressions==== <br /> palace complex 宫殿群<br /> <br /> central axis 中心轴<br /> <br /> the Palace Museum故宫博物院<br /> <br /> the Yong Le Emperor 永乐皇帝<br /> <br /> key cultural relics under national protection 国家重点文物保护单位<br /> <br /> world cultural heritage 世界文化遗产<br /> <br /> harmony between man and nature 天人合一<br /> <br /> the imperial garden 御花园<br /> <br /> the Hall of Supreme Harmony 太和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Central Harmony 中和殿<br /> <br /> the Hall of Preserving Harmony 保和殿<br /> <br /> Palace of Heavenly Purity (乾清宮)<br /> <br /> Hall of Union 交泰宫<br /> <br /> Palace of Earthly Tranquility 坤宁宫<br /> <br /> Han Banquet map 韩熙载夜宴图<br /> <br /> Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer陶彩绘女舞俑<br /> <br /> Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems十二生肖镜<br /> <br /> Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women画珐琅西洋人物鼻烟壶<br /> <br /> ====Questions====<br /> 1. What’ s the meaning of “Zi” in the Chinese name Zijin Cheng?<br /> <br /> 2. When was the Forbidden City listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.<br /> <br /> 3.How many emperors have been lived in the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 4.How long did it take to build the Forbidden City?<br /> <br /> 5.Why some parts of national treasures are in the National Palace Museum in Taipei now.<br /> <br /> 6. What two parts can the Forbidden City be divided into?<br /> <br /> 7.When was the Palace Museum established?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> 1.“Zi” refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star<br /> <br /> 2.In 1897.<br /> <br /> 3.24 emperors.<br /> <br /> 4.14 years.<br /> <br /> 5.Because both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.<br /> <br /> 6.They are the Outer Court and Inner Court.<br /> <br /> 7.The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Barmé, Geremie R(2008). The Forbidden City. Harvard University Press.26.<br /> <br /> UNESCO(2007). &quot;UNESCO World Heritage List: Imperial Palaces of the Ming and Qing Dynasties in Beijing and Shenyang&quot;.<br /> <br /> Li Xieping 李燮平. (1997) &quot;紫禁城&quot;名称始于何时[When did the name of the Forbidden City come into being?]. 紫禁城Forbidden City, (04) 29-31.<br /> <br /> Yu Zhuoyun(1984), Palaces of the Forbidden City, New York: Viking Press,p18.<br /> <br /> Guo Moruo 郭沫若.(1994) 甲申三百年祭[Commemorating 300th Anniversary of the Jia-Sheng Year]. 新华日报 New China Daily, 3.19.<br /> <br /> Xie Li 谢丽.(2005) 北京中轴线上的十七座门[Seventeen doors on the central axis of Beijing].紫禁城 Forbidden City, (03)100-102.<br /> <br /> Meng Fuxia 孟福霞. (2012)北京故宫空间布局构思探源——论中国古代宫殿建筑的美学精神[On the Origin of the Space Layout of the Palace Museum in Beijing--On the Aesthetic Spirit of Ancient Chinese Palace Architecture]大众文艺Popular Literature and Art, (21) 73-74. <br /> <br /> Li Wei&amp;Wang Shuo 刘薇,王硕.2005故宫文物南迁路线图揭秘[Unveiling the Route Map of the Cultural Relics of the Imperial Palace to the South] 华夏经纬网Jinwei Network, 6.22 http://www.huaxia.com/wh/gjzt/2005/00333230.html <br /> <br /> The Collection of the Palace Museum 故宫博物院馆藏https://www. dpm.org.cn /Home.html<br /> <br /> Xie Mengyin &amp; Qu Wanlin 谢荫明,瞿宛林. (2006) “文化大革命” 中谁保护了故宫 [Who protected the Forbidden City in the Cultural Revolution? ].人民网People’s Daily Online,11,7. http://history.people.com.cn/n/2014/0811/c372327-25441615.html<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Marriage Customs Mo Ling 莫玲 202070080602==<br /> <br /> ===Chinese Marriage Customs===<br /> <br /> China is an ancient country of rites. When it comes to the most important thing in one’s life---marriage, Chinese people have developed a set of unique and grand ceremonies. Generally speaking, weddings in ancient China needed to be approved by parents and arranged by parents.<br /> <br /> ===Six Procedures===<br /> <br /> There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying. Na Cai is the begining of all the marriage procedures. It refers that if a boy intends to marry a girl, firstly his family must invite a matchmaker to the girl's home to propose marriage. After obtaining the consent of the girl's family , the boy's family should entrust the matchmaker to make a proposal formally with some gifts. Usually, the most common gift is wild goose,which represents fidelity. Besides, mandarin ducks, phoenix and sheep are also frequently-used gifts. Wen Ming means that the boy's family ask the matchmaker to fetch the girl's name and date of birth. There are two purposes of this step: the one is to prevent the marriage of close relatives with the same surname; the other is to assure the compatibility of the potential bride and bridegroom through their “eight characters” of the birth moment. Naji happens after the matchmaker takes back the woman's name and eight characters. If divining an auspicious omen, the boy's family will inform it to the girl’s parents and decide to engage the marriage. What is more, Na Zheng is an important step when the boy sends betrothal presents to the girl and for courtesy the girl will send back part of the presents such as food and some clothes. Qing Qi means that the boy's family choose an auspicious day to hold the wedding ceremony and then dispatch the matchmaker to tell the girl’s family. Qin Ying is the last procedure of the six etiquettes, that is, the groom goes to the bride's home to take the bride to his home.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ===Customs===<br /> <br /> In addition to the six steps mentioned above, there are many other customs in the traditional Chinese wedding ceremony. Generally speaking, ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker, many young people could not master their own marriage. Before wedding ceremony, men and women were not allowed to meet each other in that ancient people were very conservative and most girls were kept in boudoirs. If they met in private before marriage, it would be regarded as a kind of female infidelity and parents would also think it quite unlucky. Under this circumstance, newlyweds could only see each other until the day of marriage.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47-48)<br /> <br /> On the wedding day, the boy’s family will hold a big banquet at home. Before setting out to pick up bride, the bridegroom should first worship his ancestors for the sake of safety and auspice during the process of picking up the bride. After that, the following step is the most grand one among the whole ceremony --- at the dusk moment, the groom and the bride, his parents as well as all the guests will gather together at the central room to witness the kneeling etiquettes of the couple, which consists of 4 steps: The first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber : the bride will be sent into the bridal chamber and the groom will drink with guests until night.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> After wedding ceremony, the couple must return to the girl’s home together at the third day, which is called “Huimen” or “Guiling”. This etiquette is indispensable. The groom should take some gifts for respect and change the way that he calls the bride’s parents, and the latter will also prepare a good meal for the couple’s coming.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)<br /> <br /> ===Development===<br /> <br /> As time goes by, there are many reforms about marriage right now. Adults own the freedom to choose their spouse and they can meet each other every day if possible. Parents can’t master their “life event” any more.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47) In addition, many couples skip the cumbersome rites in the wedding ceremony. Some of them choose to hold the ceremony in the church with some close relatives and friends and some even finish it through travel.(Zhou Dandi &amp; Yue Shufa 2012,15)Nevertheless, most young people still adopt the main procedures of the traditional Chinese customs, some of which are handed down until right now. There still exist betrothal gifts and dowry, and many couples choose to wear red costumes. The groom should go to the bride’s home to escort her to the wedding and so on. Thus it can be seen that most traditional Chinese marriage customs are deep rooted in the hearts of Chinese people and shows a unique Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Gao Xiaoqian. 高筱倩.(2017) 中国传统婚嫁习俗研究［The Research on Traditional Chinese Marriage Customs］戏剧之家[Drama House] 235.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yueyong. 张月莹.(2013) 中国近代婚嫁礼俗及婚姻观念转变的探索[A Study on the Change of Marriage customs and Marriage Concepts in Modern China] 松州学刊［Songzhou Academic Journal］ 47-48.<br /> <br /> Zhou Dandi, Yue Shufa. 周丹迪, 岳书法.(2012) 浅析近代以来中国婚嫁民俗的演变[On the evolution of Chinese marriage customs since modern times] 文化学刊[Cultural Academic Journal] 15.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> <br /> Na Cai 纳彩 <br /> <br /> Wen Ming 问名<br /> <br /> Na Ji 纳吉 <br /> <br /> Na Zheng 纳征<br /> <br /> Qing Qi 纳征 <br /> <br /> Qin Ying 亲迎<br /> <br /> Huimen 回门 <br /> <br /> Guiling 归宁 <br /> <br /> betrothal presents 彩礼<br /> <br /> the central room 堂屋<br /> <br /> bridal chamber 婚房<br /> <br /> “eight characters” of the birth moment 生辰八字<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.How many procedures are needed from the negotiation to the completion of marriage?<br /> <br /> 2.Did the ancient young people have the rights to decide their own marriage or not and why?<br /> <br /> 3.What is the kneeling etiquettes?<br /> <br /> 4.When the couple have to return to the girl’s home?<br /> <br /> 5.What changes have been made nowadays?<br /> <br /> 6.Please list some new wedding customs.<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying.<br /> <br /> 2.No, they didn’t have the right to decide their own marriage because ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker.<br /> <br /> 3.It consists of 4 steps: the first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber.<br /> <br /> 4.At the third day of the wedding ceremony.<br /> <br /> 5.Adults can choose their spouse by themselves and they can meet each other whenever they want; Some couples choose to hold the ceremony in the church some even finish it through travel, etc.<br /> <br /> 6.Examples:couple can choose to live in the either part of the two families; wedding ceremony can be hold in hotel; the bride can wear white wedding dress rather than the single red in the ancient time.<br /> <br /> ==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br /> <br /> ====Topic: Chinese cinema (dramas and movies) and its popularity and affection in Vietnam====<br /> <br /> ==Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac - Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 202070080603==<br /> <br /> ===Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac===<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:oyltacz.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]2020 is the year of rat according to the Chinese zodiac which consists of twelve animals used by people to name years. The traditional Chinese <br /> zodiac has been passed down for more than 2200 years since its origin before 221 B.C. when the first Dynasty of Qin ( 221 B.C. to 207 B.C.) was <br /> established. The twelve zodiac signs are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig, which are assigned in a <br /> repeating 12-year cycle. This traditional Chinese scheme was originated from China and then has enjoyed a popularity in many other Asian countries. <br /> With its cultural connotation and time-honored impact, the Chinese zodiac have been engraved in every Chinese people. <br /> <br /> ====Origin====<br /> <br /> Regarding the origin of the Chinese zodiac, there are various opinions but many of them are presented with no sufficient evidence. There are many myths explaining these animal signs and their arrangement. Among them the most enduring one is the Great Race. In this story, the Jade Emperor, Ruler of the Heavens, wanted to devise a way to measure time, so he organized a race. At the end, the first twelve animals who made it across the river were the winners and so they earned themselves a spot on the zodiac calender in the order they arrived. Besides this folk story, some scholars claim the zodiac scheme was indeed derived from the Twelve Earthly Branches but did not occur at the same time while the Earthly Branches appeared. Since the Han Dynasty, the Earthly Branches have been used to record the time of day. Therefore some hold until that time, the 12 zodiac came into being as a supplementary to refer to the 12 periods of 24 hours. Since the original meaning of the Earthly Branches at that time was obliterated due to the passage of time, the ancient Chinese attached the Earthly Branches and the Ten Heavenly Stems to the zodiac. There also stands an opinion that the zodiac signs were originated from the totem worship in the primitive society. According to some research on the origin of Chinese zodiac, there were only twelve earliest surnames in ancient China, which were derived from the names of the twelve animals in the Chinese zodiac scheme. Here the twelve animals refer to the totems at ancient times and different surname tribes use different animals as their totems. Therefore, the twelve animals of Chinese zodiac was developed from the totems of ancient tribes.<br /> <br /> ====Folk Culture and Belief ====<br /> <br /> The zodiac sign not only can reveal one’s age, but also represents his or her personality, career prospects and way of life according to Chinese superstition. <br /> <br /> The Chinese seem to believe that they have some affinity with the animals of the years in which they were born and that their personal traits and fortunes come under their mysterious influence. Zodiac animals are deemed to have certain advantages and disadvantages. For example, people born in the years of rat are smart, adaptable, and have the will to fight, but, on the other hand, they are so over-ambitious and easy to fail. And if you are born in the years of ox, you are deemed to be humble and likely to be someone who always put their families first but also dedicate time to their career. <br /> <br /> Besides, since the zodiac is determined by the year of birth, there are many implications of one’s birth year. For example, some zodiacal preferences prevail in Chinese population. Chinese have always had a strong affection for the Dragon, so married couples prefer to give births in the Year of Dragon. Since dragon is regarded as the auspicious and divine creatures, the children born in these years of dragon are believed to have fortune. These cultural preferences and folk beliefs have influenced prospective parents’ reproductive behavior in the Chinese society.<br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese people believe certain animals get on better than the others, so the zodiac has had a great impact on marriage as well. Specifically, people who is born in the Year of Tiger would have perfect romance with Pigs, Rabbit with Dogs and Dragon with Roosters. On the contrary, some zodiac signs are believed to have misfortune if they are married with people of certain zodiac. As the Chinese idiom goes, if a dragon and a tiger fight each other, there will be one injured. This old says reflects that dragon and tiger are natural enemies according to the belief. And this is the reason why men and women would like to evaluate their Bazi, the Eight Characters, before they get married. However, in reality, personality is related to one’s experience through the life journey rather than the pre-written zodiac signs. People born in the same year would have very distinctive personalities. Similarly, the destiny is also a result of people’s character and most decisions they’ll be making along the way. Of course the marriage is a more complex thing that cannot be deemed to have a pre-given outcome brought by the zodiac. <br /> <br /> ====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Chinese zodiac is a complex scheme which combines the traditional Chinese astrology in it. Based on the Five Elements theory, Yin and Yang system and Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches system, the traditional scheme have developed a profound connotation and implications through generation. Over thousands of years, this popular culture has affected people’s major decisions in naming, marriage, giving birth and attitude towards each other. But people have to consider zodiac in a rational and scientific way. Perhaps the zodiac may help us to understand what we’re given, but it cannot determine our destiny. We should treat it as the precious cultural heritage and explore the profound culture and historical traces embodied in it.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Paul Yip, Joseph Lee, Y.B Cheung.(2002).The influence of the Chinese zodiac on fertility in Hong Kong SAR. ''Social Science &amp; Medicine'', Volume 55, Issue 10, 1803-1812.<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions=== <br /> <br /> Jade Emperor 玉皇大帝<br /> <br /> Ten Heavenly Stems 十天干<br /> <br /> Twelve Earthly Branches 十二地支<br /> <br /> Eight Characters 八字<br /> <br /> Five Elements 五行<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> <br /> 1.How long is the history of Chinese zodiac?<br /> <br /> 2.What are the twelve zodiac signs in order? <br /> <br /> 3.From what time the Earthly Branches was used to record time?<br /> <br /> 4.According to Chinese folk belief, what kind of characteristics do people born in year of rat have?<br /> <br /> 5.Which zodiac animal is mostly praised in China?<br /> <br /> 6.Can you name some pairs of zodiac animal that get along well with each other according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> 7.Which pair of animals that are natural enemies according to Chinese folk culture?<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> <br /> 1.More than 2200 years.<br /> <br /> 2.Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig.<br /> <br /> 3.Han Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 4.They are smart, adaptable, and have the will to fight, but, on the other hand, they are so over-ambitious and easy to fail.<br /> <br /> 5.Dragon.<br /> <br /> 6.Tiger and pig, rabbit and dog and dragon and rooster. <br /> <br /> 7.Dragon and tiger.<br /> <br /> ==Lisu People and Daogan Festival of Lisu Ethnic Minority Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏 Student No.202070080641==<br /> --[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 08:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Lisu people and Daogan festival====<br /> <br /> The Lisu people are a Tibeto-Burman ethnic group who inhabit mountainous regions of Myanmar (Burma), southwest China, Thailand, and the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh.<br /> <br /> [[File:Example1.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br /> <br /> About 730,000 Lisu live in Lijiang, Baoshan, Nujiang, Diqing and Dehong prefectures in Yunnan Province and Sichuan Province, China. The Lisu form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by China. In Myanmar, the Lisu are recognized as one of 135 ethnic groups and an estimated population of 600,000. Lisu live in the north of the country; Kachin State (Putao, Myitkyina, Danai, Waingmaw, Bhamo), Shan State, (Momeik), (Namhsan, Lashio, Hopang, and Kokang) and southern Shan State (Namsang, Loilem, Mongton) and, Sagaing Division (Katha and Khamti), Mandalay Division (Mogok and Pyin Oo Lwin). Approximately 55,000 live in Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. They mainly inhabit remote mountainous areas.[2]<br /> <br /> The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans. Each family clan has its own name or surname. The biggest family clans well known among the tribe clans are Laemae pha, Bya pha, Thorne pha, Ngwa Pha (Ngwazah), Naw pha, Seu pha, Khaw pha. Most of the family names came from their own work as hunters in the primitive time. However, later, they adopted many Chinese family names. Their culture has traits shared with the Yi people or Nuosu (Lolo) culture.<br /> <br /> Daogan Festival (刀杆节) is a traditional festival of Lisu ethnic groups living in Lushui County(泸水县), Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture(怒江傈僳族自治州).Due to the death of the old artists, they were once lost in Nujiang Prefecture and recovered in recent years. They are mainly distributed in Luzhang Village(鲁掌镇), Luzu Village(鲁祖村) and Loma Village(洛玛村) of Lushui County(泸水县).<br /> <br /> ====Legend====<br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, when the people who is not in the same clan of feudal China invaded the frontier in Yunnan, The King dispatched Wang Ji(王骥), the Ministry of War in feudal China, to take troops to resist the enemy. Wang Ji fought in unity with the local Lisu ethnic groups and soon expelled the invaders. Later, Wang Ji was murdered by a traitor. In order to commemorate Wang Ji’s great achievements and pray sacrifices to the souls of the brave soldiers who died bravely to defend the frontier, Lisu ethnic groups held the activities of Going up to Daoshan and Going down to Sea of Fire(上刀山,下火海), and designated the fifteenth day of the first lunar month of each year as Daogan Festival.<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Going up to Daoshan and Going down to the Sea of Fire is the main custom performance activity of Daogan Festival, which reproduces the life experience of people who live in mountain crossing mountains, as well as the arduous spirit and skills of climbing mountain.<br /> <br /> ====Performing====<br /> <br /> Use pine tree as tool pole, iron knife as tool ladder, wrinkle paper as flower, and bamboo as flower stick.When Going up to Daoshan and Going down to the sea of fire, we play with cowhide drums(鼓), gongs(锣), hairpins(钗), suonas(唢呐) and other musical instruments under the knife pole. There are strict procedures and sacrificial ceremonies from flower-lighting(点花), knife-pointing(点刀), knife-playing(耍刀), knife-piercing(扎刀), flower-greeting(迎花), altar-setting(设坛), knife pole(祭刀杆), vertical pole(竖杆), dragon-sacrificing(祭龙), knife-mounting(上刀) and knife-disassembling(拆刀) to the sea of fire. Knife pole is commonly known as gold pillar, silver pillar or male pillar, mother pillar, respectively, representing the deceased and the living. Thirty-six long sharp knives, representing 365 days a year, are tied on both sides of the knife ladder with paper flowers made of five-color paper.<br /> After the knife pole is tied up, Xiangtong /香通(sorcerer) recites words in his mouth and performs knife dance in drum music. After the knife dance, in the sound of Suona and gongs and drums, the knife-bearer grasps the knife edge with both hands, treads barefoot on the knife edge and climbs up. When he reaches the top through three scissors, the knife-bearer opens the sky lock(天锁), takes out the grains and flowers and spreads them to the boiling crowd, and puts the red silk ribbon ,which is on the colored door, on his body, he sang the old prayer song, then,he came down from the knife pole in turn. After that, he stepped barefoot into the burning charcoal fire, licked the burning plough with the tip of his tongue, and bit the burning iron chain with his teeth, which showed the Lisu ethnic national spirit and superb performance skills.<br /> --[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 04:06, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br /> Chinese Clothing== Phyo, Su Kyi, Student No-20191108000<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> <br /> Chinese Clothing has many ethnic groups with a long history while Han people dominate most periods in history. For thousands of years, generations of clothing designers have devoted themselves to building the Kingdom of Clothes, making the garments that cover the human body into an important component of Chinese culture. The progress of nation can be seen through its changes in clothing styles.Clothing manufacture in China dates back to prehistoric times, at least 7,000years ago. Archaeological findings of 18,000 years-old artifacts such as bone sewing needles and stone beads and shells with holes bored in them attest to the existence of ornamentation and of sewing extremely early in Chinese civilization. (www.topchinatravel. com, 2004)<br /> <br /> Chinese clothing has undergone continuous transformations throughout history,providing a reflection of the culture in place at any given time. A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry, and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive Chinese fashions through the ages. This illustrated introductory survey takes the reader through traditional Chinese clothing,ornamentation,and ceremonial wear, and discusses the importance of silk and the diverse costumes of China's ethnic groups before considering modern trends and China's place in the fashion world today.(Mei Hua-2010-page-1)<br /> <br /> A-Chinese traditional clothing<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional clothing contains rich cultural connotations.Today, after the reform and opening up, the clothing industry has developed vigorously. People gradually start pay attention to the local clothing culture, and pursue cultural connotation contained in clothing. For modern designers, the traditional clothing and its cultural background are their creation inspirations during creation phases,and they are also one of the expressive elements preferred by designers at home and abroad. Inheriting traditional clothing culture not only means that it needs us to turn the traditional clothing elements into a symbol, but also needs us to further understand the background and connotations of traditional clothing culture. The work of design without culture is like a gorgeous shell that can't stand the test of history. Only by grasping the inner spirit of traditional clothing culture, abandoning simple piled up work and patch-up work without connotation and learning the modern expressive methods of traditional clothing elements, one can design out the works which can touch people's heartstrings. (Jiangsu,2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Traditional clothing is the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics. Traditional clothing mutually integrates its unique style, comfortable fabric, bright colors,rich designs and exquisite craft elements to bring people impulsive feelings with visual communication. Traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics enjoys its unique artistic features in the style, color,fabrics,decoration and craft, ect. They are profoundly influenced by Chinese traditional culture ideas in the process of their formation and development and finally condensed into the national culture bearing Chinese culture features. These elements are the source of our inspiration in contemporary clothing design, and the use of these Chinese elements can help people to design out the clothing Chinese style.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-2)<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional culture is an indispensable source of inspiration in fashion design. Putting the traditional elements into fashion design not only helps the native culture to extend itself, but also greatly promotes the culture exchanges in nationalities. Therefore, we should advocate the national advanced culture,make the Chinese traditional culture achieve the development in the clothing design, use the common language to express Chinese traditional culture essence, and integrate Chinese traditional element symbol into the spiritual elements of fashion design to make the national culture spirit and the language of the world integrate into the mainstream of modern clothing design.(Jiangsu,2016, page -3)<br /> <br /> ==Traditional Han Chinese Clothing (Han Fu):It refers to the attire worn byvthe Han people from the enthronement of the Yellow Emperor(about 2698BC) till the late Ming Dynasty (1368-1644AD).It became known as the Han Fu(fu means 'clothes&quot; in Chinese)because the fashion was improved and popularized during the Han Dynasty. It is usually in the from of long gown,cross collar, wrapping the right lapel over the left, loose wide sleeves and no buttons but a sash. Although simple in design, it gives different feelings to different wearers.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019-Aug-2)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Suit(Tang Zhuang):It is a combination of the Manchu male jacket ofvthe Qing Dynasty and the western style suit. It is usually straight collared,with coiled buttons down the front. Its color and design are in traditional Chinese style but tailoring is western.(www.topchinatravel. com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> ==Cheongsam(Qi Pao):Originated from the Manchu female clothes, it evolved by merging with western patterns that show off the beauty of a female body. Its features are straight collar, strain on the waist,coiled buttons and slits on both sides ofvthe dress. Materials used are usually silk, cotton and linen.Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire in the world today.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019,Aug-2.)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Tunic Suit(Zhongshan Zhuang) :Also called the Yat-sen Suit , it is designed by Dr.Sun Yat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire. It has a turn-down collar and four pockets with flaps. As Chairman Mao Zedong worn it quite frequently, it is also called the Mao Suit by westerners. It is the main attire from the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 till 1980,s. The country's leaders still wear it today when attending important occasions, such as military parades.(www.topchinatravel. com,2016,Auge-2.)<br /> <br /> B-Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements<br /> <br /> There are many old stories in ancient Chinese civilization, and Chinese traditional elements come up with the tenacity of the Chinese nations long history. Different times has their unique cultural connotations and form elements,which include Chinese architecture, costumes, traditional Chinese painting and folk art etc., and those cultural connotations and form elements are precious heritage that the ancestors leave to their off-springs. The change of dynasties in the history of our country lead to changes of cultural centers, which finally lead to the appearance Chinese traditional elements with different representative features in each historical periods, nations and regions. These elements include: Chinese silk ,cloth of brocade, hemp,blue printed fabric; chirpaur, Chinese -style chest covering, Chinese tunic suit, collar,surplice, mandarin and split etc.; colorful ethnic colors: such as bright red,green,yellow and blueetc.;Neolithic patterns, bronze patterns in Shang and Chou dynasties, ancient lacquer were pattern in Qin and Han dynasties, Buddhism patterns in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties and traditional decorative patterns in Tang,Sing and Qing dynasties. The essence of Chinese traditional culture which bear the role of inheriting national culture, and is the unique and external characteristic of Chinese nation.(Jiangsu,2016, page-3)<br /> <br /> Trems and Expressions<br /> <br /> 历史-history, <br /> <br /> 期-period, <br /> <br /> 世代-generations, <br /> <br /> 服装-clothing, <br /> <br /> 设计师-designers , <br /> <br /> 装饰-ornamentation<br /> <br /> 中国服饰- Chinese clothing<br /> <br /> 服饰-Costumes <br /> <br /> 传统服装-Traditional clothing<br /> <br /> 服装设计-Clothing design<br /> <br /> 时尚设计-Fashion design <br /> <br /> 几代服装设计师-Generations of clothing designers <br /> <br /> 中国西装-Chinese Suit<br /> <br /> 旗袍-Cheongsam<br /> <br /> 中山装-Chinese Tunic Suit <br /> <br /> 中国传统元素-Chinese traditional elements <br /> <br /> ===Questions ===<br /> <br /> 1-What’s archaeological findings in Chinese fashions through the ages?<br /> <br /> 2-What's Traditional Clothing?<br /> <br /> 3-What's Traditional culture indispensable?<br /> <br /> 4-How is means Han Fu?<br /> <br /> 5-What's the popular Chinese attire?<br /> <br /> 6-How called was Chinese Tunic Suit?<br /> <br /> 7-What'are include Chinese traditional elements? <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 04:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Answers===<br /> 1- A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry,<br /> and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive chinese fanshions through the ages.<br /> <br /> 2-Traditional clothingis the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing<br /> culture with Chinese characteristics.<br /> <br /> 3-Chineset traditional culture is an indispensablevsource of inspirationin fashion<br /> design.<br /> <br /> 4-Han Fu is fu means clothes in Chinese. <br /> <br /> 5-Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire inthe world today.<br /> <br /> 6-It is also called the Yat-sen Suit,it is designed byDr.SunYat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire.<br /> <br /> 7-Chinese traditional elements include: Chinese silk,cloth of brocade, hemp, blue printed fabric.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 11:56, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> 1.Jiangsu.“Influences of Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements on Modern Clothing Design”,<br /> <br /> Nanjing University of Finance and Economics,Soochow University,Published by Atlantic Press,2016.<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.Mei Hua, `Chinese Clothing´, Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building,Cambridge CB28RU,UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press,NewYork<br /> www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title:www.cambridge.org/9780521186896<br /> Originally published byChina Intercontinental Press as Cinese Clothing(9787508516615)in2010©ChinaIntercontinentalPress2010<br /> <br /> 3.https://www.topchinatravel.com/china-guide/history-of-chinese-clothing.htm<br /> <br /> 4.https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/clothing/--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 10:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br /> Chinese traditional dance--[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 02:46, 12 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br /> Chinese Traditional women clothing<br /> 1- History of Chinese clothing<br /> History of Chinese clothing China has many ethnic groups with a long history while Han people dominate most periods in history. For thousands of years, generations of clothing designers have devoted themselves to building the Kingdom of Clothes, making the garments that cover the human body into an important component of Chinese culture. The progress of nation can be seen through its changes in clothing styles.Clothing manufacture in China dates back to prehistoric times, at least 7,000 years ago. Archaeological findings of 18,000 year-old artifacts such as bone sewing needles and stone beads and shells with holes bored in them attest to the existence of ornamentation and of sewing extremely early in Chinese civilization.<br /> A- Chinese Clothing during Qin and Han Dynasties (221 B.C - 220 A.D)<br /> The Qin and Han dynasties (221 B.C. - A.D. 220) witnessed the unification of territory as well as written language. Qin Shihuang, the First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty, established many social systems, including one for uniforms to distinguish people's ranks and social positions. China's complete code of costume and trappings was established in the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD). The yarn-dyeing, embroidering and metal-processing technologies developed rapidly in the period, spurring changes in costume and adornments.<br /> B-Chinese Clothing during Wei,Jin, South and North Dynasties(220-589)<br /> Chinese clothing experienced a rapid development during the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern dynasties (220-589). Before 265, the cultures and esthetic views of the peoples in north and south China merged because of the moves initiated by frequent wars. Many philosophical schools of thought influenced both people's lives and the conceptions of clothing design.<br /> C- Chinese Clothing during Tang Dynasty(618-907)<br /> The Tang Dynasty (618-907) wrote the most brilliant page in the history of Chinese clothing. People's clothes were more varied than before because the state was more open to the outside world and people became more cosmopolitan in their thinking. The clothes for women could be called fashionable because they changed rapidly and were showy. Once only a new style came out, many people would be willing to take it.<br /> D-Chinese Clothing during Song, Yuan, Ming Dynasties<br /> Casual wear appeared during the Song Dynasty (960-1279), and clothes were simple and elegant.During the Yuan Dynasty (1206-1368), the Mongolian ethnic group, known as the People on Horseback, was in power. The style of clothing was mainly a combination of Mongolian and Han. Clothes were luxurious for upper class yet simple and unadorned in design.Dramatic changes took place during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). A new conception came into being in clothing design, with no limitation to one style and advocating natural beauty, thus bringing vigor and vitality to the clothing culture.<br /> E- Chinese Clothing during Qing Dynasty<br /> During the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), clothes became elegant, poised, and glorious. During the 200 years of the Qing Empire, the entire world witnessed dramatic changes such as the Renaissance in Italy and Columbus's discovery of the Americas, but the changes did not affect traditional Chinese clothing because China had a closed-door policy. People still wore clothes showing rank and lifestyle. The retreat from outside cultures has left a precious heritage for traditional Chinese clothes.<br /> F-Chinese Clothing from 1930s till Modern Era<br /> Chinese clothing from 1930s till now, Qipao has become into fashion since then. During 1930s to 1940s, dress is further westernized, tailored to flatter body shape. During 1940s to 1960s, Qipao(Cheongsam) survives as everyday wear in Hong Kong until the late 1960s. <br /> <br /> Terms and Expressions <br /> Questions <br /> References.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 17:37, 25 November 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> Chinese wine culture--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 08:28, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Rajabov, Anushervon==<br /> <br /> ===China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH)===<br /> <br /> China Railway High-Speed ​​(CRH) is a high-speed rail service operated by the China Railway. The introduction of the CRH series was an important part of the 6th National Rail Acceleration, which took place on April 18, 2007. By the end of 2018, China Railway High Speed ​​served all provinces in China except Taiwan and covered over 29,000 km. (18,000 miles) the length of passenger routes, which make up about two-thirds of the world's high-speed rail routes served by commercial enterprises. It is the most widely used rail transport in the world, with 1.713 billion flights in 2017, bringing the total cumulative number of flights to 7 billion. More than 1000 sets of rolling stock are operated under the CRH brand, including the Hexie CRH1 / 2A / 5, which are rated for a top speed of 250 km / h (160 mph), and the CRH2C / 3 has a top speed of 350 km / h. ( 220 mph). The in-house developed CRH380A has a maximum test speed of 416.6 km / h (258.9 mph) at a commercial speed of 350 km / h.The fastest CRH380BL train reaches a maximum test speed of 487.3 km / h (302.8 mph) ). In 2017, China Standardized EMU brand, including CR400AF / BF and CR200J, joined China Railway High Speed ​​and is designated Fuxing along with the letters CR (China Railway). With gradual planning, the CR brand will replace the existing CRH brand in service. Depending on the speed, there are 3 categories of high-speed trains: G, D and C (G and some C are the fastest at 350 km / h, D at 250 km / h and C at 200 km / h). <br /> High speed rail network. <br /> High speed rail services were first introduced in 2007 on CRH rolling stock. They operate on existing lines that have been upgraded to speeds of up to 250 km / h (160 mph), and on newer dedicated high-speed routes rated up to 350 km / h (220 mph). <br /> CRH service on dedicated high-speed lines<br /> <br /> ===Answers===<br /> ===References===<br /> ==Language, The Chinese Language - Seydou, Sagara, student no. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''no. missing'''&lt;/span&gt; ==<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Chinese is a very big country with large population. Each may have its own lingo, or dialects. There are great differences between these dialects. If people in different places use their dialects to talk, they may not be able to understand each, and the situation may lead to embarrassment and understanding. Therefore, the Chinese people communicate with each other in a common language, Putonghua, also known as Mandarin in Western countries.<br /> Putonghua is the modern standard Chinese language with the Beijing pronunciation as its standard pronunciation, the northern dialect (also known as Mandarin, the official language in the past) as its basic dialect, and the modern vernacular as its grammatical norm.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> Therefore, the northern dialect sounds more like Putonghua than other dialects. Putonghua is a standardized language, which is legally used all over the country. In 2000, the law of the People’s Republic of China on common languages and characters established the legal status of Putonghua and standardized Chinese Characters as the national language and writing system. Putonghua is also one of the six working language of the United Nation and an important means of communication between China and foreign countries.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> According to statistics, in 2015, 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, but there were still about 400 million people who spoke dialects or minority languages. Article 19 of the constitution of the People’s Republic of China stipulates that ‘’ Putonghua is widely used by the state ‘’&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;, and the third week of September is the national Putonghua Publicity week. We often hear some sayings like this: ‘’ Learn Putonghua well and you will have friend all over the world.’’&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> Chinese dialects are usually divided into seven groups: northern dialect Wu dialect, Hunan dialect, Jiangxi dialect, Hakka dialect, and Cantonese dialect and Fujian dialect. Most northern are close to Putonghua and easy to understand a non-native speaker.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> The dialects in China differ greatly. Speaking Putonghua allows the Chinese people to communicate better with each other and promote the development of economy and culture everywhere. However, the promotion of Putonghua cannot be achieved in a short time. The Chinese government plans to enable more than 80% of Chinese people to speak Putonghua by 2020.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> Only by learning Putonghua can you communicate with people from all parts of China and event with Chinese –speaking people all over the world. While striving to promote Putonghua among the people of the whole country, China also pays special attention to the protection of dialects, which should not be lost after learning Putonghua.&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> --[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 14:09, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> --[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 02:24, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1 Putonghua and Dialects===<br /> &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Text missing.'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> ===2 Ancient Chinese and Modern Chinese ===<br /> &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Text missing.'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ===3 Idiomatic Phrases - Idioms, Common Sayings, and Allegorical Sayings===<br /> &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Text missing.'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ===4 Language Policy===<br /> &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Text missing.'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Text missing.'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Terms and Expressions===<br /> &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Text missing.'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Questions===<br /> &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;'''Text missing.'''&lt;/span&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Answers===</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5&diff=109652 2020-12-10T10:45:40Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602 */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第五部分(Part 5)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Thoughts'''=<br /> ==A Study on Creative Treason of Literature Translation - 李玉 Li Yu==<br /> ==On the Analysis of Three Kinds of Beauty in ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence-林敏 Lin Min 202020080616==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;林敏 Lin Min &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation, aiming to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language in a translation. Xu Yuanchong introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties” principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book, he said that the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem. This thesis is going to use such two theories to compare and analyze the two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond in our nation --Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version with some typical and representative examples, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.This thesis is divided into five parts: the first part roughly describes the purpose, method and significant of the study; the second part introduces the general idea and two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond; The third part introduces two translation theories functional equivalence and three beauty principle; the fourth part, some typical examples are selected and two theories are used to compare study the two versions. The fifth part summarizes the whole thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Functional Equivalence, Three Kinds of Beauty<br /> <br /> === 题目===<br /> 功能对等理论指导下《荷塘月色》英译本“三美”的传达<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 功能对等论是翻译理论中最重要的理论之一。功能对等论的目的是实现源语和目标语之间的功能对等。许渊冲在《毛泽东诗词四十二首》序言中提出的译诗的“三美”原则，即音美，意美和形美。本篇文章将利用这两个基本原则，通过一些有代表性的例子对译本进行比较学习，学习研究两篇文章是否符合功能对等。本篇论文共分为五部分，第一部分介绍了本研究的目的、意义和方法；第二部分介绍了《荷塘月色》的大意和两个英译本；第三部分对两个翻译原则：功能对等论和“三美”原则做了简要地介绍；第四部分选取了有代表性的例子，运用了两个理论对两译本进行了对比学习；第五部分对全文进行了总结。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 功能对等论，三美原则<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> With the advent of globalization as well as the development of Chinese economy, more and more Chinese literary works have been introduced abroad. Prose is one of the important part of China’s literature.However there is still not enough attention to the introduction of Chinese prose, especially Chinese modern prose. <br /> <br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''，the well-known lyric prose, written by the famous author Zhu Ziqing, has made a huge influence on the development of Chinese prose. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer's depressing mood. For this prose is a typical example of Chinese modern prose, many translators have given their translations of it, such as Zhu Chunshen, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang, Li Ming and Wang Jiaosheng. A large number of scholars have analyzed its different versions making great contribution to the prose translating. <br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation. Functional equivalence theory introduced by Nida, refers to the fact that the translation does not take rigid correspondence between words and structures as the standard, but aims to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language. The theory emphasizes that“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。<br /> <br /> Here, this paper selects This thesis selects two of the most famous English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen's version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, to compare and study, based on Xu Yuanchong's “Three Beauty” principle under the guidance of functional equivalence. This thesis will compare and analyze the two English versions, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> === 2. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' and Its English Versions ===<br /> Before comparing and analyzing the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' , we need learn some necessary information about the author who wrote it and the relatively background. At present, the two famous English versions are Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version .<br /> <br /> ====2.1 ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is the classical of lyric prose written by Zhu Ziqing in Tsinghua University, Beijing on July 1927，which depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer’s depressing mood. It was published in the Novel Monthly, one of the new literary journals which enjoys the reputation of “the first journal in the China’s literary world” in the 1920s.（Han,2018 ）Since it was published, the article has received both high praise and fierce criticism. From this perspective, it has witnessed the history of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> In this prose, the author is sleepless and sits in his yard to enjoy the cool in the evening. Suddenly, it occurred to his mind that the lotus pond where he passes every day and the pond must be different at night with the moonlight. So, the author wandered lonely on a cinder footpath around the lotus pond, he feels that he is a “free man”. As he sees the pond cover with trim lotus leaves and white lotus flowers, hearing the sounds of the cicadas and the frogs, Zhu thinks that “this animation was theirs alone, I had no part in it（Yang ,1990 ）.”<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Two English Versions ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is one of Zhu Ziqing’s masterpieces and was selected into Chinese textbook. Most scholars say that the prose is “文质相称，形神俱美” which has attracted an amount of scholars and students.（Chen ,2018）The prose has been introduced to foreign countries in different languages, especially in English since the May 4th Movement. The notable translations include Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, Li Ming’s version and Wang Jiaosheng’s version. This thesis choices Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version. Both Zhu ’s version and Yang’s version are faithful to the original meaning and concise to the sentence structure and close to the original style. But Zhu prefer to employ literal translation and Yang uses the free translation, like the words “热闹” ,“冷静”, “群居”and “独处”, Zhu translated these as “a serene and peaceful life”,“a busy and active one”, “being in solitude” and “in company”, in contrast Yang’s translation is “excitement and stillness”.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Basis of Theory ===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Functional Equivalence Theory ====<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Three Kinds of Beauty =====<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===4. On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence ===<br /> Zhu Ziqing used a large number of rhetorical devices and reduplicated words to describe the beauty of the lotus pond under the moonlight at night, to express his gloomy and upset mood, which brings great difficulty to translation, in his famous prose--''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. This part is aimed at using the functional equivalence theory and Xu Yuanchong’s theory of “Three Beauties” to analyze wheatear the two English versions of such prose achieving the degree of function equivalance.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 ====<br /> Words are the basic meaning of sentences. G •Leech divided “meaning” into two categories: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(Leech,1987) The conceptual meaning is the meaning that we can find in dictionary, and the associative meaning is the actually meaning of the word in the special context. It is a truly universal acknowledge that the meaning of the sentence is not simple addition of word meaning. Thus, the translator should find the conceptual meaning and the associative meaning of the original, especially the associative meaning. Here are some typical examples:<br /> <br /> Example 1: “这几天心里颇不宁静。”（Zhu Ziqing , 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu ’s version: “I have felt quite upset recently.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang ’s version: “The last few days have found me very restless.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> This sentence is the first sentence in the first paragraph. Here “不宁静” refers to “quite uncomfortable”, which can be translated as “upset, restless, untranquil, disquieting and so on”. However, considering Zhu Ziqing’s patriotic feeling and his responsibility for his wife and kid, he cannot devote his whole life to the great revolution. Therefore “不宁静” in the context means the author is anxiety, because he want to change his condition. Zhu Chunshen translated it as“upset”which means“unhappy or disappointed because of something unpleasant that has happened”in the ''OED'', which emphasized the unhappy mood. And Yang Xianyi employed it as “restless”, which means “unable to stay still or happy where you are, because you are bored or need a change ” in the ''OED'', which stressed on one needing a change. It is clear that the word “restless” is more exactly than the word “quiet” in this sentence.<br /> <br /> However,“宁静”has an end rhyme“ing”and neither“upset”in Zhu’s translation nor“restless”in Yang’s version opted the words with the same end rhyme for they both focused on the meaning. And such sentence in original text is a 9 characters short sentence with no subject, Yang translated it into 9 words,used the“the last few day”as the subject, while Zhu’s version only has 6 words and selected “I” as the subject. Therefore, Yang’s version is expressive to the original in this sentence and it retains the beauties of form and sense in this sentence at the same time. In short, the two versions are good translation, but the Yang’s version is much better from this point. <br /> <br /> Example 2“这是一条幽僻的路；白天也少人走，夜晚更加寂寞。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: It is peaceful and secluded here, a place not frequented by pedestrians even in the daytime; now at night, it looks more solitary......”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “It is off the beaten track and few pass this way even by day, so at night it is still more quiet.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> The word “幽僻” means “安静和人迹罕至” here. Zhu rendered the word “幽僻” into “peaceful and secluded”, emphasized that there is silent and private. Yang employed it into “off the beaten track” which means no one knows here and quiet. From this perspective, both translations are very similar in understanding the writer’s meaning.<br /> <br /> However, the word “幽僻” is an adjective word with two meanings: quiet and not disturbed by other people. Zhu’ s version “peaceful and secluded” ,are two adjective words and has two similar meanings, which keep the form and sense of the original sentence. In conclusion，according to the “Three Beauties” principle, Zhu’s translation is much better than Yang’s for it retains the form of the original.<br /> <br /> Example 3: “这路上阴森森的，有些怕人。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “The foliage, which, in a moon-less night, would loom somewhat frighteningly dark.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “ On nights when there is no moon the track is almost terrifyingly dark.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> In this sentence, Zhu Ziqing uses “怕人” to describe the atmosphere of the air on the road and his feeling of walking on this path at such a night. “怕人” referred to “令人害怕的” in Chinese, it is an adjective to present his feeling. “Frightening ” means “making you feel afraid”, and “terrifying” means “to make somebody extremely frightened”in the ''OED'' , which can be regarded as synonyms. Both use the adverb to translate the adjective “怕人”. But in Zhu’s translation, “the foliage” is “frighteningly dark” and in Yang’s version, “the track” is “terrifyingly dark”. Both translators have their own understanding of the original content, but the both translations are faithful to the word “怕人”. We could say the two translations achieve the beauty in sense. However, in “Three Beauties” principle, we should consider the beauty in form and sound. As for sound ,the last sound of “怕人” is [en] in Chinese, but both “frightening” and “terrifying” has the same end sound of [en]. As for “frightening” and “terrifying”, the last sound of these are [iŋ] which could be regarded as the similar pronunciation with [en] .So, the two translations achieved beauty in sound from this aspect. In all the both versions are great from this perspective.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 ====<br /> ====4.3 ====<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> ==Lexical Gap between English and Chinese and its translation strategies 孟莹 Meng Ying==<br /> <br /> ==On Form and Spirit in Translation 文偲荇 Wen Sixing==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> translation methods，form，sprit<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译方法，翻译的形与神<br /> <br /> ===The form of translation===<br /> <br /> ===The sprit of translation===<br /> <br /> ===Discussion===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories——Taking &quot;2017 APEC Speech&quot; as sample 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing==<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Strategies'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Study on the Translation Strategies, Translation Methods and Translation Techniques in Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao==<br /> <br /> ==Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” to “Visibility” 胡百辉 Hu Baihui==<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s ManipulationTheory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility - 马智星 Ma Zhixing==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Business Contracts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 胡瑾 Hu Jin==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization in China and the increasing frequency of modern commercial activities, commercial contracts are particularly vital in order to ensure the smooth progress of commercial activities. In a business contract, it is required to ensure that the expression of any text in the contract is accurate as far as possible, and the same is true when translating it. Contracts provide vital basis for the smooth development of business and the protection of rights. Accurate and vivid translation of contracts has an important impetus to the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations and the resolution of disputes. Therefore, it is of practical significance to study the translation of business contracts. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory, equivalence is first realized in meaning and then in form. Dynamic equivalence is used to break the static equivalence and maximize the meaning of the translation. This thesis gives a preliminary introduction to the translation of business contracts, studies the application of functional equivalence theory in contract translation, and puts forward some major translation skills and methods, which will be of some guiding significance to the future translation of business contracts, thus avoiding unnecessary disputes between the two parties.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> business contract; Functional Equivalence Theory; contract translation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中国全球化进程不断加快，现代商务活动日益频繁，为了确保商务活动的顺利进行，商务合同的签订显得尤为重要。在商务合同中，要求尽量确保合同中的每一个文字都表达准确，在对其进行翻译时也是如此。合同是确保业务开展顺利和进行权利保障的重要依托，对合同进行准确生动的翻译对业务的开展和权利、义务的保障以及出现争议时的解决等有着重要的推动力。因此，研究商务合同的翻译有一定的现实意义。根据奈达的功能对等理论，对等首先在意义上实现，然后在形式上实现，利用动态对等，打破静态对等，使译文意义最大化。此课题初步介绍了商务合同的翻译，研究了功能对等理论在合同翻译中的应用，提出了一些主要的翻译技巧和方法，对今后商务合同的翻译具有一定的指导作用，从而避免合同双方出现不必要的纠纷。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 商务合同；功能对等理论；合同翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since China promoted the Silk Road Economic Belt, China's economic exchanges with other countries in the world have been increasing day by day. China's exports volume is also increasing, and goods are exported to other countries in the world. In 2013, China overtook the United States as the world's largest trading nation. In this context, in order to ensure the smooth progress of transactions and reduce trade friction and disputes, commercial contracts, which have legal effect, have attracted more and more attention. Contract translation belongs to the category of legal translation. Accurate translation of contracts plays an important role in the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations, and the resolution of disputes. However, commercial disputes in China's foreign economic and trade business are very common, and many disputes are caused by various problems in contract translation. Therefore, they should be guided by scientific translation theories.<br /> This paper mainly includes 3 chapters. The first chapter is the introduction of business English contracts, including the definition of business contract, the categories of business contract, and the linguistic features of English business contract.<br /> The second chapter introduces the theoretical framework of functional equivalence translation, including Nida's main principles and viewpoints of functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> The third chapter is the main part of the article, including the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 General Introduction of Business Contract===<br /> <br /> This chapter first introduces the definition of business contract and the categories of business contract, and then analyzes the linguistic features of English business contract from lexical, syntactic and textual levels respectively. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> As an important link in foreign trade activities, business contracts have always been valued by people. Article 2 of The PRC Contract Law clearly stipulates that Commercial contract refers to the agreement clauses that are formally concluded according to law, notarized and must be abided by jointly in order to determine their respective rights and obligations during certain commercial cooperation between the parties concerned. It can be seen from this that a commercial contract is the result of the consensus reached by the parties and is a civil legal act. A legally established contract shall take effect from the date of its establishment and shall be legally binding. This provides a legal guarantee for effectively avoiding trade frictions. However, special attention should be paid to the fact that China's Economic Law on Foreign Contracts stipulates that commercial contracts can take many forms, such as formal contracts, letters of intent, memorandum, agreements, commissioned purchase orders, etc. But no matter what form it takes, it should be signed in writing. The oral agreement cannot be submitted to the court as evidence after the dispute occurs.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Categories and Structure of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> Based on different standards, business contracts can be divided into many categories. According to the contract maker, they can be divided into sales contract (made by the seller) and purchase contract (made by the buyer); according to the subject matter, they can be divided into technology transfer contracts, processing contracts, foreign labor contracts, and agency agreements, etc; according to the details of the contract, they can be divided into sales contract, sales confirmation letter, purchase contract and purchase confirmation letter; according to the price terms used in the contract, they can be divided into CIF contract, FOB contract and goods arrival contract, etc.<br /> Although there are many types of commercial contracts, the structure of commercial contracts is generally relatively fixed, generally including three parts: preface, text and contract end. The first part is the preface, which generally includes the name of the contract, the parties to the contract, the date of signing and the place of signing. The second part is the main body of the contract, which mainly stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties to the agreement, the specific conditions of the traded goods, such as commodity name, quantity, total value, delivery date and validity period, port of shipment and destination, insurance and confidentiality clauses, payment clauses,etc. The third part is the end, which mainly includes the signatures of all parties to the agreement, the language of the contract, the number of copies of the contract and the explanation of the validity of the contract.<br /> <br /> ====1.3 A Contrastive Analysis of Stylistic Features of Chinese and English Business Contracts====<br /> <br /> English business contract is a solemn style with the highest degree of formality among all styles of English. A comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English business contract in terms of vocabulary, syntax and discourse will be made in this chapter.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Lexical Features of Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> As the most basic semantic constituent unit, vocabulary plays the most basic and important role in the whole contract text. When reading any text, the characteristics of words can often reflect the characteristics of the whole text. Therefore, it is necessary to study the characteristics of vocabulary so as to lay a foundation for the study of the whole text.<br /> <br /> First of all, the use of archaism is the most prominent feature in international business contract English. The extensive use of archaic words in business contracts and legal styles fully reflects their solemn and serious style, which is related to the social function of English style of business contracts and the particularity of international business. The archaism most commonly used in business contract English are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中)，therein-after(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于).<br /> <br /> In contrast, some classical Chinese words are often used in Chinese business contract terms, such as“兹、若”. This is to reflect the conciseness and clarity of the Chinese contract text. However, strictly speaking, Chinese business contract terms are more straightforward, the classical Chinese vocabulary is less frequently used, and the stylistic features are not as obvious as English business contracts.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the use of synonyms is another feature of English business contracts. Two or more synonyms are often used together in English business contracts. This is to make the terms of the contract more precise and accurate, and to avoid ambiguities and omissions as much as possible, for example, by and between, sole and exclusive, make and enter into, etc. <br /> <br /> However, we must note that synonyms are not commonly used in Chinese business contracts. This is mainly because of the differences in expression habits between Chinese and English and the differences in legal and cultural traditions between countries.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, as a contractual document with legal effect, legal terms are also used in the contract. In formal English business contracts, drafters often use “convene” instead of “hold or assemble”; “dispatch” instead of “spread out or handout”; “terminate” instead of “stop”. Similarly, in Chinese business contracts, interpreters use“承诺”to indicate “commitment”;“撤销”to indicate“cancel”instead of “取消”;“裁决” to mean “decision” instead of “决定”. Finally, the contract contains many professional knowledge and terminology.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.2 Syntax Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> Besides vocabulary, the syntax of business contracts also has their own characteristics, such as common clauses, declarative sentences, passive voice, modal verbs, etc. <br /> <br /> The most obvious feature in business contracts is the use of subordinate clauses. They are in obvious positions to explain, restrict and supplement the meaning of the main sentence. The positions of these clauses are relatively flexible. For example, attributive clause can be placed together with the central word or separated from the central word. A noun can be modified by multiple attributive clauses, and an attributive clause can also modify multiple nouns. The adverbial clause of time can be placed either at the beginning of the sentence or at the middle and end of the sentence.<br /> <br /> In contrast, the positions of attributive clauses and adverbial clauses in Chinese are relatively fixed. The adverbial clause of time is usually next to the modified verb because there is no temporal change in Chinese verbs. Declarative sentences are clear in meaning, division of powers and responsibilities, objective and fair in stating facts, and conform to the requirements of business contract terms. Therefore, they are frequently used in Chinese and English business contracts, but interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences are seldom used.<br /> <br /> Passive sentences are also quite common in business contracts. The passive voice is often used when there is no need to clearly indicate the sender of the behavior and the emphasis is placed on the object of the behavior.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.3 Textual Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> The textual features of Chinese and English business contracts are mainly reflected in textual cohesion and textual structure.<br /> <br /> In business contracts, whether Chinese or English, contextual cohesion is realized by adding conjunctions or repetitions of words, which indicates the logical relationship between sentences and reflects the rigour and solemnity of business contract language.<br /> <br /> The discourse structure of Chinese and English business contracts is basically the same, with highly stylized features.<br /> <br /> This kind of consistency is not only to obtain formal uniformity, but also often mainly due to the requirements of meaning, so that readers have the impression that the contents expressed by clauses with the same sentence pattern are equivalent in the legal effect of the contract.①<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 General Study of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This chapter introduces Nida's functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida first proposed the“dynamic equivalence”theory, then further developed the theory, emphasizing the equivalence of two aspects, namely“formal equivalence”and“dynamic equivalence”.“Formal equivalence”emphasizes the form and content of the information itself and believes that the translation should be close to the original structure. “Dynamic equivalence”refers to“reproducing source language information from semantics to style with the closest (original) natural equivalent in the recipient language”.② Tan Zaixi（谭载喜） pointed out, in this definition, there are three key points: 1. Natural, the translation cannot have a translation cavity. 2. Closeness, referring to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of nature. 3. Equivalence, which is the core.<br /> <br /> After the proposal of dynamic equivalence, many disputes have arisen. It is considered as free translation or live translation. In order to change people's misunderstanding of it, Nida pointed out:“Everything in the text is meaningful, including speech forms, so forms cannot be sacrificed easily.”④ Therefore, he replaced“dynamic equivalence”with “functional equivalence”. There is no essential difference between the two, but the latter highlights the concept of“function”.<br /> <br /> On the question of which level equivalence should be reflected, Nida pointed out that in addition to content and form equivalence, style equivalence should also be considered.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida divided functional equivalence into“maximum functional equivalence”and“minimum functional equivalence”since absolute equivalence is impossible to achieve. The so-called“maximum functional equivalence”means that the target readers can understand the original text in a way consistent with the original readers and further appreciate the original text while“minimum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand how the original readers understand and appreciate the original through their understanding of the target text. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Researches on Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Abroad, Beekman(1972: 32) pointed out:“Nida's functional equivalence theory makes theorists and translators believe that a good translation must be able to convey the meaning and dynamics of the original text at the same time.”⑤ <br /> <br /> Wilss(2001: 51) stressed:“Nida's functional equivalence theory can be applied to translation practice because it can achieve effective translation.”⑥ Venuti said:<br /> Functional equivalence theory also eases the debate between translators on“domestication” and “foreignization” from the perspective of language and culture.⑦<br /> <br /> At home, Jin Di(金堤) put forward“equivalence theory”on the basis of“functional equivalence theory”, and applied it to the translation of Ulysses, which illustrates the feasibility of“functional equivalence” theory in practical translation. Tan Zaixi made a comprehensive and systematic summary of the formation process of Nida's translation theory and its profound connotation. In addition, in the CNKI database, retrieval using“functional equivalence theory” as the key word shows that there are 2444 related articles in various core journals and magazines.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Applicability of Functional Equivalence Theory to E-C Translation of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> At present, there are no authoritative translation principles and standards for commercial contract translation, but the three principles of contract translation put forward by Ma Huijuan(马会娟) are highly recognized: First, the words used are accurate and the translation is complete. The translator shall not add, delete or change any information contained in the contract at will. The language of the translation shall be accurate, complete and natural. Second, the organization is clear and the format is equivalent. The translation should correspond to the original text format as a whole and reproduce the structural features of the source language as much as possible. Third, the translation should be in line with the stylistic characteristics of the contract.<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory emphasizes content equivalence, form equivalence and style equivalence. These three requirements are consistent with the three principles above put forward by Ma Huijuan respectively. Both of them limit the translation standards from the aspects of content, form and style. Therefore, the functional equivalence theory can be fully applied to the translation practice of business contracts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Business Contract Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This part focuses on the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. Combining with actual translation cases, this chapter analyzes the common problems in contract translation and puts forward corresponding solutions. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Equivalence at the Lexical Level====<br /> <br /> Vocabulary is the basic component of sentences and chapters. In the specific translation process, if vocabulary translation is not handled well, sentence and chapter translation will be impossible.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Equivalence of Technical Terms—Literal Translation and Free Translation=====<br /> <br /> The contents of business contracts involve all trades and professions, and there are many subject matters, including many professional knowledge and terminology, which is a big obstacle for many translators who do not know the professional knowledge of the industry. Therefore, before translation, translators should understand the relevant industries involved in the contract and master the necessary knowledge in the industry so as to avoid the layman's words and semantic errors in the translation, which will affect the accuracy and formality of the contract and cannot achieve functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> Example1:The balance 80% ( Eighty percent ) of the contract value shall be paid against irrevocable L/C at 360 days sight to be accepted by both parties. <br /> 译文：合同金额的80%（百分之八十）以不可撤销信用证的方式在交单的360 天予以支付。<br /> <br /> Many words in the contract appear in the form of letter abbreviations. As shown in this example,“L/C”is the abbreviation of letter of credit, which is translated literally into“信用证”. This is a well-established translation method in the industry, which can reflect both the equivalence of meaning and the professionalism of language expression.<br /> <br /> Example2:“The seller shall present the following documents required for negotiation or collection to the banks.”<br /> 译文:“卖方应向银行提交议付或托收所需的下列文件。”<br /> <br /> In this sentence,“negotiation”and“collection”are both technical terms of the contract, they are translated into“议付”and“托收” respectively, instead of“谈判”and“收取”. The expressions not only conform to the professional expression of the economic and trade industry, but also accurately reflect the meaning of the original text and achieve the meaning and style equivalence emphasized by the functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> Example3:“UNIT PRICES: FOB Xingang, Tianjing USD 22 150.00 per unit (US Dollars twenty two thousand, one hundred and fifty only)。”<br /> 译文:“单价: FOB天津新港, 每辆22150.00美元（贰万贰仟壹佰伍拾美元）。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“FOB”is an abbreviation of “Free on board”. It can be translated into “FOB” by free translation or by shifting translation. This is mainly because the readers of business contracts themselves are professionals in the industry. They usually exchange price terms in the form of English letters and abbreviations in their daily work. Therefore, when translating such price terms, their source language expressions can be retained.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Equivalence of Archaism—Omission, Addition and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Archaisms are rarely used in modern English, but they are still common in business contracts. They can not only reflect the formal rigour of business contracts, but also highlight the conciseness and clarity of language. The archaisms most commonly used in English business contract are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中), hereinafter(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于), etc.<br /> <br /> Example1:“The parties hereto shall, first of all, settle any dispute arising from or in connection with the contract through amicable negotiation.” <br /> 译文:“合同双方首先应该通过友好协商，解决因合同而发生的或与合同相关的争议。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“hereto”means“本协议的、本合同的”. It can be translated with omission. The contract subject relationship is clear, literal translation will only lead to redundant repetition of the translation, so there is no need to translate it.<br /> <br /> Example2: Now, therefore, in consideration of the recitals set forth above and the mutual covenants, promises, and agreements contained herein, and other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged, the Parties do hereby agree as follows: <br /> 译文：因此，考虑到上述陈述和本协议中包含的共同契约、承诺和协议，以及其他良好和有价值的对价，双方特此达成如下协议，特此确认其接收和充分性。<br /> <br /> In this example, herein usually means“此中，于此”. But such translation here will confuse readers. Therefore, we can adopt addition and translate it into“此协议中”. Although this expression is not as concise as“于此”, accuracy is the first requirement in contract translation.<br /> <br /> Example3: After arrival of goods at port of destination, the buyer shall apply to China Commodity Inspection Bureau (hereinafter referred to as CCIB) for a further inspection as to the specifications and quantity/weight of the goods.<br /> 译文：货到目的港后，买方将申请中国商品检验局(以下简称商检局)对货物的规格和数量重量进行检验。<br /> <br /> In this case, the original meaning of“hereinafter”is“以下，在下文中”. Its original meaning is directly inserted into the sentence, which not only accurately expresses the original meaning, but also makes the translated language natural and smooth, meeting the requirements of functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Equivalence of Formal Words—Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> “Functional Equivalence”emphasizes the transmission of reading experience, requiring the translator to transmit not only language functions but also legal functions, so as to enable the target readers to feel the reading experience of the original readers. <br /> <br /> Example1: The agreement does not operate as an acceptance of any conflicting terms and conditions and shall prevail over any conflicting provision of any purchase order or any other instrument of Customer. <br /> 译文：本协议不接受任何与本协议产生冲突的任何条款。若在乙方订单或任何文件中出现与本协议相冲突的条款，应均以本协议为准。<br /> <br /> Example2:“Time of shipment: within 15 days after receipt of the advance payment and the L/C of balance value to be accepted by the × Bank.” <br /> 译文:“装运日期：收到预付款且剩余货款的信用证被××银行承兑后的15天内装运。”<br /> <br /> In the first example, although the basic meaning of“胜过”is also expressed, it is usually translated into“以....为准” or “效力高于”in legal texts. In the second example, the common meaning of“accept”is “接受”, but in legal translation it is usually translated as “承兑”. Formal words are usually translated according to conventions, so the difficulty in translation lies not in the choice of translation strategies, but in the grasp of semantics and the reproduction of style.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.4 Equivalence of Juxtaposition—Contracted Translation=====<br /> <br /> English business contracts often use two or more synonyms to ensure the uniqueness of words meaning. The functional equivalence theory emphasizes the equivalence of meaning and form, but in the actual translation process, the absolute equivalence between the two, that is, the “maximum functional equivalence”proposed by Nida, is impossible to realize.<br /> <br /> Example1:“The agreement is made and entered into on April 16, 2007 by and between Party A and Party B.”<br /> 译文:“此合同由甲乙双方于2007年4月16日达成。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“made and entered into”and“by and between”are juxtaposed by two pairs of synonyms. When translating, these words only need translate once, which is called contracted translation. <br /> <br /> Example2: This agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the subject matter hereof and supersedes all prior agreements, understanding, warranties, representations, negotiations and discussion, whether oral or written, of the parties except as specifically set forth herein.<br /> 译文：此合同是双方就合同主体所达成的全部协议，将取代双方过往所有口头或书面的协议、理解、声明、保证、谈判和讨论，在此明确阐明的除外。<br /> <br /> In this example, several synonyms are juxtaposed to make the terms of the contract include all relevant matters as much as possible so as to make the writing strict and clear. Here, we can adopt literal translation strategy, keeping the total number of words listed in the original text, and looking for the corresponding Chinese words to achieve the double equivalence of content and form. <br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Equivalence at the Syntactic Level====<br /> <br /> Cliches are commonly used in official document and usually have a fixed translation method. Passive sentences and subordinate clauses have long sentence patterns and complicated logical relations, which tests the translator's translation ability and logical expression ability. <br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Conventional Phrases—Imitation Translation=====<br /> <br /> There are many cliches in business contracts, which are common at the beginning and end of contracts.<br /> <br /> Example1:“In consideration of the mutual covenants contained in this agreement, the parties agree as follows:”<br /> 译文:“考虑到本协议中的共同承诺，协议双方约定如下:”<br /> <br /> Example2:This Agreement may be executed in two or more counterparts, each of which shall be deemed an original and all of which together shall constitute one instrument. <br /> 译文：本协议可签署两个或两个以上的副本，每一副本构成本协议的一份原件，所有副本构成一份法律文件。<br /> <br /> Although the original expression of each text is not the same, the basic meaning is the same. A relatively fixed translation method has been formed, so the translators should know the common expressions in advance, or look for the parallel text to imitate the translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Equivalence of Passive Sentence=====<br /> <br /> Passive voice is a typical language structure in English business contracts. It can effectively reflect the objectivity and fairness of contracts. However, unlike English, passive voice is seldom used in Chinese. Therefore, in translation, we usually use various translation strategies to convert passive voice into active voice. The most common translation strategy is conversion, that is, the object of the original text is converted into the subject, and the subject is converted into the object. <br /> <br /> Example1: This Contract is made by and between the Buyer and the Seller whereby the Buyer agree to buy and the Seller agrees to sell the commodity in attached Annex according to the terms and condition stipulated below: <br /> 译文：买卖双方同意按下述条款购买出售附件中的商品并签订本合同： <br /> <br /> Example2: Agent shall be entitled to nominate mandate other third parties to act upon behalf of Agent in generating business to the Parties, as Agent’s sole discretion. <br /> 译文：代理人有权自行指定、授权其他第三方代表代理人为缔约方带来业务。<br /> <br /> From the first example, “by and between” is used as adverbial in the sentence. The object“the Buyer and the Seller” is the originator of this sentence, which is transformed into the subject of Chinese, and the recipient of the action“this contract”is transformed into the object of Chinese, thus the passive sentence of English is transformed into the active sentence of Chinese. In addition, some passive sentences in business contracts can also be translated into active sentences without changing the subject of the original sentence, as shown in the second example.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Equivalence of Long Sentence—Combination, Division and Reconstruction=====<br /> <br /> Long sentences must contain many clauses and modifiers, and their writing ideas are quite different from those of Chinese. Therefore, how to split the sentences into several parts, how to extract the core meaning of complex logical relations and how to reorganize Chinese are the three major difficulties.<br /> <br /> Example1: Agent’s undertaking and obligation is to search, locate and refer (lead) potential and prospective clients/customers to Principal who are seriously interested, ready, willing and able to apply for the Product. <br /> 译文：代理人的责任和义务是为委托人寻找、定位和推荐（引导）潜在的、真正对本产品感兴趣、准备好且愿意申请的客户。<br /> <br /> This is a restrictive attributive clause. We often adopt a combination method, translating the subordinate clause into“...的” and putting it before the modifier in the form of adjectives. This is mainly due to the structural differences between English and Chinese. The attributive elements in Chinese are not as flexible as the attributive clauses in English. <br /> <br /> Example2: The parties may not assign or transfer this Agreement or any of its rights and obligations under this Agreement without the prior written consent of the other party, which shall not be unreasonably withheld. <br /> 译文：未经另一方事先书面同意，缔约方不得出让或转让本协议或本协议项下的各项权利和义务，此要求不得被无理拒绝。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a non-restrictive attributive clause. Since this clause and the antecedent are not closely related and generally play an explanatory role, we often use division method in E-C translation. That is to say, the two should be separated and naturally combined by repeating antecedents.<br /> <br /> Example3: Should Principal be reasonably sure that Agent violated this rule, or should any client/customer present proof of such violation, Agent will not be entitled to its omission for the particular client or group of clients and Principal may terminate this Agreement with immediate effect at its own discretion. <br /> 译文：如果委托人有理由确定代理人违反了此项规定，或如果有客户提供了其违反此项规定的证据，代理人将无权享这一客户或这一组客户的佣金，委托人可自行终止本协议，即刻生效。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a adverbial clause. The structure of“should+subject+verb”belongs to the unreal conditional sentence. But there is no such usage in Chinese. Therefore, we can reconstruct the original text according to the logical structure of the original sentence and adjust the word order appropriately to make it natural and more in line with the Chinese expression habits. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Equivalence at Textual Level====<br /> <br /> The text consists of sentences, so the following focuses on the cohesion and format of the text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Text Cohesion=====<br /> <br /> Text cohesion is realized through the use of conjunctions and lexical repetition, reflecting the rigour and solemnity of business contract language.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> Thereafter, this Agreement shall be renewed automatically for successive additional one-year terms under the same terms and conditions unless either party chooses not to continue the relationship and provides written notice 30 days prior to the natural expiration of the existing one-year term. <br /> 译文：此后，本协议应以同样的条款自动延期一年，除非任何一方选择解除合作关系，并在一年合同期满前30天提交书面通知。<br /> <br /> Here, explicit connectives,“thereafter, and, unless”are clearly translated, which is conducive to textual cohesion and indicates the logical relationship between sentences. Therefore, we can translate them into “此后、和/并、除非”, which not only realizes the formal equivalence between the translation and the original, but also achieves the semantic equivalence.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Text Format=====<br /> <br /> As one kind of legal documents, commercial contracts are highly normative and have strict writing format. Therefore, attention should be paid to the corresponding format in translation.<br /> <br /> Contract No: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Date: Aug. ××,2013 <br /> <br /> The Buyer: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Representative: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> The seller: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××<br /> <br /> Representative: ××××××<br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> 译文：合同编号：×××××× <br /> <br /> 日期：2013年8月×号 <br /> <br /> 买方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：×××××× <br /> <br /> 卖方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：××××××<br /> <br /> Here, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the contract text, and keep the format of the translation and the original text in alignment during translation. Firstly, capital words with the first letter should be emphasized in terms consistent with Chinese expression habits. Secondly, the parts marked in bold or italics in the contract shall still be marked in bold or italics in the translation.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> To sum up, according to the requirements of functional equivalence theory on translation quality, commercial contract translation should meet the following standards:<br /> <br /> In terms of content, first, the translation language should be natural and fluent and conform to Chinese expression habits. Second, pay attention to the professionalism of the language expression in the translation, avoid using colloquial expressions, and achieve the meaning equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> In terms of format, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the commercial contract text and try our best to achieve the formal equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> In terms of language style, the translation should retain the original language style as much as possible. The business contract language is professional and solemn, so the translation should reproduce the strict and formal legal style of the original text on the premise of ensuring accurate content and natural language.<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes and summarizes specific contract terms and puts forward countermeasures. Although the translation strategies given in this paper have certain universality, the research text is slightly narrower than that of the whole commercial contract text research. Due to the space limitation, the cases provided are limited. Therefore, the scope of the research text should be broadened and analyzed from a broader research perspective in future research.<br /> <br /> ===Notes===<br /> <br /> ① 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998: 310-312.<br /> <br /> ② Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986: 113-120.<br /> <br /> ③ 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2004: 23-27.<br /> <br /> ④ Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993: 119-130. <br /> <br /> ⑤ Beekman, J. &amp; C, John. Translating the word of God[M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974: 191-221.<br /> <br /> ⑥ Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001: 72-86.<br /> <br /> ⑦ Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995: 76-89.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> [1] Beekman, J. &amp; John C. Translating the word of God [M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974. <br /> <br /> [2] Catford, J. C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965. <br /> <br /> [3] Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> [4] Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986.<br /> <br /> [5] Nida, E. A., and R Taber, Charles. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. New York: E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1969.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995.<br /> <br /> [7] Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [8] Yallop, C. The construction of equivalence[A]. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2001.<br /> <br /> [9] 顿官刚. 经贸英语词汇的特点及翻译[J]. 山东外语教学, 2002, (2).<br /> <br /> [10] 廖瑛. 实用公关英语[M]. 上海: 对外经济贸易大学出版社, 2005.<br /> <br /> [11] 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998.<br /> <br /> [12] 苗锡璞. 功能对等理论指导下的商务英语翻译[J]. 内蒙古财经学院学报, 2011, (1).<br /> <br /> [13] 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> [14] 汪洋. 浅析商务合同的词汇与句法翻译技巧[J]. 科技文汇, 2009, (10).<br /> <br /> [15] 金堤. 等效翻译探索[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998.<br /> <br /> [16] 马会娟. 论商务文本翻译标准多元化[J]. 中国翻译, 2005, (3).<br /> <br /> ==The translator's invisibility 张毓婕 Zhang Yujie==<br /> <br /> ==Study of Domestication and foreignization in Cross-cultural Translation 顾东方 Gu Dongfang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's economic globalization, international cultural exchanges are expanding, and translation as a communication tool is also crucial. As a form of cross-cultural and cross-linguistic communication, translation is a kind of communication and interaction between two cultures with very different social backgrounds and cultural traditions. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, the application and selection of translation strategies should not only reflect the translator's style, but also directly affect the audience of the translated work among the target language readers. In 1995, Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization , in The Invisibility of Translators. domestication and foreignization are both opposed and unified, i.e. there is no such thing as absolute domestication or absolute foreignization. This paper will discuss the selection and application of domestication and foreignization in cross-cultural translation, based on the two translation strategies themselves and actual translation cases, so that translators can use these two translation strategies more flexibly in translation to better convey the meaning of the original texts and make the translations reach more readers, and thus promote the communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication and foreignization; cross-cutural; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在经济全球化的今天，国际间文化交流也在不断扩大，而翻译作为一种交流工具也显得至关重要。作为一种跨文化、跨语言交际的形式，翻译是一种社会背景与文化传统很不相同的两种文化间的交流与交往。因此，在跨文化翻译中，翻译策略的运用与选择不仅仅要体现出译者的风格，也会直接影响译作在目的语读者中的受众程度。美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出了归化与异化两种翻译策略。归化与异化，既对立又统一，也即绝对的归化或者绝对的异化都是不存在的。本文将从归化与异化这两种翻译策略的本身出发，并结合实际翻译案例，来探讨归化与异化在跨文化翻译当中的选择与运用，使得译者能够在翻译中更灵活地使用这两种翻译策略，更好地传达出原作的意蕴，使译作受众于更多的读者，以此促进不同文化之间的交流。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化与异化；跨文化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1. Definitions of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Domestication is to localize the original language and focuses on the target language or readers by conveying the original text in the way target readers are familiar with. In order to close the readers of target texts.Domesticated translation requires the translator to speak like a native author, and the translation must become authentic to the native language if the original author is to speak directly to the readers. It helps the reader to better understand the translation and enhances the readability and enjoyment of the translation.<br /> Foreignization is that the translator tries not to disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader can get closer to the author&quot;. In translation, it means to accommodate the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorb foreign expressions, require the translator to approach the author, and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the original content. The purpose of the foreignization strategy is to consider about the differences in national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationalities and linguistic styles, and to preserve the exoticism of the translated text for the readers.<br /> <br /> ===2.The relationship between literal translation and free translation ,and domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Historically, foreignization and domestication can be seen as extensions of, but not identical to, literal and free translation. The terms &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot; are English translation version. Literal translation is a kind of method or text that keeps the original content and the form of the original text. Free translation means that it keeps only the content of the original text, not the form of the original text. Literal translation appeared during the May 4th Movement, emphasizing the need for faithfulness to the original text so that the translation can be &quot;expressive&quot; and &quot;elegant&quot;. Literal translation does not mean translating word for word in mechanical way. Since English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate them word for word. Literal translation is to fully and accurately clarify the meaning of the original work, without any distortion or random addition or deletion of the original ideas to maintain the original style. Sometimes even the original mood or emotion, such as anger or embarrassment, sarcasm or irony, joy or happiness, should not be ignored. Fu Si Nian and Zheng Zhenduo both advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, literal translation is the overriding rule. The work of Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren, The Collected Works of Extra-territorial Novels, is regarded as the representative of literal translation. The free translation, on the other hand, starts from the meaning and requires only the main idea of the original text to be expressed without excessive attention to detail, but a natural flow of the translation. In translation, if we cannot directly adopt the structure and expression of the original, we must change the sentence structure and expression to convey the meaning of the original according to the form and characteristics of the expression. Since there are many differences between the original language and the translated language in word order, grammar, changing forms and rhetoric, we can only use appropriate ways to convey the meaning of the original and reproduce the effect of the original. Mr. Jing-Shen Zhao once said, &quot;A smooth and fluent version is better than one that focuses only on fidelity to the original&quot;. Obviously, Mr. Zhao was in favor of foreignization, and so did Mr Yan Fu. Foreignization has been used in many works of Yan Fu, for example, the Evolution and Ethics is a typical example . In literal translation, faithful to the original form should be placed first, followed by faithful to the original content, again the fluency and popularity of translated language; while in free translation, faithful to the original content should be placed first, translation language fluency and popularity of the second, but free translation is not limited to the form of the original. Some scholars often discuss literal translation, free translation and domestication and foreignization together, which is understandable, but it is necessary to make a distinction. Based on the level of language and culture,domestication and foreignization focus more on the use of language from the perspective of cultural differences and are a kind of translation strategy, while literal and free translation is a translation technique, which is only at the level of language. There may be only one main translation strategy for a text or a work, but each strategy may use both literal and free translation methods, and each method serves the general direction of the translation strategy. The choice of the main translation strategy depends on the purpose of the translation, if it is to maximize the understanding of foreign cultures or cross-cultural comparative study, then the main focus is on foreignization; if it is to understand the information or story development through reading, then the domestication may be the best choice. Taking the translation of the famous work Dream of the Red Chamber as an example, there are two versions by two masters, Yang Xianyi and Hawkes, the former adopts foreignization to deal with the cultural factors in the language, that is, to keep the source culture as much as possible in the translation, while Hawkes adopts domestication in order to avoid the conflict between two different cultures, Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. National and international research on the development of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> <br /> ===3.1.The history of the development of domestication and foreignization abroad.===<br /> The German translator Schleiermacher, in his work, On the Different Methods of Translation, elaborated the need for translations to bring the reader as close as possible to the original author, and for the first time introduced the concepts of domestication and foreignization.<br /> At the same time, in the British academic circles of the time, domestication was the main translation strategy, but Francis Newman in England, when discussing the transl ation work on Homer, advocated that translators should consciously translate in the ancient language to emphasize the heterogeneity of the work.<br /> In the 1960s A.D., Nida proposed the theory of domestication for the first time in many structuralist theoretical works, and since then the climax of the debate on domestication and foreignization rose on the stage in western translation field . In Nida's view, domesticated translation does not need to stick to the form of the original text, but only needs to express the content with the closest and most natural equivalent in the translated text to achieve equivalence.<br /> The French theorist Antoinette Bellman deplored the tendency of eliminating foreignization in translation through the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot;. He said: &quot;The proper theoretical goal of the translation action is to accept heterogeneity as it is.&quot; This view seems to have an impact on Venuti's strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot; .<br /> In his book The Invisibility of the Translator, Italian scholar Venuti discusses the &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator by combining the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization for the first time. He strongly advocates foreignization and questions domestication, arguing that domestication is essentially a means of cultural colonization by Western colonizers. At the same time, he also suggests that the purpose of translation is not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express linguistic and cultural differences.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Domestic development history on domestication and foreignization===<br /> The earliest translations of Buddhist scriptures have included the debate between assimilation and dissimilation. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the translator Zhiqian pioneered the translation style of using free translation instead of transliteration, which had far-reaching significance and influence in history.<br /> At the end of the 19th century, several other great translators emerged in Chinese history, and Yan Fu was one of them. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, foreign powers invaded extensively and the Chinese nation faced an existential crisis, under such a background, Yan Fu believed that translation must be carefully chosen based on the social and historical reality of the country into which it is translated. In the translation, the translator should take the literary tradition of the nation and the specific historical and cultural purpose as the main purpose, combining the cultural and linguistic background of the readers. The translator should not focus on how to be &quot;faithful to the original&quot;, but how to adapt to the social and cultural choices of the time.<br /> With the rise of the May 4th New Culture Movement, many translators tried to learn from foreign literature in order to transform literature and society.Lu Xun's most famous dictum relating to translation was &quot;I'd rather be faithful than smooth&quot;, and advocated &quot;preserving the foreign flavor as much as possible&quot; and &quot;the need for exoticism&quot;. <br /> After the founding of New China, China's translation industry entered the third high point, and a large number of Western and Soviet works were introduced, which was connected with the spiritual needs of people at that time. After the reform and opening up, with the influx of Western translation ideas, &quot;foreignization&quot; has emerged. Many scholars have put forward the idea that &quot;Foreignization is primary while domestication is supplementary&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===4.domestication and foreignization of cultural exchange translation===<br /> <br /> ===4.1the relationship between culture and language===<br /> In a broad sense, culture refers to the material and spiritual wealth created and accumulated by human beings in the course of social development; in a narrower sense, it refers to the ideology of society and the system of organizational constructs that corresponds to it. Culture has the following four basic characteristics 1) culture is owned and shared by all members of a society; 2) culture is acquired rather than inherited; 3) culture is biologically based; and 4) culture is based on a symbolic system. The relationship between language and culture is between the part and the whole; language is a subsystem of culture, and language cannot exist apart from culture; it embodies all the beliefs and emotions of a cultural group. Language and culture interact and influence each other and are inseparable. Based on the close relationship between language and culture, more consideration should be given to cultural factors in translation research, which means that translation research should be carried out in a more macro context. Translators should be aware of enough cultural differences when dealing with the cultural differences between the original language and the target language. Due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese, many English and Chinese phrases, although literally having the same or similar meanings, are inherently different. Therefore, a word-for-word translation without considering cultural factors can lead to ambiguity.<br /> <br /> ===4.2 Translatability and untranslatability of cultures===<br /> On the one hand, the similarity of human experience worldwide contributes to the translatability of cultures. In this regard, Nida has said that &quot;all human beings eat, work, sleep and procreate, and they produce objects such as furniture, tools and vehicles. They also organize themselves into families, clans, internal and external groups, nations and inter-national organizations. They have a conscious similarity in their views of the universe, values, religion and supernatural forces. In fact, the different groups of people in the world have much more in common with each other than they do with each other.&quot; It is the similarity of the cultures of different peoples that allows people of different cultures to understand each other and makes translation possible. Nida thus states, &quot;Linguists and anthropologists have discovered that what binds human beings together far outweighs what alienates them, and this is the basis for generating communication.&quot; Many expressions that are unique to one culture can be found almost identically in a culture and become the best evidence of cultural translatability.<br /> On the other hand, each people has a culture that is distinct from the others, which hinders mutual understanding with the others and may even cause cultural shock. Due to different cultural inheritances, the languages of different nationalities have their own symbol systems and lexical, syntactical and grammatical characteristics, which often make them untranslatable. For example, the Chinese phrase &quot;客上天然居，居然天客&quot; is one of the examples of untranslatable culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.3 Factors influencing cultural translation strategies===<br /> <br /> ===4.3.1.Motives and objectives of translation===<br /> <br /> Different motivations and purposes for translation lead to different translation principles and methods<br /> <br /> ===4.3.2.Text type===<br /> <br /> Different texts influence the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord, translation can be divided into instrumental translation, which refers to the means of transferring information from the source language to the target language, and documentary translation, which refers to the means of transferring information about communication activities from the source language to the target language. This type of translation emphasizes the transmission and conveyance of information and mainly includes non-literary writing, including advertising, media writing, scientific writing, propaganda and announcements, etc. With this method of translation, which is guided by the culture of the target language, the information that needs to be conveyed can be better expressed and accessed. The other type of text is documentary translation. This type of translation refers to the presentation of real communicative activities and information to the target language readers. The term &quot;documentary translation&quot; is appropriate for translating (language-)-specific expressions, where translation of language and content are equally important. eter Newmark distinguishes between communicative and semantic translation of such texts, emphasizing the &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot; of the message. &quot; in order to achieve the same effect on the readers of the original language as on those of the target language. Although this type of translation is a subjective process, the translator will attach great importance to the effect of the translation on the reader's mind. By reorganizing and rearranging the order of sentences, the translator will eliminate obscurities and ambiguities in order to achieve &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot;. Most non-literary writing, informative articles and books, as well as textbooks, bulletins, standardized writing, and novels are suitable for this type of communicative translation; because it emphasizes the need to have the same effect on both the original and target language readers, it often uses expressions that are customary and easily understood in the language in which they are written. Thus, communicative translation is equivalent to naturalized translation, where the translator's preference for idiomatic expressions is produced or determined by the translator's preference for the target language. Semantic translation attempts to get as close as possible to the exact meaning of the original text in terms of wording. Semantic translation focuses on the expression of the exact meaning of the content in order to preserve as accurate a style of the original text as possible. This type of translation is an objective process during which the translator focuses only on whether the translation is precise and retains the flavor of the original text. In this type of translation, the translator tries to preserve the semantic and syntactic structure of the original text, as well as the tone of the original text, etc. semantic translation applies to autobiographies, private correspondence, personal emotional texts and quotations. A semantic translation is equivalent to an alien translation in an attempt to achieve the preservation of the flavour of the original, due to the translator's original language preference.<br /> <br /> ===4.3.3Acceptance by readers===<br /> In the past, traditional translation theories placed one-sided emphasis on extra-author-centred and text-centred research, neglecting the involvement of translators and target language readers. Modern reception aesthetics considers the reader not as an unimportant and unnecessary perspective, but as a historical, active and creative factor in the relationship between author, text and reader. This is why different people have different interpretations of the same text of Hamlet. Naida was influenced by the acceptance of the aesthetic sub. His theory and practice of translation are very much focused on the readers' reflection. He pointed out that &quot;Judging the validity of a translation does not stop at the comparison of word meanings, grammar and rhetoric; what is important is the extent to which the recipient is able to understand and appreciate the translation correctly.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===4.4the cultural school of translation===<br /> In 1990, the representatives of the cultural school of translation, Bassnett and Lefevere, in their co-edited book Translation, History and Culture, formally proposed the slogan of &quot;Cultural Turn of Translation&quot;, which also marked the official emergence of the cultural school of translation. In the following years, they published several monographs, individually or together, discussing about the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. In the following years, they published several monographs, either individually or jointly, to discuss the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. Unlike the literary or linguistic schools of translation in the past, the cultural school is a school with a strong &quot;revolutionary&quot; element in translation theory, and some people even consider their views to be &quot;subversive&quot; to the previous translation theories. This is mainly because they especially emphasize the status of culture in translation and the importance of translation to the spread of culture and the promotion of social and cultural progress. Other translators, such as Lambert and Robyns, argue that translation is more accurately regarded as a communication activity between two cultures than as a bilingual conversion activity. Therefore, they believe that translation activity is a cultural conversion. In recent years, Chinese scholars have done some research and reflection on the essence of translation. In the researches of many scholars, under the current globalization environment ,the importance of translation to cultural exchange and communication is getting more and more attention from people. For example, Lv Jun proposes that &quot;translation is a kind of cross-cultural information exchange activities, and its essence is dissemination. To a certain extent, the viewpoint of Chinese scholars and the Western cultural schools can be said to echo each other. Language is not only a carrier of information, but also a carrier of culture. Therefore, in essence, translation as a kind of inter-linguistic communication, it is not only the conversion of language information , but also the transplantation of cultural information. Therefore, in essence, translation is not only a language information conversion, but also a cultural communication activity.<br /> <br /> ===5. discussion domestication and foreignization from translation examples===<br /> <br /> ===5.1 Application of domestication in English-Chinese Translation===<br /> Chinese famous writer Mo Yan has won the Nobel Prize for Literature for a series of works including Fatigue of Life and Death (2006) and Frog (2009) and American sinologist Ge Haowen should also be credited , who was called “the only midwife of Mo Yan’s works”.Ge's translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out reflects his consistent principle: &quot;The author is writing for the Chinese, while I am translating for foreigners,translating is a process of rewriting”. Ge Haowen did a lot of rewriting and compilation based on respecting the original work, and in the translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out, the domesticated translation reflects his relentless pursuit of &quot;accuracy&quot;, &quot;readability&quot; and &quot;acceptability&quot;. <br /> <br /> 例一： 常言道‘螃蟹过河随大流’，‘识时务者为俊杰’，不要顽固不化，不要充当挡路的石头，不要充硬汉子。<br /> <br /> Join the commune and stop working for yourself, end your quest for independence.Stop being headstrong,and an obstructionist.<br /> <br /> “螃蟹过河随大流” is a two-part allegorical saying in Chinese folks . It means &quot;following the majority of people to speak or act&quot;. A post-slip is a short, witty phrase that can be used as a philosophical and wisdom-boosting phrase. A man who knows the times is a hero&quot; is an idiom derived from a historical allusion, meaning &quot;only those who can recognize the trend of the times can become heroes and heroines&quot;. Ge Haowen domesticated these two slang expressions: first, because they have the same meaning as the one that follows: &quot;Don't be stubborn ...... don't be a tough guy anymore&quot;, which is used to kindly advise people who are unable to see the current affairs of the day, but are still stubbornly stubborn. The deletion of these two daily phrases does not affect the main content of the narrative and the expression of ideas in the context. Secondly, there is the concern that the translation may not produce the desired effect of depth, image, and humor as the source language. And then there is the fact that the target language readers are relatively unfamiliar with Chinese slang, so it is better to delete it directly than to translate it to increase the readers' reading burden and affect their understanding and grasp of the whole text. Ge Haowen's domesticated translation method reflects his holistic view of discourse as a unit<br /> <br /> 例二：但一个二十多岁就当了县级领导干部的人，和农村姑娘结婚的可能性几乎是零，无论她貌如西施还是色比婵娟。<br /> <br /> There was no chance that a leading country-level cadre in his twenties would ever actually marry a peasant girl , no matter how pretty or fetching she might be.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaojun ,Xishi, Diao Chan and Yang Yuhuan were the main characters with unique beauty at that time in historical illusions ,named as “Four Beauties in ancient times”.In the original work, Mo Yan chose only two historical figures, &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, to contrast and emphasize the beauty of rural girls. In the process of translation, Ge did not translate &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, nor did he make any commentary, but took into account the target audience's alienation from the historical allusion to the Four Beauties. Therefore, he adopt a domesticated translation method to make a simplification, breaking the constraints of the original language and enhancing the readability of the translation, without deviating from the original meaning.<br /> In the above example, when dealing with unfamiliar allusions or common sayings and proverbs, Ge Haowen boldly rewrote and deleted them, translating the work from the reader's point of view, so that the target readers will be pleased with his translation.<br /> 5.2 The Application of Foreignization in English-Chinese Translation<br /> The nature of foreignization is such that it deals with elements of the original language that are culturally distinctive, and the result of the translation is to bring in new forms of expression that are different from the mother tongue and the cultural connotations attached to them. Language is an open system with a strong capacity for absorption and inclusion. With the deepening of communication among countries and peoples, various languages have been enriched to different degrees, and variant translation plays a more important role in this process. In Chinese, the terms &quot;internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot; are used to refer to the &quot;Internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot;. &quot;Time is money&quot;, &quot;ivory tower&quot;, &quot;washroom&quot;.... (crocodile tears), &quot;black humor&quot; , and &quot;qi gong&quot; ), &quot;taijiquan&quot; , &quot;kong fu&quot; , &quot;typhon” These words did not originally exist in the Chinese and English language systems. However, translators make a large number of words with exoticism in the way of foreignization more popular and acceptable among the massive culture . Therefore, foreignization is not only beneficial to introduce local history and culture to foreign countries, but also gives local readers the opportunity to understand foreign customs and realize the purpose of cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> 例一.打破铁饭碗<br /> <br /> Break the”iron rice bowl”<br /> <br /> &quot;Iron rice bowl&quot; is a Chinese idiom, in Chinese we compare &quot;rice bowl&quot; to an occupation, while &quot;iron rice bowl&quot; refers to a stable job, no doubt, it is difficult to convert such words with obvious Chinese characteristics into the target language through the method of &quot;domestication&quot;, but foreignization not only retains the imagery of the source language, but also introduces the unique culture of China to Western readers.<br /> 例二.下海<br /> <br /> A.to jump into the sea of business<br /> <br /> B.To turn professional<br /> <br /> In the early days of reform and opening up, the word “jumping into the sea of business” was popular, mainly meaning the trend of doing business.For this new phenomenon ,translators adopt different methods. Text A used foreignization and direct translation while the later domestication. In comparison, the former was more expressive and vivid, conveying the meaning of source language in a proper way.<br /> Domestication and foreignization is more apparent in the literary translation. Here I will take the translation of Dream of the Red Chamber as an example and compare the translations of Mr. and Mrs. Yang Xianyi ,and Mr. Hawkes. The translation of Dream of the Red Chamber by Yang Xianyi and his wife is a typical representative of foreignization, which is highly praised by domestic readers, but some scholars have conducted a survey and found that it is far inferior to the British sinologist David Hawks in terms of the number of borrowed readers, citations and reprinted editions. Why the &quot;cold shoulder&quot;? Let's find out by comparing and analyzing some examples of the two translations.<br /> <br /> 例一.刘姥姥道: “这倒不然。谋事在人，成事在天。咱们谋到了，靠菩萨的保佑，有些机会，也未可知。”<br /> <br /> A.“ Don’t be so sure,” said Granny Liu. “Man proposes, Heaven disposes. Work out a plan,trust to Buddha,and something may come of it for all you know.”<br /> <br /> B.“ I wouldn’t say that.”said Grannie Liu.”Man proposes, God disposes.It is up to us to think of something. We must leave it to the good Lord to decide whether He’ll help us or not. Who knows, he might give us the opportunity we are looking for.”<br /> <br /> Dream of the Red Chamber is a literary work full of Buddhist and Taoist thoughts. Yang Xianyi and Hawks have different approaches to the phrase“谋事在人，成事在天”， which also reflects different religious thoughts. In Yang's translation, &quot;God&quot; is replaced by &quot;Heavenly Father,&quot; which is in line with the Chinese religious belief that Heavenly Father in control of everything, while retaining the religious flavor of the source culture. However, Hawks gave priority to the religious background and acceptance of the English readers, so he adopted the English proverb directly without any modification, thus transforming the Buddhism and Taoism in the East to Christianity in the West, in accordance with western religious belief and thinking ways.<br /> The two translations have their own merits. The choice of translation strategies is based on different objectives. Mainly depending on the foreignization stategy, Mr. and Mrs. Yang tried to spread Chinese literature classics and convey Chinese traditional culture originally.However, they didn't get the desired results.One of the main reasons is that Mr. and Mrs. Yang regard faithfulness as the first priority and overemphasize the foreign culture of the translated works, neglecting to consider the reception environment and the recognition of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===6.Conclusion===<br /> With the continuous expansion of international cultural exchanges, the human cultural gap is gradually narrowing, language as an important carrier of culture has also been affected by the same, an appropriate increase in the use of &quot;foreign&quot; translation,can not only inject the new elements into domestic culture, but also promote the spread of local culture, achieve cross-cultural exchange and accelerate the process of &quot;cultural globalization&quot;. It should be pointed out foreignization is not at the expense of forgetting one's own culture, on the contrary, it is based on the familiarity with other cultures, and then carry out painstaking, creative translation work. To give more attention to &quot;alienation&quot; translation is not to deny, reject the domesticated translation method, because domestication and foreignization play an irreplaceable rol in the target language and culture.Therefore, the two translations will always co-exist and complement each other. Flexible use of foreignization and domestication is the real way of addressing the cultural conflicts.<br /> <br /> ===7.Reference===<br /> 1. 王瑛. &quot;跨文化翻译中的归化和异化.&quot; 内蒙古财经学院学报(综合版) 03(2007):83-87.<br /> <br /> 2. 周永堃. &quot;归化异化在跨文化翻译中的选择与运用——以《红楼梦》和《生死疲劳》为例.&quot; 邵阳学院学报(社会科学版) 18.01(2019):103-108.<br /> <br /> 3.王红卫. &quot;跨文化交际翻译方法:归化和异化策略.&quot; 西南民族学院学报(哲学社会科学版) 9(2002):250-253.<br /> <br /> 4.熊兵. &quot;文化交流翻译的归化与异化.&quot; 中国科技翻译 16.003(2003):5-9.<br /> <br /> 5.刘苹. &quot;中国翻译史上的归化和异化.&quot; 滨州学院学报 24.001(2008):74-75.<br />  <br /> <br /> ==The Translation Strategies of Chinese Political Discourse under the Standard of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; 高明珠 Gao Mingzhu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With the development of globalization, the political communication among countries is more and more frequent, and the translation of political terms has gradually become one of the heated topics in the translation field. Political discourse translation is challenging, because not only does it concern the relationship between countries, national status, political attitude and other important issues, but also it is developmental. Political neologisms will keep emerging, and some political terms will contain new connotations with the advancement of the times. In addition to the above characteristics, Chinese political discourse has many affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases, metaphors.In 2008, Yang Mingxing and other scholars put forward the &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; based on Eugene Nida's &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; theory for the translation of Chinese political discourse, which pointed out that the translation of political discourse should follow the three principles of &quot;political&quot;, &quot;dynamic&quot; and &quot;balanced&quot;. On the basis of some related papers, this chapter will sum up the specific strategies such as supplement, omission, keeping or converting analogical body, adding explanation and narration for translating Chinese political discourse with characteristics of having lots of affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases and metaphors following the guidance of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> political equivalence Chinese political discourse translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着全球化的发展，各国间的政治交流愈加频繁，政治话语的翻译也逐渐成为翻译界讨论热点之一。政治话语的翻译是具有挑战性的，不仅是因为它关系到国与国之间的关系、国家地位、政治态度等重要问题，而且因为政治词汇是发展性的，政治词汇中会不断有新的词汇涌进，且某些政治词汇会随着时代的发展而增加新的内涵。而中国政治话语除了具有以上特点，它还有多词缀、缩写、四字短语[1]，多用隐喻等修辞手法的特点。2008年，杨明星等学者针对中国政治话语的翻译，基于尤金·奈达的“功能对等”理论提出了“政治等效”翻译标准，该标准指出政治话语的翻译要遵循“政治性”、“动态性”、“平衡性”三大原则。本文基于相关文献，总结出在该标准下，对中国政治话语在具有多词缀、缩写、四字短语及多采用隐喻这几个特点下的翻译可采用的具体的翻译策略，如增补法、省略法[1]、喻体保留法（完全保留、部分保留）、喻体转换法、喻底补充法、喻义直叙法[2]等。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 政治等效 中国政治话语 翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction of Background===<br /> <br /> Political discourse is a communication carrier or one kind of discourse behaviors that elaborate a country's foreign policies, governance mechanisms or political ideas, including oral expression and written expression. Oral expressions includes leaders' speeches, the contents conveyed by various government agencies' press conferences, and written expressions includes diplomatic documents, white papers, legal provisions, treaties, agreements and communiques issued by relevant state agencies. With the improvement of China's comprehensive national strength and the continuous expansion of its global influence, the study of the translation standards, principles, strategies of Chinese political discourse has become an important topic in the field of translation. A study in 2019 has shown that domestic political discourse translation studies started in 2000 and entered a stage of rapid development with the convening of the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012. The current research hot spots of political discourse translation include the translation of Xi Jinping's speeches and works, the application of various translation laws and interpretive theories, the principle of political equivalence and the theory of ecological translation(Chu Xingjun 2020,36).<br /> <br /> ===2. The Significance of Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> This chapter holds that the significance of political discourse translation mainly involves two aspects----politics and linguistics. Firstly, in terms of politics, translating political discourse is to facilitate the political communication between countries, show the country's political attitude, theory and policy to the outside world. Political discourse translation plays a significant role in promoting the relationship between the countries, taking one’s stand, safeguarding one’s national interests and shaping one’s national image and so on. Secondly, in terms of linguistics, political terms are developmental. With the advance of the times and the rapid development of the world, new political terms will constantly emerge, which is also the process of language expansion. The study of the translation of new words is not only the bounden duty of translators, but also of great significance to the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Difficulties in Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> The difficulties are mainly reflected in three aspects. Firstly, the translator should correctly understand the political connotation of the source language and translate it as the target language faithfully. Secondly, different expression ways between two languages. There are rare equivalent words in both languages, so when translating the source language as the target language, the expression habits of the target language users should be taken as account, so as to facilitate the target language users to accurately understand the original meaning. Especially, Chinese political discourse often present metaphor rhetoric which may not be easy for foreigners to understand, thus when translating such words, methods that we can adopt not only include literal translation, transliteration plus explanation, but also sometimes it would be better to translate those words on the basis of the target language’s culture to make the translation more vivid and help readers understand the meaning accurately. In a word, be more flexible in adopting methods according to different cases; Finally, the same political term may have different meanings in different contexts, or it may require translators to adopt different translation methods in different contexts. In addition, the connotation of some political terms will develop with the advance of The times. Therefore, translators should keep up with current events and deal with them flexibly in translation.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Connotations of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal and connotation of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard<br /> <br /> In 2008, US Department of Defense mistranslated the term &quot;韬光养晦&quot; to propaganda &quot;China threat theory&quot;. Therefore, based on Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, a scholar, Yang Mingxing, proposed the translation concept of &quot;political equivalence&quot; for the first time from the perspective of international relations and diplomatic analysis (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). The connotation of this concept mainly involves three aspects: firstly, the translator needs to truthfully convey the political thought of the source language as well as the speaker; secondly, when translating, the translator should choose the target language according to the expression ways that the target language users get used to, so that the information and political thoughts brought by the target text to the target language users are equivalent to those brought by the source text to the source language users; Thirdly, in different contexts and historical backgrounds, the connotations of political discourse will be different. Translators' translation should keep pace with the times and be determined in accordance with the situation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). In 2012, Yang Mingxing and other scholars further proposed three prominent principles or characteristics of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; translation standard: political, balanced and dynamic (Yang Mingxing, Yan Da 2012, 35). Among them, political nature, namely accurately grasping the political connotation of the source language, is the most prominent characteristic, which is determined by the strong political color of the political terms themselves. Balance means to strike a balance among source language, target language, speaker and audience without focusing on either side, and strive to make the effect produced by the translation in the foreign readers be similar or equivalent to that produced by the original text in local readers. Dynamic means that the equivalent process mentioned above is a dynamic equivalent process. Because political terms’ connotation changes with the advance of the times and varies from different contexts, translators need to keep pace with the times, follow up the connotation development of political terms, and translate flexibly according to different situations. In 2018, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed a compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + aesthetic representation&quot; on the basis of the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; (Yang Mingxing, Qi Jingjing 2018,15). This standard was put forward in the context of the appearance of ancient poetry in political discourse. Besides meeting the requirements of &quot;political equivalence&quot; mentioned above, this standard asks to take the literary beauty of ancient poetry and prose, such as rhythm, form, artistic conception, etc as account. In January 2020, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed another compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + image representation&quot; based on the frequently used the rhetoric device metaphor in political discourse(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2018,41). The purpose of realizing &quot;image reproduction&quot; and &quot;aesthetic reproduction&quot; is basically similar, both of which are to reproduce the aesthetic experience of the original text. In October 2020, Yang Mingxing and some other scholars made a review of several major diplomatic event in the Sino-British diplomatic history and put forward that the realization of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard should not only rely on the translator's ability, but also have some connections with the national policy of translation, translation system and equal speaking rights between two countries, among which equal speaking right is the key to realize &quot;political equivalence&quot;(Yang Mingxing 2020,05).<br /> <br /> (2)The differences between “political equivalence” and “functional equivalence” put forward by Nida<br /> <br /> Firstly, the &quot;equivalence&quot; emphasized by Nida does not pay enough attention to the political connnotations of the original text in translation, ignoring the particularity of diplomatic or political discourse, and that whether the original text and translation are quite consistent in political standpoint and political connotation. Secondly, although functional equivalence pays attention to the information equivalence between the original text and the translated text, it does not pay enough attention to the real intention of the speaker or writer of the original text, because the literal meaning of the original text cannot be equal with the political standpoint and ideological connotation of the speaker or writer. Thirdly, the &quot;dynamic&quot; concept Nida proposed in “functional equivalence” theory ignores the dynamic changes in context and connotation of original text and translation. However, for diplomatic or political discourse, the connotations of the political terms do not remain unchanged. It changes constantly with the speaker's context, political tendency and historical background at that time. On the other hand, the target language is also dynamic, because the meaning and usage of the target language are constantly changing, the translator must keep track of the latest development of the target language and the domestic political and cultural background of the target audience (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> In a word, the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; is an important theory aiming at the translation of foreign affairs, diplomacy and political discourse, and provides theoretical guidance and normative requirements for the translation of political terms.<br /> <br /> ===5. Requirements of “Political Equivalence” for Translators ===<br /> <br /> First of all, pay attention to both the source language and the target language equally, and grasp the relationship between the speaker or writer and the audience or reader. The translation should not only accurately convey the meaning of the original text and the speaker or writer's real intention, but also take the language habits and the way of thinking of the target language users into consideration, so as to arise a common sense between the speaker or writer and the audience or reader. The translation of political discourse should not only aim at correctly understanding and expressing China's policy thoughts, but also fully consider the national emotions, language habits and identity psychology of the receiving country. If the translation only focuses on one side, it will be difficult to achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; and even cause political events (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;political equivalence&quot; must be dynamic. This kind of dynamic is not only related to the accurate understanding of the original text, but also involves the proper selection and use of the target language. It must always be in line with the context and political background of the speaker or writer as well as the audience or reader, which is the key to the realization of &quot;political equivalence&quot;. To translate political discourse or terms only by looking up the dictionary without considering the context is bound to make the translation be quite different from the original in meaning (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Thirdly, translation strategies should be flexible and diversified, and language form should not be confined to the original one. To achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; in political terms translation, the translation strategies cannot be single, rigid, and the translation either cannot be confined to the primitive form of the original text, the original or even the extended concepts or connotations of the words in it. Translators should make the necessary adjustment and bold choices in supplement and omission to the language form of the original text in accordance with the context and the real thoughts of the speaker or writer and the background of the political relationships between the two countries(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Fourthly, we should be familiar with the differences between English and Chinese customs, cultures, national emotions and ideologies. In the era of globalization, translation is not only the transformation of language symbols, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication behavior. The translation of political discourse is closely related to the cultural background of language. Due to the differences between China and West in way of thinking and language environment, corresponding words in English and Chinese have different national emotion and political connotation.For example, sometimes we may meet idioms, metaphors, allusions, myths and fables in the political discourse which are the quintessence of a nation's language with its own characteristics. They formed and developed on the basis of different culture and living environmnet, so it is necessary to strictly distinguish their differences in cultural connotation and political orientation which are the difficulties and key points in political discourse translation(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Fifthly, the grammatical phenomena and rules peculiar to English cannot be ignored, either. In English, there are many grammatical rules different from Chinese, such as tense, voice, subjunctive mood, singular and plural, case, article, etc. These language forms seem to have little effect, but if used improperly, they will often affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> lastly, learn the related knowledge of China's foreign policy and international relations to ensure political correctness in the translation of political discourse. Many countries have such sensitive issues as appellation, ethnicity, religion, sovereignty and territory. These are the &quot;minefields&quot; of political translation. When translating, one must handle it carefully and respect the language and cultural habits of the other party, otherwise it will easily lead to &quot;translation storm&quot; and affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> ===6. Translation Straties under The Standard of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of the standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot;, the following translation strategies are provided for reference on the characteristics of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> (1) Characteristics of Chinese political discourse<br /> <br /> Affixes are often seen in Chinese political discourse such as “化” in &quot;现代化&quot; and &quot;城镇化&quot;, so are abbreviations like &quot;‘十四五’规划&quot;, &quot;四个自信&quot;, etc., and four-character phrases such as &quot;和平共处&quot;, &quot;和而不同&quot;, etc. Besides, metaphor is also used frequently in Chinese political discourse such as &quot;‘老虎’、‘苍蝇’一起打&quot;, among which &quot;老虎(tiger)&quot; and &quot;苍蝇(flies)&quot; refer to officials accused of bribery and corruption. So, how do we translate these words that have Chinese language characteristics but need us to take their political implications as consideration? Pointing at these characteristics, some scholars have proposed specific translation strategies based on the &quot;political equivalence&quot;standard.<br /> <br /> (2) The strategies of supplement and omission for affixes, four-character phrases and abbreviations(Wu Jing 2014, 30)<br /> <br /> ① supplement<br /> <br /> The supplement strategy is to add words appropriately in the translation so as to convey the meaning of the original text accurately. In the foreign translation of Chinese political terms, this strategy is mainly applicable to two situations. Firstly, the abbreviation, which is a refined utterance of many political words for the convenience of memory. When the target language users don’t have relevant knowledge or language background about those abbreviations, supplementary explanation plays its role. Secondly, four-character phrases. Four-character phrases are typical examples of Chinese expressions. In order to conform to the expression habits of the target language, these condensed words should be supplemented and explained so that the audience can understand the meaning of the original text correctly.<br /> <br /> The strategy of supplement can be applied to the following situations: firstly, supplement relevant knowledge background. For example, “‘十四五’规划”is translated by China Daily as “the 14th Five-Year Plan(2021-25) for economic and social development”. In the translation, “十四”is translated as “the 14th” and“五” is translated as “Five-Year”, which adds category words to those numbers and time horizon as well as the nature of the plan to the content; Secondly, supplement detailed content to abbreviations. For example,“四个自信”is translated as “confidence in the path, theory, system and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics.”<br /> <br /> ②Omission<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belong to two kinds of language families, having great differences from vocabulary to the sentence structure, expression ways, etc. There are very little equivalent words in the two languages, so in order to make the translation smoother and be more in line with the expression ways of the target language, translator can use the strategy----omission, namely omitting those expressions without practical significance but hindering translation work, on the basis of being loyal to the original text.<br /> <br /> The strategy of omission is often used in the process of translation from Chinese to English, and the translation of Chinese political terms is no exception. For emphasizing, Chinese political leaders often use parallel sentences or repeated words, so we can omit those repeated words in the translation. For example, “治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字仍然在扩大。”can be translated as “Governance, trust, development and peace deficits continue to grow.” In addition, there are situations where multiple sentences express the same meaning, in which omission is also available. For example, “改善人民生活，增进人民福祉。”can be translated as “improve people’s livelihood”.<br /> <br /> (3) Translation strategies for metaphor<br /> <br /> Metaphor refers to the use of known figurative concepts to explain abstract concepts in diplomatic discourse. The translation standard and strategies of metaphor are determined by their inherent special attributes, which are not only the key factors to select their translation strategies, but also the important yardstick to test whether those strategies are applicable(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41). Metaphor is an objective phenomenon that has existed in political discourse for a long time. Its special attributes are reflected in political discourse, such as high political sensitivity, high cultural load and strong national characteristics. In view of the strong political sensitivity of diplomatic discourse, plain and direct words in political discourse is often empty of words, which is difficult to produce obvious communicative effect in foreign relations. In most cases, metaphorical discourse can be used to imply and disseminate a country's diplomatic ideas, attitudes and positions to achieve better communication effects (Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41).<br /> <br /> Through reading relevant papers, this chapter finds that the translation strategies proposed by scholars for metaphorical rhetoric in political discourse are mainly as follows(Long Xinyuan, Li Qiuxia 2020, 27):<br /> <br /> ① Literal translation of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> Although English and Chinese belong to different language families, and the cultural background and geographical area on which they live are also different, language is created by human beings, and human emotions always have something in common. At the same time, human beings live in the same world, especially in an increasingly integrated world like today, where the communication between human beings and the collision between cultures are inevitable. As a result, we are becoming more tolerant and understanding of different cultures and languages. When translating metaphorical words with cultural characteristics, we can render the metaphorical words in literal translation under the condition that the audience can understand them correctly, which is easier to arouse emotional resonance and cultural identity.<br /> <br /> For example, “新时代的长征路” is translated as &quot;Long March of the new era&quot;. The original text compares China's development path in the new era to the new Long March. In Chinese history, the Long March was a bloody road trodden by the communist party of China to save the country and the people. On the one hand, the literal translation of &quot;The Long March&quot; retains the historical allusions used in the original text, so that the audience can understand its meaning only by a simple association. On the other hand, it is more conducive to show the national spirit of China.<br /> <br /> ② Substitution of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> After all, differences are greater than similarities between different languages, so sometimes adopting literal translation in the text using metaphor does not make the audience clear, but may mislead. However, different metaphorical entities are often used to express the same abstract concept between Chinese and English. At this time, in order to make the audience better understand and accept the original metaphor, translator can replace the original metaphorical entities with those referring to same thing in the target language, which can also improve the external communication effect of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> For example, foreign ministry spokesman Hua Chunying once said:”The US wants to make China a scapegoat(对于美国的花式‘甩锅’，我们不想接也不能接。).”“甩锅”is an internet buzzword in China used to vividly express the meaning of shifting the blame onto someone else. And “scapegoat” originates from an allusion in the Bible which has the same meaning with the Chinese word “甩锅”(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41), so translator made a conversion between the two words. In this way, English readers can better understand the political connotation of the original sentence. However, if adopting literal translation, English readers won’t understand.<br /> <br /> ③literal translation+explanation<br /> <br /> In some other cases, either literally translating those metaphorical entities or using corresponding ones to substitute them cannot eliminate the language barrier caused by cultural differences, then translator can adopt the strategy of “literal translation+explanation”, which is to literally translate the metaphor entity and then add explanation to it. In this way, the translation not only keeps the cultural characteristics of the source language while making English readers be clear with the meaning of them, but also contributes to the spread of Chinese culture to the outside world.<br /> <br /> For an instance, “不能腐的笼子越扎越牢”is translated as “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption has been strengthened”. The Chinese words “笼子”refers to the strict management institutions against corruption set up by Chinese government. Comparing the institution to the cage makes the action of fighting against corruption become more vivid. However, for English readers, it is hard to understand the original political connotation according to a simple word “cage”, so translator needs to add some explanations like “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption.” As a result, the meaning is clear and vivid.<br /> <br /> ④abandoning the figurative body and translate its connotation directly<br /> <br /> Metaphor, as a figure of speech, is highly culture-loaded, while political discourse is a kind of words with high political sensitivity. These characteristics make the translation of Chinese political discourse more difficult, and it is inevitable that translators may meet the situation where they cannot easily balance and take all these characteristics into consideration. At this time, the translator should choose to abandon the figurative body and keep the metaphorical meaning, after all, it is the first important thing to convey the correct political implication.<br /> <br /> For example, “保障‘米袋子’、‘菜篮子’安全”is translated as “ensure the security of grain supply and non-staple food supply”,among which the Chinese words “米袋子(rice bag)”and“菜篮子(vegetable basket)”refer to major grain supply and non-staple food supply respectively. Because rice is the staple food in most ares of China while vegetable is the complementary food, such a metaphor is very vivid and down to earth. However, it's hard for foreigners to understand the meaning of &quot;rice bag&quot; or &quot;vegetable basket&quot; without a similar living environment, so we have to discard the original figurative body and translate its meaning directly.<br /> <br /> ===7. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the summary of the above-mentioned translation strategies pointing at different situations in translating Chinese political discourse, we can see that every strategy follows the three principles under the standard of &quot;political equivalence” ---- political, balance and dynamic. Every translation strategy takes the correct transition of the political implications of the original text as the first rule, namely being political; and then keeps the cultural or linguistic characteristics of the original text as much as possible, namely keeping balance; additionally, adopting appropriate translation strategies according to different contexts or situations, namely being dynamic. The translation of political discourse has its particularity and is of great importance, so it is necessary to be careful when choosing translation strategies. Translators should not only have high linguistic literacy and fair political standpoint, but also keep up with current events, correctly and fully understand the political meaning of the original text, and make specific analysis according to different contexts and occasions to adopt the most appropriate translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===8. References===<br /> <br /> [1]楚行军. 中国政治话语翻译研究二十年(2000—2019)[Studies on the Translation of Chinese Political Discourse over the past 20 years(2000-2019)]——基于中国知网的分析[J]. 焦作师范高等专科学校学报,2020,36(03):24-27+40.<br /> <br /> [2]吴静. 基于“政治等效”的中国政治新词翻译策略解析[An analysis of translation strategies of Chinese new political terms on the basis of &quot;political equivalence&quot;][J]. 兰州文理学院学报(社会科学版),2014,30(01):95-98.<br /> <br /> [3]龙新元,李秋霞. “政治等效+认知趋同”：认知翻译观视阈下的政治文本翻译研究[&quot;Political Equivalence + Cognitive Convergence&quot; : A Study of political Text translation from the perspective of cognitive Translation][J]. 天津外国语大学学报,2020,27(05):104-120+161.<br /> <br /> [4]杨明星. 论外交语言翻译的“政治等效”——以邓小平外交理念“韬光养晦”的译法为例[The application of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; in diplomatic Language Translation -- Taking Deng Xiaoping's diplomatic idea &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2008,(05):90-94.<br /> <br /> [5]杨明星,闫达. “政治等效”理论框架下外交语言的翻译策略——以“不折腾”的译法为例[Translation strategies of diplomatic language under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;-- Taking the translation of &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2012,35(03):73-77.<br /> <br /> [6]杨明星,齐静静. 外交修辞的复合性翻译标准:“政治等效+审美再现”——以国家领导人外交演讲古诗文为例[The composite translation standard of diplomatic rhetoric: &quot;Political equivalence + aesthetic reproduction&quot; -- taking the ancient poems and essays in diplomatic speeches of national leaders as an example][J]. 中国外语,2018,15(06):89-96+109.<br /> <br /> [7]杨明星,赵玉倩. “政治等效+”框架下中国特色外交隐喻翻译策略研究[A research on translation strategies of metaphors in diplomatic discorses with Chinese characteristics under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence plus&quot;][J]. 中国翻译,2020,41(01):151-159+190.<br /> <br /> [8]杨明星,张琰. 中英外交翻译中“政治等效”与话语平等辩证关系分析——从马戛尔尼使华到共建“一带一路”(1792-2019)[Dialectical relationship between &quot;political equivalence&quot; and discourse equality in diplomatic translation between China and Britain -- from macartney's mission period to &quot;One Belt And One Road&quot; period(1792-2019)][J]. 上海翻译,2020,(05):24-29+94.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Appreciation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> == Study of Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden'' from the Stylistic Perspective 袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi 202020080664==<br /> &lt;center&gt;袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'' is a classic literary work of Henry David Thoreau, which has become a classic work in the Treasure house of American literature. The Chinese translator Xu Chi first translated it into China, and since then ''Walden'' has been retranslated and republished for many times. In China, the version of ''Walden'' translated by Xu Chi is the most widely spread and influential one, and has been highly regarded as a classic translation. There hve been a lot of studies on ''Walden'' both at home and abroad, such as studies on the ecology of the book, studies on birth background and living conditions of the author Henry David Thoreau, and systematic studies on Chinese translation version of ''Walden'' under different theoretical frameworks. However, there are few studies on Chinese translations of ''Walden'' from stylistic perspective. This paper will focus on the lexical, syntactic and rhetorical features of Xu Chi’s translation and analyze their stylistic effects. It is hoped that this study will be of certain value to the translation studies of ''Walden'' and the literary translation criticism from the stylistic perspective.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'', Chinese Translation of ''Walden'' by Xu Chi , Stylistics<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从文体学角度看《瓦尔登湖》徐迟译本<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》是亨利·大卫·梭罗的经典文学作品，已经成为美国文学宝库中的经典之作。中国译者徐迟首先将其译入国内，此后《瓦尔登湖》多次被重译再版。在中国，徐迟翻译的《瓦尔登湖》汉译本流传最广、影响最大，而且一直被推崇为“译文经典”。对于《瓦尔登湖》的研究，在国内和国外有很多，例如对散文涉及生态的研究，对于作者亨利·戴维·梭罗出生背景和生活状况的研究，以及不同的理论框架下对于《瓦尔登湖》中文翻译版本的系统研究。但是从文体学角度研究《瓦尔登湖》中译本的不多。本文着重探讨徐迟译本在词汇、句法、修辞层面上的特征，分析其文体效果。希望本研究对《瓦尔登湖》的翻译研究及从文体学视角开展文学翻译批评具有一定的参考价值。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》、徐迟中译本、文体学<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau and ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a collection of essays written by American writer Henry David Thoreau. Henry David Thoreau was born in 1817 and died in 1862. He was a famous writer, philosopher, representative of Transcendentalism, abolitionist of slavery and naturalist in the United States. He was deeply influenced by Emerson. He advocated returning to original mind and being close to nature. Thoreau created more than 20 first-class prose collections in his whole life. His essays are concise and powerful, simple and natural, full of thought, which hava unique style in American proses in the 19th century. In 1845, he lived in seclusion by Walden lake, two miles away from Concord. He cultivated and ate by himself and experienced a simple and close to nature life. Thoreau loved, appreciated and immersed in nature. He understood the world through nature and regarded the world as a whole for people to appreciate and enjoy. He advocated simple life, so he abandoned all material enjoyment and pursued spiritual enrichment. With a keen thinking of a philosopher and rigorous spirit of science, Thoreau put himself into the embrace of nature and explored everything around him.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a record of Thoreau’s life when he lived alone by Walden lake. ''Walden'' is composed of 18 essays, which record Thoreau's hands-on life by walden lake for two months from 1845 to 1847. This book advocates simple life, appeals readers to return to nature, and expresses Thoreau's love for nature. The simple way of life in the book reflects Thoreau’s view of nature.This book has certain philosophical significance as well as artistic and aesthetic value.<br /> ''Walden'' is a Transcendentalist classic and is recognized as the most popular non-fiction work in American literature. After more than 100 years of circulation, the book has become a classic in American literature. So far, it has been published in more than 150 editions and translated into more than 40 languages. <br /> Thoreau’s own practice in Walden lake and his works have a consistent proposition, that is, returning to nature. In his works, he constantly pointed out that most of modern people are trapped by family, work and various material needs, thus lost their spiritual pursuit and lived a materialistic life. Thoreau persisted in the pursuit of spiritual happiness and rejected material comforts. This is why Thoreau lived a simple life by Walden lake, enjoying a life of leisure while his neighbors pursued a life of wealth and material comforts, enslaved by their own desires.<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Xu Chi and His Translation of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi=====<br /> Xu Chi is famous for his poems, essays and reportage. He was once awarded by Mao Zedong's inscription of “poetry expresses ambition”, and he was known as &quot;Contemporary Chinese Goethe&quot; and &quot;Father of Reportage&quot;.<br /> Another little-known identity of this famous Chinese writer is being as a translator. He not only wrote poems, essays, reportages, novels and reviews, but also translated and introduced a large number of foreign literary works, with a total of 10 million words in his life.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden''=====<br /> In 1949, Xu translated Walden into Chinese called &quot;华尔腾&quot;, which failed to elicit widespread attention because at that time, people all over China were immersedin the joy of gaining cmancipation from feudalism and imperialism, so that ''Walden'',promoting tranquility and transcendentalism, was ignored.<br /> In 1982, Xu Chi retranslated it and titled it &quot;瓦尔登湖&quot;, which was so popular that it was republished for many times since then. Xu's version of ''Walden'' chosen in this study is its second edition, published in 1982, to which Xu Chi added a preface to present information about Thoreau and comments on ''Walden''. To some extent, readers are able to have a glimpse of Xu's own emotions and thoughts in his translation of ''Walden''. <br /> Xu Chi usually selected and translated works that were close to his own nature and could move him, because only in this way, he could have more resonance with the writers and their works, and reproduced the style of the original author. For Xu Chi, he expressed his own feelings and thoughts through translating these writers'works to a certain extent (Yao Junwei, 2005:146). Only when his soul was in harmony with Thoreau's, did Xu Chi love this book so much and rised to translating this book. It was in the summer of 1949 that Xu Chi began to translate Thoreau's ''Walden''. Because Xu Chi was extremely fond of this book, he spent lots of efforts in translating this famous work. In the first stage of translation, he tried to understand the meaning of the original work, hoping to be able to deeply understand the original work. He confessed that it was a very profound book which is full of translation challenges. He was very busy during the day, so he sometimes couldn't read it.Because this book was too difficult to understand, it seemed that this book was suddenly not so interseting and attractive to him, and it seemed that it was of no benefit to translate it. However, he found that his mood gradually became peaceful after dusk. When he read this book at this time, he suddenly felt the book quite interesting. What he saw was the chapters that could’t be seen in the daytime. The language was amazing, the words were shining, and his heart was touched. When the ningt became quiet, the book became not so obscure. Under the recitation, he could not help but be fascinated by it (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).<br /> His most successful translation is ''Walden'', which he translated first in 1949, then again in 1982 and in 1996. The masterpiece of David Thoreau, a famous American transcendentalist writer, still shines brightly in the vast Chinese translated literature. In recent ten years, there have been more than 20 new translations of ''Walden'', but Xu Chi's translation is still regarded as the best translation and is the first choice for many presses to publish as Chinese translations of ''Walden'' in recent years. Although there are many Chinese translations of ''Walden'', most of them take Xu Chi's translation as a reference (Wang Zhao 2009, 147), which indicates the authority of Xu Chi's translation.<br /> <br /> ====Style and Styllistics====<br /> =====Style=====<br /> Originated from the Latin or Greek word &quot;stile&quot; or &quot;stilus&quot;, &quot;style&quot; originally refers to a sharp instrument made of metal or bone, used as a writing tool, and later symbolizes a way of writing. At first, it was mainly used in writing. As time goes by, its application has been broadened into areas like music, dance, painting, fashion, behavior,literature, architecture and so on. As it has been mentioned in the introduction part, the research object ''Walden'' is a piece of literary work, consequently, this thesis will mainly study literary style.<br /> Since ancient times, style has always been the object of people's study. Aristotle, Cicero, Demetrius, and Quintilian all used style as an appropriate decoration for thought. This view prevailed throughout the Renaissance, when devices of style could be classified. An essayist or orator needs to construct his or her point of view by means of exemplary sentences and prescribed kinds of &quot;figures&quot; that conform to his or her mode of discourse.<br /> For a long time, the definition of style has remained varied, and different scholars have given different definitions of it. It is unnecessary and impractical here to list them all. Some definitions will be given below to help us understand what style is.<br /> One of the most successful attempts to define style in a comprehensive way is Leech and Short’s (1981). Although claiming that “unsuccessful attempts to attach a precise meaning” to the term “style” have often resulted in an impoverishment of the subject , they offer a list of the items forming the basis of their own concept of style, which can be summarized as follows:<br /> (a) Style is a way in which language is used; therefore it consists in choices made from the repertoire of the language; <br /> (b) A style is defined in terms of a domain of language use (e.g. what choices are made by a particular author, in a particular genre, or in a particular text);<br /> (c) Literary stylistics is typically concerned with explaining the relation between style and literary or aesthetic function;<br /> (d) Stylistic choice is limited to those aspects of linguistic choice which concern alternative ways of rendering the same subject matter.<br /> Nida Eugene (1982, 12) defines that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”So in translation of literary works, the author’s style should be represented through the translator’s style, and the translator’s style should depend on the style of the author. Many translators are good at representing different writers’styles and yet has its own unique translation style.<br /> The broad view of style includes the elements of linguistic style and non-linguistic style. Among them, the elements of language style mainly include the means of language style, such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structure and rhetorical devices, and the elements of non-language style include the author's emotion factor, the author's imagination factor and the author's intelligence factor. The narrow sense of style only involves the author's means of language style and rhetorical style (Lv Jun &amp; Hou Xiangqun 2001, 320).<br /> In conclude, translation (especially literary translation) as an across-culture process dose not only focus on the content of source text but also the style which is about how the writers write. Therefore, it is essential for a translator to know how to figure out the style of source text and reproduce it with target language.<br /> <br /> =====Styllistics=====<br /> Stylistics is a comprehensive frontier discipline that studies the characteristics, essence and laws of text forms, and is in the ascendant between linguistics, literature and art, aesthetics, psychology and other disciplines.<br /> It is difficult to determine when stylistics became a field of academic study. It can be argued, however, that it was not until the late 1950s that stylistics began to make significant and measurable progress. This is a young frontier discipline that is growing over time. Stylistics has developed into a well-targeted and technically effective interdisciplinary field of study, which is expected to provide useful insights for literary criticism and literature teaching. It has also been influencing translation criticism. Modern stylistics provides an important theoretical basis for translation studies. As far as the development of the subject of translation is concerned, stylistics has been recognized for its value and function. <br /> Modern stylistics uses the tools of formal linguistic analysis coupled with the methods of literary criticism; its goal is to try to isolate characteristic uses and functions of language and rhetoric rather than advance normative or prescriptive rules and patterns.<br /> <br /> =====Language Style and Stylistic Features of ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a masterpiece of prose style. It is concise, eloquent and profound in thought. Just as he pursues the simplest life, his language style of ''Walden'' can be summarized into four points: concise writing, accurate description, incisive argument, and pithy argumentation and causal narration. <br /> ''Walden'' is also a book aimed directly at the reader. Anyone who read this book feels that they are listening to and sharing Thoreau's ideals. This book is not easy for readers to understand, especially those who read it for the first time. Correspondingly, the prominent stylistic characteristics of ''Walden'' are manifested in four aspects: exquisite scenic description, complex syntax, various rhetorical devices and rich quotations．<br /> So it is helpful for the translator to understand the original text and reproduce the stylistic equivalence in the translation. Therefore, the translator should fully understand his stylistic characteristics, which is the premise of reproducing his style in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===Stylistic Features of ''Walden''===<br /> ====Lexical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Degree of Formality=====<br /> There are a lot of obsolete and old words in ''Walden''and the use of these words makes the book more flavor, solemn and elegant. However, the use of these words will also bring great trouble to the translation at the same time. It is difficult for the translators to grasp these words, so they can not use literal translation but use creative way to make readers feel what the author wants to express in this book.<br /> In ''Walden'', Thoreau uses concise words to demonstrate his own ideas, natural scenery and cultural customs of Walden Lake. Unlike official documents, regulations, or academic creations, general style of ''Walden'' suggests that Thoreau’s choice of words is less formal. This section aims to analyze the degree of formality of nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the Xu Chi’s translation. In terms of nouns, Xu Chi tends to choose words with literary charm and formal style, which are not suitable for the informal style of the original text.<br /> Example 1：<br /> …；where the washing is not put out, nor the fire, nor the mistress, and perhaps you are sometimes requested to move from off the trap—door; when the cook would descend into the cellar, and learn whether the ground is solid or hollow beneath you without stamping．(Thoreau 2012, 277—278)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：在那罩，洗瀣物不比晒在外面，炉火不熄，女主人也不会生气，也许有时要你移动一下，让厨子从地板门里走下地窖去，而你不用蹬脚就可以知道你的脚下是虚是实。 (徐迟 2009, 270)<br /> The passage describes part of Thoreau’s dream of a bigger house for more people. The original text provides a natural and causal description of the scenes and activities in Thoreau's dream house. There are five commas and a period in this 47-word sentence with employment of concrete nouns，the structure of the original is loose and casual. As can be seen from the above, &quot;washing&quot; in Xu's translation is loosely understood as “洗涤物” which means the process of eliminating unnecessary ingredients through detergent, which is formal in Chinese. Xu Chi reproduced the content of‘'the washing’’but he ignored the degree of formality in choosing word, thus falling to deliver the casualness reflected by the original text．<br /> Because ''Walden'' is full of depictions of landscape, adjectives are indispensable in Thoreau's creation of various images and pictures, as well as his insightful comments. Let us look at a example of it.<br /> Example 2：<br /> Often the poor man is not so cold and hungry as he is dirty and ragged and gross．(Thoreau 2012, 85)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：往往是那个穷人，邋遢、褴褛又粗野，但并没有途堡查选。(徐迟 2009, 83)<br /> The first adjective “poor” is used as an antecedent modifier and the other five adjectives are used as predicates. With the six adjectives being short and plain, the original text is generally of informal style. Xu transfered “cold and hungry” into a four-character noun phrase“冻馁之忧”which means “sufferings from cold and hunger.” However, this phrase is somewhat old-fashioned and is too formal to keep in line with the original style．Besides，it appears uncoordinated with three adjectives“邋遢、褴褛又粗野”being placed before the noun phrase“冻馁之忧”. So, it is not appropriate to reflect the original style.<br /> Verbs are also frequently employed in ''Walden'' to depict the fighting between animals or other activities. The degree of formality marked by verbs is the target of the study here. <br /> Example 3：<br /> I took up the chip on which the three I have particularly described were struggling, carried it into my house，and placed it under a tumbler on my window-sill，in order to see the issue．(Thoreau 2012, 262-263)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation：<br /> 我特别描写的三个战士在同一张木片上搏斗，我把这张木片拿进我的家里，放在我的窗槛上。罩在一个大杯子下面，以便考察结局。(徐迟 2009, 256)<br /> As we can see from the examples, these verbs are short and common in our everyday speech. They come mainly from Anglo-Saxon English and have informal stylistic characteristics. Therefore, the style of the original text is informal and should be preserved in Chinese translation. In this sentence, Thoreau prepared to wait and see with interest how the battle between the ants would go on after a series of arrangements. Xu Chi translated the word “see” into “考察”which sounds serious and formal, because “考察”means carefully checking certain items or situations, and is often used in formal situations, such as “考察人” or “考察情况”. So, Xu's version deviates from the original natural and informal flavor.<br /> <br /> =====Expressive Meaning=====<br /> Roman Jakobson, building on Karl Bühler (1934), coined the term expressive or emotive for one of the functions of language. He describes it as the function focused on the ADDRESSER [speaker], aims a direct expression of the speaker's attitude toward what he is speaking about (Jakobson 1960, 354) and gives interjections as the prime example of this function.<br /> It is worthy of our attention that differences between words in terms of expressive meaning are not simply equal to a matter of whether an expression of a certain attitude or evaluation is reproduced or not. The same attitude or evaluation may be expressed to widely varying degrees of forcefulness.<br /> Example 4：It is said that a flood-tide, with a westerly wind，and ice in the Neva, would sweep St. Petersburg from the face of the earth. (Thoreau 2012, 22)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：据说，涅瓦河要是涨了水，刮了西风，流来的冰块可以把圣彼得堡一下子大地的表面上冲掉的。 (徐迟 2009, 21)<br /> According to the Oxford Advanced English-Chinese Dictionary, &quot;sweeping&quot; is the act of sudden movement (of weather, fire, etc.), forcing a movement in an area or in a particular direction. In the original context, the combination of “flood tides, westerly winds, and ice” was destructive and therefore clearly detrimental to St.Petersburg. So the word &quot;sweep&quot; here reflects the speaker's negative attitude toward the possible outcome. Obviously, the word “冲掉” in Xu Chi’s translation is a neutral term and does not reflect the speaker’s attitude or feelings towards the potential disaster caused by flood tide, westerly winds and snow. Xu ignored the author’s emotional attitude, thus ignoring the influence that these forces may cause, and did not produce systematic equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====Syntactic Features of ''Walden''====<br /> Raffel (1994) points out that &quot;the syntax of prose shows the style of the author, and the reproduction of the original style is the key to prose translation which stresses not only what message says, but also how the message is said.&quot; So, the syntactic features of ''Walden'' should never be ignored.<br /> In the original text, short sentences in English have neat structure and harmonious rhythm. Xu Chi did not change the original structure in translation, but adopted literal translation. The so-called literal translation is to retain the content and language expression habits of the original text as well as the form and style of the original text under the condition that the target language allows. Since Both Chinese and English are discourse systems and they have something in common, literal translation is a good way to deal with them.<br /> Example 5:<br /> It is no dream of mine， To ornament a line; I cannot come nearer to God and Heaven, than I live to Walden even． I am its stony shore, and the breeze that passes o’er; In the hollow of my hand Are its water and its sand, and its deepest resort Lies high in my thought. (Thoreau 2012, 137) <br /> Xu Chi’s Translation:<br /> 这不是我的梦，用于装饰一行诗;我不能更接近上帝和天堂甚于我之生活在瓦尔登。我是它的圆石岸，飘拂而过的风;在我掌握的一握，是它的水，它的沙，而它的最深邃僻隐处,高高躺在我的思想中。 (Xu Chi 2012, 151)<br /> The translation of this paragraph has a neat structure, neat antithesis, and pays attention to the regularity and rhythm of the literal. The original is composed of ten verses and the translation retains the original format, which can increase the depth and appeal of the translation, thus producing artistic effect and aesthetic value.<br /> <br /> ====Rhetorical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Metaphor=====<br /> Metaphor means to &quot;shift a word from its original meaning to another word that is generally not interchangeable but similar, and to emphasize its identity, that is, the two are similar but not a simile&quot;.<br /> Example 6: <br /> Public opinion is a weak tyrant compared with our own private opinion. (Thoreau, 7)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation: 和我们的自知之明相比较，公众舆论这暴戾的君主也显得微弱无力。(徐迟，6）<br /> The ontology and metaphor in this sentence are &quot;public opinion&quot; and &quot;weak tyrant.&quot; There must be something similar between them. The following statement gives the reason: &quot;Compared to our own private opinions&quot;, which is quite clear. People are used to focusing on themselves in front of others, so public opinion is only slightly weak. The subtle use of metaphor shows Thoreau's wisdom and thorough understanding of human nature. Xu Chi dealt with this metaphor perfectly.<br /> =====Pun=====<br /> Puns are deliberately declared polysemous words or homonyms created with double meaning in a certain language environment, with implicit, humorous and profound effects. Newmark (2001, 217) points out that &quot;pun translation is unimportant but fascinating&quot;. The use of puns in Walden is remarkable.<br /> The basic function of pun in ''Walden'' is to express logical relations. Because puns can express two levels of meaning in a word, phrase, or sentence, they are often used as a link between the text before and after it. A key problem that haunts the reader when reading ''Walden'' is the lack of connection between the two passages. A clear logical relationship is a prerequisite for expressing other special effects, such as rhetorical and aesthetic effects. Therefore, the improper translation of puns will seriously affect logical coherence and other rhetorical devices.<br /> Example 7：<br /> If the name was not derived from that of some English locality - Saffron Walden, for instance, one might suppose that it was called originally Walled-in Pond. (Thoreau 2012, 209)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation: 如果这个湖名不是由当地一个叫萨福隆•瓦尔登的英国人的名字化出来的话，——那么，我想瓦尔登湖原来的名字可能是围而得湖。(徐迟 2009, 172)<br /> This classic example of puns has been discussed many times. Thoreau suggested that &quot;Walden&quot; might come from “Walled-in”. &quot;Walled-in Pond&quot;, as ahomophonic pun, serves as the logic link of the whole paragraph. Xu wisely translates it as “围而得”, retaining not only the similar pronunciation but also the importance of meaning. “围而得” maintains the logical relation of the whole paragraph.It is eye-catching and stimulates readers to think more about Thoreau's intentions to use this word.<br /> <br /> =====Personification=====<br /> Personification refers to &quot;the practice of representing a person, quality, or characteristic as a human being in art and literature.&quot; People subconsciously tend to reflect non-human things with their lives in order to express their feelings and thoughts. In view of the characteristics of human behavior, literary works can vividly express the feelings of the author, and make readers feel that the description of the object is more vivid and appropriate, which makes the article more vivid.<br /> Example 8：<br /> This further experience also I gained：I said to myself,1 will not plant beans and corn with so much industry another summer，but such seeds, if the seed is not lost, as sincerity, truth, simplicity, faith, innocence, and the like, and see if they will not grow in this soil，even with less toil and manurance，and sustain me, for surely it has not been exhausted for these crops. (Thoreau 2012, 186-187)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation:<br /> 我还获得了下面的更丰富的经验：我对我自己说，下一个夏天，我不要花那么大的劳力来种豆子和玉米了，我将种这样<br /> 这样一些种子像诚实、真理、纯朴、信心、天真等等，如果这些种子并没有失落，看看它们能否在这片土地上生长，能否以较少劳力和肥料；来维持我的生活，因为，地力一定还没消耗到不能种这些东西。 (徐迟 2009, 182)<br /> Thoreau here is sharing his experience in growing beans and his plans next summer with readers. As we know, words like “sincerity,truth，simplicity, faith and innocence” usually refer to qualities of human. But here, these words are adopted to describe the characteristics of seeds and humanize these seeds，constructing a vivid personification. Xu Chi reproduce the rhetorical feature of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The language of ''Walden'' is rich in vocabulary, complex and diverse sentence structure, the author's writing is flexible and fluent, and the use of various rhetoric makes the translation work more difficult. <br /> To sum up, Xu Chi’s translation appears more formal than the original text and some words of his translation can not reflect the expressive meaning of the original one. It is found that Xu Chi tended to use words with typical features of his time which seem out of date at present. But due to the time he lived in, we believe that Xu Chi’s version satisfied the need or linguistic expectation of the target readers of his time which has its significance. We also find that sentences in Xu's translation follow the syntax of English language. Xu Chi kept the structure beauty of the original work properly, respected the original work and kept the structure orderly, directly conveying Thoreau's thoughts and feelings. And Xu Chi indeed do well in reflecting rhetorical features of the original text, which is refered by many translators later. In general, Xu Chi's translation is close to the original text in style and language characteristics and is a classic translation of ''Walden''.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ==A Comparison Beteewn the Translation Systems Proposed by Tan Zai and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation. 王美玲 Wang Meiling==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;王美玲 Wang Meiling&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> The Renaissance is the fourth peak in the history of Western translation and a great development in the history of Western literature. During the 16th century and the period following the Renaissance in Europe, translation reached an unprecedented climax in the fields of thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion. At that time, the German translation of the Bible by the Martin Luther is the most well-known one in the whole translation circle, and its influence is unique and long-standing in Germany as well as in the whole Europe continent. Since the Reform and Opening-up, China has gradually stepped into the center of the world arena, and its literary works bearing the quintessence of Chinese culture has become a crucial bridge connecting the rest of the world with China. Despite the rise of machine translation, it can never replace the overwhelming role of human translation in the literary translation. Luther’s translation thoughts have exerted an important influence on the development of Western translation theories, so what sparks can be drawn between his translation principles and Chinese modern culture and literary works? This paper makes a brief comment on the main translation activities of renaissance, then compares the translation thoughts of Luther and Lu Xun, and applies Luther’s detailed translation rules to the actual translation practice,finally analyzes the influence of Luther’s translation thoughts and principles on modern translation practice and their significance for reference.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Renaissance; Luther; literary works; translation principles; influence;<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴运动是西方翻译史的第四次高潮，也是西方文学史上的一次大发展。文艺复兴在欧洲普遍开展的16世纪以及随后一个时期，翻译活动达到了前所未有的高峰，深入思想、政治、哲学、文学宗教等各个领域。在整个翻译界，德国马丁·路德的《圣经》德译本是该时期最负盛名的译本，其影响不论是在德国乃至整个欧洲都是独一无二且源远流长的。改革开放以来，中国日益走进世界舞台中央，承载着中华文化精髓的文学作品成为了重要桥梁。纵然机器翻译兴起，但绝不能替代人工翻译在文学翻译领域的绝对性地位。路德的翻译思想对西方翻译理论的发展产生了重要影响，那么其翻译思想和理论原则与中国当代文化及文学作品又能擦出什么样的火花呢？本文将通过对文艺复兴时期的主要翻译活动进行简评，再对比路德与鲁迅的翻译思想，接着将路德的翻译细则运用到实际的翻译实践中，分析路德的翻译思想及理论原则对于当代翻译实践的影响以及借鉴意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴；路德；文学作品；翻译原则；影响；<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> The Protestant Reformation Movement in Germany in the 16th century ushered in a new era of translation and dissemination of Bible.Under the protection of Protestantism, Martin Luther devoted himself to the German translation of the Bible. By the time of 1544 Luther’s death, 430 versions of his Bible translation had been published. In order to make common people more directly understand the meaning of the Bible, Martin Luther translated it in national language. He insisted on his translation thought and fought against the church power and his opponents. He made unremitting efforts in the great project of the Bible translation, which promoted the unification of German language and created a graceful literary language.His translation thoughts are still of great significance to the current translation theory and practice.&quot;First of all, from a historical point of view, translation has two main functions in promoting the birth and development of national culture and the transformation of national culture into world culture: one is to promote cultural exchange; the other is to disseminate ideas.&quot;<br /> <br /> Since the beginning of reform and opening-up, China has gradually stepped onto the world arena. China persists in its cultural development geared to the needs of the world and actively promotes cultural development to the world. Literary works bear the essence of Chinese culture, whose export is an crucial way to spread Chinese culture to the world. Over the years, despite the rise of machine translation, which has a certain practical role, it can not replace the overwhelming role of manual translation in literary translation. So what significance does Luther’s translation thought and theory born in the reform era have in guiding modern translation theory and practice, especially in the field of literary translation?<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Brief comments on translation thoughts in the period of Renaissance===<br /> <br /> '''1.1 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.2 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.3 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.4 '''<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Comparison of translation thoughts between Luther and Lu Xun===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 ===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 ===<br /> <br /> ==Study on Interpreter's Memory and Translation Memory in Interpreting 康浩宇 Kang Haoyu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br /> <br /> '''1.1 Background'''<br /> <br /> Memory plays an important role in interpreting and it is a kind of interpreting competence. The information processing in interpreting is complicated. When the information is input, interpreter first recognize and keep the information, which will then be analyzed, encoded, stored and retrieved. And the interpreter finally decode the information into target language(Wang Jianhua, 2019).Because of the fast input of information and limited time for pausing, great memory is required for interpreters. Whether a good or poor memory has a direct effect on the quality of interpreting. <br /> With the development of science and technology, machine translation and computer aided translation, which is also called CAT, was invented as two effective and efficient ways for translation. In CAT, there is a concept called translation memory. Different from human beings’ memory, translation memory is more likely a database. Nowadays, translation memory of CAT has been put into wide use in translation. And in recent years, translation memory has also been applied as a tool in interpreting. As the technology is not yet mature, there are still some limitation and weakness.<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Significance of the Study'''<br /> <br /> There are some studies on the memory of interpreters. But most of them focus on its practical aspects such as how to improve interpreters’ memory or how to make the best of memory in interpreting, instead of substantial facts. The nature of memory and mechanism of memory is also worthy to be studied, so readers can have better understanding and cognition of what is memory and how it works. Therefore, readers can better address our problems in memory of interpreting. The study will fully analyze memory from the aspect of psychology and science. And then it will study on memory of interpreting in details including systems, mechanism, coding and theories. <br /> Translation memory is quite a novel topic as it belongs to a sort of science and technology. As the world stepped into information era, digital era and even Artificial Intelligence era, translation memory has been used more widely than ever before. It really facilitates the translators as it both saves a lot of time and greatly improved the translation efficiency. However, there are few studies on the translation memory application in interpreting field. Actually, in many situations, interpreters also uses this kind of technology to help their interpreting. They study will research on the fact of translation memory in interpreting.<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Structure of the Study'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be developed in five chapters. <br /> Chapter 1, the introduction part, is initiated by introducing the background, research problems, and significance of the study.<br /> Chapter 2 is functioned to define and categorize the memory.<br /> Chapter 3 will present the memory mechanism and related theories in interpreting.<br /> Chapter 4 will mainly focus on the translation memory technology at present and its application in interpreting.<br /> The concluding chapter generalizes the content of the study and put forward the limitations.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Study on Memory===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 The definition of the Memory'''<br /> <br /> Memory has different definitions in different fields. Generally speaking, human memory is a reflection of what the brain has experienced. From the perspective of psychology, memory is the recognition, maintenance, reappearance of experienced things by the human brain, and it is the basis of advanced psychological activities such as thinking and imagination. It is the retention and extraction of past experience by human brain. It is a psychological process in which individual experience is accumulated and preserved in the mind. All things that have been perceived can be kept in people's minds, and can be reproduced when necessary. This refers to the process in which the human brain encodes, stores and extracts meaningful information input from the outside world(Peng Danlin，1991). From the perspective of neurology, human memory is closely related to the changes of chemical composition in hippocampus and brain. All memory that exists in the brain depends on various nerve cells of the brain, which are called neurons. According to information processing theory, memory process is the process of encoding, storing and extracting input information. Only coded information can be remembered. Coding is the process of processing and transforming the input information, and coding is the key stage of the whole memory process.<br /> <br /> '''2.2. Memory Systems'''<br /> <br /> Based on the structure, memory can be categorized into three systems. There are sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. The later two systems are also often referred as STM and LTM. The three memory systems are different from each other but closely related.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1 Sensory Memory'''<br /> <br /> As the shortest memory system, sensory memory is the first channel for human brain to get the information. It has some capacity. According the research in Cognitive Psychology(Wang Su, Wang Ansheng, 1992), People’s visual sensory capacity is more than 9 chunk while their auditory sensory memory capacity has less capacity, which is about chunk. chunk here are memory units, and the size of chunk varies with people's knowledge and experience. A chunk can be a word, a number, a phrase, a sentence, a word list, etc. Sensory memory works as temporary storage for sensory information. It depends on the physical nature of external stimulus to code the information and it is the real copy and transcription of the external stimulus. Most sensory memory can stay for one to two seconds and then disappear. Only with more attention and focus can the sensory memory be processed and then become short term memory(Bao Gang, 2005). People’s visual sensory memory can just keep for less than one second while their auditory sensory memory can keep for 4 seconds. It is inevitable that information will lose with the disappearance of sensory memory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2 Short Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Short term memory is the second memory system. Short term memory is based on the neuron network in hippocampus. It keeps the information that has been selected in the hippocampus of human brain. In some cases, part of information will move from the short memory in hippocampus to long term memory in cerebral cortex. In psychology, short term memory can keep for about one minute with the capacity of about 7 chunks. That means that people can memorize seven unrelated numbers or phonemes for about one minute with their short term memory. However, the capacity of short term memory is not decided by the amount of stimulus but by the modes of chunk and coding. Chunks can effectively expand the capacity of short-term memory. When processing information, people can use the knowledge and experience stored in long-term memory to combine several single stimuli into larger information units, which can effectively expand and increase short-term memory span and improve memory efficiency. Moreover, the coding of short-term memory is mainly auditory coding, and there are also visual coding and semantic coding. Instead of chunk and information unit, people can also use retelling to transfer short term memory to long term memory. Retelling refers to the psychological operation process of repeating the materials just memorized by language to consolidate memory. In the case of retelling, the learning materials kept in short-term memory will transfer to long-term memory. The content of short-term memory can be transformed into long-term memory by retelling. <br /> <br /> There is a special type of short term memory, working memory. The concept working memory was first proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. It is used to describe the process of a person temporarily memorizing the fact and thoughts when addressing problems or working(Baddeley, 2006). In spite of limited resources and storage time, working memory is still different from short term memory in temporary storage of information(Hitch, 2012). Compared with short term memory which store information passively, the working memory process is more dynamic. Generally speaking, there are three differences. First, working memory emphasizes storing and processing information at the same time, while short-term memory only focuses on information storage. Secondly, working memory is a multi-factor system, while short-term memory is a single system. Third, working memory is more important than short-term memory for many advanced brain functions and even almost all human cognitive work(Wang Jianhua, 2019). The disappear of short term memory is often due to the interruption.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3 Long Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Different from short term memory, long term memory is stored in human’s cerebral cortex where there is more room for storage. Long term memory is very important in keeping information for long time. It can keep information for more than one minute and even for a whole life. Its capacity is unlimited. All the information kept by long term memory has been selected and filtered.According to Tulving, long term memory is stored mainly as two types(Tulving, 1974). They are episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory is about one’s experience of some specific situations. Semantic memory refers to knowledge such as words, concepts, rules and other abstract things.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Memory Mechanism'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, the process of memory includes three key steps. They are memorizing, keeping and recalling. In interpreting, memorizing is related to interpreters’ listening and understanding to what the speaker says, keeping is related to the storage of original information and recalling refers to the output of interpreting.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 Memorizing'''<br /> <br /> Memorizing refers to the process of distinguishing and recognizing the characteristics of things and leaving a certain impression in the mind. Some things can be remembered after one perception, while most of the contents need to be perceived repeatedly, so that the new information can be connected with the existing knowledge structure. As the first step in the memory process, memorization has a very important influence on the memory effect. Therefore, understanding and mastering the rules of memorization will help improve memory(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997).<br /> <br /> According to whether memorization has a purpose or not, memorization can be divided into unconscious memorization and conscious memorization(Ma Zhengyu, 2013).<br /> Unconscious memorization refers to memorization that happens naturally without a predetermined purpose and without a certain effort of will. When they are perceived, there is no intention to memorize them, but these contents can reappear in people’s mind in the future naturally. And this is unconscious memorization. The content of unconscious memorization is an important part of experience, and it has great effect on people’s psychological activities and behaviors. Inadvertent experience can do as much help as existing experiences when people consciously face certain situations and deal with certain problems. In daily life, the environment, contact and work will influence people unconsciously in psychology and behavior. Generally speaking, there are two characteristics of unconscious memorization. First, the stimulation acts on people's sensory organs which is of great significance and attracts people's attention. For example, people will never forget new and different things; Second, it is in people's needs, interests and content so that it can produce deeper emotional experience. Unconsciousness plays a positive role in people's acquisition of knowledge and experience.<br /> <br /> Conscious memorization refers to memorizing with a predetermined purpose, which requires a certain amount of will and effort in the process of memorizing. The process of conscious memorization is controlled by the purpose of memorization. The purpose of memorization determines that memorizing process is an active coding process for memorizing content. This coding includes &quot;what to remember&quot; and &quot;how to remember&quot;. &quot;What to memorize&quot; determines the direction and content of memorization, and &quot;how to memorize&quot; is the method to better memorize the content. All people's knowledge and experience are acquired through conscious memorization and unconscious memorization. However, in terms of memorizing effect, conscious memorizing is better than unconscious memorizing(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 Keeping'''<br /> <br /> Keeping refers to the process of remaining and consolidating the memorized materials in brain. It is the process of information storage. Keeping is the middle step which is between memorizing and recalling and it is closely related the quality and effect of recalling.<br /> <br /> The effect of keeping is related to whether the materials to be memorized are vivid or not. When brains memorize verbal materials, if the materials are vivid, they can leave a deep impression on people, while the materials with empty contents are easy to be forgotten quickly. Many psychological experiments have also proved the important role of the &quot;image&quot; in the memory of human brain. The memory effect of image materials is generally better than that of words materials, and similarly, the effect of visual memory is generally better than that of auditory memory. This suggests that if interpreters make full use of the image carrier of the source language in interpreting memory, it is possible to improve their information storage of the source language(Bao Gang, 2005).<br /> <br /> Keeping is a dynamic process during which the amount and nature of the stored information could be changed. In the aspect of amount change, the amount of stored information will decrease with time. In other words, this is forgetting. Forgetting is a very natural phenomenon that experienced by every person. Although forgetting is a complex psychological phenomenon, its occurrence and development have certain rules. Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, was the first to do this research. He used meaningless syllables as experimental materials and himself as experimental object. After memorizing the materials, he relearned them at regular intervals, and drew the forgetting curve with the time and times saved by heavy school as the index. Forgetting curve reflects the relationship between forgetting variables and time variables. This curve shows the rule of forgetting: the process of forgetting is unbalanced, and the amount of forgetting is relatively large in the initial period after memorization, and then gradually decreases. That is, the speed of forgetting is fast at first and then slow. After Ebbinghaus, many people have studied the forgetting process and confirmed that Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve is basically correct(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997). <br /> <br /> Keeping is the process of consolidating what have been memorized in people's minds, and it is also the process of storing information. It is not a static and solidified process, but a process of reconstruction.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 Recalling'''<br /> <br /> The final step of memory is recalling. It is the process of retrieving the information that has been stored in people’s brain. <br /> Recalling is the reappearance process of past experiences in the mind under the action of certain inducement. Memories can be divided into two categories: intentional memories and unintentional memories. Intentional recalling is the recalling of past experience under the action of intended purpose. Unintentional memories are memories that happen naturally without a predetermined purpose. Memories can be divided into direct recalling and indirect recalling according to whether there are intermediary factors involved in the recalling process. Direct recalling is the recollection of old experiences directly aroused by current things. Indirect recalling is a kind of recalling with the help of intermediary factors. In terms of difficulty, indirect recalling is more difficult than direct recalling.<br /> <br /> '''2.4 Primacy Effect and Recency effect'''<br /> <br /> Primacy effect and recency effect are two famous phenomena related to people’s memory. And both of them play a very important role in interpreting.<br /> <br /> '''2.4.1 Primacy Effect'''<br /> <br /> The concept “primacy effect” was first proposed by A. S. Lochins, an American psychologist. It refers to the fact that the first impression has a huge effect. Although the first impression may not always be right, but it is most vivid and solid. In primacy effect, information input plays a key role. Experimental psychology research shows that the order of external information input is important in determining the cognitive effect. The first input information plays the most important role, and the last input information also plays a great role. This feature of brain processing information is the internal cause of the primacy effect. When different information is combined, people always tend to attach importance to the former information. Even if people pay attention to the following information, they will think that the following information is non-essential and accidental. More importantly, even if the following information is inconsistent with the former information, people will succumb to the former information.<br /> <br /> '''2.4.2 Recency Effect'''<br /> <br /> Recency effect, also put forward by American psychologist Lochins, refers to the phenomenon that when people memorize a series of things, the memory effect of the last part is better than that of the middle part. The reason is that the previous information is gradually blurred in memory, while the recent information clearer in short-term memory. Recency effect is contrary to the primacy effect, and recency effect emphasizes that the last received information has the greatest effect. In people's perception, when the information obtained before and after is different, if there is irrelevant work in the middle to separate them, then the latter information plays a greater role in forming the total impression.<br /> <br /> Obviously, the primacy effect and recency effect are different, or even opposite. The primacy effect emphasizes the information received initially, while recency effect pays more attention to the information that comes into contact later. However, the primary effect and recency effect exist in our society and play their respective functions. Through a large number of experiments, it is found that the primacy effect and recency effect depend on people themselves. Generally speaking, people with relatively simple cognitive structure are prone to produce the primacy effect, while those with complex cognitive structure are prone to produce recency effect.<br /> <br /> Although the primacy effect and recency effect are different form each other, both of the effects are extremely beneficial to the memory of interpreters, and they can be used in different interpreting situations(Wang Jianhua, 2019).<br /> <br /> == The Subtile Translation of Movie from the Perspective of Multimodal Discourse Analysis 王轩 Wang Xuan==<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> Mankind has entered the era of multimedia, so the language as a mono-modal form has been unable to fully express the meaning of communication. Thus we need some other modals to enhance, in order to fully express the meaning and reach the aim of communication, such as sound, visual image, color and so on. Thus the term Multimodality aroused linguist’s interest and attention. <br /> <br /> They conducted a lot of research and exploration in Multimodal Discourse Analysis. Multimodal Discourse Analysis is based on Halliday’s systemic functional linguistics as the foundation, Professor Zhang Delu points out that the Multimodal Discourse is a phenomenon which means use auditory, visual, tactile and other sensory and communicate through language, image, sound, movement and other symbolic resources. <br /> <br /> Martin points out that Multimodal Discourse Analysis is composed of five levels, they are: (1) cultural level (2) context level (3) significance level (4) form level (5) media level. By discussing the combination between the subtitle translation of “Benjamin Button” and Multimodal, the thesis is to analyze that how does the Multimodal Discourse Analysis affect the subtitle translation of movies. <br /> <br /> The thesis is based on the Multimodal Discourse Analysis theory as the foundation, aims to analyze the following three areas under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis: 1. The embodiment of Multimodality in the film “Benjamin Button”, then aims to analyze how does the subtitle and Multimodality combining to constructed the whole meaning under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis.2. The second goal is to discuss the relationship between the movie’s subtitles and other modals, and the relationship between different modals. 3. By discussing the analysis of the movie subtitle expression function in the process of overall significance, this thesis attempts to put forward some suggestions on the movie subtitle translation. <br /> Keywords: Multimodal Discourse Analysis；Audio-visual Product；Subtitle Translation<br /> <br /> === Chapter One Multimodal Discourse Analysis Theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 1.1 The Emergence And Development Of Multimodality '''<br /> <br /> At present, experts and scholars have entered the stage of multimodal discourse analysis. This is not an accidental phenomenon, but inevitable, because they think that discourse or discourse is a unit of meaning, but the expression of meaning is not only through a single language, on the contrary, it can be constructed by many other symbol systems besides language. <br /> <br /> Therefore, it is not comprehensive and specific to analyze discourse or discourse from the linguistic level, so multimodal discourse analysis comes into being. Multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in foreign countries, and has been widely studied and explored. However, it is still in its infancy in China, and has attracted much attention in recent years. <br /> <br /> In the early 1950s, American linguist Harris put forward the theory of discourse analysis for the first time. Since then, discourse analysts all over the world have been working hard to analyze and study, and have put forward many theories and methods of discourse analysis, and analyzed them through a large number of examples. <br /> <br /> However, almost all the theories and methods of discourse analysis focus on language and ignore other forms of meaning expression, such as image, music, color and so on. Therefore, the research on discourse analysis at that time was not comprehensive and had great limitations. In the 1990s, multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in western countries, which overcomes the limitations of discourse analysis to a certain extent. Therefore, once multimodal discourse analysis was proposed, it immediately attracted the attention of linguists and once became a hot topic. Especially in recent years, linguists at home and abroad have carried out extensive research and Exploration on multimodal discourse analysis. <br /> <br /> In foreign countries, R. Barthes is the first French scholar to systematically analyze multimodality. As a famous semiotician, R. Barthes adopts the semiotic perspective to study multimodality. Therefore, multimodal discourse has been analyzed with semiotics from the very beginning. Multimodal discourse analysis breaks through the shackles of traditional single language information, and integrates more research in other fields, such as psychology, cognitive science and sociology. R. Barthes discussed the interaction and relationship between image and language in the expression of meaning. Based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed a relatively perfect grammatical framework for the analysis of visual images, thus providing theoretical basis and analytical methods for multimodal discourse analysis. They believe that multimodality is a major feature of various discourses in modern society. In the digital age, these different modes play the same role in meaning reproduction. In addition, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed an image analysis framework based on three pure functions in image reading, namely reproduction, interaction and composition.. In a word, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen's multimodal communication theory mainly focuses on the symbolic resources and their use. <br /> <br /> In China, there are also in-depth and extensive research on multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Li Zhanzi analyzes multimodal discourse from the perspective of social semiotics, while Hu Zhuanglin, a professor of Peking University, studies multimodal semiotics in theory and practice, and proposes multimodal language teaching and research in social semiotics. Zhu Yongsheng has made an in-depth study on multimodality and summarized the theoretical basis and research methods of multimodal discourse analysis. Zhang Delu made a preliminary exploration on the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Zhang Delu pointed out that multimodal discourse refers to the use of hearing, vision, touch and other senses, through language, images, sounds, movements and other means and symbol resources for communication. This phenomenon is very common, which is mainly reflected in the following aspects. For example, in order to better understand poetry, people find that it can be attached with pictures, that is, it is attractive People's interest has reached the purpose of helping people understand. In addition, people can often add some auxiliary gestures or actions, and use different tone and tone when speaking, which is also a form of multimodality. However, multimodal discourse analysis has not been paid enough attention. Only in the study of modern linguistics, some linguists have paid attention to multimodality and started to study it from the perspective of non-verbal features and linguistic features. However, it is only studied as an auxiliary expression system of language, but not as a mode of meaning expression. Although multimedia discourse analysis came into being, it was not until recent years that scholars gradually realized the importance of multimedia discourse analysis. It can be seen that multimodality has attracted a large number of linguists in China and achieved fruitful results.<br /> <br /> ''' 1.2 The Theoretical Framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis '''<br /> <br /> Linguists have found that systemic functional linguistics can be used as the basic theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. The five levels are: (1) cultural level, including ideology as the main form of culture and genre as the potential choice of discourse mode. (2) The context level includes the context configuration composed of discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. (3) The meaning level includes discourse meaning and conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning. (4) At the formal level, there are different formal systems to realize meaning, including lexical grammar system of language, visual ideographic form and visual grammar system, auditory ideographic form and auditory grammar system, tactile ideographic form and tactile grammar system, etc., as well as the relationship between the grammar of various modes. (5) Media level is the material form of discourse in the material world, including linguistic and non-verbal. Systemic functional linguistics provides a relatively ready-made theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis. On this basis, Professor Zhang Delu proposed a comprehensive theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis: (1) cultural level, (2) context level, (3) content level, (4) expression level<br /> <br /> ''' 1.3 The Forms and Relations of Multimodal Discourse '''<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse forms include: language, picture sense, sound sense and feeling. The typical multimodal discourse mode is a kind of modal discourse, which can not fully express its meaning, or can not express its full meaning. It needs to be supplemented by another one. The relationship between these modes is called &quot;complementary relationship&quot;, while the other is called non complementary relationship. <br /> <br /> Complementary relationship can be divided into strengthening relationship and non strengthening relationship. Reinforcement relationship means that one mode is the main form of communication, while another or more forms strengthen it. For example, when expressing meaning, if language is the main form of communication, then other body movements such as gestures will strengthen the language. On the contrary, language may also be a reinforcement to other ways of communication. Strengthening relationship includes three kinds of relations: prominent, primary and secondary, and expanding. Non reinforcement refers to the relationship between two modes which are indispensable and complementary to each other. For example, in the process of watching a movie, the visual and auditory modes are combined with each other. There are also three forms of non strengthening relations: coordination, union and intersection. In the coordination relationship, different modes construct the whole meaning together, and the lack of any mode will be incomplete. Play the video at the same time, for example. The two modes of image and sound are both necessary and difficult to understand without one communication. In this case, the relationship between image and sound is harmonious. The joint relationship refers to the combination of different types of media in the same mode to express the meaning. For example, in the typical multimodal discourse form of film, the sound matched with the scene animation and the voice of interpretation are combined to reflect the meaning of auditory construction. The last one is the phenomenon of cross embodiment of meaning. For example, teachers do experiments while they are in the experimental class. At this time, the text is still unimodal. However, if you are talking with your friends about whether the weather is snowing, the size and shape of snow, and so on, the scene of snow, including the process and mode of snow, will directly participate in the overall meaning you want to express. At this time, your discourse has a strong situational dependence. A large part of the meaning of your speech is reflected by the situation, although the scene does not actively participate in it In your verbal communication. Therefore, context dependent discourse communication is multimodal.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Two Film subtitle translation theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 2.1 Film Works and Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> With the advent of the multimedia digital era, foreign film and television works continue to flow into China, so subtitle translation is becoming more and more important. More and more people use subtitles to obtain foreign related information, understand foreign cultures and even learn foreign languages. Subtitling affects people's cognition of things, and subtitle translation has become a professional auxiliary form to facilitate the audience to understand multimedia works. Gottlieb defines subtitle translation as &quot;a kind of written, additional and synchronous translation type for instantaneous and multi symbolic texts&quot;. (Gottlieb, 1997:309) in China, film and television translation started relatively late, and large-scale film and television translation began after the 1980s. <br /> <br /> Although the number of mass media translation has greatly increased, subtitle translation has not attracted enough attention of the academic community, and the research results on subtitle translation are few. In recent years, subtitle translation, as a field of translation, has attracted more and more attention from experts and scholars all over the world. Subtitles have two major functions: first, to deepen the audience's impression of some film content; second, to assist the lack of listening. There are two kinds of subtitles: the first is intralingual subtitle, the second is interlingual subtitle. Intralingual subtitle translation does not need to translate one language into another, but only converts the discourse into text. &quot;Interlingual subtitle refers to the translation of the source language into the target language and superimposed on the bottom of the screen while retaining the original sound of the film and television, which is commonly referred to as subtitle translation.&quot; (Li Yunxing, 2001:38)<br /> <br /> ''' 2.2 The Characteristics Of Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> Film subtitles are an important part of the film, and together with the visual image to construct the meaning, film subtitles can help the audience to understand the characteristics of the characters in the film, to master the character's character and to be familiar with the plot of the film. Film subtitle translation has the following characteristics: <br /> <br /> Firstly, colloquialism. Subtitle translation in movies is mainly the translation of dialogues between the characters in the film. Therefore, subtitle translation should be as colloquial as possible and conform to the expression characteristics of the characters. On the premise of ensuring the coherence and smoothness of the context, the subtitle translation should be as close to life as possible so as to achieve natural and realistic effect. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the characters in the film have their own unique personalities, which are often reflected by different language styles. Therefore, the second feature of film subtitle translation is to conform to the characters' personalities. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, emotional, emotional help the audience better understand the plot, so the film subtitle translation should reflect the true feelings, the translation should be able to put oneself in the position and into the role, to achieve the artistic effect of sincere.<br /> <br /> Fourthly, oral form is a typical feature of film subtitle translation, which is also the most obvious difference between film subtitle translation and literature translation. The basic task of translation is to provide a blueprint for dubbing. Therefore, the translation of subtitles should be consistent with the mouth shape of the characters as much as possible, and the accuracy and vividness of the translation should be guaranteed. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, popularization means popularization. Popularization means that the translation can be understood by the audience on the premise of smoothness, so as to achieve the purpose of clear understanding and appreciation of both refined and popular tastes. The ultimate goal of popularization is to serve the audience and make the translation a bridge for effective communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3 Strategies Of Film Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.1 Pay Attention To The Artistry Of Language '''<br /> <br /> It is said that film is the seventh art after literature, music, dance, drama, painting and sculpture. As a young art, the only one who knows his birthday, film appeared as a popular art from the very beginning. Film is an art form with unique means of expression, and the artistry of its language is the basic element of film. Although Goethe once said: art should never be the same as reality, and it is impossible to embody art. But it turns out that film is not only a popular art, and it is the most popular art, which is called a kind of popular culture. From the point of view of the film itself, most of the films are for people to watch, and the audience of the film comes from different social strata, so their education level is also different. Therefore, the language in the subtitle of film translation must be in line with the audience's acceptance ability and actual level, so as to make the translation understood by the audience, more clearly, and achieve both refined and popular tastes. However, the vulgarization and popularization of the target language does not mean the vulgarization and generalization of the language. The language of film is rich in expressive force, and the language of subtitle translation must be accurate, natural and vivid. Therefore, in the film subtitle translation, we should not only retain the language characteristics of the source language and absorb the characteristics of foreign language expression, but also abide by the language tradition of our own culture, and use words with cultural color of the target language to translate the original text, so as to truly achieve the purpose of translation.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.2 Literal Translation And Free Translation Should Be Audience-Centered '''<br /> <br /> The characteristics of film subtitle translation, i.e. instantaneity and popularity, determine its translation strategies. Subtitle translation must refer to the picture and sound of the film and television. Usually, the subtitle appears in front of the audience together with the original picture, so that the audience can not only enjoy the picture, but also have time to read the subtitle. This is the duality of subtitle translation. When the audience accepts the sound, picture and subtitle information of the original text, they are integrated, complementary and contradictory. Therefore, subtitle translation must consider that subtitle is not an independent mode, it includes the creation process and the reception process. In a word, both literal translation and free translation should focus on the audience. Literal translation can absorb new foreign factors and information, and can reflect foreign culture and sentiment. Free translation is easier to be accepted by the target language audience. Film subtitle translation must take into account the audience's language level and education, and take the audience of the target language as the center and adopt correct translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.3 Processing Of Cultural Information '''<br /> <br /> As an intermediary of cultural exchange, the translator's main purpose is to promote the exchange of different cultures and reduce the cultural gap. Because the film subtitle in the process of translation is subject to many restrictions, for example, there are a large number of words with strong cultural color and some special language forms, and there are many gaps in the culture of different languages and nations and can not be replaced, so it increases the difficulty of film translation. For example, when translating puns, word games and proverbs, translators usually have to give up, which is actually a treason to the original film. <br /> <br /> There are three strategies to deal with cultural information in Subtitle Translation: first, the principle of cultural compensation. The principle of cultural compensation aims to preserve and introduce the cultural characteristics of foreign countries, so that the audience can understand the films of different languages and cultures. Second, adopt the principle of cultural transplantation. This principle can make subtitles more vivid, authentic and vivid. Translators need to discard the cultural characteristics of the source language and abide by the native language, so that subtitles can be easily understood and accepted by the target language audience. When neither of the two strategies is desirable, we can only use the third strategy, namely the principle of cultural coordination, which inevitably leads to the loss of cultural information in the source language and the target language. When dealing with the cultural information in subtitle translation, translators should pay attention to the combination of these three strategies with the film picture, and give full play to the illustrative and explanatory nature of the pictures, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Three Subtitle Translation Of &quot;Rejuvenation&quot; From The Perspective Of Multimodal Discourse Analysis ===<br /> <br /> ''' 3.1 A Brief Introduction of 'Benjamind Button' '''<br /> <br /> 'Benjamin Button', directed by the famous director David Finch is adapted from Fitzgerald's novel of the same name; the film tells the story of a strange Benjamin Barton who violates the laws of nature and is born in the image of an ancient and rare old man. As time goes by, he even lives more and more young. It is a story about the reversal of life.<br /> <br /> The following part will analyze the characteristics of subtitles and the translation strategies that should be adopted in the expression of the film from the cultural level, context level, content level and expression level of the multimodal theoretical framework.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2 Multimodal Translation in Movie Subtiles '''<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.1 On Cultural Level '''<br /> <br /> Under the influence of thinking patterns and habits, people have gradually formed a specific form of expression in which language can understand each other in communication. Therefore, it is particularly important whether the cultural factors in films are properly translated. Zhang Delu believes that &quot;the cultural level is the key level to make communication possible&quot;. In some cases, the source language and the target language can not be translated literally. Therefore, in the process of translating movie subtitles, we should not only keep the original features, that is, faithfulness, but also take into account the habitual language awareness of the target audience, that is, free translation strategies should be adopted to make the translation smooth and consistent Cultural characteristics of the target language.<br /> <br /> The English title of the film is ‘The Curious Case of Benjamin Button’, and a version is ‘本杰明·巴顿奇事’, but the translation of ‘返老还童’ has a larger audience. First of all, there is an English name in the title of Benjamin Button, which makes people feel the obscurity of the literal translation of foreign words. In Chinese, four character idioms or five or seven character quatrains or metrical poems are more catchy and easy to be accepted; Secondly, the title of &quot;rejuvenate&quot; is very suitable for the protagonist's inverted and retrograde life trajectory. In a word, it is very brilliant; Finally, the idiom ‘返老还童’ comes from ancient legends, which expresses people's desire for immortality and rejuvenation. Although it is a legend, modern people also want to be young and energetic, so the title of ‘返老还童’ can attract more audiences.<br /> In this film, there are many translation notes added to the translation, which will explain the cross-cultural ambiguity clearly. Although there are many translations, it is the best way to make the audience accept accurate information.<br /> <br /> When Daisy, the heroine, is old, she lies on the hospital bed and introduces the name of the Watchmaker: “they had the best clock maker in all of the south to build that glorious clock. His name was Mr. gateau Mr. Cake.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “还请来整个南方最好的钟表匠建了那座雄伟的大钟。那人叫盖图先生……蛋糕先生” (盖图/Gateau 在法语中是蛋糕之意)<br /> <br /> There is such a narration at the foundation laying ceremony of clocks and clocks: “Papa said there were people everywhere. Even Teddy · Roosevelt came.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “爸爸说，那天人山人海。连泰迪·罗斯福也来了( 西奥多·罗斯福，昵称泰迪美国第26 任总统)”<br /> <br /> In the above two examples, the comments added to the translation itself are in brackets. In the former example, &quot;Mr. cake&quot; suddenly appears. In the latter example, how President Roosevelt called &quot;Teddy Roosevelt&quot; will make the target language audience very puzzled. Although the use of annotations makes translation numerous, it is the best way for the audience to quickly obtain accurate information. The audience knows that gateau means &quot;cake&quot; in French, and Roosevelt has a nickname of &quot;Teddy&quot;.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.2 On Context Level '''<br /> <br /> In a specific context, communication is constrained by contextual factors (Zhang Delu, 2009). The context level elaborated by Zhang Delu includes discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. In order to express meaning or transmit information, subtitle and context jointly promote the development of film plot. Subtitle translation should be subject to context. In order to make subtitle translation not appear fault phenomenon, the film plot will advance naturally, and subtitle translation should also play a role of connecting the preceding and the following. In this way, in the process of translation, the translator should consider the contextual factors and pay attention to the smoothness and coherence of the translation within the sentence itself and between the sentences in the text.<br /> <br /> When describing Queenie's fertility problem, Queenie sees Benjamin's heart full of love. Her husband, Mr. Weathers, said: I know you ain't got all the parts it takes to make one of your own, but this ain't your to keep. At first it was certainly hard to understand the meaning of this sentence, but as the plot developed, Queenie prayed to the pastor for a son. After her pregnancy, she announced happily: “I had a miracle happen. The Lord saw fit to answer my prayer.” <br /> <br /> Little Daisy explained here: “ ‘I had a miracle happen’ means pregnancy.” （她有孩子了） In this way, the words said by Mr. Weathers was interpreted as: “我知道你没法有自己的孩子，可你也不能抚养这个。” Using free translation strategy, it is clear and faithful to the meaning of the source language, which makes the target language audience quickly know that Queenie likes children's characteristics and cares for Benjamin, an ugly ‘monster’.<br /> <br /> When Benjamin and Daisy are reunited in New York, Benjamin said: “I thought I'd come here and sweet you off your feet or something.” The phrase &quot;sweep you off your feet&quot; means &quot;to make you fall suddenly and deeply in love with you&quot;（让你倾倒）. Benjamin and Daisy were separated from each other for many years at that time. Daisy, who was living in the dance circle, was popular and desirable there. Benjamin went to New York to find daisy after burying his father. He was in a mixed mood. In fact, he wanted to find a friend to express his melancholy. Therefore, Benjamin did not go to find Daisy to &quot;fall in love&quot; with her but &quot;I thought I'd give you a big surprise when I came suddenly&quot;(我本以为我突然过来找你会给你一个大惊喜), which is very brilliant. This sentence is more suitable for the protagonist's situation by using free translation strategy.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.3 On Content Level '''<br /> <br /> The content level of Zhang Delu's expression includes discourse meaning level and form level. Discourse meaning is the conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning conveyed in language expression. In the film, subtitle is the narrator's narration and dialogue content. Film discourse requires the translator to accurately express the subtitle meaning to the audience. In the process of subtitle translation, some gas words, names and address terms can be omitted, which still does not affect the expression of discourse meaning.<br /> <br /> “Well, I know I don't have much to show for myself.”（我知道自己没有什么才能。） The omission of &quot;well&quot; does not affect the translation, but is more concise and can be understood more quickly.<br /> <br /> “You know, you may've got a few more years out of it, but you choose to do something so special and unique that there were only a short window of time you could do it.” Daisy was in the dance business, but she had an accident later. Some expressions here such as “a few more years out of it” ( 跳几年舞), “something so special and unique”( 事业太与众不同), “a short window of time” （几年黄金时间) have been dealt more concrete, so the whole sentence is translated as: “也许，你能多跳几年舞，可你的事业太与众不同了，只有几年的黄金时间可以发展。” <br /> <br /> As for its form, the formal features of different modes are interrelated and reflect the discourse meaning together (Zhang Fulu, 2009). The film system includes animation, pictures, music, language and other auditory and visual modes. Therefore, subtitles, together with listening and visual modes, work together to promote the expression of film meaning.<br /> <br /> For example, Benjamin and Daisy finally met and got together. They whispered in the yellow-glowed room:<br /> Daisy: “Will you still love me when my skin grows old and saggy?” ( 我要是成了黄脸婆你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> Benjamin: “Will you still love me when I have acne? When I wet the bed? When I'm afraid of what's under the stairs?” ( 等我老到脸上长满青春痘，老到尿床，老到连楼梯下有什么都怕，你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> The pictures, music and language all revealed the happy and loving life of the two people. In general, the film is based on the narration of a diary. In the film, the dialogue between the present and the narration in the diary is carried out alternately. In addition, the old pictures, the statement of time and the voice change of the narrator are used to make the past and the present change clearly and naturally, and they are applied in the formal level.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.4 On Expression Level '''<br /> <br /> Zhang Fulu believes that the expression level can be divided into language media and non-verbal media. In the language media level, he thinks that the main forms of meaning communication are sound symbols and writing symbols. For films, subtitles and subtitle translation belong to writing symbols. In the process of translating subtitles, translators should fully consider the media characteristics such as voice size, intonation strength, tone, font size and layout, which play a very important role in the expression of films. The subtitles of the film are at the bottom of the screen. Except for the notes, the translation takes up a little bit more space, and most of the subtitles in the source language and the target language occupy one line, which ensures that the audience has enough time to read the information. Non verbal media include communicators' body and nonverbal means (mainly tools and environment). Nowadays, with the progress of science and technology, movies can be played in cinemas, networks and various electronic media, and the media for appreciation is rich.<br /> <br /> Throughout the film, the dying old Daisy's tone is slow and strenuous on the bed. With the development of the story, light or heavy, a TV beside the bed broadcast the change of Hurricane weather activity, and the weather change also reflects Daisy's condition at that time.<br /> Finally, Daisy hugged Benjamin, a baby in her arms, and watched him invert the end of her life. The dying Daisy dictated in a low voice and intermittent tone: &quot;he looked at me and Iknow that he knew who I was.&quot;. (他看着我，那一刻，我知道他认出来了) The sound of the hurricane alarm suddenly sounded, sharp and obvious, and the picture of the staff of the hospital of traditional Chinese medicine was flustered, symbolizing that Benjamin's reversal clock was also washed away, and Daisy finally passed away. The sound, picture and words of the whole film are closely linked. It tells the story of eternal love, though limited in time, which is extremely shocking and thought-provoking.<br /> <br /> The translator of the film tries his best to translate various modes such as discourse, picture, sound and music. The translation strategy is mainly free translation, and the subtitle processing is simple and appropriate, so that the audience can have a good understanding of the limited time in the film, only the eternal knowledge of love. Taking the film subtitle of &quot;rejuvenation&quot; as an example, this paper analyzes the characteristics of subtitle translation from the aspects of culture, context, content and expression, hoping to better understand multimodal discourse analysis and free translation strategies in film subtitle translation.<br /> <br /> ='''Machine Translation'''=<br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory - A Case Study of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈永相 Chen Yongxiang&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine (hereinafter referred to as TCM), the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, boasts the favorable curative effect and a good reputation across the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative” and national economy, TCM has been playing an increasingly significant role in international trade, attracting more attention of foreign medical experts and consumers. As the essential attachment of a medicine, medicine instructions belong to the genre of practical writing, characterized by the unique language structure and stylistic features, guiding doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicines, such as usage and dosage, actions and indications, contraindication, etc. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. Due to the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, however, plenty of problems appear on the C-E translation of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> According to Adaptation Theory proposed by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. Translation is a cross-cultural communication activity, which involves language usage and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so on between source language and target language, and to adapt with different contexts, mentalities, cultures, etc. so as to achieve the ideal goal, from which the Adaptation Theory can be applied exactly into the study of translation. This paper will apply Adaptation Theory, therefore, as the theoretical framework, to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. Employing the core concepts and investigating aspects of Adaptation Theory, the author tries to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine instruction translation, Adaptation Theory, Yulin Pharmaceutical Company <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 中药是我国医药文化的瑰宝，有着良好的疗效和口碑。随着“一带一路倡议”的稳步推进和中国经济的平稳发展，中药药品在国际贸易中所占比重日益增加，得到了国外许多医疗专家和消费者的关注。药品说明书作为药品的重要附件，是一种实用文体，有其自身的语言结构和文体特点，能够指导医生与患者了解和熟悉药品作用、用法用量、适应症和禁忌等。而中医药品说明书英译作为中医英译的一个重要组成部分，其英译质量决定了药品能否被医生和患者正确理解和使用，以及中医药产品的国际贸易繁荣。然而，由于英语和汉语之间存在着不可避免的语言和文化差异，中医药品说明书英译依然存在着较大问题。<br /> <br /> 比利时语用学家维索尔伦提出的语言顺应论认为，语言的使用是一个不断作出选择和顺应的动态过程。翻译作为一项跨文化交际活动，需要在源语与目的语之间，就用词、翻译策略等方面进行选择，对不同语境、心理、文化等层面作出顺应。可见顺应论适用于翻译研究。因此本文以顺应论作为理论依据，通过对广西玉林制药公司中医药品说明书英译进行分析研究，运用顺应论的核心概念和研究视角，进一步探讨如何更好地翻译中医药品说明书。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 中医药品说明书翻译，顺应论，玉林制药公司<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''1.Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''1.1 Research Background of the Study'''====<br /> <br /> As the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, TCM has been through a profound history in China. Since “The Belt and Road Initiative” proposed for the first time, as an indispensable part in medical industry, TCM has tapped the potential of development opportunity to boost its reform so as to better make inroads into the international market. Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a renowned TCM pharmacy enterprise mainly engaged in R&amp;D, production and sales of Chinese medicines, one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties. In 2015, Consun Pharmaceutical Group Lt. has successfully brought partial share of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, which, in return, brought opportunities for the IPO and industrialization of the company. As the essential attachment of TCM medicine, the instructions guide doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicine correctly, which closely relates to consumer safety and are of great significance. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. The high quality translation versions of TCM instructions will accelerate TCM to enter into the international market, to occupy more competitive market share, and to better popularize the excellent TCM culture. <br /> <br /> ===='''1.2 Significance and Purpose of the Study'''==== <br /> <br /> It is noticed that studies and researches on TCM at home and abroad have boomed since the ancient Silk Road period. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from experts. Because of the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, a lot of problems appear on the translation of TCM instructions. And against such a backdrop, there are still no settled rules or translation standards to be applied and favored in the translation of TCM instructions, hence it’s quite essential to touch upon the area of C-E translation of TCM instructions in a more comprehensive and systematic way so as to find out more effective methods and strategies for the instruction translation. Adaptation Theory is proposed by Jef Verschueren, he thinks that language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation is a type of language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so forth between source language and target language. A good translation version of TCM instructions can appropriately guide both doctors and patients to understand the pharmacological functions, usage and dosage, actions and indications and contraindications of medicines. Therefore, the quality of instruction translation has a direct impact on whether TCM can be favored and obtained a good reputation among overseas medical industry and consumers. This paper studies the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, trying to take the Company as a case study to further discuss how to translate TCM instructions in a better way. <br /> <br /> ==='''2.Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 Features of TCM Instructions'''====<br /> <br /> Being the essential attachment of a medicine, the instruction contains important information that explains what the medicine is, how to take it and the effects after taking it, guiding doctors and patients to understand and use medicines properly. It closely relates to consumers’ safety. Thus, TCM instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. However, the information covered in most TCM instructions is drug name, ingredients, actions and indications, usage and dosage, while adverse effects, precautions, pharmacological effects, drug interaction, contraindications etc. are quite simple, even without any description of these items, failing to meet the requirement of international standards. <br /> <br /> Besides, due to the profound history of TCM developed in China, most of the unique TCM languages derived from the abstract philosophical concepts of ancient times remain being used until now, say, classical style and semi-classical style, which are accepted and favored by the TCM community, causing difficulties in translating them into English. And hence four-character structure, vagueness and ambiguity of the language, and no equivalence between Chinese and English are the main features of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> The four-character structure is concise but comprehensive in meaning, implying the extensive and abstract medical concepts of TCM. The tradition of using it to describe the symptoms and ways of treatment in TCM hasn’t been changed over time but continued to be applied and advocated in modern society. The TCM instructions are difficult to understand and translate, for the peculiar traits of TCM language, as well as the technical terms coming, directly or indirectly, from the abstract medical concepts of TCM, characterized by the unique treatment method as a whole in human body, and seeking to find answers and balance principles in nature to explain the causes and treatments of diseases, which is usually not the literal one but beyond cognition. In addition, there are gaps and non-equivalence between TCM and Western Medicine. Most TCM instruction translations apply technical terms from Latin in terms of ingredients, but adopt simple words and phrases for describing actions and indications, since the TCM language with Chinese characteristics finds no match in English. Ordinary people, as well as translators, who do not have the professional knowledge may have great difficulty in understanding and translating them. <br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Studies of TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine wasn’t legal once in the United States until 1975, as many scholars and experts were skeptical about its medical theory and way of treatment. Since the establishment of China, the government has been devoting great efforts to the recognition and popularization of TCM across the world. And from then on, a lot of studies and researches based on the translation of TCM have been published at home and abroad. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from the experts. In view of the special wording and the abstract theory of TCM, the translation of TCM instructions is of great difficulty and complexity. <br /> <br /> Currently, the translation of TCM instructions on the market, to a large extent, lacks readability and translation standards. Against such a backdrop, some scholars have striven to make some breakthroughs yet. Nigel Wiseman (2000) systematically elaborates the concept of “oriented by the source” in his dissertation, Translation of Chinese Medicine Terms: A Source Oriented Approach, in terms of the translation of TCM language, believing that the translation of TCM, as well as the instructions, should respect the original style and keep it in the target text as much as possible. In 2002, Translation of TCM Directions (《中医药说明书的英译》) written by Ouyang Lifeng (2002) put forward some practical methods for the translation of TCM instructions. He advocates “naturalization” and “readjustment”, namely, adaptation strategy, should be applied in translation, and if necessary, some additions and deletions are acceptable on the basis of faithfulness to the original text. Guided by Professor Ouyang, his student, Xiaoqiong, applies Peter Newmark’s Communicative Approach in her master’s thesis, On the Translation of TCM Booklets of Direction-The Communicative Approach (2008) to study the features of TCM instructions, suggesting that different approaches should be adopted regarding to different parts of the instructions. On translation Strategies of Chinese Medicine Instruction from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches written by Luo Haiyan (2009) conducts a relatively profound research under the guidance of Functionalist Approach in terms of each part of TCM instructions. She finds out the translation of TCM instructions is not very identical and comprehensible. Cao Qing’s thesis, A Study on Translation of Chinese Pharmaceutical Instruction (2011) states the common problems of translation instructions and advises three translation methods, namely literal translation, conversion and free translation under the Skopos Theory. There are still other scholars aiming at one aspect or another to further study the translation of TCM instructions, all of which exert a significant impact for references in translating TCM instructions. From the perspectives of Zhang Mengjing (1995), Ning Zhishou and Liu Cuiwei (1997), and Fu Wei (2006), the current TCM instruction translation lacks faithfulness, readability and incompatibility with conventional norms, suggesting that more attention should be paid in this field. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn from the above literature that studies on TCM instruction translation can be conducted from a wide scope. For the great distinction between western and Chinese culture, and the abstract medical principles of TCM, much has to be done to make the translation of TCM instructions more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> ==='''3.Adaptation Theory Applied in Traditional Chinese Medicine Instruction Translation of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company'''===<br /> <br /> From what has been mentioned above, as the important attachment of TCM, the instructions provide the correct and detailed medical information to doctors and consumers, guiding them to take medicine scientifically and properly, and hence the medicine instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. As one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a famous brand in the whole country, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties, and the buyout also boosts the process of IPO and reform. Through observation of the C-E translation instructions of TCM for foreigners and export, hence there are some certain instructive significance for the translation of TCM instructions. Because of the special characteristics of TCM instructions and the limited information included in the instructions of the company, this part tries to analyze the C-E translation instructions from the perspective of Adaptation Theory, mainly employing the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Contextual Correlates of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> As introduced earlier, according to Verschueren, the ingredients of contextual correlates of adaptability largely include the physical world, social world, and mental world. However, the author will mainly concentrates on the adaptation to the mental world and social world due to the limited materials collected. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.1 Adaptation to the Mental World'''=====<br /> <br /> Regarding the mental world, it involves the personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations, intentions and so on of both sides of language users. In the translation process, translators should take target readers’ mind into account, not just concentrating on personal mental world or literally translating the original text from one language to another language without any adaptation. <br /> <br /> Basically, consumers of drugs tend to rely on more renowned brands when facing a bunch of medicines displayed on the shelves. The key to attract their attention not only counts on the high quality of TCM, but also on the instructions with rigorous standards, concise specification and overall comprehensibility, delivering a sense of authority and credibility. <br /> <br /> To begin with, the name of drugs is the most direct information delivered to the consumers. Thus, a good name of the TCM can catch the eyes of buyers in the very beginning. “正骨水” is the most famous and important product of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, however, the translation of its name in the instruction simply applies transliteration and Chinese Pinyin, namely, “Zheng Gu Shui” , which fails to adapt with the mental world of target readers. Apparently, Pinyin isn’t the way of expression that they are familiar with. Translators should consider their mental expectation and make adaptation with their familiar ways of expression. In that point, “Bone-setting Liquor” would be a better name for the medicine. “Bone-setting” means the medicine is effective for the symptoms of bone problems, and “liquor” implies the ingredients involved alcohol and other irritating ingredients so that consumers can be aware of the precautions and avoid using it on fragile mucous membranes and anabrotic wounds. Also, the same type of medicine can apply the same way of translation, such as, “金装正骨水” can be translated to “Golden Bone-setting Liquor”, and “极品正骨水” is rendered as “Superb Bone-setting Liquor”. Such a name conveys the correct medical information to consumers and better adapt to their thinking patterns. <br /> <br /> Another example is “睡安胶囊”, the translation version is “Shui’an Jiaonang” . Obviously, it will confuse foreigners since they don’t recognize Chinese Pinyin in their cognitive levels. Translators should at least use “capsule” to indicate the medicine is some type of capsules effective for the sleeping problems. A well-recognized name will arouse attention and interest among consumers, attracting them to purchase the medicine. In order to adapt with their mental expectation and intention, as Ouyang (2002) advocates, naturalization or domesticating translation can be applied in translation. “Sleep Mate” or “Insomnia Killer” can better attract their attention and adapt with their beliefs and cognitive levels. In English, “mate” is a common word, which will be more acceptable and natural in such combination, and “killer” combined with “insomnia” implies the meaning of solving the insomnia problems, which is also more suitable and adaptable with their emotions and motivations. <br /> <br /> A good name of the medicine can not only imply the function of the medicine, conveying the essential information to customers, but also can draw their attention and arouse their desires to purchase the medicine. Meeting the demand and preference with the mental world of target people is also one of the requirements of medicine instructions. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, if transliteration or simply adopting Chinese Pinyin to translate the names of medicines will confuse customers and cause misunderstanding, adaptation is required, and not just words, but also translation strategies should be taken consideration when making adaptation. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.2 Adaptation to the Social World'''=====<br /> <br /> Verschueren (2000:91) states that there is no principled limit to the range of social factors that linguistic choices are inter-adaptable with. Basically, social settings and culture play a significant role in the process of translation. What distinguishes TCM from Western Medicine mainly lies on the cultural differences. Language is the carrier of culture, and the cultural differences can be embodied in different languages, and then shown and reflected in society. Instruction translation, as the cross-cultural communication activity, is influenced largely by cultural differences in different social worlds. Followings are the very typical translation examples to illustrate the point:<br /> <br /> Example 1(感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> Source Text (ST): 用于感冒或流感发热，头痛鼻塞, 伤风咳嗽，咽痛，肢痛<br /> <br /> Target Text (TT): Used for the treatment of cold, flu and fever, headache and nasal congestion, wind damage cough, angina and melalgia<br /> <br /> Revised Text (RT): Used for cold, flu, fever, headache, snuffle, cough, sore throat and pain in muscles<br /> <br /> Traditionally, “伤风” in Chinese means getting cold because of the invasion of “风” into the human body. “风” is actually one of the six exogenous pathogenic factors according to the medical theory of TCM, which cannot be explained from the perspective of Western Medicine. In western society, people have no concept that the natural phenomenon, say, “风” or “火”, will cause diseases in the human body. So the revised text deletes this term with TCM characteristics to avoid ambiguity and makes it more natural and understandable in English. In addition, most common patients who seek to buy medicines in pharmacies might not have the specific knowledge of medical field due to different social settings and backgrounds, thus, “angina” and “melalgia” might be beyond recognition and acceptance. Western world highlights the importance of brevity and conciseness in their society, and they place emphasis on simplification and efficiency, seldom using the very technical terms in their lives. Such social settings and cultural differences must be considered so as to make adaptation when translating. Besides, “nasal congestion” is the word-for-word translation and may cause misunderstanding among foreigners. So the revised text adopts “snuffle” and “sore throat” to indicate the meaning of “鼻塞” and “咽痛”, applying these simple words to make adaptation with cultural differences in different social worlds, and renders “melalgia” into “pain in muscles” to better deliver the meaning of “肢痛”. <br /> <br /> Example 2 (治咳枇杷露)<br /> <br /> ST: 治疗儿童伤风呃逆，咳嗽痰盛<br /> <br /> TT: Used for children’s wind-damage hiccup, cough and exuberant phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Used for cold, hiccup, cough and sputum in children<br /> <br /> Similarly, example 2 also translates “ 伤风” into “ wind damage”, which is not appropriate in such description. As mentioned above, additions and deletions, if necessary, can be applied to make adaptation in translation. So the revised text deletes “wind damage” and “exuberant phlegm”, adopting noun coordination and making it more readable and adaptable to the social world of target readers. <br /> <br /> Literal translation of instructions is not always the first option in the C-E translation of instructions. For translators, the first thing they should consider is to be faithful to the original meaning of the text, not the text itself. They need to make adaptation to the target readers’ social world, for instance, social status, social settings, social background, cultural differences, etc., striving to make the translation concise and easy to understand in their society. Amid such different social worlds, translators must bear in mind to render localization of different cultures to make adaptation without causing ambiguity and misunderstanding while successfully keeping and delivering the implied meanings as much as possible.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:26, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 Structural Objects of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translationn'''====<br /> <br /> According to Verschueren, linguistic choice-making takes place at all levels of structure that shows variability of any kind (2000:15). As indicated in Part two, for the reason of limited information covered in the TCM instructions, the materials collected from the company would be more meaningful if concentrating on the lexical level of the actions and indications of the instructions, which exactly features the typical four-character structure and language traits of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.1 Adaptation to the Lexical Level'''=====<br /> <br /> Differences in lexical level between TCM and Western Medicine largely reflect on terminologies and descriptions of diseases. The four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning. Currently, most translation versions of instructions are literally word-for-word translation and transliteration, failing to deliver the correct meanings implied in those TCM terminologies and words and lacking readability and authenticity. Here are some typical translation examples of the actions and indications of the medicines in Yulin Pharmaceutical Company:<br /> <br /> Example 3(蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 小便频数<br /> <br /> TT: Frequent urination<br /> <br /> Example 4 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 祛风除湿 <br /> <br /> TT: Dispel wind and eliminated dampness<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve rheumatic pain<br /> <br /> Example 5 (珍黄丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 消肿止痛<br /> <br /> TT: Ease a swelling and relieve pain<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve swelling pain<br /> <br /> Chinese four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning, and most of them are the causal relationship. &quot;祛风除湿&quot; is a typical example. “风湿” is a disease caused by the invasion of “风” into the human body, if &quot;风邪&quot; cannot be removed from the body soon, &quot;湿&quot; will appear and gather together near the joints, causing diseases and pains in joints according to the medical theory of TCM. So, &quot;祛风&quot; is actually the result of &quot;除湿&quot;, and vice versa. And the example of “消肿止痛”, it is usually can be explained that pain is caused by swelling as the result of illness or injury. Once the swelling disappears, so does the pain. According to the example 3, &quot;小便频数&quot; is translated into “Frequent urination”, using the structure of &quot;adjective+noun&quot; in English, which is concise in form and easy to understand. So the revised text of example 4 and 5 can also adopt such structure and translate into &quot;Relieve rheumatic pain&quot; and &quot;Relieve swelling pain&quot;, not only implying the causal relationship between the lines, concise and simple, but also avoiding translating repetitive meaning. <br /> <br /> Example 6 (感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> ST: 止咳化痰<br /> <br /> TT: Suppress cough and transform phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve cough and sputum<br /> <br /> Example 7 (乌军治胆片)<br /> <br /> ST: 疏肝解郁 <br /> <br /> TT: To course the liver and resolve depression<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve Qi stagnation in liver<br /> <br /> From the above two examples, &quot;止咳化痰&quot; is translated into &quot;Suppress cough and transform phlegm&quot;, and &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is “To course the liver and resolve depression”. It is noticed that simply employing the literal meaning of words to translate TCM instructions doesn’t work, especially in such medical context. Translators cannot ignore the relationship between the words and the context then make translation of words in isolation. &quot;化痰' means the symptom of sputum would be relieved and cured soon after taking the medicine, and hence here, the key words are &quot;咳&quot; and &quot;痰&quot;, not the verbs. So the translation of &quot;Relieve cough and sputum&quot; would be more comprehensible and readable. And the example of &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is actually another one that can be evidenced the casual relationship in TCM language. &quot;疏&quot; and &quot;解&quot; deliver the same meaning in such context, and &quot;肝郁&quot; is not the meaning of &quot;depression of liver&quot; but the irregular circulation and stagnation of the abstract &quot;Qi&quot; in liver from the perspective of TCM. So translating into &quot;Relieve Qi stagnation in liver&quot; retains the original meaning of Chinese and makes it more acceptable. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.2 Summary'''=====<br /> <br /> Despite of the characteristics of four-character structure in TCM language, the phenomenon of repetitive meaning implied between the lines is quite common. For translators, they should fully understand what meanings indicated between those words and phrases prior to translating them into another language. According to Adaptation Theory, language has the properties of variability, negotiability and adaptability. Facing abundant choices of words in English, translators should choose the most appropriate words and expressions after negotiation to make adaptation to the lexical level, the structure, the context, etc. preferred in English.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, translators should make linguistic choices not just at the lexical level, but also the syntactic level, textual level, rhetorical level etc. literally all levels of linguistic structures. Due to the limited information contained in TCM instructions of the company, this part mainly develops from the adaptation of lexical level, finding out that most translations apply literal translation with abusive usage of words, failing to deliver the correct meaning implied in TCM language and lacking readability and authenticity.<br /> <br /> With the great progresses of TCM over years, Yin(阴) and Yang(阳), Wuxing(五行) and Qi(气), these basic concepts in TCM have been accepted and recognized among foreigners. It can be adopted directly when translating the TCM instructions. With regard to the verbs in TCM language, literal translation sometimes might arouse skepticism and confusion of target readers and fail to deliver the correct meaning and the effectiveness of medicines. Translators should adapt the wording preference in target language and try to naturalize the translation but avoid abusive usage of words. Thus translators in this field should be equipped with excellent bilingual ability, sufficient background knowledge of TCM and Western Medicine, and the understanding of linguistics.<br /> <br /> ===='''3.3 Dynamics of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> As stated above, translation is a process of dynamic adaptation and involves the process of structural reconstruction and meaning regeneration. According to Verschueren (2000:157) “...strategies are always involved in any type of communication.” It means not just linguistic choices, but also translation strategies are dynamic because of different time, context and structure of both sides of language usage and each of them varies in line with relative factors when language users make choices. <br /> <br /> The dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation can be embodied from different words, phrases and translation strategies, even different languages applied in the medicine instructions. As for the part of ingredients, the instructions of the company employ Latin to indicate each TCM, for instance: Radix Notoginseng (三七), Herba Artemisiae Scopariae (茵陈), Fructus Lycii (枸杞), Poria (茯苓), Radix Codonopsis (党参), Rhizoma Dioscoreae (山药). It is usually the part where doctors and experts who have the specific knowledge of this field would be interested in, and using Latin to translate the TCM is the international standard of naming medicines, hence it is a way of adaptation. While next to the part of actions and indications, it resorts to different words and phrases in English to describe the indications of each medicine. English is apparently a better option for its universality and compatibility that common people can easily understand what the medicine is, and how to take it. Such adaptation to each part of the instruction in language shows the dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation. Following are some examples to show the dynamics of adaptability in translation: <br /> <br /> Example 8 (正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To remove obstruction from collateralls and channels and relieve muscular contracture<br /> <br /> Example 9 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To relax and activate tendons<br /> <br /> As for the translation of “舒筋活络”, example 8 and example 9 employ different words to deliver the meaning. The former is detailed and elaborated, delivering the original meaning implied in the lines while the latter is relatively simple, only using “tendons” to express the meaning of “筋络”. Besides the different specifications of “正骨水” and “金装正骨水”, the ingredients of these two medicines also show a wide difference, contributing to the different words and methods adopted in the same description of indications. From the above examples, it can be noticed, to some extent, that translators go through negotiation and then make dynamic adaptation with regard to different medicines. <br /> <br /> Example 10 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 旺盛局部血液循环, 增强细胞活力<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen partial blood circulation and improve vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 11 (筋骨王)<br /> <br /> ST: 改善局部血液循环，增强细胞活力。<br /> <br /> TT: To accelerate local blood circulation, increase vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 10 and example 11 are actually delivering the same meaning, but they change the words and phrases to adapt with two different medicines. With the variability and adaptability of language, the meaning of “增强” can be expressed by “improve” and “increase”, and translators employs “partial” and “local” to express the meaning of “局部”. As for the similar actions and indications, the translations of which vary in different medicines, demonstrating that translation is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. <br /> <br /> Example 12 (睡安胶囊)<br /> <br /> ST: 清心除烦<br /> <br /> TT: To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation<br /> <br /> Example 13 (蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 壮阳益肾<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney<br /> <br /> Example 12 and example 13 apply free translation to deliver the meaning of actions and indications of these two medicines. “清心除烦” is rendered into “To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation”, and “To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney” is more like the paraphrase of “壮阳益肾”. Both the translations are much easier to understand and adapt to consumers’ mind in a better way. Unlike the others, the above translations avoid literal translation, which will be too demanding and abstract for both sides of translators and target people, and they resort to free translation to convey the correct pharmacological actions, simplifying the instructions and making adaptation with the translation strategies to better resolve the cultural differences. <br /> <br /> Translating a TCM instruction can never be a mechanical activity of making translation from one language to another; rather, it entails dynamic adaptation to the differences between source language and target language. According to the Adaptation Theory, language use is a dynamic process of linguistic choice-making, which should adapt to contextual correlates and structural objects of language. As a type of more complex language use related to different languages, C-E translation of TCM instructions is a dynamic process of adaptation to different contexts and linguistic structures. However, the dynamic linguistic choices require language users to go through negotiation with themselves when facing abundant choices to eventually choose the most appropriate forms and strategies in accordance with different contexts and linguistic structures so as to fulfill the communicative intention. In other words, translators should avoid abusive usage of variability and adaptability of language, being faithful to the original meaning of texts to meet the standard of translation as much as possible.<br /> <br /> ==='''4.Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Being a significant carrier of TCM information, the instruction is a bridge that links the excellent TCM theories and effectiveness to the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative”, TCM will be learned and used across the world at a much larger scale. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, this paper employs the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, mainly concentrating on the adaptation to the mental world, social world, and the adaptation to the lexical level to study the C-E translation of the TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn that the C-E translation of TCM instructions of the Company is not that satisfactory after research. It doesn’t deal with the cultural differences between TCM and Western Medicine properly. Literal translation and abusive usage of words frequently appear in the C-E translation of instructions, failing to deliver the correct meaning and lacking readability and credibility, having a bad impact on the brand image. While at same time, there are some places worthy to be praised from the perspective of Adaptation Theory. It shows the dynamics of adaptability in the C-E translation of TCM instructions, which can be demonstrated through the various words, phrases, strategies applied in the process of translation. Still, much work has to be done to improve the quality of translation and make it more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, as a way of language use, translation involves the continuous making of linguistic choices. Not only words, language forms and structures, but also strategies should be taken into consideration when translating. Translators should adapt with the differences between English and Chinese, and meanwhile, pay attention to the features of TCM instructions, avoiding some obvious mistakes to achieve the ultimate goal of keeping the original meaning of TCM while delivering the accurate and rigorous medical information to foreigners. So the author advocates that adaptation is required during the process of translation, combined with transliteration and literal translation for some simple and basic concepts in TCM that have been well-recognized by foreigners, free translation and domesticating translation should be adopted with regard to the cultural differences in translation, if necessary, additions and deletions are also appreciated on the basis of being faithful to the original meaning of texts. <br /> <br /> Unfortunately, due to the limited materials collected and the incompetence of the author, the analysis of this paper only applies the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability of Adaptation Theory, failing to study in a more comprehensive way. In addition, this paper only conducts the research in studying the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, failing to reach at a larger scale. Last but not least, there are still some drawbacks and imperfections in Adaptation Theory, which the author fails to touch upon for lacking of knowledge and experience. Still, the author is willing to take all comment and advice.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1] As Homby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [Z]. The Commercial Press, Oxford University, extended eighth edition, 2014. <br /> <br /> [2] Bhatia, V. K. Analyzing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings [M]. London: Longman, 1993. <br /> <br /> [3] Carl James. Error in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [4] Fischbach, Henry. Translation and Medicine [M]. American Translators Association Scholarly Monograph Series, 1998. <br /> <br /> [5] Nigel Wiseman. Translation of Chinese medicine terms: A source oriented approach [D].University of Exeter, 2000. <br /> <br /> [6] Verschueren J. 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London: Edward Arnold Ltd., 1999;Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000. <br /> <br /> [8] 曹情. 中文药品说明书的翻译[D]. 湖南：南华大学, 2011. <br /> <br /> [9] 傅微. 语篇视点理论在中药说明书翻译中的运用[D]. 广西：广西大学外国语学院,2006. <br /> <br /> [10] 罗海燕. 功能主义翻译理论关照下的中药说明书的翻译[D]. 江苏：南京中医药大学, 2009. <br /> <br /> [11] 李照国. 中医基本名词术语英译国际标准化研究[M]. 上海科学技术出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> [12] 马邦新. 英文药品说明书的翻译[J]. 中国科技翻译, 1998(3): 16-18. <br /> <br /> [13] 宁之寿, 刘翠微. 也谈药品说明书的翻译[J]. 上海科技翻译, 1997(2): 31-33. <br /> <br /> [14] 欧阳利锋. 中医药说明书的英译[J]. 中国科技翻译, 2002, 15(2): 17-20. <br /> <br /> [15] 宋志平. 翻译:选择与顺应——语用顺应论视角下的翻译研究[J]. 中国翻译,2004(2): 21-25. <br /> <br /> [16] 肖琼. 中医药说明书的翻译[D]. 广东：广东外语外贸大学, 2008.<br /> <br /> [17] 袁斌业. 语言顺应论对翻译的启示[J]. 四川外国语学院院报, 2009(9), 111-113. <br /> <br /> [18] 张梦井. 药品说明书的英译问题[J]. 中国科技翻译, 1995(2): 6-9. <br /> <br /> [19] 周书梅. 顺应论视角下的翻译研究[J]. 山东省农业管理干部学院学报, 2013, 30(5): 138-140. <br /> <br /> --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602==<br /> &lt;center&gt;莫玲 Mo Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Science and technology constitutes a primary productive force. In the contemporary era, with the continuous development of science and technology, artificial intelligence has shown more and more mighty strength, and machine translation has also been derived in the field of translation. In this regard, many people are beginning to worry that machine translation will one day replace human translation. When it comes to me, science and technology is people-oriented, and the continuous development of it aims at servimg mankind in a better standard. Therefore, it is not realistic to separate science and technology from humanities. The appropriate way to solve this dilemma is to integrate the two to achieve the perfectly qualitative change of &quot;1 + 1 &gt; 2&quot;. This paper will first analyze the cons and pros of human translation and machine translation, and then explore the development of computer-aided translation based on the combination of the two types above and the progress should be made in different sectors among our society.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Human Translation, Machine Translation, CAT, Compatibility<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 机器翻译会取代人工翻译吗？<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 科技是第一生产力。在当代，随着科学技术的不断发展，人工智能展现出越来越强大的实力，在翻译领域也相应地衍生出了机器翻译。对此许多人都开始担心机器翻译终有一天会取代人工翻译。在笔者看来，科技以人为本，科学技术的不断发展是为了更好的为人类服务。因而将科技与人文割裂开来的观点是并不现实的，最好的解决办法应是将二者结合起来，实现1+1＞2的完美质变。本文将分析人工翻译与机器翻译各自的优势和劣势，进而探讨二者相结合的后的计算机辅助翻译的发展和社会各个层面应该做出的改进。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 人工翻译，机器翻译，计算机辅助翻译，融合<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> In these years, artificial intelligence has experienced a skipping development and more and more advanced technologies have been applied in our daily life. For example, many factories have introduced some robots to replace the repetitive works done by ordinary workers before. In addition, some restaurants have adopted robots to send the dishes to guests, etc. More and more cases in our life demonstrate the gigantic strength of science and technology. Panicked by this reality, a constantly growing number of people are worrying that they will lose their job one day when the artificial intelligence are more practical than them. This anxiety is also quite common in translation industry. In this field , human translation and machine translation are the two main kinds of translation methods. The former merely relies on the single person to do tranlation, while the latter is based on the vast corpus and developed technique. Since this enormous contrast, some people put forward a question that “Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation?” The answer is absolutely “no”. Actually, these two approaches are not incompatible. Instead, they both have their own advantages and disadvantages and through analysis,we can find that they can remedy their shortbacks by learning the valuable aspects from the other so as to form a “perfect pitch”. In other words,they are complementary to each other. <br /> <br /> Based on these viewpoints, first of all , the pros and cons of human translation and machine translation will be displayed one by one and then the new type of translation---computer-aided translation will be analyzed in detail. At last,confronted with the constantly changing world there are somes personal suggestions for those who work in the translation industry or those who are preparing to march into this field as well as government, colleges and universities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Pros and Cons of Human Translation and Machine Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Human Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 The Advantages =====<br /> <br /> As the traditional main force of translation, mankind own some irreplaceable edges. <br /> <br /> Firstly, they master a sordid foundation about the translation work, including extensive vocabularies, complex grammars, the construction of sentences and so on and so forth. Therefore, it’s hardly for them to make such mistakes.<br /> <br /> Secondly, due to the advanced education they have received, a great number of them has an encyclopedic knowledge about many fileds. Furthmore, during the years of learning foreign languages, they have acquired not only the language knowledge but also the histories and cultures of these countries so that they are able to handle with the problems of cultural differences in translation very well.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, people have an capacity of rich emotion and thoughtful mind. When facing with some obscure translation materials, at the beginning they will make a transformation about it and then translate it with their understanding yet maintaining the main idea of the original texts. <br /> <br /> What is more, people are able to summarize the experiences and lessons in the process of translation and then form their own theory. Until now, there have existed a bunch of translation theories to guide the subsequent translators. Such as “faithfulness”(translation should convey the content of the original faithfully and accurately), “expressiveness”(smooth and fluent translation) and “elegance”(the translation should be exquisite) by Yanfu, &quot;functional equivalence&quot; by Eugene Nida, skopos theory by Hans Vermeer, etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Disadvantages=====<br /> <br /> However, the volume of brain is limited and it is impossible for mankind to memorize all the things in the world. Sometimes, they may forget what they have translated and in result cause a repetition of the same work they have done before.<br /> <br /> It is showed from some data that the output of human translation is 2000 words per person in eight hours. Actually that speed is a little bit slow especially when there are strenuous tasks waiting for them. Besides, editors have to check and revise their translations which is quite time-wasting.(Chen Yi 2018,30)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most translators work for governments, institutions, companies or some rich indivuduals. And right now in the translation market ,the standard price are several hundred Yuan per thousand characters. And the wage of intepreting is even more expensive. As a result, ordinary people won’t bother to hire a private translator. Under some circumstances, human translation can’t give a hand to the needed immediately. For instance, when Chinese people are travelling in the foreign countries, they can’t understand the words of those foreigners. At that time, an opportune and cheap translation tool is more desirable.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Machine Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Superiorities=====<br /> <br /> In the condition mentioned above, machine translation can meet tourists' needs perfectly. There are many translation applications in the app store, just like Baidu Translation, Google Translation, Youdao Translation, Hujiang Translation and so on. All of them are free for using and able to translate the language you input in just 1 second. And these applications have covered dozens of foreign languages so as to be the optimizing choice for many people. <br /> <br /> Besides the adoptation in daily life, machine translation has also been utilized in some important conferences. &quot;Translation headset&quot; is one of the most popular translation tools. It is usually combined with a smartphone application to translate the foreign language it heard to users. &quot;After decades of research, we have created an algorithmic framework to recognize language patterns in the same way as the human brain (neural network),&quot; said Andrew Ochoa, CEO of Waverly labs. By combining it with speech recognition technology, we have greatly improved the accuracy of translation. &quot; Therefore, Wearable translation machines made by companies like Waverly labs are really popular at conferences(Global Collections 2020,17).<br /> <br /> With the development of science and technology as well as the artificial intelligence, the system of machine translation has been polished step by step. Nowadays, it has built a huge corpus which contains tens of millions of storations, and translation with high accuracy can be available in some non-literary texts. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 The Inferiorities=====<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, a lot of noticeable defects still remain in machine translation. When it comes to the literary genres just like proses, poems and ancient essays, machine translation is not familiar with the language habits of these genres so as to incline to a failure in comprehending the latent meaning of the words thus nor it can work out an outstanding translation. In most cases it will adopt the method of literal translation, which is a confusing version, which can not express the idea of source language and the images in it can be missed. Take the following poem for example:<br /> <br /> 江雪<br /> <br /> 唐 柳宗元<br /> <br /> 千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br /> <br /> 孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。<br /> <br /> '''Version of Baidu Translation'''<br /> <br /> River Snow<br /> <br /> Birds flying away,<br /> <br /> The trail of thousands of people;<br /> <br /> A lone boat with a straw hat,<br /> <br /> Fishing alone in cold river snow.<br /> <br /> '''Version of Xu Yuanchong'''<br /> <br /> Fishing in snow<br /> <br /> From hill to hill no bird in flight,<br /> <br /> From path to path no man in sight;<br /> <br /> A lonely fisherman afloat<br /> <br /> Is fishing snow in lonely boat.<br /> <br /> Between these two versions, we can easily identify which one is better. In Xu’s translation, he translates “鸟飞绝” &amp;“人踪灭”into “no bird in flight” and “no man in sight”, which get rid of the form of the original text, not only expressing the deep meaning, but also conforming to the English expression habit. In addition, due to the repetition of two sentences in the same pattern, readers can feel a strong sense of monotony. And The most splendid point is the rhyme of first two sentences and last two sentences, which makes the whole poem cathy and add the musical beauty of the translation. On the contrast, the first version by machine is inferior in that it fails to express the artistic conception of the poem. People can’t feel the beauty descriped in the poem. What’s worse, some readers may puzzle about its imcomplete images and incoherent sentences!(Dong Wugang &amp; Xue Jiabao 1996, 56)<br /> <br /> Nor is this all, machines can’t grasp the rich emotions of mankind. Thus they incline to misundersand of tone and deep meaning of the words(Liang Jie 2020,18). Nay, China has a broad and profound civilization and there are numerous of polysemous words in Chinese.Just like “意思”and “方便”.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> <br /> When Zhang San send money to his leader, an interesting dialogue occurs between them. Please explain the different meanings of “意思”in the following sentences.<br /> <br /> 领导(leader)：“你这是什么意思？”(Why do you send me money?)<br /> <br /> 张三(Zhang San)：“没什么意思，意思意思。”(No special purpose, just a small gift.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这就不够意思了。” (Why don’t you tell me your true purpose?)<br /> <br /> 张三：“小意思，小意思。”(Not a big deal.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这人真有意思。” (It’s so interesting of you.)<br /> <br /> 张三：“其实也没有别的意思。”(I don’t have other special intentions on you.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“那我就不好意思了。”(Well, since that, I will accept your money.)<br /> <br /> Apparently, it may even be difficult for some people to get the deep meaning behind this dialogue let alone the senseless machine. Machine translation derived from science and technology are always under the control of human beings, they are always working under the manipulation of humanbeings. Mankind possess an intelligible brain and they can cteate new things according to their needs and imaginations. While machine can not achieve the rich creativity as human brain.<br /> <br /> From all the analysis above, it can be easily seen that human translation and machine translation are strongly complementary. Thus, the best way is to combine them together to learn from the other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies.<br /> <br /> ====3. Computer-Aided Translation====<br /> <br /> To meet the constantly-increasing demand of the market, a new type of translation method named Computer-aided translation (CAT) emerges at the right moment. It is the combination of the two translation methods mentioned above and can help translators complete the translation work with high quality, efficiency and ease. Different from the previous machine translation software, it does not rely on the automatic translation of the computer, but accomplishes the whole translation process with the participation of human beings. Besides, its translation speed can be twice of the human translation, with the quality being the same standard or better. CAT makes a change from the arduous human translation to an automatic process, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Preponderance of This Method====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Translation Memory=====<br /> <br /> Translation memory system, the main tool of computer-aided translation, is a &quot;language database storing the original text and its translation&quot;. During the time when people are working out a translation, CAT are also constructing a translation memory corpus in the backstage. The corpus can automatically store all the translated content. What contributes to our great convenience is that the translation memory system will automatically search the contents in the translation memory database in the later translation. The system will automatically output the translation results if the contents are the same as the sentences and language fragments in the memory corpus; and if the structures or vocabularies of the materials are similar to the sentences in the translation memory database, it will also show corresponding translation references and suggestions. In a word, translation memory system can benifit translators to utilize the contents of previous translation effectively and avoid repeated work, thus greatly improving the speed and quality of translation and saving translation time. According to the statistics, the application of translation memory system can increase the average productivity by 30%, and reduce the translation cost by 15-30%(Chen Yi 2018,31).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Terminology Database=====<br /> <br /> When stepping into the translation industry and becoming a professional translator. It is inevitable that people will be confronted with materials from various fields, just like iatrology, law and science. All of these industries have a great number of terminologies. While human’s brain are limited that they can’t remember all the terms. Under this condition, a ready-made terminology database can be extremely helpful.<br /> <br /> Terminology management system provides a shortcut for translators to automatically search for terms appearing in the translation materials by displaying terms in the interface window of translation memory database or using hotkeys to search the entries in terminology database. Some programs have other hotkey combinations that enable translators to add new terms to the terminology database at the same time during translation. Some more advanced systems allow translators to check interactively or in batch if the correct source / target word combination is used within and between translation memory fragments of a given project. There is also an independent term management system, which can provide workflow functions, visual taxonomy, and be used as a term Checker (similar to a spelling checker to mark terms that are not used correctly), and can also support other types of multilingual term categories, such as pictures, videos or sounds(Global Encyclopedia).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Revise and Automatic Alignment=====<br /> <br /> After translators finish their task on CAT system, it will scan the translation and figure out the numbers of mistakes including spelling, punctuation and so on. This proofeading can make one’s translation more accurate. In addition, the aligner can divide the source text and the target text into multiple fragments and make sure the right match of them so as to build a translation memory database or other reference resources. Many aligners also enable translators to manually realign mismatched fragments (Global Encyclopedia).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Current Situation====<br /> <br /> Right now, due to the tremendous market demand, CAT steps into the golden era of development. There are several popular CAT softwares such as Trados、Déjà V、TransStar、IBM Translation Manager、WordFisher、Wordfast，OmegaT, among which the most famous is the first one. Theses softwares have experienced a long period of development and are relatively mature. They make the translation progress much more convenient than before. However, CAT is not yet a consummate system right now. It has a few drawbacks to be solved. To begin with, CAT is insufficient in the construction of the corpus. Right now, most domestic CAT softwares only restore hundreds of thousands of entries in the database, which is far from enough to meet the needs of translators. In a result, many people gradually emerge the idea that CAT is not workable. People still have to rely on themselves to search the complicated documents and their work are not able to decrease as they want. Nor is this all, sometimes it can be hard for people to extract the terms they need becauese of the failure of identification and although some easy mistakes can be found out, it may be difficult for the system to check out the sophisticated errors, thus people have to spend more time to tackle with the problems in person. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Prospect====<br /> <br /> Despite of the insufficiency of CAT right now, the defects can’t obscure the virtues. CAT has greatly emancipated the productivity of translation industry. Not only that, it has played an important role in reducing translation time, cutting down labor costs, standardizing translation documents, maintaining terminology consistency and ensuring translation quality, etc. In the near future, it is bound to become the main trend of translation development with its wide application all over the world and the functional improvement of various translation software. And the problems mentioned above can be effectively polished with the advancement of science and technology.(Chen Yi 2018,32)<br /> <br /> ===4. Suggestions===<br /> <br /> Facing with the unstoppable trend of artificial intelligence and CAT, should mankind repulse it or accept it? Apparently, the second attitude is more reasonable. For one thing, we can’t hinder the inexorable trend. For another thing, this is a good opportunity for people to utilize the tool to improve themselves.<br /> <br /> So, first and foremost, people should set up an open attitude, accepting CAT with an embracing mentality. It is no need to be afraid that machine will surpass human. Instead mankind is always the master of science and technology. Putting oneself on a pedestal is not a good way to make progress. And holding fast to one’s established ideas will eventually be sifted out by the era. In Qing Dynasty(1636-1912), the emperor and even the whole country praised the nation as the great kingdom. Since ancient time, China was abundant in natural resources and they were self-sufficient and self-contained. Thus the government constantly puesued a policy of “cutting off the country from the outside world”. At that time, the Western countries were going on an unprececedentedly industrial revolution. Through the renovation, the westerners immensely improved their productive forces and their countries got a rapid development. When the trend were heard by the Chinese emperor, they disdained to learn from the technology and regarded it as a diabolic trick. In this way, the gap between the East and the West was larger and larger. It was not until the breaking of the Opium War that Chinese people realized they have lagged behind a lot. Once a country was backward, it would be insulted by anyone else. After that, the Qing government was constantly forced to sign treaties of humiliating the country and forfeiting its sovereignty. The citizens were plunged into dire suffering. Under this circumstance, social conflicts intensified. Finally, the revolution of 1911 broke out and overthrew the Qing Dynasty. A feudal dynasty of more than 200 years fell down. Since the principle that lagging behind leaves one vulnerable to attacks is even applicable to a country, let alone the ordinary people. There is an old saying that “He who goes with the tide prospers, and he who goes against it dies”. The power of science and technology should never be looked down upon. The original purpose of this is to benifit the mankind rather than overthrow us. It is a powerful tool to help us scale new heights. If tranlators refuse to acquire the new skill, they will one day be weeded out by the industry.<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of market, the quality of translation talents should be improved accordingly. The span for talent training of translation majors in China is relatively short that it has only been 10 years since the establishment of Bachelor of Translation and Interpreting(BTI) and Master of Translation and Interpreting(MTI) in Colleges and universities across the country. The current situation of translation technology education in the cultivation of translation professionals is not optimistic either. First of all, compared with foreign universities and domestic universities in Hongkong, Macao and Taiwan, there is still a long way to open translation technology courses in domestic universities. According to the research by Lv Lisong and Mu Lei(2007,37), universities in Hong Kong and Taiwan of China work closely with translation companies to provide translation technology teaching for students. However, Manchester, London University, Ottawa University of Canada and other foreign universities have established a developed system in terms of machine translation, terminology management, translation technology training curriculum, personnel training mode and translation testing, and formed an effective model. On the contrary, many domestic colleges and universities still do not pay enough attention to translation technology education, which leads to the failure of translation technology education courses in some colleges and universities. A survey of 12 universities in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Chongqing, Liaoning, Jilin, Henan, Hebei, Hubei, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Sichuan and other provinces and universities found that 11 of the 43 universities (a large part of which are &quot;985&quot; universities and &quot;211&quot; universities) with MTI have not yet opened translation technology courses, accounting for 25%. If the scope of the survey is extended to the secondary and tertiary institutions, the situation may be even worse(Zhu Chaowei 2018,106).<br /> <br /> In this regard, the education of Chinese mainland is a little bit backward. There are several reasons for this phenomenon. To begin with, the perception of the educators and education system are rather outdated. The existing education system pay much attention to the translation and interpreting ability of students. This is a common pattern in many middle schools, high schools and even colleges and universities. As an English major student, the writer has the personal experience. During the university period. The most courses still focus on the cultivation of the basic skills of students. Although there are translation and interpreting classes every week, the normal model is that at first teachers will teach some translation theories or techniques, and then there will be some exercises for students to practice. Students are almost inaccessible to computing courses. This may resulted from the short of appropriate funds for education. China is a nation with a great number of population, and its population growth rate is also fast. As a result, the pressure on education has been relatively high. The commonly used index to measure whether a country's financial education funds are sufficient or not is the proportion of financial education funds in Gross Domestic Product(GDP). In China, this proportion has been at a low level for a long time. Although the education funds have been increasing with the continuous development of China's economy after the Reform and Opening up, yet the fact is that “There are too many monks and too little gruel.”---the funds allocated to each school are still far from enough. Take Hunan province as an example. In the year of 2000, China's financial education funds accounted for 2.87% of GDP, which failed to reach the target of 4% of GDP in 2000 as proposed in the outline of China's education reform and development. In 2003, the GDP of Hunan Province was 463.4 billion yuan, and the national financial expenditure on education was 11.179 billion yuan, accounting for 2.44% of GDP, an increase of 0.01 percentage points over the previous year. However, in 2004, the proportion of national financial education expenditure in GDP decreased to 2.34%, which is still far from the target of 4%.(Wu Sheng 2016,14-15).<br /> <br /> Besides the deficiency of educational funds, the allocation of it is also a cause. Usually, colleges and universities tend to use the fund to ameliorate the living condition and the construction of infrastructures, and then stuents’ scholarship and subsideies are indispensible. What is more, the salaries of teachers and all the staffs are also a big expenditure. Besides these, many colleges and universities attaches great importance to the scientific research items so that more money will be involved in these projects. Opposely, the development of the liberal arts may be less highlighted. In response to this problem, the writer deems that government and universities should both make some changes. As for government, they should carry out a policy that encourage the cultivation of computer skills; when it comes to the colleges and universities, they are supposed to enlarge the investment in the multimedia intelligent classrooms, and more techers who are sufficient in the operation of CAT should be enrolled. So far, Peking University has open a major named CAT, which is aimed to cultivate the professional talents to meet the needs of market.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Will machine translation replace human translation or not? Toward this question, the answer is an absolute “No”. As far as I am concerned, both the human tranlation and machine translation have their pros and cons. Human are able to comprehend the complex emotions in the texts and handle it with flexible expressions. In this aspect, machine can’t reach the human standard just like examples of “《江雪》”and “意思”mentioned above. Besides, mankind are familiar with the differences between various of countries so as to minimize the rate of committing a blunder, while the machine doesn’t have a brain like human’s. Their work is to translate the materials according to the superficial meanings. However, machine owns a huge volume (much more larger than human brain)which can store numerous materials and its working speed is hundreds of times of human’s(Pang Yingyu 2019,165). In the contemporary era, translators should first of all polish their translation skills and improve their ability to flexibly use various translation strategies and skills(Yao Li 2020,201-202). The old saying goes that “It takes a good blacksmith to make steel.” By the time, people are still the main force in the translation industry and machine translation stays in an auxiliary position. Human should not rely on machine to do all the works. The translators should improve their competitiveness through sordid multi-lingual knowledge, translation practice as well as stronger learning capacity and so on and so forth. At the same time, translators are also supposed to adopt an embracing attitude to acquire the comouter-aided translation skills. After all, with the further advancement of science and technology, the trend is inevitable. Actually, human translation and machine translation are highly compatible, which can greatly improve the translation efficiency and reduce people’s workload. Thus, the combination of the two methods is highly appreciated and the new type of CAT is bound to become the tide of the future.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Yi,Fan Jiaolian. 陈谊,范姣莲.(2018). 计算机辅助翻译——新世纪翻译的趋势[Computer-Aided Translation-the Trend of Translation in the New Era] 中国现代教育装备[China mordern educational equipment] 30-32.<br /> <br /> Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao. 董务刚,薛家宝.(1996). 评许渊冲诗《江雪》[Appreciation of Xu Yuanchong's Translation &quot;Fishing in Snow&quot;] 盐城师专学报[Journal of Yancheng Normal School] 56.<br /> <br /> 计算机翻译会取代人工翻译吗？[Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not?] (2020) 环球采风[Globe Collections] 17.<br /> <br /> Liang Jie. 梁洁.(2020). 人工智能对翻译行业的影响[The Influence of Artificial Intelligence on Translation Industry] 家庭科技[Family Science and Technology] 17-18.<br /> <br /> Lv Lisong,Mu Lei. 吕立松,穆雷.(2007) 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[Technique of Translation-Aided Translation and Translation Education] 外语界[The Field of Foreign Language] 37.<br /> <br /> Pang Yingyu. 庞盈羽. (2019) 谈机器翻译与人工翻译的关系—从机器翻译与计算机辅助翻译的发展角度[Analysis of the Relationship Between Machine Translation and Human Translation--From the Perspective of the Development of Machine Translation and Computer-Aided Translation]. 科学大众·科学教育[Scientific Masses·Scientific Education] 164-165.<br /> <br /> Global Encyclopedia. 全球百科. https://vibaike.com/<br /> <br /> Wu Sheng. 吴晟.(2016) 湖南省省属普通高校财政拨款体制研究[Research on the Financial Allocation System of Provincial Colleges and Universities in Hunan Province] 湖南师范大学[Hunnu Normal University] 14-16.<br /> <br /> Yaoli. 姚莉.(2020) 机器翻译时代,译者应该坚持技能与技术的融合[Translators Should Keep the Compatibility Between Skills and Technique in the Era of Machine Translation]. 科技经济导刊[Technology and Economic Guide] 201-202.<br /> <br /> Zhu Chaowei. 祝朝伟.（2018）机器翻译要取代作为人的译者了吗？—兼谈翻译人才培养中科技与人文的关系[Is Machine Translation Going to Replace Human Translators? -On the relationship between science and technology and Humanities in the cultivation of translation talents]. 外国语文[Foreign Literature] 106-108.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation 袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi==<br /> <br /> '''浅析汉语公示语的英译'''<br /> <br /> 英语笔译 袁天翼<br /> <br /> 摘 要：在这个经济全球化、政治多极化、文化全球化、科技现代化、信息共享化的时代，全球经济纵深发展，人类命运共同体日趋形成，人与人、国家与国家间的联系日益密切，这时，汉语公示语的英译问题便被提上了议程。尽管中国汉语公示语的英译翻译员越来越多，但是汉语公示语的英译问题层出不穷。本文简析了汉语公示语定义，例举了生活中常见的一些汉语公示语的英译典型问题，并针对此给出了一些翻译方法与策略，并进行了未来展望。<br /> <br /> 关键词：汉英翻译；公示语；翻译策略<br /> <br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> Yuan Tianyi <br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': In this economic globalization, political polarization, cultural globalization, technological modernization and informative sharing age, the global economy is deeply developing, and the human community with a shared future is coming into shape day by day. The relations among people and among countries are increasing day by day. At this time, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation become the topic of us. Though the number of Chinese-English public sign translators in China grows daily, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation emerge endlessly. This passage offers a brief analysis of the definition of Chinese-English public sign, points out some typical problems in Chinese-English public sign translation we see in daily life, analyzes some methods and strategies of Chinese-English public sign translation, and gives some outlooks on the future of Chinese-English public sign translation. <br /> <br /> '''Key Words''': Chinese-English translation; public sign; translation strategies<br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> '''I. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> The public sign is a specially applied literary form that was formed in modern times, which has a long history. It is used in public places and seen by the masses thus realizing unique communicative purposes. The public sign has become a crucial link in the communication between China and other countries in the international community. In the meantime, there are increasingly more experts and scholars paying attention to the translation of Chinese public signs into English. (Reiss, 2004). <br /> <br /> As an important tool for international communication, Chinese-English public sign translation plays an extremely important role in foreign friends’ understanding of Chinese culture（Wang Huili, 2019）. Its applied range is so wide that nearly covers every aspect of our daily life, including: Introductions of tourism trips, propaganda languages, warning languages, road signs, shop signs and advertising boards. It is mostly used on public infrastructure: Subway, airport, taxi, pier, tourist spot, park, street, community, shop, supermarket, restaurant, bank, hotel, cinema, hospital and etc. It uses simple words or sentences, or pictures only, or combines words and pictures to pass useful information to the masses, which not only serves Chinese people, but also is shown to the foreigners, which can help foreigners in China study, work and live. <br /> <br /> '''II. The Current Situation of Chinese-English Public Sign'''<br /> <br /> Public signs are an art of convincing others through effective verbal means, which are also components of language activities. They, in essence, belong to a special kind of communication. However, it is not a kind of face-to-face communication that takes place in a specific period of time, and none of the participants will appear as individuals. The object is for all the people with social behaviors in the place, regardless of gender, age, class or education level. Public signs belong to “one-way communication”, and its binding force or influence will not be as big as direct communication, but it is also used to act with words and deeds, and affects the behavior of the audience with a clear purpose. <br /> <br /> Public signs are everywhere, so what are their functions? Zhou Shuxia (Zhou Shuxia, 2017) thinks that, their functions can be divided into showing, warning, profiting, encouraging and eulogizing such five functions. <br /> <br /> Firstly, the public sign that has showing function offers all-round information about service, order, or informing service. Such as “Car Rental” and “Children and Senior Citizens Free”.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the public sign that has warning function comes up with restrictive or obligatory demands to typical people, which is often used through order, ban, information or persuasion tones. Such as: “Stand in Line” , and “Thieves Beware”. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the public sign that has profiting function promotes consumption, thus realizing enterprises’ economic profits. Such as: “Daily Special”, “Daily Service”. <br /> <br /> Fourthly, the public sign that has encouraging function calls for or encourages people to take actions for certain goals or tasks. Such as: “One Family, One Child”, and “Working together, we can make a world of difference”. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, the public sign that has eulogizing function gives wishes and chants to certain events or people to reach the goals of propaganda or education. Such as: “One World, One Dream”. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (Eugene Nida , 2004) said, Chinese-English translation of public signs embraces the conversion of two different languages and two different cultures, which is not only to achieve the language equivalence, cultural equivalence, but also to enhance the possibility of understanding and the reading of Chinese-English translation of public signs.<br /> <br /> Public signs are the translation with strong humanistic color (Wu Haoxi , 2019). <br /> <br /> However, there are many problems in Chinese-English public sign translation.<br /> <br /> In 2003, Clive W. J. Granger, a Nobel Economics Prize Winner talked of the settings and problems of public signs in Beijing when he was interviewed by a program of Beijing TV Station. He said: “Foreigners will feel a little bit nervous when they come to China, because they can not understand public signs in China. ” Clive’s comment extremely shows current problems in Chinese-English public sign translation (Lv Hefa, 2005). <br /> <br /> On June 20th, 2017, a national standard conference of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service was held in Beijing. The Vice Minister of the Education Ministry and Director of the National Language Commission stressed in the meeting: “The language and character industry of China is expanding from ‘striving to promote and normally use the national common language, scientifically protecting every nation’s language and character’ to ‘managing social foreign language use and improving foreign language service quality’. ” The national standard of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service is the standard of English translation and writing quality in public service fields, which stipulates the English translation principles, methods and requirements of transportation, tourism, culture, entertainment, physical exercise, education, medical health, postal service, telecommunication, catering, accommodation, commerce and finance these thirteen service fields. <br /> <br /> To sum up, there are still many major problems in China’s public sign translation, common and ubiquitous, which make foreign experts comment like that and the government use national force to normalize translation standards. Whether the translation of public signs in scenic spots into English is harmonious and unified has a great influence on cross-cultural communication (Pinkham John, 2000). <br /> <br /> '''III. The Causes of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> '''3. 1 The Basic Linguistic Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> To be a proficient Chinese-English public sign translator, one must, fundamentally, grasp basic linguistic rules of English and Chinese, otherwise he or she must make stupid mistakes, and some even primary learners will not make. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.1<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3684466622,1422277554&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.1 is a public sign put on a glass wall in a mall, the Chinese reads“全年无休(QUAN NIAN WU XIU)”, and it tries to use English to express that “This business runs the whole year”, so the precise translation should be “NO REST DAY ALL YEAR”. But there, we can see it was translated as“365DAY SA TEAR”, which does not belong to the grammatical law of English. So this is a big mistake. Only one who understands Chinese can understand. But for ordinary foreigners, they can not. So, when translating Chinese-English public sign, the translator must be clear about the target language, and know the basic grammatical venation, then begin to translate, instead of randomly putting some letters together and finishing. Otherwise, the translator will make a big mistake like this picture.<br /> <br /> A public sign in Haichang Ocean Park of Chengdu City, Sichuan Province reads &quot;Jellyfish Museum, the 2th floor&quot;. More specifically, it is a floor direction sign. Here, the correct English for the second floor should be “2nd”, not “2th”. Apparently that the translator has poor knowledge of English vocabulary, which led he or she to make such a ridiculous mistake. Actually, in English language, if there is a number contains “11”, “12”or “13”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “11th”, “12th” or “13th” respectively; And if there is a number contains“1”, “2”or “3”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “1st”, “2nd” or “3rd” respectively. For example, “101st”, “111th”, “201st”, “211th” and etc. <br /> <br /> No.3 is a warning sign of a tourist spot, reads &quot;The rockery danger, pleases no climb&quot;, whose Chinese meaning is “There stands a rockery, it is dangerous to climb, every one is forbidden from climbing it. ” The Chinese meaning is alright. But, when it was translated into English, a big mistake occurred: “The rockery danger Pleases no climb.”<br /> <br /> First, there should be “climbing” after “no”, not “climb”, this is just English grammar knowledge that can be learned in primary school; And the “Please” is followed by a “s”, why does the translator use third person singular at the top of a imperative sentence? Second, if the translator wants to tell the tourists that the rockery is dangerous and mustn’t be climbed, he or she should write: “The rockery is dangerous. Please don’t climb” or “Dangerous rockery. No climbing” or just “No climbing”. Unless the foreigners who see this sign have supreme understanding ability, they will not easily make sense of it. <br /> <br /> 3. 2 The Tendency Towards Chinglish and Mechanical Translation<br /> <br /> Knowing a little about English, then begin to translate public sign. This is ridiculous, which is definitely going to cause obvious mistakes. Especially when translating, there is a high probability that the translator will make Chinglish errors, or tend to seek for mechanical translation, which are the most common public sign translation problems in mainland China. With regard to the tendency towards Chinglish, it only proves that the translator’s basic skills of English are not so proficient, and he or she does not fit for translation work. For the tendency towards mechanical translation, on the one hand, it demonstrates that the translator is lazy, who is not willing to think about how to translate. On the other hand, it reveals his or her lack of basic English language knowledge. In fact, these two both can be easily avoided, only if the translator pays a little more attention to it or is earnest and dedicated to their work. All those mistakes should not have been made. <br /> <br /> No.4, this is a sign that is hung in an Internet celebrity milk tea shop: Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province. It reads &quot;out of the cup area&quot;. It originally means that the customers should queue here to get their milk tea after finishing paying. The translator should have easily translated “出杯区（CHU BEI QU）”into “FETCH AREA”, but it was translated as “OUT OF THE CUP AREA”, what a joke! Purely it was translated word-for-word. The translator did not understand its true meaning. Probably it was translated by a machine. As an Internet celebrity milk tea shop runner, when dealing with such kind of cultural issues, he or she should be extremely careful, earnest and cautious, instead of casually simply copying the contents given by a machine or hiring a third-rate translator and asking him or her to randomly translate. Large scale milk tea shops must shoulder their required obligations, and undertake necessary responsibilities and duties on public sign translation. Imagine that a foreigner, who can not understand it, stand there and think: What? Standing here is standing outside the cup? Maybe something interesting would happen. Let me try!<br /> All those will bring big and standing jokes. <br /> <br /> No.5 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province. It reads&quot; tourists get off area&quot;. Its Chinese meaning is: This is the place that tourists get off from a bus. But, it was translated as “Tourists get off area”, which fully shows the ignorance and lack of English language knowledge of the translators. People may can not help doubting whether it is copied from the translation given by a machine. Famous tourist spots like this, especially this kind of 5A tourist spot, can not even shoulder the cultural obligations, let alone developing in the long run. They should make big mistakes in such a little public sign translation! Do they only want to serve Chinese well while ignoring foreigners?<br /> <br /> Similarly, No.6 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province, and it reads &quot;up the mountain&quot;. The Chinese meaning is “This is the passage that leads tourists to climb the mountain”. The translation should have been a very easy and fun job, but when the sign is showed to tourists, a big big joke was born: “Up the mountain”. We can say “uphill way” or “uphill passage”, but, the translator obviously did not realize it. What’s more, when “up” is used as a verb, it is completely another meaning. It is also the symbol of such irresponsible spot management. <br /> <br /> No.7, it is a napkin given by an Internet celebrity milk tea shop (Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province ) for free after buying its milk tea. It reads &quot;more China, more fashion&quot;. At first glance, everything seems okay. But more carefully, we can find the mistake. The Chinese meaning is “If there are more elements with Chinese characteristics, it will be more fashionable.” But when translating, maybe with the aid of machine, or lack of a solid English knowledge foundation, it becomes “More China, more fashion”. If the customer is a Chinese, it does not matter, for he or she can understand it, and just shows a smile. But if foreigners see, they will be pretty shocked by the sight: What the hell is this? They will think that this shop lacks money to hire a good translator, and the managers are stupid. Furthermore, the Chinese national image will be badly affected. In fact, this sentence can be translated as “The more sinicization there is, the more fashion there will be” or “With greater Chinese characteristics come more fashion”. Easier? It can be “More sinicization breeds more fashion”. Translated like these, won’t it be much more correct and intelligible?<br /> <br /> '''3. 3 The Misunderstanding of the Public Sign Translators'''<br /> <br /> It is the little knowledge of English of the translators that makes them can not even spell a basic word correctly; Or due to carelessness, they make mistakes on public sign translation, thus causing mistakes on the meaning of the sign. All these are significant reasons why there are so many mistakes in Chinese-English public signs. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.8.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.8<br /> [https://www.sinaimg.cn/edu/cr/2015/0316/3124267229.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.8. The Chinese meaning of it is “The door or passage that leads you to the outside”, in short, “EXIT”. But the public sign was translated as“EXPORT”, so, what is “EXPORT”? In a word, it means trade among different countries. The commercial goods pass through the customs, being transported from one country to another country. Distinctly, the maker was careless, who has mixed the meaning of “出口（Chu Kou）”in Chinese, thus resulting in an obvious translation error. As for public sign translation, translators must weigh every word, and think over and over and over again, not just search online, and grab all the words you “discover”, which is a highly irresponsible behavior, an extremely irresponsible behavior to the society and the country . <br /> <br /> [[File:No.9.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.9<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4069547043,45136776&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.9 is from a hospital department. Its Chinese meaning is: Here is neurology emergency department. It uses a special logogram in Chinese. But, the maker was misled, so, he or she translated it as “God Medical”. If a person has a little common sense, he or she will be made to laugh wildly. It is completely the “Understanding of a sentence simply by a word”! That should be translated as “ Department of Emergency Neurology”. Such a casual translation will make Christians think that they can see God for real. Whether can he see death here or a way to heaven with a passionate God serving you? To some extent, this is disrespect for Christians, which can even cause disputes. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.10.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.10<br /> [https://ss0.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4055489075,1169617432&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.10 is photographed in a company building. Here, the Chinese means: this is the place where you can get boiled water. However, the translator of this public <br /> sign made a huge mistake, because he or she disintegrated the three Chinese words one by one, and thus translating them one by one, which can not be understood as a whole, let alone enable foreigners to understand the meaning of this public sign, and as a result, foreigners may not receive the service that they deserve. What’s worse, many people, including intelligent Chinese, when seeing this disqualified translation, will definitely be amused, and feel funny: What is this guy’s literate level?<br /> <br /> As a matter of fact, this public sign can be translated as “Boiled Water Room”. “开水”means “boiled water” in English. Certainly, the translator treated the “开”as a verb “open”, which is absolutely wrong. <br /> <br /> Further, this is a single room, not two or more, so we must use “room”, which is the plural form, instead of the singular form “rooms”. <br /> <br /> 3. 4 The Falsification and Loss of Information<br /> <br /> Originally, the managers want to use signs to warn people, but due to mistranslation, the information is tampered and missed, resulting in an opposite consequence, and producing big jokes. <br /> <br /> No.11 is a public warning sign in Liuxiang Barbecue Restaurant. It reads &quot; carefully hot&quot;. Is it a true warning? In the foreigners’ opinion, it is not. People who speak Chinese can realize that this sign was designed to warn customers not to be burned by the hot oven. However, the English translation is far from what it originally means. The correct translation can be “Careful! Hot!” or “Be Careful of the Hot Oven!” But according to the translation on the sign, it means “Carefully burn yourself”. Luckily, this is a small scale restaurant, if it were a large one, its reputation would be badly affected. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.12.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.12<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3765137851,1011242048&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.12 is a public sign in a large shopping center. As we all know, modern shopping centers now always use smooth and shiny tile floor as the ground, which makes the shopping centers look beautiful and attractive. However, smooth though it is, one big safety problem then comes into shape: The ground is too smooth to make shoppers slide and fall. Later, the managers made public signs like No.12 to warn people not to fall. The Chinese warning is okay, Chinese shoppers can understand, but when foreigners see this, he or she will burst out laughing: What? You order me to slide on the floor with care? What on earth do you mean? I have even seen an Internet celebrity girl posting an video clip that tells us a story that satirizes this mistranslation: The girl and her father slide joyfully on the ground in a shopping center while murmuring “Carefully slide! Carefully slide!” As a matter of fact, The correct Chinese-English translation should be “Caution! Slippery!” or “Beware of Wet Floor” or “Caution! Wet Floor”. Each one of the three is okay. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.13.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.13<br /> [https://ss2.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=461657809,3986868053&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.13 is a public sign that is put on the ceiling of a restaurant’s stair. Here, the translator wanted to pass such information by Chinese and English: Watch <br /> your head, do not hit the low ceiling of the stair. Be careful. Though the Chinese information is okay, the English, however, can not by understood by others, especially foreigners. <br /> <br /> Here, the makers wanted to warn the danger of the low ceiling, not to ask people to purposely hit the ceiling. So we can correct it as: “Watch Your Head”, or “Be Careful”. Both are okay. <br /> <br /> Here, the translator made a mistranslation, which reversed the original meaning when translating, thus producing a huge laughingstock. First, “碰”is not “meet”, but “hit”, according to this specific environment. It does not mean “meet someone”. Second, “小心碰头” means not to hit the ceiling, not to “meet carefully”. <br /> <br /> Throughout so many examples, every one can see that the mistakes of public sign translation are ubiquitous and common in daily life, which you can even randomly pick up one from any store you meet. Pervasive errors like these in public signs will negatively affect China’s reform and opening-up and the integration into international community, which will not only make foreigners misunderstand the meaning, but also seriously damage China’s national image. Therefore, the study of the public sign translation is extremely urgent and imperative. At present, translators must start from basic demand of Chinese-English public sign translation, endeavor to learn English well, cultivate a good sense of utilizing English and a great mindset of English utilization, proactively take part in English translation practice, and be highly alert and form a sense of “Using English language in a proper, correct, suitable and decent way”. Only then will the situation of Chinese-English public sign translation turn better. <br /> <br /> IV. Public Sign Translation Methods<br /> <br /> There is a saying goes: “Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards. ” So is the Chinese-English public sign translation. Zhang Yan (Zhang Yan, 2015) maintains in her paper that, the public sign translation methods can be summarized as four kinds. <br /> <br /> '''4. 1 Amplification'''<br /> <br /> Many new words that are with Chinese characteristics, especially combined with numbers, need using amplification to introduce to foreign readers. For example, in the past, “五讲四美三热爱(Wu Jiang Si Mei San Re Ai）”was translated as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves”. Many foreigners said that they could not understand it. Later, it was revised as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves” with the notation “ stress on decorum, manners, hygiene, discipline and morals; beauty of the mind, language, behavior and the environment; love of the motherland, socialism and the Communist Party”. Hence, foreigners can easily understand its connotation. <br /> <br /> '''4. 2 Ellipsis'''<br /> <br /> To make sure that the translation is concise and intelligible, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators must properly delete unnecessary words according to English expressing habits to achieve overall generalization. Such as: “Food Paradise”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 3 Re-translation'''<br /> <br /> Due to cultural differences, many folk adages with Chinese characteristics will not be understood by readers once simply read literally. So translators can moderately reorganize those sentences that can not be translated or understood. Such as: “Drinking and Driving Costs Your Life”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 4 Backward Translation'''<br /> <br /> There are two cases: Translating the cultural expressions that are borrowed from translation back into their original forms in the target language; Translating the expressions with obvious cultural characteristics into the idiomatic expressions in the target language. Such as: “Venus Florist”. <br /> The English public sign has its own cultural and pragmatic meanings. When doing the Chinese-English public sign translation, translators should consider about the cultural differences and avoid any form of ambiguity, misunderstanding or mistranslation, and offer high quality information service, thus making public sign translation advance with the times. <br /> <br /> '''V. Public Sign Translation Strategies'''<br /> <br /> He Xueyun (He Xueyun, 2006) holds in her thesis that, theoretically, semantic translation and communicative translation differ much. Semantic translation strives to keep the language specialty and unique express method of the original work, in order to express the original work’s thinking process; However, communicative translation’s key point lies in spreading information and enabling people to think, feel and act, giving play to the function of information that language conveys and the consequences it causes. Public sign translation must focus on results, and put readers first, only by this can we improve the current situation of public sign translation, thus achieving the purposes of public sign translation. <br /> <br /> Before beginning to do anything, we all need a world view and methodology to guide us to behave well. Likewise, when doing Chinese-English public sign translation, we also need guiding ideology to direct us. Here, I will show you four Chinese-English public sign translation strategies, which act as guiding ideology, which are definitely going to be a powerful weapon for you. Just remember them and practice them, you will gain a lot. <br /> <br /> '''5.1 No Grammatical, Semantic and Logical Error'''<br /> <br /> The most basic prerequisite of public sign translation is that there is no language error: No grammatical error, no vocabulary spelling error, no language context error, no Chinglish or machine-aided translation error. <br /> <br /> “This is office area, tourists mustn’t enter” can be translated as “Staff Only”, not “OFFICE AREA PLEASE DON’T COMING”, or you will make a grammatical and redundant error. “Be careful, don’t slip into water” can be translated as “Caution! Deep Water!” instead of “TAKE CARE! FALL INTO WATER CAREFULLY!” Otherwise, people will can not help laughing. <br /> <br /> One translator was not able to translate “The grass is so beautiful, are you sure you wan to walk on it?” into English public sign, so here comes <br /> “Fangcaoqiqi riding the Heren”. What a laughingstock! This is a combination between Chinese and English, without any grammar structure. Not to translate it will be a much better choice. We can concisely translate it as “Don’t Walk on the Beautiful Grass!”<br /> <br /> '''5. 2 Concise and Intelligible Translation'''<br /> <br /> One prominent character of public sign is conciseness. It asks people to ensure the translation is crystal clear and precise, without any compound or obscure sentence. Only by achieving this can the signs become popularized, instead of making people think over and over and over again to discover their cryptic meaning. <br /> <br /> The public sign translation must be concise and intelligible, which means that you not only need to precisely convey what the maker means to people, but also must be concise. People can understand it immediately without comprehension deviation or ambiguity. <br /> <br /> '''5. 3 Understanding of Cultural Background Differences'''<br /> <br /> When translating, every translator must thoroughly understand the culture of the targeted language. Translators must comprehensively understand each specific use of the targeted language under different cultural backgrounds. If not doing so, it may cause severe disputes, and even cause irresistible outcomes. Here are several examples. <br /> <br /> “Dragon” is a legendary animal in traditional Chinese culture. Chinese people often view themselves as “dragon”, and even say that they are “Descendants of the Dragon”. Thus, “Dragon” means holy and sacred thing in Chinese culture. But in English speaking countries, the meaning of “dragon” is not so. In these countries, “dragon” means something evil like Satan, sometimes it is even used to describe thugs, scoundrels or other bad behaviorists. Therefore, invariably coping the icon of “dragon” and using it in other cultures is a definite mistake. In a word, a public sign language translator must totally comprehend the cultural background differences. <br /> <br /> '''5. 4 Obedience to Certain Norms and Standards'''<br /> <br /> As long as someone is translating, he or she must obey certain rules, norms and standards. He mustn’t translate according to his will. This is a truth. <br /> For example, according to China’s first set of standards on how to regulate the use of foreign languages in China, which was jointly issued by the State Standards Commission and the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine on November 20, 2017 and officially implemented on December 1, 2017, some of the standards have been specified in detail. <br /> <br /> Names of tourist spots: Names of mountains, rivers and lakes should be written in Chinese pinyin. Translations of names of temples should vary according to different situations, so are the towers’ names. In line with external service needs, English explanations can be added. <br /> <br /> '''VI. The Future of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> China is a major powerful country, and is the country with the second highest Gross Domestic Product in the world, which is why China should keep close economic and cultural relationships with other countries. In order to integrate China with international community in a better way, there must be high quality public sign translation. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation must improve the China’s influence power in international community. High quality public sign translation represents that China is rich in translators and intellects, and shows that China can fulfill obligations and shoulder responsibilities as a major country. Achieving this means China not only takes responsibilities for Chinese people, but also for all human beings. Good quality public sign translation is definitely going to significantly synergize the course of reform and opening-up. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation is obliged to facilitate foreigners to travel in China, boost domestic consumption demand, form a new growth point for economy, promote the rise of Gross Domestic Product, and accelerate the comprehensive, coordinated and sustainable development. High quality public sign translation is also an integral part of the New Development Philosophy: Innovation, coordination, green, open and share. High quality public sign translation corresponds to the New Normal of Chinese economy. At present, the economy of China has been changing from developing at a high speed to develop at high quality, and is at the stage of changing economic development mode, transforming driving forces of economic development and optimizing the economic structure, so high quality public sign translation is badly needed. Thus, considering the big change of Chinese economy, achieving high quality public sign translation is an urgent affair. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation has the duty to embody a city’s humanism spirit, cultural speciality and charm, which is the inevitable requirement of core socialist values and system. It also promotes the spreading of Chinese culture, and improves the influence power of Chinese culture. High quality public sign translation also levels up Chinese people and overseas Chinese’s sense of identity and belonging. What’s more, it can narrow the gap between Chinese and foreigners, and acquire more recognition from them towards China. Domestically, high quality public sign translation can strengthen national cohesion; Externally, it will strengthen China’s soft power, and increase China’s international speaking right while creating national radiation power. <br /> It is an important measure to improve China’s public service and governance capability by establishing an evaluation mechanism and promoting the standardization of English translation. It is of great benefit to further improve China’s service level of opening to the outside world, demonstrate its cultural soft power and enhance its international image (Guo Jinghong, 2019). <br /> <br /> In short, looking forward to the future of Chinese-English public sign translation from a strategic perspective, translators must remain true to their original aspiration and keep their mission firmly in mind, which is: To be devoted to the future of socialism with Chinese characteristics, to be dedicated to the landscape of translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and to be committed to the sustainable development of Chinese-English public sign translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics. <br /> <br /> We must treat Chinese-English public sign translation with the point that advances with the times (Tian Guomin, 2019). The English translation of public signs of tourist attractions belongs to the category of cross-cultural communication, and the translator should have certain cross-cultural knowledge and awareness, so that the English translation can be more understood and accepted by the audience and truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication (Yang Hongyu, 2019). The communicative translation theory aims for the target readers (Gutt, 1991). Translation of public signs is a very important task in China with the increasing connection to the outside world (Newmark, 2001). Since reform and opening-up, China has been integrating into the international community day by day. To fully achieve this, as regards of Chinese-English public sign translation, we still have a long way to go. There is no time for us to delay the work of strengthening, proceeding, and improving public sign translation. The rising level of quality of Chinese-English public sign translation will improve both city image and urbanization level. He Xueyun contends in her article that, many people take it for granted that if one knows a foreign language, he then can translate. As a matter of fact, basic skills of public sign translation not only includes foreign language level, but also the knowledge of foreign cultures. <br /> <br /> '''VII. Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> So, how to facilitate the overall development of Chinese-English public sign translation？Firstly, we need to keep pace with the times. Language is constantly changing, so are many words and idioms, and so are public signs. In order to accurately convey information to the audience, it is essential to integrate the latest, most reliable and most accepted language into public signs. Secondly, it is necessary to fully understand the idiomatic usage of public signs, because public signs are mainly aimed at English speakers, so it is necessary to strengthen the accumulation of words, phrases and idioms, which is also the basis of translation. Thirdly, the translators of Chinese-English public signs should use accurate words and phrases in combination with specific environment and objects, and should not fail to convey the meaning or deviate from the original meaning, which otherwise will result in misunderstanding. Of course, only achieving the above is not enough. In order to do a good job in the translation of Chinese-English public signs, we need to keep improving our translation attitude and spirit of study, and constantly improve and summarize and innovate on the basis of the original, so as to make the translation of Chinese-English public signs more perfect and recognized by the international audience. It is very important for the academic community and people from all walks of life to analyze the problems in the application of public signs and put forward corresponding improvement countermeasures (Liu Xiaoping, 2019). <br /> <br /> A Chinese-English public sign translator must fully realize and shoulder the responsibilities that translators must carry, form a sense of community of a shared future, fully acknowledge the current situation of Chinese-English public sign translation, completely learn lessons from the predecessors who have made mistakes in Chinese-English public sign translation, totally implement the four public sign translation strategies I mentioned before, to make Chinese-English public sign translation serve the construction of a moderately prosperous society in all respect, the construction of modern powerful socialist country, the construction of building China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and the realization of the great Chinese dream, that is: the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> [1]Eugene Nida &amp; Charles Taber.（2004） [The Theory and Practice of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [2]Gutt &amp; Ernst, Agust. （1991）[Translation and Relevance: Cognition and Context] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> [3]Newmark, Peter. （2001）[Textbook of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [4]Pinkham, John.（2000） [The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br /> <br /> [5]Reiss. （2004）[Translation Criticism: the Potentials and Limitations] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [6]国家标准委.（2017） 公共服务领域英文译写规范<br /> <br /> [7]郭京红.（2019）公示语英译中的错误观点与评价方式 海外英语(23)154-155. <br /> <br /> [8]贺学耘. （2006）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略外语与外语教学,(03)57-59. <br /> <br /> [9]刘小平. （2019）公示语翻译中存在的问题及对策. 凯里学院学报, (04)72-74.<br /> <br /> [10]吕和发. （2005）公示语汉英翻译研究——以2012年奥运会主办城市伦敦为例 北京:中国翻译,(06)38. <br /> <br /> [11]田国民. （2019）谈汉语公示语的英译英语教师(22)110-113. <br /> <br /> [12]王回力. （2019）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略 延边教育学院学报(05)31-33. <br /> <br /> [13]吴浩熙, 李海红.（2019） 功能对等理论下的公示语翻译及策略 海外英语(20)59-61. <br /> <br /> [14]杨洪玉等.（2019） 旅游景点公共标识语的英文翻译 北京工业职业技术学院学报(04)122-126. <br /> <br /> [15]张焱. （2015）汉英翻译过程中的难译现象处理 北京:中国社会科学出版社(16)44-46<br /> <br /> [16]周树霞. （2017）浅析公示语的汉英翻译 校园英语(42)239-239.<br /> <br /> == A Study of Translation of Movie Titles in the Light of Venuti's Theory 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan==</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5&diff=109642 2020-12-10T10:11:02Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Reference */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第五部分(Part 5)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Thoughts'''=<br /> ==A Study on Creative Treason of Literature Translation - 李玉 Li Yu==<br /> ==On the Analysis of Three Kinds of Beauty in ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence-林敏 Lin Min 202020080616==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;林敏 Lin Min &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation, aiming to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language in a translation. Xu Yuanchong introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties” principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book, he said that the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem. This thesis is going to use such two theories to compare and analyze the two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond in our nation --Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version with some typical and representative examples, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.This thesis is divided into five parts: the first part roughly describes the purpose, method and significant of the study; the second part introduces the general idea and two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond; The third part introduces two translation theories functional equivalence and three beauty principle; the fourth part, some typical examples are selected and two theories are used to compare study the two versions. The fifth part summarizes the whole thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Functional Equivalence, Three Kinds of Beauty<br /> <br /> === 题目===<br /> 功能对等理论指导下《荷塘月色》英译本“三美”的传达<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 功能对等论是翻译理论中最重要的理论之一。功能对等论的目的是实现源语和目标语之间的功能对等。许渊冲在《毛泽东诗词四十二首》序言中提出的译诗的“三美”原则，即音美，意美和形美。本篇文章将利用这两个基本原则，通过一些有代表性的例子对译本进行比较学习，学习研究两篇文章是否符合功能对等。本篇论文共分为五部分，第一部分介绍了本研究的目的、意义和方法；第二部分介绍了《荷塘月色》的大意和两个英译本；第三部分对两个翻译原则：功能对等论和“三美”原则做了简要地介绍；第四部分选取了有代表性的例子，运用了两个理论对两译本进行了对比学习；第五部分对全文进行了总结。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 功能对等论，三美原则<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> With the advent of globalization as well as the development of Chinese economy, more and more Chinese literary works have been introduced abroad. Prose is one of the important part of China’s literature.However there is still not enough attention to the introduction of Chinese prose, especially Chinese modern prose. <br /> <br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''，the well-known lyric prose, written by the famous author Zhu Ziqing, has made a huge influence on the development of Chinese prose. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer's depressing mood. For this prose is a typical example of Chinese modern prose, many translators have given their translations of it, such as Zhu Chunshen, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang, Li Ming and Wang Jiaosheng. A large number of scholars have analyzed its different versions making great contribution to the prose translating. <br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation. Functional equivalence theory introduced by Nida, refers to the fact that the translation does not take rigid correspondence between words and structures as the standard, but aims to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language. The theory emphasizes that“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。<br /> <br /> Here, this paper selects This thesis selects two of the most famous English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen's version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, to compare and study, based on Xu Yuanchong's “Three Beauty” principle under the guidance of functional equivalence. This thesis will compare and analyze the two English versions, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> === 2. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' and Its English Versions ===<br /> Before comparing and analyzing the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' , we need learn some necessary information about the author who wrote it and the relatively background. At present, the two famous English versions are Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version .<br /> <br /> ====2.1 ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is the classical of lyric prose written by Zhu Ziqing in Tsinghua University, Beijing on July 1927，which depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer’s depressing mood. It was published in the Novel Monthly, one of the new literary journals which enjoys the reputation of “the first journal in the China’s literary world” in the 1920s.（Han,2018 ）Since it was published, the article has received both high praise and fierce criticism. From this perspective, it has witnessed the history of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> In this prose, the author is sleepless and sits in his yard to enjoy the cool in the evening. Suddenly, it occurred to his mind that the lotus pond where he passes every day and the pond must be different at night with the moonlight. So, the author wandered lonely on a cinder footpath around the lotus pond, he feels that he is a “free man”. As he sees the pond cover with trim lotus leaves and white lotus flowers, hearing the sounds of the cicadas and the frogs, Zhu thinks that “this animation was theirs alone, I had no part in it（Yang ,1990 ）.”<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Two English Versions ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is one of Zhu Ziqing’s masterpieces and was selected into Chinese textbook. Most scholars say that the prose is “文质相称，形神俱美” which has attracted an amount of scholars and students.（Chen ,2018）The prose has been introduced to foreign countries in different languages, especially in English since the May 4th Movement. The notable translations include Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, Li Ming’s version and Wang Jiaosheng’s version. This thesis choices Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version. Both Zhu ’s version and Yang’s version are faithful to the original meaning and concise to the sentence structure and close to the original style. But Zhu prefer to employ literal translation and Yang uses the free translation, like the words “热闹” ,“冷静”, “群居”and “独处”, Zhu translated these as “a serene and peaceful life”,“a busy and active one”, “being in solitude” and “in company”, in contrast Yang’s translation is “excitement and stillness”.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Basis of Theory ===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Functional Equivalence Theory ====<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Three Kinds of Beauty =====<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===4. On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence ===<br /> Zhu Ziqing used a large number of rhetorical devices and reduplicated words to describe the beauty of the lotus pond under the moonlight at night, to express his gloomy and upset mood, which brings great difficulty to translation, in his famous prose--''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. This part is aimed at using the functional equivalence theory and Xu Yuanchong’s theory of “Three Beauties” to analyze wheatear the two English versions of such prose achieving the degree of function equivalance.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 ====<br /> Words are the basic meaning of sentences. G •Leech divided “meaning” into two categories: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(Leech,1987) The conceptual meaning is the meaning that we can find in dictionary, and the associative meaning is the actually meaning of the word in the special context. It is a truly universal acknowledge that the meaning of the sentence is not simple addition of word meaning. Thus, the translator should find the conceptual meaning and the associative meaning of the original, especially the associative meaning. Here are some typical examples:<br /> <br /> Example 1: “这几天心里颇不宁静。”（Zhu Ziqing , 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu ’s version: “I have felt quite upset recently.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang ’s version: “The last few days have found me very restless.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> This sentence is the first sentence in the first paragraph. Here “不宁静” refers to “quite uncomfortable”, which can be translated as “upset, restless, untranquil, disquieting and so on”. However, considering Zhu Ziqing’s patriotic feeling and his responsibility for his wife and kid, he cannot devote his whole life to the great revolution. Therefore “不宁静” in the context means the author is anxiety, because he want to change his condition. Zhu Chunshen translated it as“upset”which means“unhappy or disappointed because of something unpleasant that has happened”in the ''OED'', which emphasized the unhappy mood. And Yang Xianyi employed it as “restless”, which means “unable to stay still or happy where you are, because you are bored or need a change ” in the ''OED'', which stressed on one needing a change. It is clear that the word “restless” is more exactly than the word “quiet” in this sentence.<br /> <br /> However,“宁静”has an end rhyme“ing”and neither“upset”in Zhu’s translation nor“restless”in Yang’s version opted the words with the same end rhyme for they both focused on the meaning. And such sentence in original text is a 9 characters short sentence with no subject, Yang translated it into 9 words,used the“the last few day”as the subject, while Zhu’s version only has 6 words and selected “I” as the subject. Therefore, Yang’s version is expressive to the original in this sentence and it retains the beauties of form and sense in this sentence at the same time. In short, the two versions are good translation, but the Yang’s version is much better from this point. <br /> <br /> Example 2“这是一条幽僻的路；白天也少人走，夜晚更加寂寞。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: It is peaceful and secluded here, a place not frequented by pedestrians even in the daytime; now at night, it looks more solitary......”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “It is off the beaten track and few pass this way even by day, so at night it is still more quiet.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> The word “幽僻” means “安静和人迹罕至” here. Zhu rendered the word “幽僻” into “peaceful and secluded”, emphasized that there is silent and private. Yang employed it into “off the beaten track” which means no one knows here and quiet. From this perspective, both translations are very similar in understanding the writer’s meaning.<br /> <br /> However, the word “幽僻” is an adjective word with two meanings: quiet and not disturbed by other people. Zhu’ s version “peaceful and secluded” ,are two adjective words and has two similar meanings, which keep the form and sense of the original sentence. In conclusion，according to the “Three Beauties” principle, Zhu’s translation is much better than Yang’s for it retains the form of the original.<br /> <br /> Example 3: “这路上阴森森的，有些怕人。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “The foliage, which, in a moon-less night, would loom somewhat frighteningly dark.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “ On nights when there is no moon the track is almost terrifyingly dark.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> In this sentence, Zhu Ziqing uses “怕人” to describe the atmosphere of the air on the road and his feeling of walking on this path at such a night. “怕人” referred to “令人害怕的” in Chinese, it is an adjective to present his feeling. “Frightening ” means “making you feel afraid”, and “terrifying” means “to make somebody extremely frightened”in the ''OED'' , which can be regarded as synonyms. Both use the adverb to translate the adjective “怕人”. But in Zhu’s translation, “the foliage” is “frighteningly dark” and in Yang’s version, “the track” is “terrifyingly dark”. Both translators have their own understanding of the original content, but the both translations are faithful to the word “怕人”. We could say the two translations achieve the beauty in sense. However, in “Three Beauties” principle, we should consider the beauty in form and sound. As for sound ,the last sound of “怕人” is [en] in Chinese, but both “frightening” and “terrifying” has the same end sound of [en]. As for “frightening” and “terrifying”, the last sound of these are [iŋ] which could be regarded as the similar pronunciation with [en] .So, the two translations achieved beauty in sound from this aspect. In all the both versions are great from this perspective.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 ====<br /> ====4.3 ====<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> ==Lexical Gap between English and Chinese and its translation strategies 孟莹 Meng Ying==<br /> <br /> ==On Form and Spirit in Translation 文偲荇 Wen Sixing==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> translation methods，form，sprit<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译方法，翻译的形与神<br /> <br /> ===The form of translation===<br /> <br /> ===The sprit of translation===<br /> <br /> ===Discussion===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories——Taking &quot;2017 APEC Speech&quot; as sample 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing==<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Strategies'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Study on the Translation Strategies, Translation Methods and Translation Techniques in Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao==<br /> <br /> ==Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” to “Visibility” 胡百辉 Hu Baihui==<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s ManipulationTheory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility - 马智星 Ma Zhixing==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Business Contracts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 胡瑾 Hu Jin==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization in China and the increasing frequency of modern commercial activities, commercial contracts are particularly vital in order to ensure the smooth progress of commercial activities. In a business contract, it is required to ensure that the expression of any text in the contract is accurate as far as possible, and the same is true when translating it. Contracts provide vital basis for the smooth development of business and the protection of rights. Accurate and vivid translation of contracts has an important impetus to the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations and the resolution of disputes. Therefore, it is of practical significance to study the translation of business contracts. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory, equivalence is first realized in meaning and then in form. Dynamic equivalence is used to break the static equivalence and maximize the meaning of the translation. This thesis gives a preliminary introduction to the translation of business contracts, studies the application of functional equivalence theory in contract translation, and puts forward some major translation skills and methods, which will be of some guiding significance to the future translation of business contracts, thus avoiding unnecessary disputes between the two parties.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> business contract; Functional Equivalence Theory; contract translation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中国全球化进程不断加快，现代商务活动日益频繁，为了确保商务活动的顺利进行，商务合同的签订显得尤为重要。在商务合同中，要求尽量确保合同中的每一个文字都表达准确，在对其进行翻译时也是如此。合同是确保业务开展顺利和进行权利保障的重要依托，对合同进行准确生动的翻译对业务的开展和权利、义务的保障以及出现争议时的解决等有着重要的推动力。因此，研究商务合同的翻译有一定的现实意义。根据奈达的功能对等理论，对等首先在意义上实现，然后在形式上实现，利用动态对等，打破静态对等，使译文意义最大化。此课题初步介绍了商务合同的翻译，研究了功能对等理论在合同翻译中的应用，提出了一些主要的翻译技巧和方法，对今后商务合同的翻译具有一定的指导作用，从而避免合同双方出现不必要的纠纷。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 商务合同；功能对等理论；合同翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since China promoted the Silk Road Economic Belt, China's economic exchanges with other countries in the world have been increasing day by day. China's exports volume is also increasing, and goods are exported to other countries in the world. In 2013, China overtook the United States as the world's largest trading nation. In this context, in order to ensure the smooth progress of transactions and reduce trade friction and disputes, commercial contracts, which have legal effect, have attracted more and more attention. Contract translation belongs to the category of legal translation. Accurate translation of contracts plays an important role in the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations, and the resolution of disputes. However, commercial disputes in China's foreign economic and trade business are very common, and many disputes are caused by various problems in contract translation. Therefore, they should be guided by scientific translation theories.<br /> This paper mainly includes 3 chapters. The first chapter is the introduction of business English contracts, including the definition of business contract, the categories of business contract, and the linguistic features of English business contract.<br /> The second chapter introduces the theoretical framework of functional equivalence translation, including Nida's main principles and viewpoints of functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> The third chapter is the main part of the article, including the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 General Introduction of Business Contract===<br /> <br /> This chapter first introduces the definition of business contract and the categories of business contract, and then analyzes the linguistic features of English business contract from lexical, syntactic and textual levels respectively. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> As an important link in foreign trade activities, business contracts have always been valued by people. Article 2 of The PRC Contract Law clearly stipulates that Commercial contract refers to the agreement clauses that are formally concluded according to law, notarized and must be abided by jointly in order to determine their respective rights and obligations during certain commercial cooperation between the parties concerned. It can be seen from this that a commercial contract is the result of the consensus reached by the parties and is a civil legal act. A legally established contract shall take effect from the date of its establishment and shall be legally binding. This provides a legal guarantee for effectively avoiding trade frictions. However, special attention should be paid to the fact that China's Economic Law on Foreign Contracts stipulates that commercial contracts can take many forms, such as formal contracts, letters of intent, memorandum, agreements, commissioned purchase orders, etc. But no matter what form it takes, it should be signed in writing. The oral agreement cannot be submitted to the court as evidence after the dispute occurs.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Categories and Structure of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> Based on different standards, business contracts can be divided into many categories. According to the contract maker, they can be divided into sales contract (made by the seller) and purchase contract (made by the buyer); according to the subject matter, they can be divided into technology transfer contracts, processing contracts, foreign labor contracts, and agency agreements, etc; according to the details of the contract, they can be divided into sales contract, sales confirmation letter, purchase contract and purchase confirmation letter; according to the price terms used in the contract, they can be divided into CIF contract, FOB contract and goods arrival contract, etc.<br /> Although there are many types of commercial contracts, the structure of commercial contracts is generally relatively fixed, generally including three parts: preface, text and contract end. The first part is the preface, which generally includes the name of the contract, the parties to the contract, the date of signing and the place of signing. The second part is the main body of the contract, which mainly stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties to the agreement, the specific conditions of the traded goods, such as commodity name, quantity, total value, delivery date and validity period, port of shipment and destination, insurance and confidentiality clauses, payment clauses,etc. The third part is the end, which mainly includes the signatures of all parties to the agreement, the language of the contract, the number of copies of the contract and the explanation of the validity of the contract.<br /> <br /> ====1.3 A Contrastive Analysis of Stylistic Features of Chinese and English Business Contracts====<br /> <br /> English business contract is a solemn style with the highest degree of formality among all styles of English. A comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English business contract in terms of vocabulary, syntax and discourse will be made in this chapter.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Lexical Features of Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> As the most basic semantic constituent unit, vocabulary plays the most basic and important role in the whole contract text. When reading any text, the characteristics of words can often reflect the characteristics of the whole text. Therefore, it is necessary to study the characteristics of vocabulary so as to lay a foundation for the study of the whole text.<br /> <br /> First of all, the use of archaism is the most prominent feature in international business contract English. The extensive use of archaic words in business contracts and legal styles fully reflects their solemn and serious style, which is related to the social function of English style of business contracts and the particularity of international business. The archaism most commonly used in business contract English are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中)，therein-after(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于).<br /> <br /> In contrast, some classical Chinese words are often used in Chinese business contract terms, such as“兹、若”. This is to reflect the conciseness and clarity of the Chinese contract text. However, strictly speaking, Chinese business contract terms are more straightforward, the classical Chinese vocabulary is less frequently used, and the stylistic features are not as obvious as English business contracts.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the use of synonyms is another feature of English business contracts. Two or more synonyms are often used together in English business contracts. This is to make the terms of the contract more precise and accurate, and to avoid ambiguities and omissions as much as possible, for example, by and between, sole and exclusive, make and enter into, etc. <br /> <br /> However, we must note that synonyms are not commonly used in Chinese business contracts. This is mainly because of the differences in expression habits between Chinese and English and the differences in legal and cultural traditions between countries.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, as a contractual document with legal effect, legal terms are also used in the contract. In formal English business contracts, drafters often use “convene” instead of “hold or assemble”; “dispatch” instead of “spread out or handout”; “terminate” instead of “stop”. Similarly, in Chinese business contracts, interpreters use“承诺”to indicate “commitment”;“撤销”to indicate“cancel”instead of “取消”;“裁决” to mean “decision” instead of “决定”. Finally, the contract contains many professional knowledge and terminology.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.2 Syntax Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> Besides vocabulary, the syntax of business contracts also has their own characteristics, such as common clauses, declarative sentences, passive voice, modal verbs, etc. <br /> <br /> The most obvious feature in business contracts is the use of subordinate clauses. They are in obvious positions to explain, restrict and supplement the meaning of the main sentence. The positions of these clauses are relatively flexible. For example, attributive clause can be placed together with the central word or separated from the central word. A noun can be modified by multiple attributive clauses, and an attributive clause can also modify multiple nouns. The adverbial clause of time can be placed either at the beginning of the sentence or at the middle and end of the sentence.<br /> <br /> In contrast, the positions of attributive clauses and adverbial clauses in Chinese are relatively fixed. The adverbial clause of time is usually next to the modified verb because there is no temporal change in Chinese verbs. Declarative sentences are clear in meaning, division of powers and responsibilities, objective and fair in stating facts, and conform to the requirements of business contract terms. Therefore, they are frequently used in Chinese and English business contracts, but interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences are seldom used.<br /> <br /> Passive sentences are also quite common in business contracts. The passive voice is often used when there is no need to clearly indicate the sender of the behavior and the emphasis is placed on the object of the behavior.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.3 Textual Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> The textual features of Chinese and English business contracts are mainly reflected in textual cohesion and textual structure.<br /> <br /> In business contracts, whether Chinese or English, contextual cohesion is realized by adding conjunctions or repetitions of words, which indicates the logical relationship between sentences and reflects the rigour and solemnity of business contract language.<br /> <br /> The discourse structure of Chinese and English business contracts is basically the same, with highly stylized features.<br /> <br /> This kind of consistency is not only to obtain formal uniformity, but also often mainly due to the requirements of meaning, so that readers have the impression that the contents expressed by clauses with the same sentence pattern are equivalent in the legal effect of the contract.①<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 General Study of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This chapter introduces Nida's functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida first proposed the“dynamic equivalence”theory, then further developed the theory, emphasizing the equivalence of two aspects, namely“formal equivalence”and“dynamic equivalence”.“Formal equivalence”emphasizes the form and content of the information itself and believes that the translation should be close to the original structure. “Dynamic equivalence”refers to“reproducing source language information from semantics to style with the closest (original) natural equivalent in the recipient language”.② Tan Zaixi（谭载喜） pointed out, in this definition, there are three key points: 1. Natural, the translation cannot have a translation cavity. 2. Closeness, referring to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of nature. 3. Equivalence, which is the core.<br /> <br /> After the proposal of dynamic equivalence, many disputes have arisen. It is considered as free translation or live translation. In order to change people's misunderstanding of it, Nida pointed out:“Everything in the text is meaningful, including speech forms, so forms cannot be sacrificed easily.”④ Therefore, he replaced“dynamic equivalence”with “functional equivalence”. There is no essential difference between the two, but the latter highlights the concept of“function”.<br /> <br /> On the question of which level equivalence should be reflected, Nida pointed out that in addition to content and form equivalence, style equivalence should also be considered.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida divided functional equivalence into“maximum functional equivalence”and“minimum functional equivalence”since absolute equivalence is impossible to achieve. The so-called“maximum functional equivalence”means that the target readers can understand the original text in a way consistent with the original readers and further appreciate the original text while“minimum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand how the original readers understand and appreciate the original through their understanding of the target text. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Researches on Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Abroad, Beekman(1972: 32) pointed out:“Nida's functional equivalence theory makes theorists and translators believe that a good translation must be able to convey the meaning and dynamics of the original text at the same time.”⑤ <br /> <br /> Wilss(2001: 51) stressed:“Nida's functional equivalence theory can be applied to translation practice because it can achieve effective translation.”⑥ Venuti said:<br /> Functional equivalence theory also eases the debate between translators on“domestication” and “foreignization” from the perspective of language and culture.⑦<br /> <br /> At home, Jin Di(金堤) put forward“equivalence theory”on the basis of“functional equivalence theory”, and applied it to the translation of Ulysses, which illustrates the feasibility of“functional equivalence” theory in practical translation. Tan Zaixi made a comprehensive and systematic summary of the formation process of Nida's translation theory and its profound connotation. In addition, in the CNKI database, retrieval using“functional equivalence theory” as the key word shows that there are 2444 related articles in various core journals and magazines.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Applicability of Functional Equivalence Theory to E-C Translation of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> At present, there are no authoritative translation principles and standards for commercial contract translation, but the three principles of contract translation put forward by Ma Huijuan(马会娟) are highly recognized: First, the words used are accurate and the translation is complete. The translator shall not add, delete or change any information contained in the contract at will. The language of the translation shall be accurate, complete and natural. Second, the organization is clear and the format is equivalent. The translation should correspond to the original text format as a whole and reproduce the structural features of the source language as much as possible. Third, the translation should be in line with the stylistic characteristics of the contract.<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory emphasizes content equivalence, form equivalence and style equivalence. These three requirements are consistent with the three principles above put forward by Ma Huijuan respectively. Both of them limit the translation standards from the aspects of content, form and style. Therefore, the functional equivalence theory can be fully applied to the translation practice of business contracts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Business Contract Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This part focuses on the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. Combining with actual translation cases, this chapter analyzes the common problems in contract translation and puts forward corresponding solutions. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Equivalence at the Lexical Level====<br /> <br /> Vocabulary is the basic component of sentences and chapters. In the specific translation process, if vocabulary translation is not handled well, sentence and chapter translation will be impossible.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Equivalence of Technical Terms—Literal Translation and Free Translation=====<br /> <br /> The contents of business contracts involve all trades and professions, and there are many subject matters, including many professional knowledge and terminology, which is a big obstacle for many translators who do not know the professional knowledge of the industry. Therefore, before translation, translators should understand the relevant industries involved in the contract and master the necessary knowledge in the industry so as to avoid the layman's words and semantic errors in the translation, which will affect the accuracy and formality of the contract and cannot achieve functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> Example1:The balance 80% ( Eighty percent ) of the contract value shall be paid against irrevocable L/C at 360 days sight to be accepted by both parties. <br /> 译文：合同金额的80%（百分之八十）以不可撤销信用证的方式在交单的360 天予以支付。<br /> <br /> Many words in the contract appear in the form of letter abbreviations. As shown in this example,“L/C”is the abbreviation of letter of credit, which is translated literally into“信用证”. This is a well-established translation method in the industry, which can reflect both the equivalence of meaning and the professionalism of language expression.<br /> <br /> Example2:“The seller shall present the following documents required for negotiation or collection to the banks.”<br /> 译文:“卖方应向银行提交议付或托收所需的下列文件。”<br /> <br /> In this sentence,“negotiation”and“collection”are both technical terms of the contract, they are translated into“议付”and“托收” respectively, instead of“谈判”and“收取”. The expressions not only conform to the professional expression of the economic and trade industry, but also accurately reflect the meaning of the original text and achieve the meaning and style equivalence emphasized by the functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> Example3:“UNIT PRICES: FOB Xingang, Tianjing USD 22 150.00 per unit (US Dollars twenty two thousand, one hundred and fifty only)。”<br /> 译文:“单价: FOB天津新港, 每辆22150.00美元（贰万贰仟壹佰伍拾美元）。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“FOB”is an abbreviation of “Free on board”. It can be translated into “FOB” by free translation or by shifting translation. This is mainly because the readers of business contracts themselves are professionals in the industry. They usually exchange price terms in the form of English letters and abbreviations in their daily work. Therefore, when translating such price terms, their source language expressions can be retained.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Equivalence of Archaism—Omission, Addition and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Archaisms are rarely used in modern English, but they are still common in business contracts. They can not only reflect the formal rigour of business contracts, but also highlight the conciseness and clarity of language. The archaisms most commonly used in English business contract are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中), hereinafter(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于), etc.<br /> <br /> Example1:“The parties hereto shall, first of all, settle any dispute arising from or in connection with the contract through amicable negotiation.” <br /> 译文:“合同双方首先应该通过友好协商，解决因合同而发生的或与合同相关的争议。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“hereto”means“本协议的、本合同的”. It can be translated with omission. The contract subject relationship is clear, literal translation will only lead to redundant repetition of the translation, so there is no need to translate it.<br /> <br /> Example2: Now, therefore, in consideration of the recitals set forth above and the mutual covenants, promises, and agreements contained herein, and other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged, the Parties do hereby agree as follows: <br /> 译文：因此，考虑到上述陈述和本协议中包含的共同契约、承诺和协议，以及其他良好和有价值的对价，双方特此达成如下协议，特此确认其接收和充分性。<br /> <br /> In this example, herein usually means“此中，于此”. But such translation here will confuse readers. Therefore, we can adopt addition and translate it into“此协议中”. Although this expression is not as concise as“于此”, accuracy is the first requirement in contract translation.<br /> <br /> Example3: After arrival of goods at port of destination, the buyer shall apply to China Commodity Inspection Bureau (hereinafter referred to as CCIB) for a further inspection as to the specifications and quantity/weight of the goods.<br /> 译文：货到目的港后，买方将申请中国商品检验局(以下简称商检局)对货物的规格和数量重量进行检验。<br /> <br /> In this case, the original meaning of“hereinafter”is“以下，在下文中”. Its original meaning is directly inserted into the sentence, which not only accurately expresses the original meaning, but also makes the translated language natural and smooth, meeting the requirements of functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Equivalence of Formal Words—Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> “Functional Equivalence”emphasizes the transmission of reading experience, requiring the translator to transmit not only language functions but also legal functions, so as to enable the target readers to feel the reading experience of the original readers. <br /> <br /> Example1: The agreement does not operate as an acceptance of any conflicting terms and conditions and shall prevail over any conflicting provision of any purchase order or any other instrument of Customer. <br /> 译文：本协议不接受任何与本协议产生冲突的任何条款。若在乙方订单或任何文件中出现与本协议相冲突的条款，应均以本协议为准。<br /> <br /> Example2:“Time of shipment: within 15 days after receipt of the advance payment and the L/C of balance value to be accepted by the × Bank.” <br /> 译文:“装运日期：收到预付款且剩余货款的信用证被××银行承兑后的15天内装运。”<br /> <br /> In the first example, although the basic meaning of“胜过”is also expressed, it is usually translated into“以....为准” or “效力高于”in legal texts. In the second example, the common meaning of“accept”is “接受”, but in legal translation it is usually translated as “承兑”. Formal words are usually translated according to conventions, so the difficulty in translation lies not in the choice of translation strategies, but in the grasp of semantics and the reproduction of style.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.4 Equivalence of Juxtaposition—Contracted Translation=====<br /> <br /> English business contracts often use two or more synonyms to ensure the uniqueness of words meaning. The functional equivalence theory emphasizes the equivalence of meaning and form, but in the actual translation process, the absolute equivalence between the two, that is, the “maximum functional equivalence”proposed by Nida, is impossible to realize.<br /> <br /> Example1:“The agreement is made and entered into on April 16, 2007 by and between Party A and Party B.”<br /> 译文:“此合同由甲乙双方于2007年4月16日达成。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“made and entered into”and“by and between”are juxtaposed by two pairs of synonyms. When translating, these words only need translate once, which is called contracted translation. <br /> <br /> Example2: This agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the subject matter hereof and supersedes all prior agreements, understanding, warranties, representations, negotiations and discussion, whether oral or written, of the parties except as specifically set forth herein.<br /> 译文：此合同是双方就合同主体所达成的全部协议，将取代双方过往所有口头或书面的协议、理解、声明、保证、谈判和讨论，在此明确阐明的除外。<br /> <br /> In this example, several synonyms are juxtaposed to make the terms of the contract include all relevant matters as much as possible so as to make the writing strict and clear. Here, we can adopt literal translation strategy, keeping the total number of words listed in the original text, and looking for the corresponding Chinese words to achieve the double equivalence of content and form. <br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Equivalence at the Syntactic Level====<br /> <br /> Cliches are commonly used in official document and usually have a fixed translation method. Passive sentences and subordinate clauses have long sentence patterns and complicated logical relations, which tests the translator's translation ability and logical expression ability. <br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Conventional Phrases—Imitation Translation=====<br /> <br /> There are many cliches in business contracts, which are common at the beginning and end of contracts.<br /> <br /> Example1:“In consideration of the mutual covenants contained in this agreement, the parties agree as follows:”<br /> 译文:“考虑到本协议中的共同承诺，协议双方约定如下:”<br /> <br /> Example2:This Agreement may be executed in two or more counterparts, each of which shall be deemed an original and all of which together shall constitute one instrument. <br /> 译文：本协议可签署两个或两个以上的副本，每一副本构成本协议的一份原件，所有副本构成一份法律文件。<br /> <br /> Although the original expression of each text is not the same, the basic meaning is the same. A relatively fixed translation method has been formed, so the translators should know the common expressions in advance, or look for the parallel text to imitate the translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Equivalence of Passive Sentence=====<br /> <br /> Passive voice is a typical language structure in English business contracts. It can effectively reflect the objectivity and fairness of contracts. However, unlike English, passive voice is seldom used in Chinese. Therefore, in translation, we usually use various translation strategies to convert passive voice into active voice. The most common translation strategy is conversion, that is, the object of the original text is converted into the subject, and the subject is converted into the object. <br /> <br /> Example1: This Contract is made by and between the Buyer and the Seller whereby the Buyer agree to buy and the Seller agrees to sell the commodity in attached Annex according to the terms and condition stipulated below: <br /> 译文：买卖双方同意按下述条款购买出售附件中的商品并签订本合同： <br /> <br /> Example2: Agent shall be entitled to nominate mandate other third parties to act upon behalf of Agent in generating business to the Parties, as Agent’s sole discretion. <br /> 译文：代理人有权自行指定、授权其他第三方代表代理人为缔约方带来业务。<br /> <br /> From the first example, “by and between” is used as adverbial in the sentence. The object“the Buyer and the Seller” is the originator of this sentence, which is transformed into the subject of Chinese, and the recipient of the action“this contract”is transformed into the object of Chinese, thus the passive sentence of English is transformed into the active sentence of Chinese. In addition, some passive sentences in business contracts can also be translated into active sentences without changing the subject of the original sentence, as shown in the second example.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Equivalence of Long Sentence—Combination, Division and Reconstruction=====<br /> <br /> Long sentences must contain many clauses and modifiers, and their writing ideas are quite different from those of Chinese. Therefore, how to split the sentences into several parts, how to extract the core meaning of complex logical relations and how to reorganize Chinese are the three major difficulties.<br /> <br /> Example1: Agent’s undertaking and obligation is to search, locate and refer (lead) potential and prospective clients/customers to Principal who are seriously interested, ready, willing and able to apply for the Product. <br /> 译文：代理人的责任和义务是为委托人寻找、定位和推荐（引导）潜在的、真正对本产品感兴趣、准备好且愿意申请的客户。<br /> <br /> This is a restrictive attributive clause. We often adopt a combination method, translating the subordinate clause into“...的” and putting it before the modifier in the form of adjectives. This is mainly due to the structural differences between English and Chinese. The attributive elements in Chinese are not as flexible as the attributive clauses in English. <br /> <br /> Example2: The parties may not assign or transfer this Agreement or any of its rights and obligations under this Agreement without the prior written consent of the other party, which shall not be unreasonably withheld. <br /> 译文：未经另一方事先书面同意，缔约方不得出让或转让本协议或本协议项下的各项权利和义务，此要求不得被无理拒绝。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a non-restrictive attributive clause. Since this clause and the antecedent are not closely related and generally play an explanatory role, we often use division method in E-C translation. That is to say, the two should be separated and naturally combined by repeating antecedents.<br /> <br /> Example3: Should Principal be reasonably sure that Agent violated this rule, or should any client/customer present proof of such violation, Agent will not be entitled to its omission for the particular client or group of clients and Principal may terminate this Agreement with immediate effect at its own discretion. <br /> 译文：如果委托人有理由确定代理人违反了此项规定，或如果有客户提供了其违反此项规定的证据，代理人将无权享这一客户或这一组客户的佣金，委托人可自行终止本协议，即刻生效。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a adverbial clause. The structure of“should+subject+verb”belongs to the unreal conditional sentence. But there is no such usage in Chinese. Therefore, we can reconstruct the original text according to the logical structure of the original sentence and adjust the word order appropriately to make it natural and more in line with the Chinese expression habits. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Equivalence at Textual Level====<br /> <br /> The text consists of sentences, so the following focuses on the cohesion and format of the text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Text Cohesion=====<br /> <br /> Text cohesion is realized through the use of conjunctions and lexical repetition, reflecting the rigour and solemnity of business contract language.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> Thereafter, this Agreement shall be renewed automatically for successive additional one-year terms under the same terms and conditions unless either party chooses not to continue the relationship and provides written notice 30 days prior to the natural expiration of the existing one-year term. <br /> 译文：此后，本协议应以同样的条款自动延期一年，除非任何一方选择解除合作关系，并在一年合同期满前30天提交书面通知。<br /> <br /> Here, explicit connectives,“thereafter, and, unless”are clearly translated, which is conducive to textual cohesion and indicates the logical relationship between sentences. Therefore, we can translate them into “此后、和/并、除非”, which not only realizes the formal equivalence between the translation and the original, but also achieves the semantic equivalence.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Text Format=====<br /> <br /> As one kind of legal documents, commercial contracts are highly normative and have strict writing format. Therefore, attention should be paid to the corresponding format in translation.<br /> <br /> Contract No: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Date: Aug. ××,2013 <br /> <br /> The Buyer: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Representative: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> The seller: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××<br /> <br /> Representative: ××××××<br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> 译文：合同编号：×××××× <br /> <br /> 日期：2013年8月×号 <br /> <br /> 买方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：×××××× <br /> <br /> 卖方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：××××××<br /> <br /> Here, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the contract text, and keep the format of the translation and the original text in alignment during translation. Firstly, capital words with the first letter should be emphasized in terms consistent with Chinese expression habits. Secondly, the parts marked in bold or italics in the contract shall still be marked in bold or italics in the translation.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> To sum up, according to the requirements of functional equivalence theory on translation quality, commercial contract translation should meet the following standards:<br /> <br /> In terms of content, first, the translation language should be natural and fluent and conform to Chinese expression habits. Second, pay attention to the professionalism of the language expression in the translation, avoid using colloquial expressions, and achieve the meaning equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> In terms of format, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the commercial contract text and try our best to achieve the formal equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> In terms of language style, the translation should retain the original language style as much as possible. The business contract language is professional and solemn, so the translation should reproduce the strict and formal legal style of the original text on the premise of ensuring accurate content and natural language.<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes and summarizes specific contract terms and puts forward countermeasures. Although the translation strategies given in this paper have certain universality, the research text is slightly narrower than that of the whole commercial contract text research. Due to the space limitation, the cases provided are limited. Therefore, the scope of the research text should be broadened and analyzed from a broader research perspective in future research.<br /> <br /> ===Notes===<br /> <br /> ① 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998: 310-312.<br /> <br /> ② Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986: 113-120.<br /> <br /> ③ 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2004: 23-27.<br /> <br /> ④ Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993: 119-130. <br /> <br /> ⑤ Beekman, J. &amp; C, John. Translating the word of God[M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974: 191-221.<br /> <br /> ⑥ Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001: 72-86.<br /> <br /> ⑦ Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995: 76-89.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> [1] Beekman, J. &amp; John C. Translating the word of God [M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974. <br /> <br /> [2] Catford, J. C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965. <br /> <br /> [3] Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> [4] Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986.<br /> <br /> [5] Nida, E. A., and R Taber, Charles. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. New York: E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1969.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995.<br /> <br /> [7] Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [8] Yallop, C. The construction of equivalence[A]. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2001.<br /> <br /> [9] 顿官刚. 经贸英语词汇的特点及翻译[J]. 山东外语教学, 2002, (2).<br /> <br /> [10] 廖瑛. 实用公关英语[M]. 上海: 对外经济贸易大学出版社, 2005.<br /> <br /> [11] 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998.<br /> <br /> [12] 苗锡璞. 功能对等理论指导下的商务英语翻译[J]. 内蒙古财经学院学报, 2011, (1).<br /> <br /> [13] 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> [14] 汪洋. 浅析商务合同的词汇与句法翻译技巧[J]. 科技文汇, 2009, (10).<br /> <br /> [15] 金堤. 等效翻译探索[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998.<br /> <br /> [16] 马会娟. 论商务文本翻译标准多元化[J]. 中国翻译, 2005, (3).<br /> <br /> ==The translator's invisibility 张毓婕 Zhang Yujie==<br /> <br /> ==Study of Domestication and foreignization in Cross-cultural Translation 顾东方 Gu Dongfang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's economic globalization, international cultural exchanges are expanding, and translation as a communication tool is also crucial. As a form of cross-cultural and cross-linguistic communication, translation is a kind of communication and interaction between two cultures with very different social backgrounds and cultural traditions. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, the application and selection of translation strategies should not only reflect the translator's style, but also directly affect the audience of the translated work among the target language readers. In 1995, Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization , in The Invisibility of Translators. domestication and foreignization are both opposed and unified, i.e. there is no such thing as absolute domestication or absolute foreignization. This paper will discuss the selection and application of domestication and foreignization in cross-cultural translation, based on the two translation strategies themselves and actual translation cases, so that translators can use these two translation strategies more flexibly in translation to better convey the meaning of the original texts and make the translations reach more readers, and thus promote the communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication and foreignization; cross-cutural; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在经济全球化的今天，国际间文化交流也在不断扩大，而翻译作为一种交流工具也显得至关重要。作为一种跨文化、跨语言交际的形式，翻译是一种社会背景与文化传统很不相同的两种文化间的交流与交往。因此，在跨文化翻译中，翻译策略的运用与选择不仅仅要体现出译者的风格，也会直接影响译作在目的语读者中的受众程度。美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出了归化与异化两种翻译策略。归化与异化，既对立又统一，也即绝对的归化或者绝对的异化都是不存在的。本文将从归化与异化这两种翻译策略的本身出发，并结合实际翻译案例，来探讨归化与异化在跨文化翻译当中的选择与运用，使得译者能够在翻译中更灵活地使用这两种翻译策略，更好地传达出原作的意蕴，使译作受众于更多的读者，以此促进不同文化之间的交流。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化与异化；跨文化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1. Definitions of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Domestication is to localize the original language and focuses on the target language or readers by conveying the original text in the way target readers are familiar with. In order to close the readers of target texts.Domesticated translation requires the translator to speak like a native author, and the translation must become authentic to the native language if the original author is to speak directly to the readers. It helps the reader to better understand the translation and enhances the readability and enjoyment of the translation.<br /> Foreignization is that the translator tries not to disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader can get closer to the author&quot;. In translation, it means to accommodate the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorb foreign expressions, require the translator to approach the author, and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the original content. The purpose of the foreignization strategy is to consider about the differences in national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationalities and linguistic styles, and to preserve the exoticism of the translated text for the readers.<br /> <br /> ===2.The relationship between literal translation and free translation ,and domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Historically, foreignization and domestication can be seen as extensions of, but not identical to, literal and free translation. The terms &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot; are English translation version. Literal translation is a kind of method or text that keeps the original content and the form of the original text. Free translation means that it keeps only the content of the original text, not the form of the original text. Literal translation appeared during the May 4th Movement, emphasizing the need for faithfulness to the original text so that the translation can be &quot;expressive&quot; and &quot;elegant&quot;. Literal translation does not mean translating word for word in mechanical way. Since English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate them word for word. Literal translation is to fully and accurately clarify the meaning of the original work, without any distortion or random addition or deletion of the original ideas to maintain the original style. Sometimes even the original mood or emotion, such as anger or embarrassment, sarcasm or irony, joy or happiness, should not be ignored. Fu Si Nian and Zheng Zhenduo both advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, literal translation is the overriding rule. The work of Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren, The Collected Works of Extra-territorial Novels, is regarded as the representative of literal translation. The free translation, on the other hand, starts from the meaning and requires only the main idea of the original text to be expressed without excessive attention to detail, but a natural flow of the translation. In translation, if we cannot directly adopt the structure and expression of the original, we must change the sentence structure and expression to convey the meaning of the original according to the form and characteristics of the expression. Since there are many differences between the original language and the translated language in word order, grammar, changing forms and rhetoric, we can only use appropriate ways to convey the meaning of the original and reproduce the effect of the original. Mr. Jing-Shen Zhao once said, &quot;A smooth and fluent version is better than one that focuses only on fidelity to the original&quot;. Obviously, Mr. Zhao was in favor of foreignization, and so did Mr Yan Fu. Foreignization has been used in many works of Yan Fu, for example, the Evolution and Ethics is a typical example . In literal translation, faithful to the original form should be placed first, followed by faithful to the original content, again the fluency and popularity of translated language; while in free translation, faithful to the original content should be placed first, translation language fluency and popularity of the second, but free translation is not limited to the form of the original. Some scholars often discuss literal translation, free translation and domestication and foreignization together, which is understandable, but it is necessary to make a distinction. Based on the level of language and culture,domestication and foreignization focus more on the use of language from the perspective of cultural differences and are a kind of translation strategy, while literal and free translation is a translation technique, which is only at the level of language. There may be only one main translation strategy for a text or a work, but each strategy may use both literal and free translation methods, and each method serves the general direction of the translation strategy. The choice of the main translation strategy depends on the purpose of the translation, if it is to maximize the understanding of foreign cultures or cross-cultural comparative study, then the main focus is on foreignization; if it is to understand the information or story development through reading, then the domestication may be the best choice. Taking the translation of the famous work Dream of the Red Chamber as an example, there are two versions by two masters, Yang Xianyi and Hawkes, the former adopts foreignization to deal with the cultural factors in the language, that is, to keep the source culture as much as possible in the translation, while Hawkes adopts domestication in order to avoid the conflict between two different cultures, Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. National and international research on the development of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> <br /> ===3.1.The history of the development of domestication and foreignization abroad.===<br /> The German translator Schleiermacher, in his work, On the Different Methods of Translation, elaborated the need for translations to bring the reader as close as possible to the original author, and for the first time introduced the concepts of domestication and foreignization.<br /> At the same time, in the British academic circles of the time, domestication was the main translation strategy, but Francis Newman in England, when discussing the transl ation work on Homer, advocated that translators should consciously translate in the ancient language to emphasize the heterogeneity of the work.<br /> In the 1960s A.D., Nida proposed the theory of domestication for the first time in many structuralist theoretical works, and since then the climax of the debate on domestication and foreignization rose on the stage in western translation field . In Nida's view, domesticated translation does not need to stick to the form of the original text, but only needs to express the content with the closest and most natural equivalent in the translated text to achieve equivalence.<br /> The French theorist Antoinette Bellman deplored the tendency of eliminating foreignization in translation through the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot;. He said: &quot;The proper theoretical goal of the translation action is to accept heterogeneity as it is.&quot; This view seems to have an impact on Venuti's strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot; .<br /> In his book The Invisibility of the Translator, Italian scholar Venuti discusses the &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator by combining the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization for the first time. He strongly advocates foreignization and questions domestication, arguing that domestication is essentially a means of cultural colonization by Western colonizers. At the same time, he also suggests that the purpose of translation is not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express linguistic and cultural differences.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Domestic development history on domestication and foreignization===<br /> The earliest translations of Buddhist scriptures have included the debate between assimilation and dissimilation. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the translator Zhiqian pioneered the translation style of using free translation instead of transliteration, which had far-reaching significance and influence in history.<br /> At the end of the 19th century, several other great translators emerged in Chinese history, and Yan Fu was one of them. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, foreign powers invaded extensively and the Chinese nation faced an existential crisis, under such a background, Yan Fu believed that translation must be carefully chosen based on the social and historical reality of the country into which it is translated. In the translation, the translator should take the literary tradition of the nation and the specific historical and cultural purpose as the main purpose, combining the cultural and linguistic background of the readers. The translator should not focus on how to be &quot;faithful to the original&quot;, but how to adapt to the social and cultural choices of the time.<br /> With the rise of the May 4th New Culture Movement, many translators tried to learn from foreign literature in order to transform literature and society.Lu Xun's most famous dictum relating to translation was &quot;I'd rather be faithful than smooth&quot;, and advocated &quot;preserving the foreign flavor as much as possible&quot; and &quot;the need for exoticism&quot;. <br /> After the founding of New China, China's translation industry entered the third high point, and a large number of Western and Soviet works were introduced, which was connected with the spiritual needs of people at that time. After the reform and opening up, with the influx of Western translation ideas, &quot;foreignization&quot; has emerged. Many scholars have put forward the idea that &quot;Foreignization is primary while domestication is supplementary&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===4.domestication and foreignization of cultural exchange translation===<br /> <br /> ===4.1the relationship between culture and language===<br /> In a broad sense, culture refers to the material and spiritual wealth created and accumulated by human beings in the course of social development; in a narrower sense, it refers to the ideology of society and the system of organizational constructs that corresponds to it. Culture has the following four basic characteristics 1) culture is owned and shared by all members of a society; 2) culture is acquired rather than inherited; 3) culture is biologically based; and 4) culture is based on a symbolic system. The relationship between language and culture is between the part and the whole; language is a subsystem of culture, and language cannot exist apart from culture; it embodies all the beliefs and emotions of a cultural group. Language and culture interact and influence each other and are inseparable. Based on the close relationship between language and culture, more consideration should be given to cultural factors in translation research, which means that translation research should be carried out in a more macro context. Translators should be aware of enough cultural differences when dealing with the cultural differences between the original language and the target language. Due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese, many English and Chinese phrases, although literally having the same or similar meanings, are inherently different. Therefore, a word-for-word translation without considering cultural factors can lead to ambiguity.<br /> <br /> ===4.2 Translatability and untranslatability of cultures===<br /> On the one hand, the similarity of human experience worldwide contributes to the translatability of cultures. In this regard, Nida has said that &quot;all human beings eat, work, sleep and procreate, and they produce objects such as furniture, tools and vehicles. They also organize themselves into families, clans, internal and external groups, nations and inter-national organizations. They have a conscious similarity in their views of the universe, values, religion and supernatural forces. In fact, the different groups of people in the world have much more in common with each other than they do with each other.&quot; It is the similarity of the cultures of different peoples that allows people of different cultures to understand each other and makes translation possible. Nida thus states, &quot;Linguists and anthropologists have discovered that what binds human beings together far outweighs what alienates them, and this is the basis for generating communication.&quot; Many expressions that are unique to one culture can be found almost identically in a culture and become the best evidence of cultural translatability.<br /> On the other hand, each people has a culture that is distinct from the others, which hinders mutual understanding with the others and may even cause cultural shock. Due to different cultural inheritances, the languages of different nationalities have their own symbol systems and lexical, syntactical and grammatical characteristics, which often make them untranslatable. For example, the Chinese phrase &quot;客上天然居，居然天客&quot; is one of the examples of untranslatable culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.3 Factors influencing cultural translation strategies===<br /> <br /> ===4.3.1.Motives and objectives of translation===<br /> <br /> Different motivations and purposes for translation lead to different translation principles and methods<br /> <br /> ===4.3.2.Text type===<br /> <br /> Different texts influence the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord, translation can be divided into instrumental translation, which refers to the means of transferring information from the source language to the target language, and documentary translation, which refers to the means of transferring information about communication activities from the source language to the target language. This type of translation emphasizes the transmission and conveyance of information and mainly includes non-literary writing, including advertising, media writing, scientific writing, propaganda and announcements, etc. With this method of translation, which is guided by the culture of the target language, the information that needs to be conveyed can be better expressed and accessed. The other type of text is documentary translation. This type of translation refers to the presentation of real communicative activities and information to the target language readers. The term &quot;documentary translation&quot; is appropriate for translating (language-)-specific expressions, where translation of language and content are equally important. eter Newmark distinguishes between communicative and semantic translation of such texts, emphasizing the &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot; of the message. &quot; in order to achieve the same effect on the readers of the original language as on those of the target language. Although this type of translation is a subjective process, the translator will attach great importance to the effect of the translation on the reader's mind. By reorganizing and rearranging the order of sentences, the translator will eliminate obscurities and ambiguities in order to achieve &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot;. Most non-literary writing, informative articles and books, as well as textbooks, bulletins, standardized writing, and novels are suitable for this type of communicative translation; because it emphasizes the need to have the same effect on both the original and target language readers, it often uses expressions that are customary and easily understood in the language in which they are written. Thus, communicative translation is equivalent to naturalized translation, where the translator's preference for idiomatic expressions is produced or determined by the translator's preference for the target language. Semantic translation attempts to get as close as possible to the exact meaning of the original text in terms of wording. Semantic translation focuses on the expression of the exact meaning of the content in order to preserve as accurate a style of the original text as possible. This type of translation is an objective process during which the translator focuses only on whether the translation is precise and retains the flavor of the original text. In this type of translation, the translator tries to preserve the semantic and syntactic structure of the original text, as well as the tone of the original text, etc. semantic translation applies to autobiographies, private correspondence, personal emotional texts and quotations. A semantic translation is equivalent to an alien translation in an attempt to achieve the preservation of the flavour of the original, due to the translator's original language preference.<br /> <br /> ===4.3.3Acceptance by readers===<br /> In the past, traditional translation theories placed one-sided emphasis on extra-author-centred and text-centred research, neglecting the involvement of translators and target language readers. Modern reception aesthetics considers the reader not as an unimportant and unnecessary perspective, but as a historical, active and creative factor in the relationship between author, text and reader. This is why different people have different interpretations of the same text of Hamlet. Naida was influenced by the acceptance of the aesthetic sub. His theory and practice of translation are very much focused on the readers' reflection. He pointed out that &quot;Judging the validity of a translation does not stop at the comparison of word meanings, grammar and rhetoric; what is important is the extent to which the recipient is able to understand and appreciate the translation correctly.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===4.4the cultural school of translation===<br /> In 1990, the representatives of the cultural school of translation, Bassnett and Lefevere, in their co-edited book Translation, History and Culture, formally proposed the slogan of &quot;Cultural Turn of Translation&quot;, which also marked the official emergence of the cultural school of translation. In the following years, they published several monographs, individually or together, discussing about the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. In the following years, they published several monographs, either individually or jointly, to discuss the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. Unlike the literary or linguistic schools of translation in the past, the cultural school is a school with a strong &quot;revolutionary&quot; element in translation theory, and some people even consider their views to be &quot;subversive&quot; to the previous translation theories. This is mainly because they especially emphasize the status of culture in translation and the importance of translation to the spread of culture and the promotion of social and cultural progress. Other translators, such as Lambert and Robyns, argue that translation is more accurately regarded as a communication activity between two cultures than as a bilingual conversion activity. Therefore, they believe that translation activity is a cultural conversion. In recent years, Chinese scholars have done some research and reflection on the essence of translation. In the researches of many scholars, under the current globalization environment ,the importance of translation to cultural exchange and communication is getting more and more attention from people. For example, Lv Jun proposes that &quot;translation is a kind of cross-cultural information exchange activities, and its essence is dissemination. To a certain extent, the viewpoint of Chinese scholars and the Western cultural schools can be said to echo each other. Language is not only a carrier of information, but also a carrier of culture. Therefore, in essence, translation as a kind of inter-linguistic communication, it is not only the conversion of language information , but also the transplantation of cultural information. Therefore, in essence, translation is not only a language information conversion, but also a cultural communication activity.<br /> <br /> ===5. discussion domestication and foreignization from translation examples===<br /> <br /> ===5.1 Application of domestication in English-Chinese Translation===<br /> Chinese famous writer Mo Yan has won the Nobel Prize for Literature for a series of works including Fatigue of Life and Death (2006) and Frog (2009) and American sinologist Ge Haowen should also be credited , who was called “the only midwife of Mo Yan’s works”.Ge's translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out reflects his consistent principle: &quot;The author is writing for the Chinese, while I am translating for foreigners,translating is a process of rewriting”. Ge Haowen did a lot of rewriting and compilation based on respecting the original work, and in the translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out, the domesticated translation reflects his relentless pursuit of &quot;accuracy&quot;, &quot;readability&quot; and &quot;acceptability&quot;. <br /> <br /> 例一： 常言道‘螃蟹过河随大流’，‘识时务者为俊杰’，不要顽固不化，不要充当挡路的石头，不要充硬汉子。<br /> <br /> Join the commune and stop working for yourself, end your quest for independence.Stop being headstrong,and an obstructionist.<br /> <br /> “螃蟹过河随大流” is a two-part allegorical saying in Chinese folks . It means &quot;following the majority of people to speak or act&quot;. A post-slip is a short, witty phrase that can be used as a philosophical and wisdom-boosting phrase. A man who knows the times is a hero&quot; is an idiom derived from a historical allusion, meaning &quot;only those who can recognize the trend of the times can become heroes and heroines&quot;. Ge Haowen domesticated these two slang expressions: first, because they have the same meaning as the one that follows: &quot;Don't be stubborn ...... don't be a tough guy anymore&quot;, which is used to kindly advise people who are unable to see the current affairs of the day, but are still stubbornly stubborn. The deletion of these two daily phrases does not affect the main content of the narrative and the expression of ideas in the context. Secondly, there is the concern that the translation may not produce the desired effect of depth, image, and humor as the source language. And then there is the fact that the target language readers are relatively unfamiliar with Chinese slang, so it is better to delete it directly than to translate it to increase the readers' reading burden and affect their understanding and grasp of the whole text. Ge Haowen's domesticated translation method reflects his holistic view of discourse as a unit<br /> <br /> 例二：但一个二十多岁就当了县级领导干部的人，和农村姑娘结婚的可能性几乎是零，无论她貌如西施还是色比婵娟。<br /> <br /> There was no chance that a leading country-level cadre in his twenties would ever actually marry a peasant girl , no matter how pretty or fetching she might be.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaojun ,Xishi, Diao Chan and Yang Yuhuan were the main characters with unique beauty at that time in historical illusions ,named as “Four Beauties in ancient times”.In the original work, Mo Yan chose only two historical figures, &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, to contrast and emphasize the beauty of rural girls. In the process of translation, Ge did not translate &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, nor did he make any commentary, but took into account the target audience's alienation from the historical allusion to the Four Beauties. Therefore, he adopt a domesticated translation method to make a simplification, breaking the constraints of the original language and enhancing the readability of the translation, without deviating from the original meaning.<br /> In the above example, when dealing with unfamiliar allusions or common sayings and proverbs, Ge Haowen boldly rewrote and deleted them, translating the work from the reader's point of view, so that the target readers will be pleased with his translation.<br /> 5.2 The Application of Foreignization in English-Chinese Translation<br /> The nature of foreignization is such that it deals with elements of the original language that are culturally distinctive, and the result of the translation is to bring in new forms of expression that are different from the mother tongue and the cultural connotations attached to them. Language is an open system with a strong capacity for absorption and inclusion. With the deepening of communication among countries and peoples, various languages have been enriched to different degrees, and variant translation plays a more important role in this process. In Chinese, the terms &quot;internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot; are used to refer to the &quot;Internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot;. &quot;Time is money&quot;, &quot;ivory tower&quot;, &quot;washroom&quot;.... (crocodile tears), &quot;black humor&quot; , and &quot;qi gong&quot; ), &quot;taijiquan&quot; , &quot;kong fu&quot; , &quot;typhon” These words did not originally exist in the Chinese and English language systems. However, translators make a large number of words with exoticism in the way of foreignization more popular and acceptable among the massive culture . Therefore, foreignization is not only beneficial to introduce local history and culture to foreign countries, but also gives local readers the opportunity to understand foreign customs and realize the purpose of cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> 例一.打破铁饭碗<br /> <br /> Break the”iron rice bowl”<br /> <br /> &quot;Iron rice bowl&quot; is a Chinese idiom, in Chinese we compare &quot;rice bowl&quot; to an occupation, while &quot;iron rice bowl&quot; refers to a stable job, no doubt, it is difficult to convert such words with obvious Chinese characteristics into the target language through the method of &quot;domestication&quot;, but foreignization not only retains the imagery of the source language, but also introduces the unique culture of China to Western readers.<br /> 例二.下海<br /> <br /> A.to jump into the sea of business<br /> <br /> B.To turn professional<br /> <br /> In the early days of reform and opening up, the word “jumping into the sea of business” was popular, mainly meaning the trend of doing business.For this new phenomenon ,translators adopt different methods. Text A used foreignization and direct translation while the later domestication. In comparison, the former was more expressive and vivid, conveying the meaning of source language in a proper way.<br /> Domestication and foreignization is more apparent in the literary translation. Here I will take the translation of Dream of the Red Chamber as an example and compare the translations of Mr. and Mrs. Yang Xianyi ,and Mr. Hawkes. The translation of Dream of the Red Chamber by Yang Xianyi and his wife is a typical representative of foreignization, which is highly praised by domestic readers, but some scholars have conducted a survey and found that it is far inferior to the British sinologist David Hawks in terms of the number of borrowed readers, citations and reprinted editions. Why the &quot;cold shoulder&quot;? Let's find out by comparing and analyzing some examples of the two translations.<br /> <br /> 例一.刘姥姥道: “这倒不然。谋事在人，成事在天。咱们谋到了，靠菩萨的保佑，有些机会，也未可知。”<br /> <br /> A.“ Don’t be so sure,” said Granny Liu. “Man proposes, Heaven disposes. Work out a plan,trust to Buddha,and something may come of it for all you know.”<br /> <br /> B.“ I wouldn’t say that.”said Grannie Liu.”Man proposes, God disposes.It is up to us to think of something. We must leave it to the good Lord to decide whether He’ll help us or not. Who knows, he might give us the opportunity we are looking for.”<br /> <br /> Dream of the Red Chamber is a literary work full of Buddhist and Taoist thoughts. Yang Xianyi and Hawks have different approaches to the phrase“谋事在人，成事在天”， which also reflects different religious thoughts. In Yang's translation, &quot;God&quot; is replaced by &quot;Heavenly Father,&quot; which is in line with the Chinese religious belief that Heavenly Father in control of everything, while retaining the religious flavor of the source culture. However, Hawks gave priority to the religious background and acceptance of the English readers, so he adopted the English proverb directly without any modification, thus transforming the Buddhism and Taoism in the East to Christianity in the West, in accordance with western religious belief and thinking ways.<br /> The two translations have their own merits. The choice of translation strategies is based on different objectives. Mainly depending on the foreignization stategy, Mr. and Mrs. Yang tried to spread Chinese literature classics and convey Chinese traditional culture originally.However, they didn't get the desired results.One of the main reasons is that Mr. and Mrs. Yang regard faithfulness as the first priority and overemphasize the foreign culture of the translated works, neglecting to consider the reception environment and the recognition of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===6.Conclusion===<br /> With the continuous expansion of international cultural exchanges, the human cultural gap is gradually narrowing, language as an important carrier of culture has also been affected by the same, an appropriate increase in the use of &quot;foreign&quot; translation,can not only inject the new elements into domestic culture, but also promote the spread of local culture, achieve cross-cultural exchange and accelerate the process of &quot;cultural globalization&quot;. It should be pointed out foreignization is not at the expense of forgetting one's own culture, on the contrary, it is based on the familiarity with other cultures, and then carry out painstaking, creative translation work. To give more attention to &quot;alienation&quot; translation is not to deny, reject the domesticated translation method, because domestication and foreignization play an irreplaceable rol in the target language and culture.Therefore, the two translations will always co-exist and complement each other. Flexible use of foreignization and domestication is the real way of addressing the cultural conflicts.<br /> <br /> ===7.Reference===<br /> 1. 王瑛. &quot;跨文化翻译中的归化和异化.&quot; 内蒙古财经学院学报(综合版) 03(2007):83-87.<br /> <br /> 2. 周永堃. &quot;归化异化在跨文化翻译中的选择与运用——以《红楼梦》和《生死疲劳》为例.&quot; 邵阳学院学报(社会科学版) 18.01(2019):103-108.<br /> <br /> 3.王红卫. &quot;跨文化交际翻译方法:归化和异化策略.&quot; 西南民族学院学报(哲学社会科学版) 9(2002):250-253.<br /> <br /> 4.熊兵. &quot;文化交流翻译的归化与异化.&quot; 中国科技翻译 16.003(2003):5-9.<br /> <br /> 5.刘苹. &quot;中国翻译史上的归化和异化.&quot; 滨州学院学报 24.001(2008):74-75.<br />  <br /> <br /> ==The Translation Strategies of Chinese Political Discourse under the Standard of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; 高明珠 Gao Mingzhu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With the development of globalization, the political communication among countries is more and more frequent, and the translation of political terms has gradually become one of the heated topics in the translation field. Political discourse translation is challenging, because not only does it concern the relationship between countries, national status, political attitude and other important issues, but also it is developmental. Political neologisms will keep emerging, and some political terms will contain new connotations with the advancement of the times. In addition to the above characteristics, Chinese political discourse has many affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases, metaphors.In 2008, Yang Mingxing and other scholars put forward the &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; based on Eugene Nida's &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; theory for the translation of Chinese political discourse, which pointed out that the translation of political discourse should follow the three principles of &quot;political&quot;, &quot;dynamic&quot; and &quot;balanced&quot;. On the basis of some related papers, this chapter will sum up the specific strategies such as supplement, omission, keeping or converting analogical body, adding explanation and narration for translating Chinese political discourse with characteristics of having lots of affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases and metaphors following the guidance of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> political equivalence Chinese political discourse translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着全球化的发展，各国间的政治交流愈加频繁，政治话语的翻译也逐渐成为翻译界讨论热点之一。政治话语的翻译是具有挑战性的，不仅是因为它关系到国与国之间的关系、国家地位、政治态度等重要问题，而且因为政治词汇是发展性的，政治词汇中会不断有新的词汇涌进，且某些政治词汇会随着时代的发展而增加新的内涵。而中国政治话语除了具有以上特点，它还有多词缀、缩写、四字短语[1]，多用隐喻等修辞手法的特点。2008年，杨明星等学者针对中国政治话语的翻译，基于尤金·奈达的“功能对等”理论提出了“政治等效”翻译标准，该标准指出政治话语的翻译要遵循“政治性”、“动态性”、“平衡性”三大原则。本文基于相关文献，总结出在该标准下，对中国政治话语在具有多词缀、缩写、四字短语及多采用隐喻这几个特点下的翻译可采用的具体的翻译策略，如增补法、省略法[1]、喻体保留法（完全保留、部分保留）、喻体转换法、喻底补充法、喻义直叙法[2]等。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 政治等效 中国政治话语 翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction of Background===<br /> <br /> Political discourse is a communication carrier or one kind of discourse behaviors that elaborate a country's foreign policies, governance mechanisms or political ideas, including oral expression and written expression. Oral expressions includes leaders' speeches, the contents conveyed by various government agencies' press conferences, and written expressions includes diplomatic documents, white papers, legal provisions, treaties, agreements and communiques issued by relevant state agencies. With the improvement of China's comprehensive national strength and the continuous expansion of its global influence, the study of the translation standards, principles, strategies of Chinese political discourse has become an important topic in the field of translation. A study in 2019 has shown that domestic political discourse translation studies started in 2000 and entered a stage of rapid development with the convening of the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012. The current research hot spots of political discourse translation include the translation of Xi Jinping's speeches and works, the application of various translation laws and interpretive theories, the principle of political equivalence and the theory of ecological translation(Chu Xingjun 2020,36).<br /> <br /> ===2. The Significance of Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> This chapter holds that the significance of political discourse translation mainly involves two aspects----politics and linguistics. Firstly, in terms of politics, translating political discourse is to facilitate the political communication between countries, show the country's political attitude, theory and policy to the outside world. Political discourse translation plays a significant role in promoting the relationship between the countries, taking one’s stand, safeguarding one’s national interests and shaping one’s national image and so on. Secondly, in terms of linguistics, political terms are developmental. With the advance of the times and the rapid development of the world, new political terms will constantly emerge, which is also the process of language expansion. The study of the translation of new words is not only the bounden duty of translators, but also of great significance to the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Difficulties in Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> The difficulties are mainly reflected in three aspects. Firstly, the translator should correctly understand the political connotation of the source language and translate it as the target language faithfully. Secondly, different expression ways between two languages. There are rare equivalent words in both languages, so when translating the source language as the target language, the expression habits of the target language users should be taken as account, so as to facilitate the target language users to accurately understand the original meaning. Especially, Chinese political discourse often present metaphor rhetoric which may not be easy for foreigners to understand, thus when translating such words, methods that we can adopt not only include literal translation, transliteration plus explanation, but also sometimes it would be better to translate those words on the basis of the target language’s culture to make the translation more vivid and help readers understand the meaning accurately. In a word, be more flexible in adopting methods according to different cases; Finally, the same political term may have different meanings in different contexts, or it may require translators to adopt different translation methods in different contexts. In addition, the connotation of some political terms will develop with the advance of The times. Therefore, translators should keep up with current events and deal with them flexibly in translation.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Connotations of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal and connotation of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard<br /> <br /> In 2008, US Department of Defense mistranslated the term &quot;韬光养晦&quot; to propaganda &quot;China threat theory&quot;. Therefore, based on Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, a scholar, Yang Mingxing, proposed the translation concept of &quot;political equivalence&quot; for the first time from the perspective of international relations and diplomatic analysis (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). The connotation of this concept mainly involves three aspects: firstly, the translator needs to truthfully convey the political thought of the source language as well as the speaker; secondly, when translating, the translator should choose the target language according to the expression ways that the target language users get used to, so that the information and political thoughts brought by the target text to the target language users are equivalent to those brought by the source text to the source language users; Thirdly, in different contexts and historical backgrounds, the connotations of political discourse will be different. Translators' translation should keep pace with the times and be determined in accordance with the situation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). In 2012, Yang Mingxing and other scholars further proposed three prominent principles or characteristics of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; translation standard: political, balanced and dynamic (Yang Mingxing, Yan Da 2012, 35). Among them, political nature, namely accurately grasping the political connotation of the source language, is the most prominent characteristic, which is determined by the strong political color of the political terms themselves. Balance means to strike a balance among source language, target language, speaker and audience without focusing on either side, and strive to make the effect produced by the translation in the foreign readers be similar or equivalent to that produced by the original text in local readers. Dynamic means that the equivalent process mentioned above is a dynamic equivalent process. Because political terms’ connotation changes with the advance of the times and varies from different contexts, translators need to keep pace with the times, follow up the connotation development of political terms, and translate flexibly according to different situations. In 2018, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed a compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + aesthetic representation&quot; on the basis of the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; (Yang Mingxing, Qi Jingjing 2018,15). This standard was put forward in the context of the appearance of ancient poetry in political discourse. Besides meeting the requirements of &quot;political equivalence&quot; mentioned above, this standard asks to take the literary beauty of ancient poetry and prose, such as rhythm, form, artistic conception, etc as account. In January 2020, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed another compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + image representation&quot; based on the frequently used the rhetoric device metaphor in political discourse(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2018,41). The purpose of realizing &quot;image reproduction&quot; and &quot;aesthetic reproduction&quot; is basically similar, both of which are to reproduce the aesthetic experience of the original text. In October 2020, Yang Mingxing and some other scholars made a review of several major diplomatic event in the Sino-British diplomatic history and put forward that the realization of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard should not only rely on the translator's ability, but also have some connections with the national policy of translation, translation system and equal speaking rights between two countries, among which equal speaking right is the key to realize &quot;political equivalence&quot;(Yang Mingxing 2020,05).<br /> <br /> (2)The differences between “political equivalence” and “functional equivalence” put forward by Nida<br /> <br /> Firstly, the &quot;equivalence&quot; emphasized by Nida does not pay enough attention to the political connnotations of the original text in translation, ignoring the particularity of diplomatic or political discourse, and that whether the original text and translation are quite consistent in political standpoint and political connotation. Secondly, although functional equivalence pays attention to the information equivalence between the original text and the translated text, it does not pay enough attention to the real intention of the speaker or writer of the original text, because the literal meaning of the original text cannot be equal with the political standpoint and ideological connotation of the speaker or writer. Thirdly, the &quot;dynamic&quot; concept Nida proposed in “functional equivalence” theory ignores the dynamic changes in context and connotation of original text and translation. However, for diplomatic or political discourse, the connotations of the political terms do not remain unchanged. It changes constantly with the speaker's context, political tendency and historical background at that time. On the other hand, the target language is also dynamic, because the meaning and usage of the target language are constantly changing, the translator must keep track of the latest development of the target language and the domestic political and cultural background of the target audience (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> In a word, the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; is an important theory aiming at the translation of foreign affairs, diplomacy and political discourse, and provides theoretical guidance and normative requirements for the translation of political terms.<br /> <br /> ===5. Requirements of “Political Equivalence” for Translators ===<br /> <br /> First of all, pay attention to both the source language and the target language equally, and grasp the relationship between the speaker or writer and the audience or reader. The translation should not only accurately convey the meaning of the original text and the speaker or writer's real intention, but also take the language habits and the way of thinking of the target language users into consideration, so as to arise a common sense between the speaker or writer and the audience or reader. The translation of political discourse should not only aim at correctly understanding and expressing China's policy thoughts, but also fully consider the national emotions, language habits and identity psychology of the receiving country. If the translation only focuses on one side, it will be difficult to achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; and even cause political events (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;political equivalence&quot; must be dynamic. This kind of dynamic is not only related to the accurate understanding of the original text, but also involves the proper selection and use of the target language. It must always be in line with the context and political background of the speaker or writer as well as the audience or reader, which is the key to the realization of &quot;political equivalence&quot;. To translate political discourse or terms only by looking up the dictionary without considering the context is bound to make the translation be quite different from the original in meaning (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Thirdly, translation strategies should be flexible and diversified, and language form should not be confined to the original one. To achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; in political terms translation, the translation strategies cannot be single, rigid, and the translation either cannot be confined to the primitive form of the original text, the original or even the extended concepts or connotations of the words in it. Translators should make the necessary adjustment and bold choices in supplement and omission to the language form of the original text in accordance with the context and the real thoughts of the speaker or writer and the background of the political relationships between the two countries(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Fourthly, we should be familiar with the differences between English and Chinese customs, cultures, national emotions and ideologies. In the era of globalization, translation is not only the transformation of language symbols, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication behavior. The translation of political discourse is closely related to the cultural background of language. Due to the differences between China and West in way of thinking and language environment, corresponding words in English and Chinese have different national emotion and political connotation.For example, sometimes we may meet idioms, metaphors, allusions, myths and fables in the political discourse which are the quintessence of a nation's language with its own characteristics. They formed and developed on the basis of different culture and living environmnet, so it is necessary to strictly distinguish their differences in cultural connotation and political orientation which are the difficulties and key points in political discourse translation(Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Fifthly, the grammatical phenomena and rules peculiar to English cannot be ignored, either. In English, there are many grammatical rules different from Chinese, such as tense, voice, subjunctive mood, singular and plural, case, article, etc. These language forms seem to have little effect, but if used improperly, they will often affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> lastly, learn the related knowledge of China's foreign policy and international relations to ensure political correctness in the translation of political discourse. Many countries have such sensitive issues as appellation, ethnicity, religion, sovereignty and territory. These are the &quot;minefields&quot; of political translation. When translating, one must handle it carefully and respect the language and cultural habits of the other party, otherwise it will easily lead to &quot;translation storm&quot; and affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> ===6. Translation Straties under The Standard of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of the standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot;, the following translation strategies are provided for reference on the characteristics of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> (1) Characteristics of Chinese political discourse<br /> <br /> Affixes are often seen in Chinese political discourse such as “化” in &quot;现代化&quot; and &quot;城镇化&quot;, so are abbreviations like &quot;‘十四五’规划&quot;, &quot;四个自信&quot;, etc., and four-character phrases such as &quot;和平共处&quot;, &quot;和而不同&quot;, etc. Besides, metaphor is also used frequently in Chinese political discourse such as &quot;‘老虎’、‘苍蝇’一起打&quot;, among which &quot;老虎(tiger)&quot; and &quot;苍蝇(flies)&quot; refer to officials accused of bribery and corruption. So, how do we translate these words that have Chinese language characteristics but need us to take their political implications as consideration? Pointing at these characteristics, some scholars have proposed specific translation strategies based on the &quot;political equivalence&quot;standard.<br /> <br /> (2) The strategies of supplement and omission for affixes, four-character phrases and abbreviations(Wu Jing 2014, 30)<br /> <br /> ① supplement<br /> <br /> The supplement strategy is to add words appropriately in the translation so as to convey the meaning of the original text accurately. In the foreign translation of Chinese political terms, this strategy is mainly applicable to two situations. Firstly, the abbreviation, which is a refined utterance of many political words for the convenience of memory. When the target language users don’t have relevant knowledge or language background about those abbreviations, supplementary explanation plays its role. Secondly, four-character phrases. Four-character phrases are typical examples of Chinese expressions. In order to conform to the expression habits of the target language, these condensed words should be supplemented and explained so that the audience can understand the meaning of the original text correctly.<br /> <br /> The strategy of supplement can be applied to the following situations: firstly, supplement relevant knowledge background. For example, “‘十四五’规划”is translated by China Daily as “the 14th Five-Year Plan(2021-25) for economic and social development”. In the translation, “十四”is translated as “the 14th” and“五” is translated as “Five-Year”, which adds category words to those numbers and time horizon as well as the nature of the plan to the content; Secondly, supplement detailed content to abbreviations. For example,“四个自信”is translated as “confidence in the path, theory, system and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics.”<br /> <br /> ②Omission<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belong to two kinds of language families, having great differences from vocabulary to the sentence structure, expression ways, etc. There are very little equivalent words in the two languages, so in order to make the translation smoother and be more in line with the expression ways of the target language, translator can use the strategy----omission, namely omitting those expressions without practical significance but hindering translation work, on the basis of being loyal to the original text.<br /> <br /> The strategy of omission is often used in the process of translation from Chinese to English, and the translation of Chinese political terms is no exception. For emphasizing, Chinese political leaders often use parallel sentences or repeated words, so we can omit those repeated words in the translation. For example, “治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字仍然在扩大。”can be translated as “Governance, trust, development and peace deficits continue to grow.” In addition, there are situations where multiple sentences express the same meaning, in which omission is also available. For example, “改善人民生活，增进人民福祉。”can be translated as “improve people’s livelihood”.<br /> <br /> (3) Translation strategies for metaphor<br /> <br /> Metaphor refers to the use of known figurative concepts to explain abstract concepts in diplomatic discourse. The translation standard and strategies of metaphor are determined by their inherent special attributes, which are not only the key factors to select their translation strategies, but also the important yardstick to test whether those strategies are applicable(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41). Metaphor is an objective phenomenon that has existed in political discourse for a long time. Its special attributes are reflected in political discourse, such as high political sensitivity, high cultural load and strong national characteristics. In view of the strong political sensitivity of diplomatic discourse, plain and direct words in political discourse is often empty of words, which is difficult to produce obvious communicative effect in foreign relations. In most cases, metaphorical discourse can be used to imply and disseminate a country's diplomatic ideas, attitudes and positions to achieve better communication effects (Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41).<br /> <br /> Through reading relevant papers, this chapter finds that the translation strategies proposed by scholars for metaphorical rhetoric in political discourse are mainly as follows(Long Xinyuan, Li Qiuxia 2020, 27):<br /> <br /> ① Literal translation of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> Although English and Chinese belong to different language families, and the cultural background and geographical area on which they live are also different, language is created by human beings, and human emotions always have something in common. At the same time, human beings live in the same world, especially in an increasingly integrated world like today, where the communication between human beings and the collision between cultures are inevitable. As a result, we are becoming more tolerant and understanding of different cultures and languages. When translating metaphorical words with cultural characteristics, we can render the metaphorical words in literal translation under the condition that the audience can understand them correctly, which is easier to arouse emotional resonance and cultural identity.<br /> <br /> For example, “新时代的长征路” is translated as &quot;Long March of the new era&quot;. The original text compares China's development path in the new era to the new Long March. In Chinese history, the Long March was a bloody road trodden by the communist party of China to save the country and the people. On the one hand, the literal translation of &quot;The Long March&quot; retains the historical allusions used in the original text, so that the audience can understand its meaning only by a simple association. On the other hand, it is more conducive to show the national spirit of China.<br /> <br /> ② Substitution of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> After all, differences are greater than similarities between different languages, so sometimes adopting literal translation in the text using metaphor does not make the audience clear, but may mislead. However, different metaphorical entities are often used to express the same abstract concept between Chinese and English. At this time, in order to make the audience better understand and accept the original metaphor, translator can replace the original metaphorical entities with those referring to same thing in the target language, which can also improve the external communication effect of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> For example, foreign ministry spokesman Hua Chunying once said:”The US wants to make China a scapegoat(对于美国的花式‘甩锅’，我们不想接也不能接。).”“甩锅”is an internet buzzword in China used to vividly express the meaning of shifting the blame onto someone else. And “scapegoat” originates from an allusion in the Bible which has the same meaning with the Chinese word “甩锅”(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41), so translator made a conversion between the two words. In this way, English readers can better understand the political connotation of the original sentence. However, if adopting literal translation, English readers won’t understand.<br /> <br /> ③literal translation+explanation<br /> <br /> In some other cases, either literally translating those metaphorical entities or using corresponding ones to substitute them cannot eliminate the language barrier caused by cultural differences, then translator can adopt the strategy of “literal translation+explanation”, which is to literally translate the metaphor entity and then add explanation to it. In this way, the translation not only keeps the cultural characteristics of the source language while making English readers be clear with the meaning of them, but also contributes to the spread of Chinese culture to the outside world.<br /> <br /> For an instance, “不能腐的笼子越扎越牢”is translated as “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption has been strengthened”. The Chinese words “笼子”refers to the strict management institutions against corruption set up by Chinese government. Comparing the institution to the cage makes the action of fighting against corruption become more vivid. However, for English readers, it is hard to understand the original political connotation according to a simple word “cage”, so translator needs to add some explanations like “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption.” As a result, the meaning is clear and vivid.<br /> <br /> ④abandoning the figurative body and translate its connotation directly<br /> <br /> Metaphor, as a figure of speech, is highly culture-loaded, while political discourse is a kind of words with high political sensitivity. These characteristics make the translation of Chinese political discourse more difficult, and it is inevitable that translators may meet the situation where they cannot easily balance and take all these characteristics into consideration. At this time, the translator should choose to abandon the figurative body and keep the metaphorical meaning, after all, it is the first important thing to convey the correct political implication.<br /> <br /> For example, “保障‘米袋子’、‘菜篮子’安全”is translated as “ensure the security of grain supply and non-staple food supply”,among which the Chinese words “米袋子(rice bag)”and“菜篮子(vegetable basket)”refer to major grain supply and non-staple food supply respectively. Because rice is the staple food in most ares of China while vegetable is the complementary food, such a metaphor is very vivid and down to earth. However, it's hard for foreigners to understand the meaning of &quot;rice bag&quot; or &quot;vegetable basket&quot; without a similar living environment, so we have to discard the original figurative body and translate its meaning directly.<br /> <br /> ===7. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the summary of the above-mentioned translation strategies pointing at different situations in translating Chinese political discourse, we can see that every strategy follows the three principles under the standard of &quot;political equivalence” ---- political, balance and dynamic. Every translation strategy takes the correct transition of the political implications of the original text as the first rule, namely being political; and then keeps the cultural or linguistic characteristics of the original text as much as possible, namely keeping balance; additionally, adopting appropriate translation strategies according to different contexts or situations, namely being dynamic. The translation of political discourse has its particularity and is of great importance, so it is necessary to be careful when choosing translation strategies. Translators should not only have high linguistic literacy and fair political standpoint, but also keep up with current events, correctly and fully understand the political meaning of the original text, and make specific analysis according to different contexts and occasions to adopt the most appropriate translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===8. References===<br /> <br /> [1]楚行军. 中国政治话语翻译研究二十年(2000—2019)[Studies on the Translation of Chinese Political Discourse over the past 20 years(2000-2019)]——基于中国知网的分析[J]. 焦作师范高等专科学校学报,2020,36(03):24-27+40.<br /> <br /> [2]吴静. 基于“政治等效”的中国政治新词翻译策略解析[An analysis of translation strategies of Chinese new political terms on the basis of &quot;political equivalence&quot;][J]. 兰州文理学院学报(社会科学版),2014,30(01):95-98.<br /> <br /> [3]龙新元,李秋霞. “政治等效+认知趋同”：认知翻译观视阈下的政治文本翻译研究[&quot;Political Equivalence + Cognitive Convergence&quot; : A Study of political Text translation from the perspective of cognitive Translation][J]. 天津外国语大学学报,2020,27(05):104-120+161.<br /> <br /> [4]杨明星. 论外交语言翻译的“政治等效”——以邓小平外交理念“韬光养晦”的译法为例[The application of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; in diplomatic Language Translation -- Taking Deng Xiaoping's diplomatic idea &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2008,(05):90-94.<br /> <br /> [5]杨明星,闫达. “政治等效”理论框架下外交语言的翻译策略——以“不折腾”的译法为例[Translation strategies of diplomatic language under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;-- Taking the translation of &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2012,35(03):73-77.<br /> <br /> [6]杨明星,齐静静. 外交修辞的复合性翻译标准:“政治等效+审美再现”——以国家领导人外交演讲古诗文为例[The composite translation standard of diplomatic rhetoric: &quot;Political equivalence + aesthetic reproduction&quot; -- taking the ancient poems and essays in diplomatic speeches of national leaders as an example][J]. 中国外语,2018,15(06):89-96+109.<br /> <br /> [7]杨明星,赵玉倩. “政治等效+”框架下中国特色外交隐喻翻译策略研究[A research on translation strategies of metaphors in diplomatic discorses with Chinese characteristics under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence plus&quot;][J]. 中国翻译,2020,41(01):151-159+190.<br /> <br /> [8]杨明星,张琰. 中英外交翻译中“政治等效”与话语平等辩证关系分析——从马戛尔尼使华到共建“一带一路”(1792-2019)[Dialectical relationship between &quot;political equivalence&quot; and discourse equality in diplomatic translation between China and Britain -- from macartney's mission period to &quot;One Belt And One Road&quot; period(1792-2019)][J]. 上海翻译,2020,(05):24-29+94.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Appreciation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> == Study of Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden'' from the Stylistic Perspective 袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi 202020080664==<br /> &lt;center&gt;袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'' is a classic literary work of Henry David Thoreau, which has become a classic work in the Treasure house of American literature. The Chinese translator Xu Chi first translated it into China, and since then ''Walden'' has been retranslated and republished for many times. In China, the version of ''Walden'' translated by Xu Chi is the most widely spread and influential one, and has been highly regarded as a classic translation. There hve been a lot of studies on ''Walden'' both at home and abroad, such as studies on the ecology of the book, studies on birth background and living conditions of the author Henry David Thoreau, and systematic studies on Chinese translation version of ''Walden'' under different theoretical frameworks. However, there are few studies on Chinese translations of ''Walden'' from stylistic perspective. This paper will focus on the lexical, syntactic and rhetorical features of Xu Chi’s translation and analyze their stylistic effects. It is hoped that this study will be of certain value to the translation studies of ''Walden'' and the literary translation criticism from the stylistic perspective.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'', Chinese Translation of ''Walden'' by Xu Chi , Stylistics<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从文体学角度看《瓦尔登湖》徐迟译本<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》是亨利·大卫·梭罗的经典文学作品，已经成为美国文学宝库中的经典之作。中国译者徐迟首先将其译入国内，此后《瓦尔登湖》多次被重译再版。在中国，徐迟翻译的《瓦尔登湖》汉译本流传最广、影响最大，而且一直被推崇为“译文经典”。对于《瓦尔登湖》的研究，在国内和国外有很多，例如对散文涉及生态的研究，对于作者亨利·戴维·梭罗出生背景和生活状况的研究，以及不同的理论框架下对于《瓦尔登湖》中文翻译版本的系统研究。但是从文体学角度研究《瓦尔登湖》中译本的不多。本文着重探讨徐迟译本在词汇、句法、修辞层面上的特征，分析其文体效果。希望本研究对《瓦尔登湖》的翻译研究及从文体学视角开展文学翻译批评具有一定的参考价值。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》、徐迟中译本、文体学<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau and ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a collection of essays written by American writer Henry David Thoreau. Henry David Thoreau was born in 1817 and died in 1862. He was a famous writer, philosopher, representative of Transcendentalism, abolitionist of slavery and naturalist in the United States. He was deeply influenced by Emerson. He advocated returning to original mind and being close to nature. Thoreau created more than 20 first-class prose collections in his whole life. His essays are concise and powerful, simple and natural, full of thought, which hava unique style in American proses in the 19th century. In 1845, he lived in seclusion by Walden lake, two miles away from Concord. He cultivated and ate by himself and experienced a simple and close to nature life. Thoreau loved, appreciated and immersed in nature. He understood the world through nature and regarded the world as a whole for people to appreciate and enjoy. He advocated simple life, so he abandoned all material enjoyment and pursued spiritual enrichment. With a keen thinking of a philosopher and rigorous spirit of science, Thoreau put himself into the embrace of nature and explored everything around him.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a record of Thoreau’s life when he lived alone by Walden lake. ''Walden'' is composed of 18 essays, which record Thoreau's hands-on life by walden lake for two months from 1845 to 1847. This book advocates simple life, appeals readers to return to nature, and expresses Thoreau's love for nature. The simple way of life in the book reflects Thoreau’s view of nature.This book has certain philosophical significance as well as artistic and aesthetic value.<br /> ''Walden'' is a Transcendentalist classic and is recognized as the most popular non-fiction work in American literature. After more than 100 years of circulation, the book has become a classic in American literature. So far, it has been published in more than 150 editions and translated into more than 40 languages. <br /> Thoreau’s own practice in Walden lake and his works have a consistent proposition, that is, returning to nature. In his works, he constantly pointed out that most of modern people are trapped by family, work and various material needs, thus lost their spiritual pursuit and lived a materialistic life. Thoreau persisted in the pursuit of spiritual happiness and rejected material comforts. This is why Thoreau lived a simple life by Walden lake, enjoying a life of leisure while his neighbors pursued a life of wealth and material comforts, enslaved by their own desires.<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Xu Chi and His Translation of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi=====<br /> Xu Chi is famous for his poems, essays and reportage. He was once awarded by Mao Zedong's inscription of “poetry expresses ambition”, and he was known as &quot;Contemporary Chinese Goethe&quot; and &quot;Father of Reportage&quot;.<br /> Another little-known identity of this famous Chinese writer is being as a translator. He not only wrote poems, essays, reportages, novels and reviews, but also translated and introduced a large number of foreign literary works, with a total of 10 million words in his life.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden''=====<br /> In 1949, Xu translated Walden into Chinese called &quot;华尔腾&quot;, which failed to elicit widespread attention because at that time, people all over China were immersedin the joy of gaining cmancipation from feudalism and imperialism, so that ''Walden'',promoting tranquility and transcendentalism, was ignored.<br /> In 1982, Xu Chi retranslated it and titled it &quot;瓦尔登湖&quot;, which was so popular that it was republished for many times since then. Xu's version of ''Walden'' chosen in this study is its second edition, published in 1982, to which Xu Chi added a preface to present information about Thoreau and comments on ''Walden''. To some extent, readers are able to have a glimpse of Xu's own emotions and thoughts in his translation of ''Walden''. <br /> Xu Chi usually selected and translated works that were close to his own nature and could move him, because only in this way, he could have more resonance with the writers and their works, and reproduced the style of the original author. For Xu Chi, he expressed his own feelings and thoughts through translating these writers'works to a certain extent (Yao Junwei, 2005:146). Only when his soul was in harmony with Thoreau's, did Xu Chi love this book so much and rised to translating this book. It was in the summer of 1949 that Xu Chi began to translate Thoreau's ''Walden''. Because Xu Chi was extremely fond of this book, he spent lots of efforts in translating this famous work. In the first stage of translation, he tried to understand the meaning of the original work, hoping to be able to deeply understand the original work. He confessed that it was a very profound book which is full of translation challenges. He was very busy during the day, so he sometimes couldn't read it.Because this book was too difficult to understand, it seemed that this book was suddenly not so interseting and attractive to him, and it seemed that it was of no benefit to translate it. However, he found that his mood gradually became peaceful after dusk. When he read this book at this time, he suddenly felt the book quite interesting. What he saw was the chapters that could’t be seen in the daytime. The language was amazing, the words were shining, and his heart was touched. When the ningt became quiet, the book became not so obscure. Under the recitation, he could not help but be fascinated by it (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).<br /> His most successful translation is ''Walden'', which he translated first in 1949, then again in 1982 and in 1996. The masterpiece of David Thoreau, a famous American transcendentalist writer, still shines brightly in the vast Chinese translated literature. In recent ten years, there have been more than 20 new translations of ''Walden'', but Xu Chi's translation is still regarded as the best translation and is the first choice for many presses to publish as Chinese translations of ''Walden'' in recent years. Although there are many Chinese translations of ''Walden'', most of them take Xu Chi's translation as a reference (Wang Zhao 2009, 147), which indicates the authority of Xu Chi's translation.<br /> <br /> ====Style and Styllistics====<br /> =====Style=====<br /> Originated from the Latin or Greek word &quot;stile&quot; or &quot;stilus&quot;, &quot;style&quot; originally refers to a sharp instrument made of metal or bone, used as a writing tool, and later symbolizes a way of writing. At first, it was mainly used in writing. As time goes by, its application has been broadened into areas like music, dance, painting, fashion, behavior,literature, architecture and so on. As it has been mentioned in the introduction part, the research object ''Walden'' is a piece of literary work, consequently, this thesis will mainly study literary style.<br /> Since ancient times, style has always been the object of people's study. Aristotle, Cicero, Demetrius, and Quintilian all used style as an appropriate decoration for thought. This view prevailed throughout the Renaissance, when devices of style could be classified. An essayist or orator needs to construct his or her point of view by means of exemplary sentences and prescribed kinds of &quot;figures&quot; that conform to his or her mode of discourse.<br /> For a long time, the definition of style has remained varied, and different scholars have given different definitions of it. It is unnecessary and impractical here to list them all. Some definitions will be given below to help us understand what style is.<br /> One of the most successful attempts to define style in a comprehensive way is Leech and Short’s (1981). Although claiming that “unsuccessful attempts to attach a precise meaning” to the term “style” have often resulted in an impoverishment of the subject , they offer a list of the items forming the basis of their own concept of style, which can be summarized as follows:<br /> (a) Style is a way in which language is used; therefore it consists in choices made from the repertoire of the language; <br /> (b) A style is defined in terms of a domain of language use (e.g. what choices are made by a particular author, in a particular genre, or in a particular text);<br /> (c) Literary stylistics is typically concerned with explaining the relation between style and literary or aesthetic function;<br /> (d) Stylistic choice is limited to those aspects of linguistic choice which concern alternative ways of rendering the same subject matter.<br /> Nida Eugene (1982, 12) defines that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”So in translation of literary works, the author’s style should be represented through the translator’s style, and the translator’s style should depend on the style of the author. Many translators are good at representing different writers’styles and yet has its own unique translation style.<br /> The broad view of style includes the elements of linguistic style and non-linguistic style. Among them, the elements of language style mainly include the means of language style, such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structure and rhetorical devices, and the elements of non-language style include the author's emotion factor, the author's imagination factor and the author's intelligence factor. The narrow sense of style only involves the author's means of language style and rhetorical style (Lv Jun &amp; Hou Xiangqun 2001, 320).<br /> In conclude, translation (especially literary translation) as an across-culture process dose not only focus on the content of source text but also the style which is about how the writers write. Therefore, it is essential for a translator to know how to figure out the style of source text and reproduce it with target language.<br /> <br /> =====Styllistics=====<br /> Stylistics is a comprehensive frontier discipline that studies the characteristics, essence and laws of text forms, and is in the ascendant between linguistics, literature and art, aesthetics, psychology and other disciplines.<br /> It is difficult to determine when stylistics became a field of academic study. It can be argued, however, that it was not until the late 1950s that stylistics began to make significant and measurable progress. This is a young frontier discipline that is growing over time. Stylistics has developed into a well-targeted and technically effective interdisciplinary field of study, which is expected to provide useful insights for literary criticism and literature teaching. It has also been influencing translation criticism. Modern stylistics provides an important theoretical basis for translation studies. As far as the development of the subject of translation is concerned, stylistics has been recognized for its value and function. <br /> Modern stylistics uses the tools of formal linguistic analysis coupled with the methods of literary criticism; its goal is to try to isolate characteristic uses and functions of language and rhetoric rather than advance normative or prescriptive rules and patterns.<br /> <br /> =====Language Style and Stylistic Features of ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a masterpiece of prose style. It is concise, eloquent and profound in thought. Just as he pursues the simplest life, his language style of ''Walden'' can be summarized into four points: concise writing, accurate description, incisive argument, and pithy argumentation and causal narration. <br /> ''Walden'' is also a book aimed directly at the reader. Anyone who read this book feels that they are listening to and sharing Thoreau's ideals. This book is not easy for readers to understand, especially those who read it for the first time. Correspondingly, the prominent stylistic characteristics of ''Walden'' are manifested in four aspects: exquisite scenic description, complex syntax, various rhetorical devices and rich quotations．<br /> So it is helpful for the translator to understand the original text and reproduce the stylistic equivalence in the translation. Therefore, the translator should fully understand his stylistic characteristics, which is the premise of reproducing his style in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===Stylistic Features of ''Walden''===<br /> ====Lexical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Degree of Formality=====<br /> There are a lot of obsolete and old words in ''Walden''and the use of these words makes the book more flavor, solemn and elegant. However, the use of these words will also bring great trouble to the translation at the same time. It is difficult for the translators to grasp these words, so they can not use literal translation but use creative way to make readers feel what the author wants to express in this book.<br /> In ''Walden'', Thoreau uses concise words to demonstrate his own ideas, natural scenery and cultural customs of Walden Lake. Unlike official documents, regulations, or academic creations, general style of ''Walden'' suggests that Thoreau’s choice of words is less formal. This section aims to analyze the degree of formality of nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the Xu Chi’s translation. In terms of nouns, Xu Chi tends to choose words with literary charm and formal style, which are not suitable for the informal style of the original text.<br /> Example 1：<br /> …；where the washing is not put out, nor the fire, nor the mistress, and perhaps you are sometimes requested to move from off the trap—door; when the cook would descend into the cellar, and learn whether the ground is solid or hollow beneath you without stamping．(Thoreau 2012, 277—278)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：在那罩，洗瀣物不比晒在外面，炉火不熄，女主人也不会生气，也许有时要你移动一下，让厨子从地板门里走下地窖去，而你不用蹬脚就可以知道你的脚下是虚是实。 (徐迟 2009, 270)<br /> The passage describes part of Thoreau’s dream of a bigger house for more people. The original text provides a natural and causal description of the scenes and activities in Thoreau's dream house. There are five commas and a period in this 47-word sentence with employment of concrete nouns，the structure of the original is loose and casual. As can be seen from the above, &quot;washing&quot; in Xu's translation is loosely understood as “洗涤物” which means the process of eliminating unnecessary ingredients through detergent, which is formal in Chinese. Xu Chi reproduced the content of‘'the washing’’but he ignored the degree of formality in choosing word, thus falling to deliver the casualness reflected by the original text．<br /> Because ''Walden'' is full of depictions of landscape, adjectives are indispensable in Thoreau's creation of various images and pictures, as well as his insightful comments. Let us look at a example of it.<br /> Example 2：<br /> Often the poor man is not so cold and hungry as he is dirty and ragged and gross．(Thoreau 2012, 85)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：往往是那个穷人，邋遢、褴褛又粗野，但并没有途堡查选。(徐迟 2009, 83)<br /> The first adjective “poor” is used as an antecedent modifier and the other five adjectives are used as predicates. With the six adjectives being short and plain, the original text is generally of informal style. Xu transfered “cold and hungry” into a four-character noun phrase“冻馁之忧”which means “sufferings from cold and hunger.” However, this phrase is somewhat old-fashioned and is too formal to keep in line with the original style．Besides，it appears uncoordinated with three adjectives“邋遢、褴褛又粗野”being placed before the noun phrase“冻馁之忧”. So, it is not appropriate to reflect the original style.<br /> Verbs are also frequently employed in ''Walden'' to depict the fighting between animals or other activities. The degree of formality marked by verbs is the target of the study here. <br /> Example 3：<br /> I took up the chip on which the three I have particularly described were struggling, carried it into my house，and placed it under a tumbler on my window-sill，in order to see the issue．(Thoreau 2012, 262-263)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation：<br /> 我特别描写的三个战士在同一张木片上搏斗，我把这张木片拿进我的家里，放在我的窗槛上。罩在一个大杯子下面，以便考察结局。(徐迟 2009, 256)<br /> As we can see from the examples, these verbs are short and common in our everyday speech. They come mainly from Anglo-Saxon English and have informal stylistic characteristics. Therefore, the style of the original text is informal and should be preserved in Chinese translation. In this sentence, Thoreau prepared to wait and see with interest how the battle between the ants would go on after a series of arrangements. Xu Chi translated the word “see” into “考察”which sounds serious and formal, because “考察”means carefully checking certain items or situations, and is often used in formal situations, such as “考察人” or “考察情况”. So, Xu's version deviates from the original natural and informal flavor.<br /> <br /> =====Expressive Meaning=====<br /> Roman Jakobson, building on Karl Bühler (1934), coined the term expressive or emotive for one of the functions of language. He describes it as the function focused on the ADDRESSER [speaker], aims a direct expression of the speaker's attitude toward what he is speaking about (Jakobson 1960, 354) and gives interjections as the prime example of this function.<br /> It is worthy of our attention that differences between words in terms of expressive meaning are not simply equal to a matter of whether an expression of a certain attitude or evaluation is reproduced or not. The same attitude or evaluation may be expressed to widely varying degrees of forcefulness.<br /> Example 4：It is said that a flood-tide, with a westerly wind，and ice in the Neva, would sweep St. Petersburg from the face of the earth. (Thoreau 2012, 22)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：据说，涅瓦河要是涨了水，刮了西风，流来的冰块可以把圣彼得堡一下子大地的表面上冲掉的。 (徐迟 2009, 21)<br /> According to the Oxford Advanced English-Chinese Dictionary, &quot;sweeping&quot; is the act of sudden movement (of weather, fire, etc.), forcing a movement in an area or in a particular direction. In the original context, the combination of “flood tides, westerly winds, and ice” was destructive and therefore clearly detrimental to St.Petersburg. So the word &quot;sweep&quot; here reflects the speaker's negative attitude toward the possible outcome. Obviously, the word “冲掉” in Xu Chi’s translation is a neutral term and does not reflect the speaker’s attitude or feelings towards the potential disaster caused by flood tide, westerly winds and snow. Xu ignored the author’s emotional attitude, thus ignoring the influence that these forces may cause, and did not produce systematic equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====Syntactic Features of ''Walden''====<br /> Raffel (1994) points out that &quot;the syntax of prose shows the style of the author, and the reproduction of the original style is the key to prose translation which stresses not only what message says, but also how the message is said.&quot; So, the syntactic features of ''Walden'' should never be ignored.<br /> In the original text, short sentences in English have neat structure and harmonious rhythm. Xu Chi did not change the original structure in translation, but adopted literal translation. The so-called literal translation is to retain the content and language expression habits of the original text as well as the form and style of the original text under the condition that the target language allows. Since Both Chinese and English are discourse systems and they have something in common, literal translation is a good way to deal with them.<br /> Example 5:<br /> It is no dream of mine， To ornament a line; I cannot come nearer to God and Heaven, than I live to Walden even． I am its stony shore, and the breeze that passes o’er; In the hollow of my hand Are its water and its sand, and its deepest resort Lies high in my thought. (Thoreau 2012, 137) <br /> Xu Chi’s Translation:<br /> 这不是我的梦，用于装饰一行诗;我不能更接近上帝和天堂甚于我之生活在瓦尔登。我是它的圆石岸，飘拂而过的风;在我掌握的一握，是它的水，它的沙，而它的最深邃僻隐处,高高躺在我的思想中。 (Xu Chi 2012, 151)<br /> The translation of this paragraph has a neat structure, neat antithesis, and pays attention to the regularity and rhythm of the literal. The original is composed of ten verses and the translation retains the original format, which can increase the depth and appeal of the translation, thus producing artistic effect and aesthetic value.<br /> <br /> ====Rhetorical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Metaphor=====<br /> Metaphor means to &quot;shift a word from its original meaning to another word that is generally not interchangeable but similar, and to emphasize its identity, that is, the two are similar but not a simile&quot;.<br /> Example 6: <br /> Public opinion is a weak tyrant compared with our own private opinion. (Thoreau, 7)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation: 和我们的自知之明相比较，公众舆论这暴戾的君主也显得微弱无力。(徐迟，6）<br /> The ontology and metaphor in this sentence are &quot;public opinion&quot; and &quot;weak tyrant.&quot; There must be something similar between them. The following statement gives the reason: &quot;Compared to our own private opinions&quot;, which is quite clear. People are used to focusing on themselves in front of others, so public opinion is only slightly weak. The subtle use of metaphor shows Thoreau's wisdom and thorough understanding of human nature. Xu Chi dealt with this metaphor perfectly.<br /> =====Pun=====<br /> Puns are deliberately declared polysemous words or homonyms created with double meaning in a certain language environment, with implicit, humorous and profound effects. Newmark (2001, 217) points out that &quot;pun translation is unimportant but fascinating&quot;. The use of puns in Walden is remarkable.<br /> The basic function of pun in ''Walden'' is to express logical relations. Because puns can express two levels of meaning in a word, phrase, or sentence, they are often used as a link between the text before and after it. A key problem that haunts the reader when reading ''Walden'' is the lack of connection between the two passages. A clear logical relationship is a prerequisite for expressing other special effects, such as rhetorical and aesthetic effects. Therefore, the improper translation of puns will seriously affect logical coherence and other rhetorical devices.<br /> Example 7：<br /> If the name was not derived from that of some English locality - Saffron Walden, for instance, one might suppose that it was called originally Walled-in Pond. (Thoreau 2012, 209)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation: 如果这个湖名不是由当地一个叫萨福隆•瓦尔登的英国人的名字化出来的话，——那么，我想瓦尔登湖原来的名字可能是围而得湖。(徐迟 2009, 172)<br /> This classic example of puns has been discussed many times. Thoreau suggested that &quot;Walden&quot; might come from “Walled-in”. &quot;Walled-in Pond&quot;, as ahomophonic pun, serves as the logic link of the whole paragraph. Xu wisely translates it as “围而得”, retaining not only the similar pronunciation but also the importance of meaning. “围而得” maintains the logical relation of the whole paragraph.It is eye-catching and stimulates readers to think more about Thoreau's intentions to use this word.<br /> <br /> =====Personification=====<br /> Personification refers to &quot;the practice of representing a person, quality, or characteristic as a human being in art and literature.&quot; People subconsciously tend to reflect non-human things with their lives in order to express their feelings and thoughts. In view of the characteristics of human behavior, literary works can vividly express the feelings of the author, and make readers feel that the description of the object is more vivid and appropriate, which makes the article more vivid.<br /> Example 8：<br /> This further experience also I gained：I said to myself,1 will not plant beans and corn with so much industry another summer，but such seeds, if the seed is not lost, as sincerity, truth, simplicity, faith, innocence, and the like, and see if they will not grow in this soil，even with less toil and manurance，and sustain me, for surely it has not been exhausted for these crops. (Thoreau 2012, 186-187)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation:<br /> 我还获得了下面的更丰富的经验：我对我自己说，下一个夏天，我不要花那么大的劳力来种豆子和玉米了，我将种这样<br /> 这样一些种子像诚实、真理、纯朴、信心、天真等等，如果这些种子并没有失落，看看它们能否在这片土地上生长，能否以较少劳力和肥料；来维持我的生活，因为，地力一定还没消耗到不能种这些东西。 (徐迟 2009, 182)<br /> Thoreau here is sharing his experience in growing beans and his plans next summer with readers. As we know, words like “sincerity,truth，simplicity, faith and innocence” usually refer to qualities of human. But here, these words are adopted to describe the characteristics of seeds and humanize these seeds，constructing a vivid personification. Xu Chi reproduce the rhetorical feature of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The language of ''Walden'' is rich in vocabulary, complex and diverse sentence structure, the author's writing is flexible and fluent, and the use of various rhetoric makes the translation work more difficult. <br /> To sum up, Xu Chi’s translation appears more formal than the original text and some words of his translation can not reflect the expressive meaning of the original one. It is found that Xu Chi tended to use words with typical features of his time which seem out of date at present. But due to the time he lived in, we believe that Xu Chi’s version satisfied the need or linguistic expectation of the target readers of his time which has its significance. We also find that sentences in Xu's translation follow the syntax of English language. Xu Chi kept the structure beauty of the original work properly, respected the original work and kept the structure orderly, directly conveying Thoreau's thoughts and feelings. And Xu Chi indeed do well in reflecting rhetorical features of the original text, which is refered by many translators later. In general, Xu Chi's translation is close to the original text in style and language characteristics and is a classic translation of ''Walden''.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ==A Comparison Beteewn the Translation Systems Proposed by Tan Zai and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation. 王美玲 Wang Meiling==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;王美玲 Wang Meiling&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> The Renaissance is the fourth peak in the history of Western translation and a great development in the history of Western literature. During the 16th century and the period following the Renaissance in Europe, translation reached an unprecedented climax in the fields of thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion. At that time, the German translation of the Bible by the Martin Luther is the most well-known one in the whole translation circle, and its influence is unique and long-standing in Germany as well as in the whole Europe continent. Since the Reform and Opening-up, China has gradually stepped into the center of the world arena, and its literary works bearing the quintessence of Chinese culture has become a crucial bridge connecting the rest of the world with China. Despite the rise of machine translation, it can never replace the overwhelming role of human translation in the literary translation. Luther’s translation thoughts have exerted an important influence on the development of Western translation theories, so what sparks can be drawn between his translation principles and Chinese modern culture and literary works? This paper makes a brief comment on the main translation activities of renaissance, then compares the translation thoughts of Luther and Lu Xun, and applies Luther’s detailed translation rules to the actual translation practice,finally analyzes the influence of Luther’s translation thoughts and principles on modern translation practice and their significance for reference.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Renaissance; Luther; literary works; translation principles; influence;<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴运动是西方翻译史的第四次高潮，也是西方文学史上的一次大发展。文艺复兴在欧洲普遍开展的16世纪以及随后一个时期，翻译活动达到了前所未有的高峰，深入思想、政治、哲学、文学宗教等各个领域。在整个翻译界，德国马丁·路德的《圣经》德译本是该时期最负盛名的译本，其影响不论是在德国乃至整个欧洲都是独一无二且源远流长的。改革开放以来，中国日益走进世界舞台中央，承载着中华文化精髓的文学作品成为了重要桥梁。纵然机器翻译兴起，但绝不能替代人工翻译在文学翻译领域的绝对性地位。路德的翻译思想对西方翻译理论的发展产生了重要影响，那么其翻译思想和理论原则与中国当代文化及文学作品又能擦出什么样的火花呢？本文将通过对文艺复兴时期的主要翻译活动进行简评，再对比路德与鲁迅的翻译思想，接着将路德的翻译细则运用到实际的翻译实践中，分析路德的翻译思想及理论原则对于当代翻译实践的影响以及借鉴意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴；路德；文学作品；翻译原则；影响；<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> The Protestant Reformation Movement in Germany in the 16th century ushered in a new era of translation and dissemination of Bible.Under the protection of Protestantism, Martin Luther devoted himself to the German translation of the Bible. By the time of 1544 Luther’s death, 430 versions of his Bible translation had been published. In order to make common people more directly understand the meaning of the Bible, Martin Luther translated it in national language. He insisted on his translation thought and fought against the church power and his opponents. He made unremitting efforts in the great project of the Bible translation, which promoted the unification of German language and created a graceful literary language.His translation thoughts are still of great significance to the current translation theory and practice.&quot;First of all, from a historical point of view, translation has two main functions in promoting the birth and development of national culture and the transformation of national culture into world culture: one is to promote cultural exchange; the other is to disseminate ideas.&quot;<br /> <br /> Since the beginning of reform and opening-up, China has gradually stepped onto the world arena. China persists in its cultural development geared to the needs of the world and actively promotes cultural development to the world. Literary works bear the essence of Chinese culture, whose export is an crucial way to spread Chinese culture to the world. Over the years, despite the rise of machine translation, which has a certain practical role, it can not replace the overwhelming role of manual translation in literary translation. So what significance does Luther’s translation thought and theory born in the reform era have in guiding modern translation theory and practice, especially in the field of literary translation?<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Brief comments on translation thoughts in the period of Renaissance===<br /> <br /> '''1.1 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.2 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.3 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.4 '''<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Comparison of translation thoughts between Luther and Lu Xun===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 ===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 ===<br /> <br /> ==Study on Interpreter's Memory and Translation Memory in Interpreting 康浩宇 Kang Haoyu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br /> <br /> '''1.1 Background'''<br /> <br /> Memory plays an important role in interpreting and it is a kind of interpreting competence. The information processing in interpreting is complicated. When the information is input, interpreter first recognize and keep the information, which will then be analyzed, encoded, stored and retrieved. And the interpreter finally decode the information into target language(Wang Jianhua, 2019).Because of the fast input of information and limited time for pausing, great memory is required for interpreters. Whether a good or poor memory has a direct effect on the quality of interpreting. <br /> With the development of science and technology, machine translation and computer aided translation, which is also called CAT, was invented as two effective and efficient ways for translation. In CAT, there is a concept called translation memory. Different from human beings’ memory, translation memory is more likely a database. Nowadays, translation memory of CAT has been put into wide use in translation. And in recent years, translation memory has also been applied as a tool in interpreting. As the technology is not yet mature, there are still some limitation and weakness.<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Significance of the Study'''<br /> <br /> There are some studies on the memory of interpreters. But most of them focus on its practical aspects such as how to improve interpreters’ memory or how to make the best of memory in interpreting, instead of substantial facts. The nature of memory and mechanism of memory is also worthy to be studied, so readers can have better understanding and cognition of what is memory and how it works. Therefore, readers can better address our problems in memory of interpreting. The study will fully analyze memory from the aspect of psychology and science. And then it will study on memory of interpreting in details including systems, mechanism, coding and theories. <br /> Translation memory is quite a novel topic as it belongs to a sort of science and technology. As the world stepped into information era, digital era and even Artificial Intelligence era, translation memory has been used more widely than ever before. It really facilitates the translators as it both saves a lot of time and greatly improved the translation efficiency. However, there are few studies on the translation memory application in interpreting field. Actually, in many situations, interpreters also uses this kind of technology to help their interpreting. They study will research on the fact of translation memory in interpreting.<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Structure of the Study'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be developed in five chapters. <br /> Chapter 1, the introduction part, is initiated by introducing the background, research problems, and significance of the study.<br /> Chapter 2 is functioned to define and categorize the memory.<br /> Chapter 3 will present the memory mechanism and related theories in interpreting.<br /> Chapter 4 will mainly focus on the translation memory technology at present and its application in interpreting.<br /> The concluding chapter generalizes the content of the study and put forward the limitations.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Study on Memory===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 The definition of the Memory'''<br /> <br /> Memory has different definitions in different fields. Generally speaking, human memory is a reflection of what the brain has experienced. From the perspective of psychology, memory is the recognition, maintenance, reappearance of experienced things by the human brain, and it is the basis of advanced psychological activities such as thinking and imagination. It is the retention and extraction of past experience by human brain. It is a psychological process in which individual experience is accumulated and preserved in the mind. All things that have been perceived can be kept in people's minds, and can be reproduced when necessary. This refers to the process in which the human brain encodes, stores and extracts meaningful information input from the outside world(Peng Danlin，1991). From the perspective of neurology, human memory is closely related to the changes of chemical composition in hippocampus and brain. All memory that exists in the brain depends on various nerve cells of the brain, which are called neurons. According to information processing theory, memory process is the process of encoding, storing and extracting input information. Only coded information can be remembered. Coding is the process of processing and transforming the input information, and coding is the key stage of the whole memory process.<br /> <br /> '''2.2. Memory Systems'''<br /> <br /> Based on the structure, memory can be categorized into three systems. There are sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. The later two systems are also often referred as STM and LTM. The three memory systems are different from each other but closely related.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1 Sensory Memory'''<br /> <br /> As the shortest memory system, sensory memory is the first channel for human brain to get the information. It has some capacity. According the research in Cognitive Psychology(Wang Su, Wang Ansheng, 1992), People’s visual sensory capacity is more than 9 chunk while their auditory sensory memory capacity has less capacity, which is about chunk. chunk here are memory units, and the size of chunk varies with people's knowledge and experience. A chunk can be a word, a number, a phrase, a sentence, a word list, etc. Sensory memory works as temporary storage for sensory information. It depends on the physical nature of external stimulus to code the information and it is the real copy and transcription of the external stimulus. Most sensory memory can stay for one to two seconds and then disappear. Only with more attention and focus can the sensory memory be processed and then become short term memory(Bao Gang, 2005). People’s visual sensory memory can just keep for less than one second while their auditory sensory memory can keep for 4 seconds. It is inevitable that information will lose with the disappearance of sensory memory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2 Short Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Short term memory is the second memory system. Short term memory is based on the neuron network in hippocampus. It keeps the information that has been selected in the hippocampus of human brain. In some cases, part of information will move from the short memory in hippocampus to long term memory in cerebral cortex. In psychology, short term memory can keep for about one minute with the capacity of about 7 chunks. That means that people can memorize seven unrelated numbers or phonemes for about one minute with their short term memory. However, the capacity of short term memory is not decided by the amount of stimulus but by the modes of chunk and coding. Chunks can effectively expand the capacity of short-term memory. When processing information, people can use the knowledge and experience stored in long-term memory to combine several single stimuli into larger information units, which can effectively expand and increase short-term memory span and improve memory efficiency. Moreover, the coding of short-term memory is mainly auditory coding, and there are also visual coding and semantic coding. Instead of chunk and information unit, people can also use retelling to transfer short term memory to long term memory. Retelling refers to the psychological operation process of repeating the materials just memorized by language to consolidate memory. In the case of retelling, the learning materials kept in short-term memory will transfer to long-term memory. The content of short-term memory can be transformed into long-term memory by retelling. <br /> <br /> There is a special type of short term memory, working memory. The concept working memory was first proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. It is used to describe the process of a person temporarily memorizing the fact and thoughts when addressing problems or working(Baddeley, 2006). In spite of limited resources and storage time, working memory is still different from short term memory in temporary storage of information(Hitch, 2012). Compared with short term memory which store information passively, the working memory process is more dynamic. Generally speaking, there are three differences. First, working memory emphasizes storing and processing information at the same time, while short-term memory only focuses on information storage. Secondly, working memory is a multi-factor system, while short-term memory is a single system. Third, working memory is more important than short-term memory for many advanced brain functions and even almost all human cognitive work(Wang Jianhua, 2019). The disappear of short term memory is often due to the interruption.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3 Long Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Different from short term memory, long term memory is stored in human’s cerebral cortex where there is more room for storage. Long term memory is very important in keeping information for long time. It can keep information for more than one minute and even for a whole life. Its capacity is unlimited. All the information kept by long term memory has been selected and filtered.According to Tulving, long term memory is stored mainly as two types(Tulving, 1974). They are episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory is about one’s experience of some specific situations. Semantic memory refers to knowledge such as words, concepts, rules and other abstract things.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Memory Mechanism'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, the process of memory includes three key steps. They are memorizing, keeping and recalling. In interpreting, memorizing is related to interpreters’ listening and understanding to what the speaker says, keeping is related to the storage of original information and recalling refers to the output of interpreting.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 Memorizing'''<br /> <br /> Memorizing refers to the process of distinguishing and recognizing the characteristics of things and leaving a certain impression in the mind. Some things can be remembered after one perception, while most of the contents need to be perceived repeatedly, so that the new information can be connected with the existing knowledge structure. As the first step in the memory process, memorization has a very important influence on the memory effect. Therefore, understanding and mastering the rules of memorization will help improve memory(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997).<br /> <br /> According to whether memorization has a purpose or not, memorization can be divided into unconscious memorization and conscious memorization(Ma Zhengyu, 2013).<br /> Unconscious memorization refers to memorization that happens naturally without a predetermined purpose and without a certain effort of will. When they are perceived, there is no intention to memorize them, but these contents can reappear in people’s mind in the future naturally. And this is unconscious memorization. The content of unconscious memorization is an important part of experience, and it has great effect on people’s psychological activities and behaviors. Inadvertent experience can do as much help as existing experiences when people consciously face certain situations and deal with certain problems. In daily life, the environment, contact and work will influence people unconsciously in psychology and behavior. Generally speaking, there are two characteristics of unconscious memorization. First, the stimulation acts on people's sensory organs which is of great significance and attracts people's attention. For example, people will never forget new and different things; Second, it is in people's needs, interests and content so that it can produce deeper emotional experience. Unconsciousness plays a positive role in people's acquisition of knowledge and experience.<br /> <br /> Conscious memorization refers to memorizing with a predetermined purpose, which requires a certain amount of will and effort in the process of memorizing. The process of conscious memorization is controlled by the purpose of memorization. The purpose of memorization determines that memorizing process is an active coding process for memorizing content. This coding includes &quot;what to remember&quot; and &quot;how to remember&quot;. &quot;What to memorize&quot; determines the direction and content of memorization, and &quot;how to memorize&quot; is the method to better memorize the content. All people's knowledge and experience are acquired through conscious memorization and unconscious memorization. However, in terms of memorizing effect, conscious memorizing is better than unconscious memorizing(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 Keeping'''<br /> <br /> Keeping refers to the process of remaining and consolidating the memorized materials in brain. It is the process of information storage. Keeping is the middle step which is between memorizing and recalling and it is closely related the quality and effect of recalling.<br /> <br /> The effect of keeping is related to whether the materials to be memorized are vivid or not. When brains memorize verbal materials, if the materials are vivid, they can leave a deep impression on people, while the materials with empty contents are easy to be forgotten quickly. Many psychological experiments have also proved the important role of the &quot;image&quot; in the memory of human brain. The memory effect of image materials is generally better than that of words materials, and similarly, the effect of visual memory is generally better than that of auditory memory. This suggests that if interpreters make full use of the image carrier of the source language in interpreting memory, it is possible to improve their information storage of the source language(Bao Gang, 2005).<br /> <br /> Keeping is a dynamic process during which the amount and nature of the stored information could be changed. In the aspect of amount change, the amount of stored information will decrease with time. In other words, this is forgetting. Forgetting is a very natural phenomenon that experienced by every person. Although forgetting is a complex psychological phenomenon, its occurrence and development have certain rules. Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, was the first to do this research. He used meaningless syllables as experimental materials and himself as experimental object. After memorizing the materials, he relearned them at regular intervals, and drew the forgetting curve with the time and times saved by heavy school as the index. Forgetting curve reflects the relationship between forgetting variables and time variables. This curve shows the rule of forgetting: the process of forgetting is unbalanced, and the amount of forgetting is relatively large in the initial period after memorization, and then gradually decreases. That is, the speed of forgetting is fast at first and then slow. After Ebbinghaus, many people have studied the forgetting process and confirmed that Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve is basically correct(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997). <br /> <br /> Keeping is the process of consolidating what have been memorized in people's minds, and it is also the process of storing information. It is not a static and solidified process, but a process of reconstruction.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 Recalling'''<br /> <br /> The final step of memory is recalling. It is the process of retrieving the information that has been stored in people’s brain. <br /> Recalling is the reappearance process of past experiences in the mind under the action of certain inducement. Memories can be divided into two categories: intentional memories and unintentional memories. Intentional recalling is the recalling of past experience under the action of intended purpose. Unintentional memories are memories that happen naturally without a predetermined purpose. Memories can be divided into direct recalling and indirect recalling according to whether there are intermediary factors involved in the recalling process. Direct recalling is the recollection of old experiences directly aroused by current things. Indirect recalling is a kind of recalling with the help of intermediary factors. In terms of difficulty, indirect recalling is more difficult than direct recalling.<br /> <br /> '''2.4 Primacy Effect and Recency effect'''<br /> <br /> Primacy effect and recency effect are two famous phenomena related to people’s memory. And both of them play a very important role in interpreting.<br /> <br /> '''2.4.1 Primacy Effect'''<br /> <br /> The concept “primacy effect” was first proposed by A. S. Lochins, an American psychologist. It refers to the fact that the first impression has a huge effect. Although the first impression may not always be right, but it is most vivid and solid. In primacy effect, information input plays a key role. Experimental psychology research shows that the order of external information input is important in determining the cognitive effect. The first input information plays the most important role, and the last input information also plays a great role. This feature of brain processing information is the internal cause of the primacy effect. When different information is combined, people always tend to attach importance to the former information. Even if people pay attention to the following information, they will think that the following information is non-essential and accidental. More importantly, even if the following information is inconsistent with the former information, people will succumb to the former information.<br /> <br /> '''2.4.2 Recency Effect'''<br /> <br /> Recency effect, also put forward by American psychologist Lochins, refers to the phenomenon that when people memorize a series of things, the memory effect of the last part is better than that of the middle part. The reason is that the previous information is gradually blurred in memory, while the recent information clearer in short-term memory. Recency effect is contrary to the primacy effect, and recency effect emphasizes that the last received information has the greatest effect. In people's perception, when the information obtained before and after is different, if there is irrelevant work in the middle to separate them, then the latter information plays a greater role in forming the total impression.<br /> <br /> Obviously, the primacy effect and recency effect are different, or even opposite. The primacy effect emphasizes the information received initially, while recency effect pays more attention to the information that comes into contact later. However, the primary effect and recency effect exist in our society and play their respective functions. Through a large number of experiments, it is found that the primacy effect and recency effect depend on people themselves. Generally speaking, people with relatively simple cognitive structure are prone to produce the primacy effect, while those with complex cognitive structure are prone to produce recency effect.<br /> <br /> Although the primacy effect and recency effect are different form each other, both of the effects are extremely beneficial to the memory of interpreters, and they can be used in different interpreting situations(Wang Jianhua, 2019).<br /> <br /> == The Subtile Translation of Movie from the Perspective of Multimodal Discourse Analysis 王轩 Wang Xuan==<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> Mankind has entered the era of multimedia, so the language as a mono-modal form has been unable to fully express the meaning of communication. Thus we need some other modals to enhance, in order to fully express the meaning and reach the aim of communication, such as sound, visual image, color and so on. Thus the term Multimodality aroused linguist’s interest and attention. <br /> <br /> They conducted a lot of research and exploration in Multimodal Discourse Analysis. Multimodal Discourse Analysis is based on Halliday’s systemic functional linguistics as the foundation, Professor Zhang Delu points out that the Multimodal Discourse is a phenomenon which means use auditory, visual, tactile and other sensory and communicate through language, image, sound, movement and other symbolic resources. <br /> <br /> Martin points out that Multimodal Discourse Analysis is composed of five levels, they are: (1) cultural level (2) context level (3) significance level (4) form level (5) media level. By discussing the combination between the subtitle translation of “Benjamin Button” and Multimodal, the thesis is to analyze that how does the Multimodal Discourse Analysis affect the subtitle translation of movies. <br /> <br /> The thesis is based on the Multimodal Discourse Analysis theory as the foundation, aims to analyze the following three areas under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis: 1. The embodiment of Multimodality in the film “Benjamin Button”, then aims to analyze how does the subtitle and Multimodality combining to constructed the whole meaning under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis.2. The second goal is to discuss the relationship between the movie’s subtitles and other modals, and the relationship between different modals. 3. By discussing the analysis of the movie subtitle expression function in the process of overall significance, this thesis attempts to put forward some suggestions on the movie subtitle translation. <br /> Keywords: Multimodal Discourse Analysis；Audio-visual Product；Subtitle Translation<br /> <br /> === Chapter One Multimodal Discourse Analysis Theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 1.1 The Emergence And Development Of Multimodality '''<br /> <br /> At present, experts and scholars have entered the stage of multimodal discourse analysis. This is not an accidental phenomenon, but inevitable, because they think that discourse or discourse is a unit of meaning, but the expression of meaning is not only through a single language, on the contrary, it can be constructed by many other symbol systems besides language. <br /> <br /> Therefore, it is not comprehensive and specific to analyze discourse or discourse from the linguistic level, so multimodal discourse analysis comes into being. Multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in foreign countries, and has been widely studied and explored. However, it is still in its infancy in China, and has attracted much attention in recent years. <br /> <br /> In the early 1950s, American linguist Harris put forward the theory of discourse analysis for the first time. Since then, discourse analysts all over the world have been working hard to analyze and study, and have put forward many theories and methods of discourse analysis, and analyzed them through a large number of examples. <br /> <br /> However, almost all the theories and methods of discourse analysis focus on language and ignore other forms of meaning expression, such as image, music, color and so on. Therefore, the research on discourse analysis at that time was not comprehensive and had great limitations. In the 1990s, multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in western countries, which overcomes the limitations of discourse analysis to a certain extent. Therefore, once multimodal discourse analysis was proposed, it immediately attracted the attention of linguists and once became a hot topic. Especially in recent years, linguists at home and abroad have carried out extensive research and Exploration on multimodal discourse analysis. <br /> <br /> In foreign countries, R. Barthes is the first French scholar to systematically analyze multimodality. As a famous semiotician, R. Barthes adopts the semiotic perspective to study multimodality. Therefore, multimodal discourse has been analyzed with semiotics from the very beginning. Multimodal discourse analysis breaks through the shackles of traditional single language information, and integrates more research in other fields, such as psychology, cognitive science and sociology. R. Barthes discussed the interaction and relationship between image and language in the expression of meaning. Based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed a relatively perfect grammatical framework for the analysis of visual images, thus providing theoretical basis and analytical methods for multimodal discourse analysis. They believe that multimodality is a major feature of various discourses in modern society. In the digital age, these different modes play the same role in meaning reproduction. In addition, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed an image analysis framework based on three pure functions in image reading, namely reproduction, interaction and composition.. In a word, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen's multimodal communication theory mainly focuses on the symbolic resources and their use. <br /> <br /> In China, there are also in-depth and extensive research on multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Li Zhanzi analyzes multimodal discourse from the perspective of social semiotics, while Hu Zhuanglin, a professor of Peking University, studies multimodal semiotics in theory and practice, and proposes multimodal language teaching and research in social semiotics. Zhu Yongsheng has made an in-depth study on multimodality and summarized the theoretical basis and research methods of multimodal discourse analysis. Zhang Delu made a preliminary exploration on the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Zhang Delu pointed out that multimodal discourse refers to the use of hearing, vision, touch and other senses, through language, images, sounds, movements and other means and symbol resources for communication. This phenomenon is very common, which is mainly reflected in the following aspects. For example, in order to better understand poetry, people find that it can be attached with pictures, that is, it is attractive People's interest has reached the purpose of helping people understand. In addition, people can often add some auxiliary gestures or actions, and use different tone and tone when speaking, which is also a form of multimodality. However, multimodal discourse analysis has not been paid enough attention. Only in the study of modern linguistics, some linguists have paid attention to multimodality and started to study it from the perspective of non-verbal features and linguistic features. However, it is only studied as an auxiliary expression system of language, but not as a mode of meaning expression. Although multimedia discourse analysis came into being, it was not until recent years that scholars gradually realized the importance of multimedia discourse analysis. It can be seen that multimodality has attracted a large number of linguists in China and achieved fruitful results.<br /> <br /> ''' 1.2 The Theoretical Framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis '''<br /> <br /> Linguists have found that systemic functional linguistics can be used as the basic theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. The five levels are: (1) cultural level, including ideology as the main form of culture and genre as the potential choice of discourse mode. (2) The context level includes the context configuration composed of discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. (3) The meaning level includes discourse meaning and conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning. (4) At the formal level, there are different formal systems to realize meaning, including lexical grammar system of language, visual ideographic form and visual grammar system, auditory ideographic form and auditory grammar system, tactile ideographic form and tactile grammar system, etc., as well as the relationship between the grammar of various modes. (5) Media level is the material form of discourse in the material world, including linguistic and non-verbal. Systemic functional linguistics provides a relatively ready-made theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis. On this basis, Professor Zhang Delu proposed a comprehensive theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis: (1) cultural level, (2) context level, (3) content level, (4) expression level<br /> <br /> ''' 1.3 The Forms and Relations of Multimodal Discourse '''<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse forms include: language, picture sense, sound sense and feeling. The typical multimodal discourse mode is a kind of modal discourse, which can not fully express its meaning, or can not express its full meaning. It needs to be supplemented by another one. The relationship between these modes is called &quot;complementary relationship&quot;, while the other is called non complementary relationship. <br /> <br /> Complementary relationship can be divided into strengthening relationship and non strengthening relationship. Reinforcement relationship means that one mode is the main form of communication, while another or more forms strengthen it. For example, when expressing meaning, if language is the main form of communication, then other body movements such as gestures will strengthen the language. On the contrary, language may also be a reinforcement to other ways of communication. Strengthening relationship includes three kinds of relations: prominent, primary and secondary, and expanding. Non reinforcement refers to the relationship between two modes which are indispensable and complementary to each other. For example, in the process of watching a movie, the visual and auditory modes are combined with each other. There are also three forms of non strengthening relations: coordination, union and intersection. In the coordination relationship, different modes construct the whole meaning together, and the lack of any mode will be incomplete. Play the video at the same time, for example. The two modes of image and sound are both necessary and difficult to understand without one communication. In this case, the relationship between image and sound is harmonious. The joint relationship refers to the combination of different types of media in the same mode to express the meaning. For example, in the typical multimodal discourse form of film, the sound matched with the scene animation and the voice of interpretation are combined to reflect the meaning of auditory construction. The last one is the phenomenon of cross embodiment of meaning. For example, teachers do experiments while they are in the experimental class. At this time, the text is still unimodal. However, if you are talking with your friends about whether the weather is snowing, the size and shape of snow, and so on, the scene of snow, including the process and mode of snow, will directly participate in the overall meaning you want to express. At this time, your discourse has a strong situational dependence. A large part of the meaning of your speech is reflected by the situation, although the scene does not actively participate in it In your verbal communication. Therefore, context dependent discourse communication is multimodal.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Two Film subtitle translation theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 2.1 Film Works and Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> With the advent of the multimedia digital era, foreign film and television works continue to flow into China, so subtitle translation is becoming more and more important. More and more people use subtitles to obtain foreign related information, understand foreign cultures and even learn foreign languages. Subtitling affects people's cognition of things, and subtitle translation has become a professional auxiliary form to facilitate the audience to understand multimedia works. Gottlieb defines subtitle translation as &quot;a kind of written, additional and synchronous translation type for instantaneous and multi symbolic texts&quot;. (Gottlieb, 1997:309) in China, film and television translation started relatively late, and large-scale film and television translation began after the 1980s. <br /> <br /> Although the number of mass media translation has greatly increased, subtitle translation has not attracted enough attention of the academic community, and the research results on subtitle translation are few. In recent years, subtitle translation, as a field of translation, has attracted more and more attention from experts and scholars all over the world. Subtitles have two major functions: first, to deepen the audience's impression of some film content; second, to assist the lack of listening. There are two kinds of subtitles: the first is intralingual subtitle, the second is interlingual subtitle. Intralingual subtitle translation does not need to translate one language into another, but only converts the discourse into text. &quot;Interlingual subtitle refers to the translation of the source language into the target language and superimposed on the bottom of the screen while retaining the original sound of the film and television, which is commonly referred to as subtitle translation.&quot; (Li Yunxing, 2001:38)<br /> <br /> ''' 2.2 The Characteristics Of Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> Film subtitles are an important part of the film, and together with the visual image to construct the meaning, film subtitles can help the audience to understand the characteristics of the characters in the film, to master the character's character and to be familiar with the plot of the film. Film subtitle translation has the following characteristics: <br /> <br /> Firstly, colloquialism. Subtitle translation in movies is mainly the translation of dialogues between the characters in the film. Therefore, subtitle translation should be as colloquial as possible and conform to the expression characteristics of the characters. On the premise of ensuring the coherence and smoothness of the context, the subtitle translation should be as close to life as possible so as to achieve natural and realistic effect. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the characters in the film have their own unique personalities, which are often reflected by different language styles. Therefore, the second feature of film subtitle translation is to conform to the characters' personalities. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, emotional, emotional help the audience better understand the plot, so the film subtitle translation should reflect the true feelings, the translation should be able to put oneself in the position and into the role, to achieve the artistic effect of sincere.<br /> <br /> Fourthly, oral form is a typical feature of film subtitle translation, which is also the most obvious difference between film subtitle translation and literature translation. The basic task of translation is to provide a blueprint for dubbing. Therefore, the translation of subtitles should be consistent with the mouth shape of the characters as much as possible, and the accuracy and vividness of the translation should be guaranteed. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, popularization means popularization. Popularization means that the translation can be understood by the audience on the premise of smoothness, so as to achieve the purpose of clear understanding and appreciation of both refined and popular tastes. The ultimate goal of popularization is to serve the audience and make the translation a bridge for effective communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3 Strategies Of Film Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.1 Pay Attention To The Artistry Of Language '''<br /> <br /> It is said that film is the seventh art after literature, music, dance, drama, painting and sculpture. As a young art, the only one who knows his birthday, film appeared as a popular art from the very beginning. Film is an art form with unique means of expression, and the artistry of its language is the basic element of film. Although Goethe once said: art should never be the same as reality, and it is impossible to embody art. But it turns out that film is not only a popular art, and it is the most popular art, which is called a kind of popular culture. From the point of view of the film itself, most of the films are for people to watch, and the audience of the film comes from different social strata, so their education level is also different. Therefore, the language in the subtitle of film translation must be in line with the audience's acceptance ability and actual level, so as to make the translation understood by the audience, more clearly, and achieve both refined and popular tastes. However, the vulgarization and popularization of the target language does not mean the vulgarization and generalization of the language. The language of film is rich in expressive force, and the language of subtitle translation must be accurate, natural and vivid. Therefore, in the film subtitle translation, we should not only retain the language characteristics of the source language and absorb the characteristics of foreign language expression, but also abide by the language tradition of our own culture, and use words with cultural color of the target language to translate the original text, so as to truly achieve the purpose of translation.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.2 Literal Translation And Free Translation Should Be Audience-Centered '''<br /> <br /> The characteristics of film subtitle translation, i.e. instantaneity and popularity, determine its translation strategies. Subtitle translation must refer to the picture and sound of the film and television. Usually, the subtitle appears in front of the audience together with the original picture, so that the audience can not only enjoy the picture, but also have time to read the subtitle. This is the duality of subtitle translation. When the audience accepts the sound, picture and subtitle information of the original text, they are integrated, complementary and contradictory. Therefore, subtitle translation must consider that subtitle is not an independent mode, it includes the creation process and the reception process. In a word, both literal translation and free translation should focus on the audience. Literal translation can absorb new foreign factors and information, and can reflect foreign culture and sentiment. Free translation is easier to be accepted by the target language audience. Film subtitle translation must take into account the audience's language level and education, and take the audience of the target language as the center and adopt correct translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.3 Processing Of Cultural Information '''<br /> <br /> As an intermediary of cultural exchange, the translator's main purpose is to promote the exchange of different cultures and reduce the cultural gap. Because the film subtitle in the process of translation is subject to many restrictions, for example, there are a large number of words with strong cultural color and some special language forms, and there are many gaps in the culture of different languages and nations and can not be replaced, so it increases the difficulty of film translation. For example, when translating puns, word games and proverbs, translators usually have to give up, which is actually a treason to the original film. <br /> <br /> There are three strategies to deal with cultural information in Subtitle Translation: first, the principle of cultural compensation. The principle of cultural compensation aims to preserve and introduce the cultural characteristics of foreign countries, so that the audience can understand the films of different languages and cultures. Second, adopt the principle of cultural transplantation. This principle can make subtitles more vivid, authentic and vivid. Translators need to discard the cultural characteristics of the source language and abide by the native language, so that subtitles can be easily understood and accepted by the target language audience. When neither of the two strategies is desirable, we can only use the third strategy, namely the principle of cultural coordination, which inevitably leads to the loss of cultural information in the source language and the target language. When dealing with the cultural information in subtitle translation, translators should pay attention to the combination of these three strategies with the film picture, and give full play to the illustrative and explanatory nature of the pictures, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Three Subtitle Translation Of &quot;Rejuvenation&quot; From The Perspective Of Multimodal Discourse Analysis ===<br /> <br /> ''' 3.1 A Brief Introduction of 'Benjamind Button' '''<br /> <br /> 'Benjamin Button', directed by the famous director David Finch is adapted from Fitzgerald's novel of the same name; the film tells the story of a strange Benjamin Barton who violates the laws of nature and is born in the image of an ancient and rare old man. As time goes by, he even lives more and more young. It is a story about the reversal of life.<br /> <br /> The following part will analyze the characteristics of subtitles and the translation strategies that should be adopted in the expression of the film from the cultural level, context level, content level and expression level of the multimodal theoretical framework.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2 Multimodal Translation in Movie Subtiles '''<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.1 On Cultural Level '''<br /> <br /> Under the influence of thinking patterns and habits, people have gradually formed a specific form of expression in which language can understand each other in communication. Therefore, it is particularly important whether the cultural factors in films are properly translated. Zhang Delu believes that &quot;the cultural level is the key level to make communication possible&quot;. In some cases, the source language and the target language can not be translated literally. Therefore, in the process of translating movie subtitles, we should not only keep the original features, that is, faithfulness, but also take into account the habitual language awareness of the target audience, that is, free translation strategies should be adopted to make the translation smooth and consistent Cultural characteristics of the target language.<br /> <br /> The English title of the film is ‘The Curious Case of Benjamin Button’, and a version is ‘本杰明·巴顿奇事’, but the translation of ‘返老还童’ has a larger audience. First of all, there is an English name in the title of Benjamin Button, which makes people feel the obscurity of the literal translation of foreign words. In Chinese, four character idioms or five or seven character quatrains or metrical poems are more catchy and easy to be accepted; Secondly, the title of &quot;rejuvenate&quot; is very suitable for the protagonist's inverted and retrograde life trajectory. In a word, it is very brilliant; Finally, the idiom ‘返老还童’ comes from ancient legends, which expresses people's desire for immortality and rejuvenation. Although it is a legend, modern people also want to be young and energetic, so the title of ‘返老还童’ can attract more audiences.<br /> In this film, there are many translation notes added to the translation, which will explain the cross-cultural ambiguity clearly. Although there are many translations, it is the best way to make the audience accept accurate information.<br /> <br /> When Daisy, the heroine, is old, she lies on the hospital bed and introduces the name of the Watchmaker: “they had the best clock maker in all of the south to build that glorious clock. His name was Mr. gateau Mr. Cake.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “还请来整个南方最好的钟表匠建了那座雄伟的大钟。那人叫盖图先生……蛋糕先生” (盖图/Gateau 在法语中是蛋糕之意)<br /> <br /> There is such a narration at the foundation laying ceremony of clocks and clocks: “Papa said there were people everywhere. Even Teddy · Roosevelt came.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “爸爸说，那天人山人海。连泰迪·罗斯福也来了( 西奥多·罗斯福，昵称泰迪美国第26 任总统)”<br /> <br /> In the above two examples, the comments added to the translation itself are in brackets. In the former example, &quot;Mr. cake&quot; suddenly appears. In the latter example, how President Roosevelt called &quot;Teddy Roosevelt&quot; will make the target language audience very puzzled. Although the use of annotations makes translation numerous, it is the best way for the audience to quickly obtain accurate information. The audience knows that gateau means &quot;cake&quot; in French, and Roosevelt has a nickname of &quot;Teddy&quot;.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.2 On Context Level '''<br /> <br /> In a specific context, communication is constrained by contextual factors (Zhang Delu, 2009). The context level elaborated by Zhang Delu includes discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. In order to express meaning or transmit information, subtitle and context jointly promote the development of film plot. Subtitle translation should be subject to context. In order to make subtitle translation not appear fault phenomenon, the film plot will advance naturally, and subtitle translation should also play a role of connecting the preceding and the following. In this way, in the process of translation, the translator should consider the contextual factors and pay attention to the smoothness and coherence of the translation within the sentence itself and between the sentences in the text.<br /> <br /> When describing Queenie's fertility problem, Queenie sees Benjamin's heart full of love. Her husband, Mr. Weathers, said: I know you ain't got all the parts it takes to make one of your own, but this ain't your to keep. At first it was certainly hard to understand the meaning of this sentence, but as the plot developed, Queenie prayed to the pastor for a son. After her pregnancy, she announced happily: “I had a miracle happen. The Lord saw fit to answer my prayer.” <br /> <br /> Little Daisy explained here: “ ‘I had a miracle happen’ means pregnancy.” （她有孩子了） In this way, the words said by Mr. Weathers was interpreted as: “我知道你没法有自己的孩子，可你也不能抚养这个。” Using free translation strategy, it is clear and faithful to the meaning of the source language, which makes the target language audience quickly know that Queenie likes children's characteristics and cares for Benjamin, an ugly ‘monster’.<br /> <br /> When Benjamin and Daisy are reunited in New York, Benjamin said: “I thought I'd come here and sweet you off your feet or something.” The phrase &quot;sweep you off your feet&quot; means &quot;to make you fall suddenly and deeply in love with you&quot;（让你倾倒）. Benjamin and Daisy were separated from each other for many years at that time. Daisy, who was living in the dance circle, was popular and desirable there. Benjamin went to New York to find daisy after burying his father. He was in a mixed mood. In fact, he wanted to find a friend to express his melancholy. Therefore, Benjamin did not go to find Daisy to &quot;fall in love&quot; with her but &quot;I thought I'd give you a big surprise when I came suddenly&quot;(我本以为我突然过来找你会给你一个大惊喜), which is very brilliant. This sentence is more suitable for the protagonist's situation by using free translation strategy.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.3 On Content Level '''<br /> <br /> The content level of Zhang Delu's expression includes discourse meaning level and form level. Discourse meaning is the conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning conveyed in language expression. In the film, subtitle is the narrator's narration and dialogue content. Film discourse requires the translator to accurately express the subtitle meaning to the audience. In the process of subtitle translation, some gas words, names and address terms can be omitted, which still does not affect the expression of discourse meaning.<br /> <br /> “Well, I know I don't have much to show for myself.”（我知道自己没有什么才能。） The omission of &quot;well&quot; does not affect the translation, but is more concise and can be understood more quickly.<br /> <br /> “You know, you may've got a few more years out of it, but you choose to do something so special and unique that there were only a short window of time you could do it.” Daisy was in the dance business, but she had an accident later. Some expressions here such as “a few more years out of it” ( 跳几年舞), “something so special and unique”( 事业太与众不同), “a short window of time” （几年黄金时间) have been dealt more concrete, so the whole sentence is translated as: “也许，你能多跳几年舞，可你的事业太与众不同了，只有几年的黄金时间可以发展。” <br /> <br /> As for its form, the formal features of different modes are interrelated and reflect the discourse meaning together (Zhang Fulu, 2009). The film system includes animation, pictures, music, language and other auditory and visual modes. Therefore, subtitles, together with listening and visual modes, work together to promote the expression of film meaning.<br /> <br /> For example, Benjamin and Daisy finally met and got together. They whispered in the yellow-glowed room:<br /> Daisy: “Will you still love me when my skin grows old and saggy?” ( 我要是成了黄脸婆你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> Benjamin: “Will you still love me when I have acne? When I wet the bed? When I'm afraid of what's under the stairs?” ( 等我老到脸上长满青春痘，老到尿床，老到连楼梯下有什么都怕，你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> The pictures, music and language all revealed the happy and loving life of the two people. In general, the film is based on the narration of a diary. In the film, the dialogue between the present and the narration in the diary is carried out alternately. In addition, the old pictures, the statement of time and the voice change of the narrator are used to make the past and the present change clearly and naturally, and they are applied in the formal level.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.4 On Expression Level '''<br /> <br /> Zhang Fulu believes that the expression level can be divided into language media and non-verbal media. In the language media level, he thinks that the main forms of meaning communication are sound symbols and writing symbols. For films, subtitles and subtitle translation belong to writing symbols. In the process of translating subtitles, translators should fully consider the media characteristics such as voice size, intonation strength, tone, font size and layout, which play a very important role in the expression of films. The subtitles of the film are at the bottom of the screen. Except for the notes, the translation takes up a little bit more space, and most of the subtitles in the source language and the target language occupy one line, which ensures that the audience has enough time to read the information. Non verbal media include communicators' body and nonverbal means (mainly tools and environment). Nowadays, with the progress of science and technology, movies can be played in cinemas, networks and various electronic media, and the media for appreciation is rich.<br /> <br /> Throughout the film, the dying old Daisy's tone is slow and strenuous on the bed. With the development of the story, light or heavy, a TV beside the bed broadcast the change of Hurricane weather activity, and the weather change also reflects Daisy's condition at that time.<br /> Finally, Daisy hugged Benjamin, a baby in her arms, and watched him invert the end of her life. The dying Daisy dictated in a low voice and intermittent tone: &quot;he looked at me and Iknow that he knew who I was.&quot;. (他看着我，那一刻，我知道他认出来了) The sound of the hurricane alarm suddenly sounded, sharp and obvious, and the picture of the staff of the hospital of traditional Chinese medicine was flustered, symbolizing that Benjamin's reversal clock was also washed away, and Daisy finally passed away. The sound, picture and words of the whole film are closely linked. It tells the story of eternal love, though limited in time, which is extremely shocking and thought-provoking.<br /> <br /> The translator of the film tries his best to translate various modes such as discourse, picture, sound and music. The translation strategy is mainly free translation, and the subtitle processing is simple and appropriate, so that the audience can have a good understanding of the limited time in the film, only the eternal knowledge of love. Taking the film subtitle of &quot;rejuvenation&quot; as an example, this paper analyzes the characteristics of subtitle translation from the aspects of culture, context, content and expression, hoping to better understand multimodal discourse analysis and free translation strategies in film subtitle translation.<br /> <br /> ='''Machine Translation'''=<br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory - A Case Study of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈永相 Chen Yongxiang&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine (hereinafter referred to as TCM), the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, boasts the favorable curative effect and a good reputation across the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative” and national economy, TCM has been playing an increasingly significant role in international trade, attracting more attention of foreign medical experts and consumers. As the essential attachment of a medicine, medicine instructions belong to the genre of practical writing, characterized by the unique language structure and stylistic features, guiding doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicines, such as usage and dosage, actions and indications, contraindication, etc. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. Due to the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, however, plenty of problems appear on the C-E translation of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> According to Adaptation Theory proposed by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. Translation is a cross-cultural communication activity, which involves language usage and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so on between source language and target language, and to adapt with different contexts, mentalities, cultures, etc. so as to achieve the ideal goal, from which the Adaptation Theory can be applied exactly into the study of translation. This paper will apply Adaptation Theory, therefore, as the theoretical framework, to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. Employing the core concepts and investigating aspects of Adaptation Theory, the author tries to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine instruction translation, Adaptation Theory, Yulin Pharmaceutical Company <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 中药是我国医药文化的瑰宝，有着良好的疗效和口碑。随着“一带一路倡议”的稳步推进和中国经济的平稳发展，中药药品在国际贸易中所占比重日益增加，得到了国外许多医疗专家和消费者的关注。药品说明书作为药品的重要附件，是一种实用文体，有其自身的语言结构和文体特点，能够指导医生与患者了解和熟悉药品作用、用法用量、适应症和禁忌等。而中医药品说明书英译作为中医英译的一个重要组成部分，其英译质量决定了药品能否被医生和患者正确理解和使用，以及中医药产品的国际贸易繁荣。然而，由于英语和汉语之间存在着不可避免的语言和文化差异，中医药品说明书英译依然存在着较大问题。<br /> <br /> 比利时语用学家维索尔伦提出的语言顺应论认为，语言的使用是一个不断作出选择和顺应的动态过程。翻译作为一项跨文化交际活动，需要在源语与目的语之间，就用词、翻译策略等方面进行选择，对不同语境、心理、文化等层面作出顺应。可见顺应论适用于翻译研究。因此本文以顺应论作为理论依据，通过对广西玉林制药公司中医药品说明书英译进行分析研究，运用顺应论的核心概念和研究视角，进一步探讨如何更好地翻译中医药品说明书。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 中医药品说明书翻译，顺应论，玉林制药公司<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''1.Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''1.1 Research Background of the Study'''====<br /> <br /> As the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, TCM has been through a profound history in China. Since “The Belt and Road Initiative” proposed for the first time, as an indispensable part in medical industry, TCM has tapped the potential of development opportunity to boost its reform so as to better make inroads into the international market. Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a renowned TCM pharmacy enterprise mainly engaged in R&amp;D, production and sales of Chinese medicines, one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties. In 2015, Consun Pharmaceutical Group Lt. has successfully brought partial share of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, which, in return, brought opportunities for the IPO and industrialization of the company. As the essential attachment of TCM medicine, the instructions guide doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicine correctly, which closely relates to consumer safety and are of great significance. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. The high quality translation versions of TCM instructions will accelerate TCM to enter into the international market, to occupy more competitive market share, and to better popularize the excellent TCM culture. <br /> <br /> ===='''1.2 Significance and Purpose of the Study'''==== <br /> <br /> It is noticed that studies and researches on TCM at home and abroad have boomed since the ancient Silk Road period. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from experts. Because of the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, a lot of problems appear on the translation of TCM instructions. And against such a backdrop, there are still no settled rules or translation standards to be applied and favored in the translation of TCM instructions, hence it’s quite essential to touch upon the area of C-E translation of TCM instructions in a more comprehensive and systematic way so as to find out more effective methods and strategies for the instruction translation. Adaptation Theory is proposed by Jef Verschueren, he thinks that language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation is a type of language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so forth between source language and target language. A good translation version of TCM instructions can appropriately guide both doctors and patients to understand the pharmacological functions, usage and dosage, actions and indications and contraindications of medicines. Therefore, the quality of instruction translation has a direct impact on whether TCM can be favored and obtained a good reputation among overseas medical industry and consumers. This paper studies the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, trying to take the Company as a case study to further discuss how to translate TCM instructions in a better way. <br /> <br /> ==='''2.Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 Features of TCM Instructions'''====<br /> <br /> Being the essential attachment of a medicine, the instruction contains important information that explains what the medicine is, how to take it and the effects after taking it, guiding doctors and patients to understand and use medicines properly. It closely relates to consumers’ safety. Thus, TCM instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. However, the information covered in most TCM instructions is drug name, ingredients, actions and indications, usage and dosage, while adverse effects, precautions, pharmacological effects, drug interaction, contraindications etc. are quite simple, even without any description of these items, failing to meet the requirement of international standards. <br /> <br /> Besides, due to the profound history of TCM developed in China, most of the unique TCM languages derived from the abstract philosophical concepts of ancient times remain being used until now, say, classical style and semi-classical style, which are accepted and favored by the TCM community, causing difficulties in translating them into English. And hence four-character structure, vagueness and ambiguity of the language, and no equivalence between Chinese and English are the main features of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> The four-character structure is concise but comprehensive in meaning, implying the extensive and abstract medical concepts of TCM. The tradition of using it to describe the symptoms and ways of treatment in TCM hasn’t been changed over time but continued to be applied and advocated in modern society. The TCM instructions are difficult to understand and translate, for the peculiar traits of TCM language, as well as the technical terms coming, directly or indirectly, from the abstract medical concepts of TCM, characterized by the unique treatment method as a whole in human body, and seeking to find answers and balance principles in nature to explain the causes and treatments of diseases, which is usually not the literal one but beyond cognition. In addition, there are gaps and non-equivalence between TCM and Western Medicine. Most TCM instruction translations apply technical terms from Latin in terms of ingredients, but adopt simple words and phrases for describing actions and indications, since the TCM language with Chinese characteristics finds no match in English. Ordinary people, as well as translators, who do not have the professional knowledge may have great difficulty in understanding and translating them. <br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Studies of TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine wasn’t legal once in the United States until 1975, as many scholars and experts were skeptical about its medical theory and way of treatment. Since the establishment of China, the government has been devoting great efforts to the recognition and popularization of TCM across the world. And from then on, a lot of studies and researches based on the translation of TCM have been published at home and abroad. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from the experts. In view of the special wording and the abstract theory of TCM, the translation of TCM instructions is of great difficulty and complexity. <br /> <br /> Currently, the translation of TCM instructions on the market, to a large extent, lacks readability and translation standards. Against such a backdrop, some scholars have striven to make some breakthroughs yet. Nigel Wiseman (2000) systematically elaborates the concept of “oriented by the source” in his dissertation, Translation of Chinese Medicine Terms: A Source Oriented Approach, in terms of the translation of TCM language, believing that the translation of TCM, as well as the instructions, should respect the original style and keep it in the target text as much as possible. In 2002, Translation of TCM Directions (《中医药说明书的英译》) written by Ouyang Lifeng (2002) put forward some practical methods for the translation of TCM instructions. He advocates “naturalization” and “readjustment”, namely, adaptation strategy, should be applied in translation, and if necessary, some additions and deletions are acceptable on the basis of faithfulness to the original text. Guided by Professor Ouyang, his student, Xiaoqiong, applies Peter Newmark’s Communicative Approach in her master’s thesis, On the Translation of TCM Booklets of Direction-The Communicative Approach (2008) to study the features of TCM instructions, suggesting that different approaches should be adopted regarding to different parts of the instructions. On translation Strategies of Chinese Medicine Instruction from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches written by Luo Haiyan (2009) conducts a relatively profound research under the guidance of Functionalist Approach in terms of each part of TCM instructions. She finds out the translation of TCM instructions is not very identical and comprehensible. Cao Qing’s thesis, A Study on Translation of Chinese Pharmaceutical Instruction (2011) states the common problems of translation instructions and advises three translation methods, namely literal translation, conversion and free translation under the Skopos Theory. There are still other scholars aiming at one aspect or another to further study the translation of TCM instructions, all of which exert a significant impact for references in translating TCM instructions. From the perspectives of Zhang Mengjing (1995), Ning Zhishou and Liu Cuiwei (1997), and Fu Wei (2006), the current TCM instruction translation lacks faithfulness, readability and incompatibility with conventional norms, suggesting that more attention should be paid in this field. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn from the above literature that studies on TCM instruction translation can be conducted from a wide scope. For the great distinction between western and Chinese culture, and the abstract medical principles of TCM, much has to be done to make the translation of TCM instructions more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> ==='''3.Adaptation Theory Applied in Traditional Chinese Medicine Instruction Translation of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company'''===<br /> <br /> From what has been mentioned above, as the important attachment of TCM, the instructions provide the correct and detailed medical information to doctors and consumers, guiding them to take medicine scientifically and properly, and hence the medicine instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. As one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a famous brand in the whole country, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties, and the buyout also boosts the process of IPO and reform. Through observation of the C-E translation instructions of TCM for foreigners and export, hence there are some certain instructive significance for the translation of TCM instructions. Because of the special characteristics of TCM instructions and the limited information included in the instructions of the company, this part tries to analyze the C-E translation instructions from the perspective of Adaptation Theory, mainly employing the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Contextual Correlates of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> As introduced earlier, according to Verschueren, the ingredients of contextual correlates of adaptability largely include the physical world, social world, and mental world. However, the author will mainly concentrates on the adaptation to the mental world and social world due to the limited materials collected. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.1 Adaptation to the Mental World'''=====<br /> <br /> Regarding the mental world, it involves the personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations, intentions and so on of both sides of language users. In the translation process, translators should take target readers’ mind into account, not just concentrating on personal mental world or literally translating the original text from one language to another language without any adaptation. <br /> <br /> Basically, consumers of drugs tend to rely on more renowned brands when facing a bunch of medicines displayed on the shelves. The key to attract their attention not only counts on the high quality of TCM, but also on the instructions with rigorous standards, concise specification and overall comprehensibility, delivering a sense of authority and credibility. <br /> <br /> To begin with, the name of drugs is the most direct information delivered to the consumers. Thus, a good name of the TCM can catch the eyes of buyers in the very beginning. “正骨水” is the most famous and important product of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, however, the translation of its name in the instruction simply applies transliteration and Chinese Pinyin, namely, “Zheng Gu Shui” , which fails to adapt with the mental world of target readers. Apparently, Pinyin isn’t the way of expression that they are familiar with. Translators should consider their mental expectation and make adaptation with their familiar ways of expression. In that point, “Bone-setting Liquor” would be a better name for the medicine. “Bone-setting” means the medicine is effective for the symptoms of bone problems, and “liquor” implies the ingredients involved alcohol and other irritating ingredients so that consumers can be aware of the precautions and avoid using it on fragile mucous membranes and anabrotic wounds. Also, the same type of medicine can apply the same way of translation, such as, “金装正骨水” can be translated to “Golden Bone-setting Liquor”, and “极品正骨水” is rendered as “Superb Bone-setting Liquor”. Such a name conveys the correct medical information to consumers and better adapt to their thinking patterns. <br /> <br /> Another example is “睡安胶囊”, the translation version is “Shui’an Jiaonang” . Obviously, it will confuse foreigners since they don’t recognize Chinese Pinyin in their cognitive levels. Translators should at least use “capsule” to indicate the medicine is some type of capsules effective for the sleeping problems. A well-recognized name will arouse attention and interest among consumers, attracting them to purchase the medicine. In order to adapt with their mental expectation and intention, as Ouyang (2002) advocates, naturalization or domesticating translation can be applied in translation. “Sleep Mate” or “Insomnia Killer” can better attract their attention and adapt with their beliefs and cognitive levels. In English, “mate” is a common word, which will be more acceptable and natural in such combination, and “killer” combined with “insomnia” implies the meaning of solving the insomnia problems, which is also more suitable and adaptable with their emotions and motivations. <br /> <br /> A good name of the medicine can not only imply the function of the medicine, conveying the essential information to customers, but also can draw their attention and arouse their desires to purchase the medicine. Meeting the demand and preference with the mental world of target people is also one of the requirements of medicine instructions. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, if transliteration or simply adopting Chinese Pinyin to translate the names of medicines will confuse customers and cause misunderstanding, adaptation is required, and not just words, but also translation strategies should be taken consideration when making adaptation. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.2 Adaptation to the Social World'''=====<br /> <br /> Verschueren (2000:91) states that there is no principled limit to the range of social factors that linguistic choices are inter-adaptable with. Basically, social settings and culture play a significant role in the process of translation. What distinguishes TCM from Western Medicine mainly lies on the cultural differences. Language is the carrier of culture, and the cultural differences can be embodied in different languages, and then shown and reflected in society. Instruction translation, as the cross-cultural communication activity, is influenced largely by cultural differences in different social worlds. Followings are the very typical translation examples to illustrate the point:<br /> <br /> Example 1(感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> Source Text (ST): 用于感冒或流感发热，头痛鼻塞, 伤风咳嗽，咽痛，肢痛<br /> <br /> Target Text (TT): Used for the treatment of cold, flu and fever, headache and nasal congestion, wind damage cough, angina and melalgia<br /> <br /> Revised Text (RT): Used for cold, flu, fever, headache, snuffle, cough, sore throat and pain in muscles<br /> <br /> Traditionally, “伤风” in Chinese means getting cold because of the invasion of “风” into the human body. “风” is actually one of the six exogenous pathogenic factors according to the medical theory of TCM, which cannot be explained from the perspective of Western Medicine. In western society, people have no concept that the natural phenomenon, say, “风” or “火”, will cause diseases in the human body. So the revised text deletes this term with TCM characteristics to avoid ambiguity and makes it more natural and understandable in English. In addition, most common patients who seek to buy medicines in pharmacies might not have the specific knowledge of medical field due to different social settings and backgrounds, thus, “angina” and “melalgia” might be beyond recognition and acceptance. Western world highlights the importance of brevity and conciseness in their society, and they place emphasis on simplification and efficiency, seldom using the very technical terms in their lives. Such social settings and cultural differences must be considered so as to make adaptation when translating. Besides, “nasal congestion” is the word-for-word translation and may cause misunderstanding among foreigners. So the revised text adopts “snuffle” and “sore throat” to indicate the meaning of “鼻塞” and “咽痛”, applying these simple words to make adaptation with cultural differences in different social worlds, and renders “melalgia” into “pain in muscles” to better deliver the meaning of “肢痛”. <br /> <br /> Example 2 (治咳枇杷露)<br /> <br /> ST: 治疗儿童伤风呃逆，咳嗽痰盛<br /> <br /> TT: Used for children’s wind-damage hiccup, cough and exuberant phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Used for cold, hiccup, cough and sputum in children<br /> <br /> Similarly, example 2 also translates “ 伤风” into “ wind damage”, which is not appropriate in such description. As mentioned above, additions and deletions, if necessary, can be applied to make adaptation in translation. So the revised text deletes “wind damage” and “exuberant phlegm”, adopting noun coordination and making it more readable and adaptable to the social world of target readers. <br /> <br /> Literal translation of instructions is not always the first option in the C-E translation of instructions. For translators, the first thing they should consider is to be faithful to the original meaning of the text, not the text itself. They need to make adaptation to the target readers’ social world, for instance, social status, social settings, social background, cultural differences, etc., striving to make the translation concise and easy to understand in their society. Amid such different social worlds, translators must bear in mind to render localization of different cultures to make adaptation without causing ambiguity and misunderstanding while successfully keeping and delivering the implied meanings as much as possible.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:26, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 Structural Objects of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translationn'''====<br /> <br /> According to Verschueren, linguistic choice-making takes place at all levels of structure that shows variability of any kind (2000:15). As indicated in Part two, for the reason of limited information covered in the TCM instructions, the materials collected from the company would be more meaningful if concentrating on the lexical level of the actions and indications of the instructions, which exactly features the typical four-character structure and language traits of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.1 Adaptation to the Lexical Level'''=====<br /> <br /> Differences in lexical level between TCM and Western Medicine largely reflect on terminologies and descriptions of diseases. The four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning. Currently, most translation versions of instructions are literally word-for-word translation and transliteration, failing to deliver the correct meanings implied in those TCM terminologies and words and lacking readability and authenticity. Here are some typical translation examples of the actions and indications of the medicines in Yulin Pharmaceutical Company:<br /> <br /> Example 3(蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 小便频数<br /> <br /> TT: Frequent urination<br /> <br /> Example 4 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 祛风除湿 <br /> <br /> TT: Dispel wind and eliminated dampness<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve rheumatic pain<br /> <br /> Example 5 (珍黄丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 消肿止痛<br /> <br /> TT: Ease a swelling and relieve pain<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve swelling pain<br /> <br /> Chinese four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning, and most of them are the causal relationship. &quot;祛风除湿&quot; is a typical example. “风湿” is a disease caused by the invasion of “风” into the human body, if &quot;风邪&quot; cannot be removed from the body soon, &quot;湿&quot; will appear and gather together near the joints, causing diseases and pains in joints according to the medical theory of TCM. So, &quot;祛风&quot; is actually the result of &quot;除湿&quot;, and vice versa. And the example of “消肿止痛”, it is usually can be explained that pain is caused by swelling as the result of illness or injury. Once the swelling disappears, so does the pain. According to the example 3, &quot;小便频数&quot; is translated into “Frequent urination”, using the structure of &quot;adjective+noun&quot; in English, which is concise in form and easy to understand. So the revised text of example 4 and 5 can also adopt such structure and translate into &quot;Relieve rheumatic pain&quot; and &quot;Relieve swelling pain&quot;, not only implying the causal relationship between the lines, concise and simple, but also avoiding translating repetitive meaning. <br /> <br /> Example 6 (感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> ST: 止咳化痰<br /> <br /> TT: Suppress cough and transform phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve cough and sputum<br /> <br /> Example 7 (乌军治胆片)<br /> <br /> ST: 疏肝解郁 <br /> <br /> TT: To course the liver and resolve depression<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve Qi stagnation in liver<br /> <br /> From the above two examples, &quot;止咳化痰&quot; is translated into &quot;Suppress cough and transform phlegm&quot;, and &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is “To course the liver and resolve depression”. It is noticed that simply employing the literal meaning of words to translate TCM instructions doesn’t work, especially in such medical context. Translators cannot ignore the relationship between the words and the context then make translation of words in isolation. &quot;化痰' means the symptom of sputum would be relieved and cured soon after taking the medicine, and hence here, the key words are &quot;咳&quot; and &quot;痰&quot;, not the verbs. So the translation of &quot;Relieve cough and sputum&quot; would be more comprehensible and readable. And the example of &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is actually another one that can be evidenced the casual relationship in TCM language. &quot;疏&quot; and &quot;解&quot; deliver the same meaning in such context, and &quot;肝郁&quot; is not the meaning of &quot;depression of liver&quot; but the irregular circulation and stagnation of the abstract &quot;Qi&quot; in liver from the perspective of TCM. So translating into &quot;Relieve Qi stagnation in liver&quot; retains the original meaning of Chinese and makes it more acceptable. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.2 Summary'''=====<br /> <br /> Despite of the characteristics of four-character structure in TCM language, the phenomenon of repetitive meaning implied between the lines is quite common. For translators, they should fully understand what meanings indicated between those words and phrases prior to translating them into another language. According to Adaptation Theory, language has the properties of variability, negotiability and adaptability. Facing abundant choices of words in English, translators should choose the most appropriate words and expressions after negotiation to make adaptation to the lexical level, the structure, the context, etc. preferred in English.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, translators should make linguistic choices not just at the lexical level, but also the syntactic level, textual level, rhetorical level etc. literally all levels of linguistic structures. Due to the limited information contained in TCM instructions of the company, this part mainly develops from the adaptation of lexical level, finding out that most translations apply literal translation with abusive usage of words, failing to deliver the correct meaning implied in TCM language and lacking readability and authenticity.<br /> <br /> With the great progresses of TCM over years, Yin(阴) and Yang(阳), Wuxing(五行) and Qi(气), these basic concepts in TCM have been accepted and recognized among foreigners. It can be adopted directly when translating the TCM instructions. With regard to the verbs in TCM language, literal translation sometimes might arouse skepticism and confusion of target readers and fail to deliver the correct meaning and the effectiveness of medicines. Translators should adapt the wording preference in target language and try to naturalize the translation but avoid abusive usage of words. Thus translators in this field should be equipped with excellent bilingual ability, sufficient background knowledge of TCM and Western Medicine, and the understanding of linguistics.<br /> <br /> ===='''3.3 Dynamics of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> As stated above, translation is a process of dynamic adaptation and involves the process of structural reconstruction and meaning regeneration. According to Verschueren (2000:157) “...strategies are always involved in any type of communication.” It means not just linguistic choices, but also translation strategies are dynamic because of different time, context and structure of both sides of language usage and each of them varies in line with relative factors when language users make choices. <br /> <br /> The dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation can be embodied from different words, phrases and translation strategies, even different languages applied in the medicine instructions. As for the part of ingredients, the instructions of the company employ Latin to indicate each TCM, for instance: Radix Notoginseng (三七), Herba Artemisiae Scopariae (茵陈), Fructus Lycii (枸杞), Poria (茯苓), Radix Codonopsis (党参), Rhizoma Dioscoreae (山药). It is usually the part where doctors and experts who have the specific knowledge of this field would be interested in, and using Latin to translate the TCM is the international standard of naming medicines, hence it is a way of adaptation. While next to the part of actions and indications, it resorts to different words and phrases in English to describe the indications of each medicine. English is apparently a better option for its universality and compatibility that common people can easily understand what the medicine is, and how to take it. Such adaptation to each part of the instruction in language shows the dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation. Following are some examples to show the dynamics of adaptability in translation: <br /> <br /> Example 8 (正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To remove obstruction from collateralls and channels and relieve muscular contracture<br /> <br /> Example 9 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To relax and activate tendons<br /> <br /> As for the translation of “舒筋活络”, example 8 and example 9 employ different words to deliver the meaning. The former is detailed and elaborated, delivering the original meaning implied in the lines while the latter is relatively simple, only using “tendons” to express the meaning of “筋络”. Besides the different specifications of “正骨水” and “金装正骨水”, the ingredients of these two medicines also show a wide difference, contributing to the different words and methods adopted in the same description of indications. From the above examples, it can be noticed, to some extent, that translators go through negotiation and then make dynamic adaptation with regard to different medicines. <br /> <br /> Example 10 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 旺盛局部血液循环, 增强细胞活力<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen partial blood circulation and improve vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 11 (筋骨王)<br /> <br /> ST: 改善局部血液循环，增强细胞活力。<br /> <br /> TT: To accelerate local blood circulation, increase vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 10 and example 11 are actually delivering the same meaning, but they change the words and phrases to adapt with two different medicines. With the variability and adaptability of language, the meaning of “增强” can be expressed by “improve” and “increase”, and translators employs “partial” and “local” to express the meaning of “局部”. As for the similar actions and indications, the translations of which vary in different medicines, demonstrating that translation is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. <br /> <br /> Example 12 (睡安胶囊)<br /> <br /> ST: 清心除烦<br /> <br /> TT: To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation<br /> <br /> Example 13 (蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 壮阳益肾<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney<br /> <br /> Example 12 and example 13 apply free translation to deliver the meaning of actions and indications of these two medicines. “清心除烦” is rendered into “To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation”, and “To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney” is more like the paraphrase of “壮阳益肾”. Both the translations are much easier to understand and adapt to consumers’ mind in a better way. Unlike the others, the above translations avoid literal translation, which will be too demanding and abstract for both sides of translators and target people, and they resort to free translation to convey the correct pharmacological actions, simplifying the instructions and making adaptation with the translation strategies to better resolve the cultural differences. <br /> <br /> Translating a TCM instruction can never be a mechanical activity of making translation from one language to another; rather, it entails dynamic adaptation to the differences between source language and target language. According to the Adaptation Theory, language use is a dynamic process of linguistic choice-making, which should adapt to contextual correlates and structural objects of language. As a type of more complex language use related to different languages, C-E translation of TCM instructions is a dynamic process of adaptation to different contexts and linguistic structures. However, the dynamic linguistic choices require language users to go through negotiation with themselves when facing abundant choices to eventually choose the most appropriate forms and strategies in accordance with different contexts and linguistic structures so as to fulfill the communicative intention. In other words, translators should avoid abusive usage of variability and adaptability of language, being faithful to the original meaning of texts to meet the standard of translation as much as possible.<br /> <br /> ==='''4.Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Being a significant carrier of TCM information, the instruction is a bridge that links the excellent TCM theories and effectiveness to the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative”, TCM will be learned and used across the world at a much larger scale. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, this paper employs the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, mainly concentrating on the adaptation to the mental world, social world, and the adaptation to the lexical level to study the C-E translation of the TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn that the C-E translation of TCM instructions of the Company is not that satisfactory after research. It doesn’t deal with the cultural differences between TCM and Western Medicine properly. Literal translation and abusive usage of words frequently appear in the C-E translation of instructions, failing to deliver the correct meaning and lacking readability and credibility, having a bad impact on the brand image. While at same time, there are some places worthy to be praised from the perspective of Adaptation Theory. It shows the dynamics of adaptability in the C-E translation of TCM instructions, which can be demonstrated through the various words, phrases, strategies applied in the process of translation. Still, much work has to be done to improve the quality of translation and make it more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, as a way of language use, translation involves the continuous making of linguistic choices. Not only words, language forms and structures, but also strategies should be taken into consideration when translating. Translators should adapt with the differences between English and Chinese, and meanwhile, pay attention to the features of TCM instructions, avoiding some obvious mistakes to achieve the ultimate goal of keeping the original meaning of TCM while delivering the accurate and rigorous medical information to foreigners. So the author advocates that adaptation is required during the process of translation, combined with transliteration and literal translation for some simple and basic concepts in TCM that have been well-recognized by foreigners, free translation and domesticating translation should be adopted with regard to the cultural differences in translation, if necessary, additions and deletions are also appreciated on the basis of being faithful to the original meaning of texts. <br /> <br /> Unfortunately, due to the limited materials collected and the incompetence of the author, the analysis of this paper only applies the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability of Adaptation Theory, failing to study in a more comprehensive way. In addition, this paper only conducts the research in studying the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, failing to reach at a larger scale. Last but not least, there are still some drawbacks and imperfections in Adaptation Theory, which the author fails to touch upon for lacking of knowledge and experience. Still, the author is willing to take all comment and advice.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1] As Homby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [Z]. The Commercial Press, Oxford University, extended eighth edition, 2014. <br /> <br /> [2] Bhatia, V. K. Analyzing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings [M]. London: Longman, 1993. <br /> <br /> [3] Carl James. Error in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [4] Fischbach, Henry. Translation and Medicine [M]. American Translators Association Scholarly Monograph Series, 1998. <br /> <br /> [5] Nigel Wiseman. Translation of Chinese medicine terms: A source oriented approach [D].University of Exeter, 2000. <br /> <br /> [6] Verschueren J. Pragmatic as a Theory of Linguistic Adaptation [R]. International Pragmatic Association, 1987. <br /> <br /> [7] Verschueren, J. Understanding Pragmatics [M]. London: Edward Arnold Ltd., 1999;Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000. <br /> <br /> [8] 曹情. 中文药品说明书的翻译[D]. 湖南：南华大学, 2011. <br /> <br /> [9] 傅微. 语篇视点理论在中药说明书翻译中的运用[D]. 广西：广西大学外国语学院,2006. <br /> <br /> [10] 罗海燕. 功能主义翻译理论关照下的中药说明书的翻译[D]. 江苏：南京中医药大学, 2009. <br /> <br /> [11] 李照国. 中医基本名词术语英译国际标准化研究[M]. 上海科学技术出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> [12] 马邦新. 英文药品说明书的翻译[J]. 中国科技翻译, 1998(3): 16-18. <br /> <br /> [13] 宁之寿, 刘翠微. 也谈药品说明书的翻译[J]. 上海科技翻译, 1997(2): 31-33. <br /> <br /> [14] 欧阳利锋. 中医药说明书的英译[J]. 中国科技翻译, 2002, 15(2): 17-20. <br /> <br /> [15] 宋志平. 翻译:选择与顺应——语用顺应论视角下的翻译研究[J]. 中国翻译,2004(2): 21-25. <br /> <br /> [16] 肖琼. 中医药说明书的翻译[D]. 广东：广东外语外贸大学, 2008.<br /> <br /> [17] 袁斌业. 语言顺应论对翻译的启示[J]. 四川外国语学院院报, 2009(9), 111-113. <br /> <br /> [18] 张梦井. 药品说明书的英译问题[J]. 中国科技翻译, 1995(2): 6-9. <br /> <br /> [19] 周书梅. 顺应论视角下的翻译研究[J]. 山东省农业管理干部学院学报, 2013, 30(5): 138-140. <br /> <br /> --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Science and technology constitute a primary productive force. In the contemporary era, with the continuous development of science and technology, artificial intelligence has shown more and more mighty strength, and machine translation has also been derived in the field of translation. In this regard, many people are beginning to worry that machine translation will one day replace human translation. When it comes to me, science and technology is people-oriented, and the continuous development of it aims at servimg mankind in a better standard. Therefore, it is not realistic to separate science and technology from humanities. The appropriate way to solve this dilemma is to integrate the two to achieve the perfectly qualitative change of &quot;1 + 1 &gt; 2&quot;. This paper will first analyze the cons and pros of human translation and machine translation, and then explore the development of computer-aided translation based on the combination of the two types above and the progress should be made in different sectors among our society.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Human Translation, Machine Translation, CAT, Compatibility<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 机器翻译会取代人工翻译吗？<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 科技是第一生产力。在当代，随着科学技术的不断发展，人工智能展现出越来越强大的实力，在翻译领域也相应地衍生出了机器翻译。对此许多人都开始担心机器翻译终有一天会取代人工翻译。在笔者看来，科技以人为本，科学技术的不断发展是为了更好的为人类服务。因而将科技与人文割裂开来的观点是并不现实的，最好的解决办法应是将二者结合起来，实现1+1＞2的完美质变。本文将分析人工翻译与机器翻译各自的优势和劣势，进而探讨二者相结合的后的计算机辅助翻译的发展和社会各个层面应该做出的改进。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 人工翻译，机器翻译，计算机辅助翻译，融合<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> In these years, artificial intelligence has experienced a skipping development and more and more advanced technologies have been applied in our daily life. For example, many factories have introduced some robots to replace the repetitive works done by ordinary workers before. In addition, some restaurants have adopted robots to send the dishes to guests, etc. More and more cases in our life demonstrate the gigantic strength of science and technology. Panicked by this reality, a constantly growing number of people are worrying that they will lose their job one day when the artificial intelligence are more practical than them. This anxiety is also quite common in translation industry. In this field , human translation and machine translation are the main two kinds of translation method. The former merely rely on the single person to do tranlation, while the latter is based on the vast corpus and developed technique. Since this enormous contrast, some people put forward a question that “Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation?” The answer is absolutely “no”. Actually, these two approaches are not incompatible. Instead, they both have their own advantages and disadvantages and through analysis,we can find that they can remedy their shortbacks by learning the valuable aspects from the other so as to form a “perfect pitch”. In other words,they are complementary to each other. <br /> <br /> Based on these viewpoints, first of all , the pros and cons of human translation and machine translation will be displayed one by one and then the new type of translation---computer-aided translation will be analyzed in detail. At last,confronted with the constantly changing world there are somes personal suggestions for those who work in the translation industry or those who are preparing to march into this field as well as government, colleges and universities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Pros and Cons of Human Translation and Machine Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Human Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 The Advantages =====<br /> <br /> As the traditional main force of translation, mankind own some irreplaceable edges. <br /> <br /> Firstly, they master a sordid foundation about the translation work, including extensive vocabularies, complex grammars, the construction of sentences and so on and so forth. Therefore, it’s hardly for them to make such mistakes.<br /> <br /> Secondly, due to the advanced education they have received, a great number of them has an encyclopedic knowledge about many fileds. Furthmore, during the years of learning foreign languages, they have acquired not only the language knowledge but also the histories and cultures of these countries so that they are able to handle with the problems of cultural differences in translation very well.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, people have an capacity of rich emotion and thoughtful mind. When facing with some obscure translation materials, at the beginning they will make a transformation about it and then translate it with their understanding yet maintaining the main idea of the original texts. <br /> <br /> What is more, people are able to summarize the experiences and lessons in the process of translation and then form their own theory. Until now, there have existed a bunch of translation theories to guide the subsequent translators. Such as “faithfulness”(translation should convey the content of the original faithfully and accurately), “expressiveness”(smooth and fluent translation) and “elegance”(the translation should be exquisite) by Yanfu, &quot;functional equivalence&quot; by Eugene Nida, skopos theory by Hans Vermeer, etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Disadvantages=====<br /> <br /> However, the volume of brain is limited and it is impossible for mankind to memorize all the things in the world. Sometimes, they may forget what they have translated and in result cause a repetition of the same work they have done before.<br /> <br /> It is showed from some data that the output of human translation is 2000 words per person in eight hours(Chen, 30). Actually that speed is a little bit slow especially when there are strenuous tasks waiting for them. Besides, editors have to check and revise their translations which is quite time-wasting.<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most translators work for governments, institutions, companies or some rich indivuduals. And right now in the translation market ,the standard price are several hundred Yuan per thousand characters. And the wage of intepreting is even more expensive. As a result, ordinary people won’t bother to hire a private translator. Under some circumstances, human translation can’t give a hand to the needed immediately. For instance, when Chinese people are travelling in the foreign countries, they can’t understand the words of those foreigners. At that time, an opportune and cheap translation tool is more desirable.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Machine Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Superiorities=====<br /> <br /> In the condition mentioned above, machine translation can meet tourists' needs perfectly. There are many translation applications in the app store, just like Baidu Translation, Google Translation, Youdao Translation, Hujiang Translation and so on. All of them are free to use and able to translate the language you input in just 1 second. And these applications have covered dozens of foreign languages so as to be the optimizing choice for many people. <br /> <br /> Besides the adoptation in daily life, machine translation has also been utilized in some important conferences. &quot;Translation headset&quot; is one of the most popular translation tools. It is usually combined with a smartphone application to translate the foreign language it heard to users. &quot;After decades of research, we have created an algorithmic framework to recognize language patterns in the same way as the human brain (neural network),&quot; said Andrew Ochoa, CEO of Waverly labs. By combining it with speech recognition technology, we have greatly improved the accuracy of translation. &quot; Therefore, Wearable translation machines made by companies like Waverly labs are really popular at conferences(Huan, 17).<br /> <br /> With the development of science and technology as well as the artificial intelligence, the system of machine translation has been polished step by step. Nowadays, it has built a huge corpus which contains tens of millions of storations, and translation with high accuracy can be available in some non-literary texts. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 The Inferiorities=====<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, a lot of noticeable defects still remain in machine translation. When it comes to the literary genres just like proses, poems and ancient essays, machine translation is not familiar with the language habits of these genres so as to incline to a failure in comprehending the latent meaning of the words thus nor it can work out an outstanding translation. In most cases it will adopt the method of literal translation, which is a confusing version, which can not express the idea of source language and the images in it can be missed. Take the following poem for example:<br /> <br /> 江雪<br /> <br /> 唐 柳宗元<br /> <br /> 千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br /> <br /> 孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。<br /> <br /> '''Version of Baidu Translation'''<br /> <br /> River Snow<br /> <br /> Birds flying away,<br /> <br /> The trail of thousands of people;<br /> <br /> A lone boat with a straw hat,<br /> <br /> Fishing alone in cold river snow.<br /> <br /> '''Version of Xu Yuanchong'''<br /> <br /> Fishing in snow<br /> <br /> From hill to hill no bird in flight,<br /> <br /> From path to path no man in sight;<br /> <br /> A lonely fisherman afloat<br /> <br /> Is fishing snow in lonely boat.<br /> <br /> Between these two versions, we can easily identify which one is better. In Xu’s translation, he translates “鸟飞绝” &amp;“人踪灭”into “no bird in flight” and “no man in sight”, which get rid of the form of the original text, not only expressing the deep meaning, but also conforming to the English expression habit. In addition, due to the repetition of two sentences in the same pattern, readers can feel a strong sense of monotony. And The most splendid point is the rhyme of first two sentences and last two sentences, which makes the whole poem cathy and add the musical beauty of the translation (Dong &amp; Xue, 56). On the contrast, the first version by machine is inferior in that it fails to express the artistic conception of the poem. People can’t feel the beauty descriped in the poem. What’s worse, some readers may puzzle about its imcomplete images and incoherent sentences!<br /> <br /> Nor is this all, machines can’t grasp the rich emotions of mankind. Thus they incline to misundersand of tone and deep meaning of the words(Liang, 18). Nay, China has a broad and profound civilization and there are numerous of polysemous words in Chinese.Just like “意思”and “方便”.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> <br /> When Zhang San send money to his leader, an interesting dialogue occurs between them. Please explain the different meanings of “意思”in the following sentences.<br /> <br /> 领导(leader)：“你这是什么意思？”(Why do you send me money?)<br /> <br /> 张三(Zhang San)：“没什么意思，意思意思。”(No special purpose, just a small gift.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这就不够意思了。” (Why don’t you tell me your true purpose?)<br /> <br /> 张三：“小意思，小意思。”(Not a big deal.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这人真有意思。” (It’s so interesting of you.)<br /> <br /> 张三：“其实也没有别的意思。”(I don’t have other special intentions on you.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“那我就不好意思了。”(Well, since that, I will accept your money.)<br /> <br /> Apparently, it may even be difficult for some people to get the deep meaning behind this dialogue let alone the senseless machine. Machine translation derived from science and technology are always under the control of human beings, they are always working under the manipulation of humanbeings. Mankind possess an intelligible brain and they can cteate new things according to their needs and imaginations. While machine can not achieve the rich creativity as human brain.<br /> <br /> From all the analysis above, it can be easily seen that human translation and machine translation are strongly complementary. Thus, the best way is to combine them together to learn from the other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies.<br /> <br /> ====3. Computer-Aided Translation====<br /> <br /> To meet the constantly-increasing demand of the market, a new type of translation method named Computer-aided translation (CAT) emerges at the right moment. It is the combination of the two translation methods mentioned above and can help translators complete the translation work with high quality, efficiency and ease. Different from the previous machine translation software, it does not rely on the automatic translation of the computer, but accomplishes the whole translation process with the participation of human beings. Besides, its translation speed can be twice of the human translation, with the quality being the same standard or better. CAT makes a change from the arduous human translation to an automatic process, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Preponderance of This Method====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Translation Memory=====<br /> <br /> Translation memory system, the main tool of computer-aided translation, is a &quot;language database storing the original text and its translation&quot;. During the time when people are working out a translation, CAT are also constructing a translation memory corpus in the backstage. The corpus can automatically store all the translated content. What contributes to our great convenience is that the translation memory system will automatically search the contents in the translation memory database in the later translation. The system will automatically output the translation results if the contents are the same as the sentences and language fragments in the memory corpus; and if the structures or vocabularies of the materials are similar to the sentences in the translation memory database, it will also show corresponding translation references and suggestions. In a word, translation memory system can benifit translators to utilize the contents of previous translation effectively and avoid repeated work, thus greatly improving the speed and quality of translation and saving translation time. According to the statistics, the application of translation memory system can increase the average productivity by 30%, and reduce the translation cost by 15-30%(Chen, 31).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Terminology Database=====<br /> <br /> When stepping into the translation industry and becoming a professional translator. It is inevitable that people will be confronted with materials from various fields, just like iatrology, law and science. All of these industries have a great number of terminologies. While human’s brain are limited that they can’t remember all the terms. Under this condition, a ready-made terminology database can be extremely helpful.<br /> <br /> Terminology management system provides a shortcut for translators to automatically search for terms appearing in the translation materials by displaying terms in the interface window of translation memory database or using hotkeys to search the entries in terminology database. Some programs have other hotkey combinations that enable translators to add new terms to the terminology database at the same time during translation. Some more advanced systems allow translators to check interactively or in batch if the correct source / target word combination is used within and between translation memory fragments of a given project. There is also an independent term management system, which can provide workflow functions, visual taxonomy, and be used as a term Checker (similar to a spelling checker to mark terms that are not used correctly), and can also support other types of multilingual term categories, such as pictures, videos or sounds(Quanqiubaike).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Revise and Automatic Alignment=====<br /> <br /> After translators finish their task on CAT system, it will scan the translation and figure out the numbers of mistakes including spelling, punctuation and so on. This proofeading can make one’s translation more accurate. In addition, the aligner can divide the source text and the target text into multiple fragments and make sure the right match of them so as to build a translation memory database or other reference resources. Many aligners also enable translators to manually realign mismatched fragments (Quanqiubaike).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Current Situation====<br /> <br /> Right now, due to the tremendous market demand, CAT steps into the golden era of development. There are several popular CAT softwares such as Trados、Déjà V、TransStar、IBM Translation Manager、WordFisher、Wordfast，OmegaT, among which the most famous is the first one. Theses softwares have experienced a long period of development and are relatively mature. They make the translation progress much more convenient than before. However, CAT is not yet a consummate system right now. It has a few drawbacks to be solved. To begin with, CAT is insufficient in the construction of the corpus. Right now, most domestic CAT softwares only restore hundreds of thousands of entries in the database, which is far from enough to meet the needs of translators. In a result, many people gradually emerge the idea that CAT is not workable. People still have to rely on themselves to search the complicated documents and their work are not able to decrease as they want. Nor is this all, sometimes it can be hard for people to extract the terms they need becauese of the failure of identification and although some easy mistakes can be found out, it may be difficult for the system to check out the sophisticated errors, thus people have to spend more time to tackle with the problems in person. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Prospect====<br /> <br /> Despite of the insufficiency of CAT right now, the defects can’t obscure the virtues. CAT has greatly emancipated the productivity of translation industry. Not only that, it has played an important role in reducing translation time, cutting down labor costs, standardizing translation documents, maintaining terminology consistency and ensuring translation quality, etc. In the near future, it is bound to become the main trend of translation development with its wide application all over the world and the functional improvement of various translation software(Chen, 32). And the problems mentioned above can be effectively polished with the advancement of science and technology.<br /> <br /> ===4. Suggestions===<br /> <br /> Facing with the unstoppable trend of artificial intelligence and CAT, should mankind repulse it or accept it? Apparently, the second attitude is more reasonable. For one thing, we can’t hinder the inexorable trend. For another thing, this is a good opportunity for people to utilize the tool to improve themselves.<br /> <br /> So, first and foremost, people should set up an open attitude, accepting CAT with an embracing mentality. It is no need to be afraid that machine will surpass human. Instead mankind is always the master of science and technology. Putting oneself on a pedestal is not a good way to make progress. And holding fast to one’s established ideas will eventually be sifted out by the era. In Qing Dynasty(1636-1912), the emperor and even the whole country praised the nation as the great kingdom. Since ancient time, China was abundant in natural resources and they were self-sufficient and self-contained. Thus the government constantly puesued a policy of “cutting off the country from the outside world”. At that time, the Western countries were going on an unprececedentedly industrial revolution. Through the renovation, the westerners immensely improved their productive forces and their countries got a rapid development. When the trend were heard by the Chinese emperor, they disdained to learn from the technology and regarded it as a diabolic trick. In this way, the gap between the East and the West was larger and larger. It was not until the breaking of the Opium War that Chinese people realized they have lagged behind a lot. Once a country was backward, it would be insulted by anyone else. After that, the Qing government was constantly forced to sign treaties of humiliating the country and forfeiting its sovereignty. The citizens were plunged into dire suffering. Under this circumstance, social conflicts intensified. Finally, the revolution of 1911 broke out and overthrew the Qing Dynasty. A feudal dynasty of more than 200 years fell down. Since the principle that lagging behind leaves one vulnerable to attacks is even applicable to a country, let alone the ordinary people. There is an old saying that “He who goes with the tide prospers, and he who goes against it dies”. The power of science and technology should never be looked down upon. The original purpose of this is to benifit the mankind rather than overthrow us. It is a powerful tool to help us scale new heights. If tranlators refuse to acquire the new skill, they will one day be weeded out by the industry.<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of market, the quality of translation talents should be improved accordingly. The span for talent training of translation majors in China is relatively short that it has only been 10 years since the establishment of Bachelor of Translation and Interpreting(BTI) and Master of Translation and Interpreting(MTI) in Colleges and universities across the country. The current situation of translation technology education in the cultivation of translation professionals is not optimistic either. First of all, compared with foreign universities and domestic universities in Hongkong, Macao and Taiwan, there is still a long way to open translation technology courses in domestic universities. According to the research by Lv Lisong and Mu Lei(37), universities in Hong Kong and Taiwan of China work closely with translation companies to provide translation technology teaching for students. However, Manchester, London University, Ottawa University of Canada and other foreign universities have established a developed system in terms of machine translation, terminology management, translation technology training curriculum, personnel training mode and translation testing, and formed an effective model. On the contrary, many domestic colleges and universities still do not pay enough attention to translation technology education, which leads to the failure of translation technology education courses in some colleges and universities. A survey of 12 universities in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Chongqing, Liaoning, Jilin, Henan, Hebei, Hubei, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Sichuan and other provinces and universities found that 11 of the 43 universities (a large part of which are &quot;985&quot; universities and &quot;211&quot; universities) with MTI have not yet opened translation technology courses, accounting for 25%. If the scope of the survey is extended to the secondary and tertiary institutions, the situation may be even worse(Zhu, 106).<br /> <br /> In this regard, the education of Chinese mainland is a little bit backward. There are several reasons for this phenomenon. To begin with, the perception of the educators and education system are rather outdated. The existing education system pay much attention to the translation and interpreting ability of students. This is a common pattern in many middle schools, high schools and even colleges and universities. As an English major student, the writer has the personal experience. During the university period. The most courses still focus on the cultivation of the basic skills of students. Although there are translation and interpreting classes every week, the normal model is that at first teachers will teach some translation theories or techniques, and then there will be some exercises for students to practice. Students are almost inaccessible to computing courses. This may resulted from the short of appropriate funds for education. China is a nation with a great number of population, and its population growth rate is also fast. As a result, the pressure on education has been relatively high. The commonly used index to measure whether a country's financial education funds are sufficient or not is the proportion of financial education funds in Gross Domestic Product(GDP). In China, this proportion has been at a low level for a long time. Although the education funds have been increasing with the continuous development of China's economy after the Reform and Opening up, yet the fact is that “There are too many monks and too little gruel.”---the funds allocated to each school are still far from enough. Take Hunan province as an example. In the year of 2000, China's financial education funds accounted for 2.87% of GDP, which failed to reach the target of 4% of GDP in 2000 as proposed in the outline of China's education reform and development. In 2003, the GDP of Hunan Province was 463.4 billion yuan, and the national financial expenditure on education was 11.179 billion yuan, accounting for 2.44% of GDP, an increase of 0.01 percentage points over the previous year. However, in 2004, the proportion of national financial education expenditure in GDP decreased to 2.34%, which is still far from the target of 4%.(Wu, 14-15).<br /> <br /> Besides the deficiency of educational funds, the allocation of it is also a cause. Usually, colleges and universities tend to use the fund to ameliorate the living condition and the construction of infrastructures, and then stuents’ scholarship and subsideies are indispensible. What is more, the salaries of teachers and all the staffs are also a big expenditure. Besides these, many colleges and universities attaches great importance to the scientific research items so that more money will be involved in these projects. Opposely, the development of the liberal arts may be less highlighted. In response to this problem, the writer deems that government and universities should both make some changes. As for government, they should carry out a policy that encourage the cultivation of computer skills; when it comes to the colleges and universities, they are supposed to enlarge the investment in the multimedia intelligent classrooms, and more techers who are sufficient in the operation of CAT should be enrolled. So far, Peking University has open a major named CAT, which is aimed to cultivate the professional talents to meet the needs of market.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Will machine translation replace human translation or not? Toward this question, the answer is an absolute “No”. As far as I am concerned, both the human tranlation and machine translation have their pros and cons. Human are able to comprehend the complex emotions in the texts and handle it with flexible expressions. In this aspect, machine can’t reach the human standard just like examples of “《江雪》”and “意思”mentioned above. Besides, mankind are familiar with the differences between various of countries so as to minimize the rate of committing a blunder, while the machine doesn’t have a brain like human’s. Their work is to translate the materials according to the superficial meanings. However, machine owns a huge volume (much more larger than human brain)which can store numerous materials and its working speed is hundreds of times of human’s(Pang, 165). In the contemporary era, translators should first of all polish their translation skills and improve their ability to flexibly use various translation strategies and skills(Yao, 201-202). The old saying goes that “It takes a good blacksmith to make steel.” By the time, people are still the main force in the translation industry and machine translation stays in an auxiliary position. Human should not rely on machine to do all the works. The translators should improve their competitiveness through sordid multi-lingual knowledge, translation practice as well as stronger learning capacity and so on and so forth. At the same time, translators are also supposed to adopt an embracing attitude to acquire the comouter-aided translation skills. After all, with the further advancement of science and technology, the trend is inevitable. Actually, human translation and machine translation are highly compatible, which can greatly improve the translation efficiency and reduce people’s workload. Thus, the combination of the two methods is highly appreciated and the new type of CAT is bound to become the tide of the future.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Chen Yi,Fan Jiaolian. 陈谊,范姣莲.(2018). 计算机辅助翻译——新世纪翻译的趋势[Computer-Aided Translation-the Trend of Translation in the New Era] 中国现代教育装备[China mordern educational equipment] 30-32.<br /> <br /> Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao. 董务刚,薛家宝.(1996). 评许渊冲诗《江雪》[Appreciation of Xu Yuanchong's Translation &quot;Fishing in Snow&quot;] 盐城师专学报[Journal of Yancheng Normal School] 56.<br /> <br /> 计算机翻译会取代人工翻译吗？[Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not?] (2020) 环球采风[Globe Collections] 17.<br /> <br /> Liang Jie. 梁洁.(2020). 人工智能对翻译行业的影响[The Influence of Artificial Intelligence on Translation Industry] 家庭科技[Family Science and Technology] 17-18.<br /> <br /> Lv Lisong,Mu Lei. 吕立松,穆雷.(2007) 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[Technique of Translation-Aided Translation and Translation Education] 外语界[The Field of Foreign Language] 37.<br /> <br /> Pang Yingyu. 庞盈羽. (2019) 谈机器翻译与人工翻译的关系—从机器翻译与计算机辅助翻译的发展角度[Analysis of the Relationship Between Machine Translation and Human Translation--From the Perspective of the Development of Machine Translation and Computer-Aided Translation]. 科学大众·科学教育[Scientific Masses·Scientific Education] 164-165.<br /> <br /> Global Encyclopedia. 全球百科. https://vibaike.com/<br /> <br /> Wu Sheng. 吴晟.(2016) 湖南省省属普通高校财政拨款体制研究[Research on the Financial Allocation System of Provincial Colleges and Universities in Hunan Province] 湖南师范大学[Hunnu Normal University] 14-16.<br /> <br /> Yaoli. 姚莉.(2020) 机器翻译时代,译者应该坚持技能与技术的融合[Translators Should Keep the Compatibility Between Skills and Technique in the Era of Machine Translation]. 科技经济导刊[Technology and Economic Guide] 201-202.<br /> <br /> Zhu Chaowei. 祝朝伟.（2018）机器翻译要取代作为人的译者了吗？—兼谈翻译人才培养中科技与人文的关系[Is Machine Translation Going to Replace Human Translators? -On the relationship between science and technology and Humanities in the cultivation of translation talents]. 外国语文[Foreign Literature] 106-108.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation 袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi==<br /> <br /> '''浅析汉语公示语的英译'''<br /> <br /> 英语笔译 袁天翼<br /> <br /> 摘 要：在这个经济全球化、政治多极化、文化全球化、科技现代化、信息共享化的时代，全球经济纵深发展，人类命运共同体日趋形成，人与人、国家与国家间的联系日益密切，这时，汉语公示语的英译问题便被提上了议程。尽管中国汉语公示语的英译翻译员越来越多，但是汉语公示语的英译问题层出不穷。本文简析了汉语公示语定义，例举了生活中常见的一些汉语公示语的英译典型问题，并针对此给出了一些翻译方法与策略，并进行了未来展望。<br /> <br /> 关键词：汉英翻译；公示语；翻译策略<br /> <br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> Yuan Tianyi <br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': In this economic globalization, political polarization, cultural globalization, technological modernization and informative sharing age, the global economy is deeply developing, and the human community with a shared future is coming into shape day by day. The relations among people and among countries are increasing day by day. At this time, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation become the topic of us. Though the number of Chinese-English public sign translators in China grows daily, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation emerge endlessly. This passage offers a brief analysis of the definition of Chinese-English public sign, points out some typical problems in Chinese-English public sign translation we see in daily life, analyzes some methods and strategies of Chinese-English public sign translation, and gives some outlooks on the future of Chinese-English public sign translation. <br /> <br /> '''Key Words''': Chinese-English translation; public sign; translation strategies<br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> '''I. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> The public sign is a specially applied literary form that was formed in modern times, which has a long history. It is used in public places and seen by the masses thus realizing unique communicative purposes. The public sign has become a crucial link in the communication between China and other countries in the international community. In the meantime, there are increasingly more experts and scholars paying attention to the translation of Chinese public signs into English. (Reiss, 2004). <br /> <br /> As an important tool for international communication, Chinese-English public sign translation plays an extremely important role in foreign friends’ understanding of Chinese culture（Wang Huili, 2019）. Its applied range is so wide that nearly covers every aspect of our daily life, including: Introductions of tourism trips, propaganda languages, warning languages, road signs, shop signs and advertising boards. It is mostly used on public infrastructure: Subway, airport, taxi, pier, tourist spot, park, street, community, shop, supermarket, restaurant, bank, hotel, cinema, hospital and etc. It uses simple words or sentences, or pictures only, or combines words and pictures to pass useful information to the masses, which not only serves Chinese people, but also is shown to the foreigners, which can help foreigners in China study, work and live. <br /> <br /> '''II. The Current Situation of Chinese-English Public Sign'''<br /> <br /> Public signs are an art of convincing others through effective verbal means, which are also components of language activities. They, in essence, belong to a special kind of communication. However, it is not a kind of face-to-face communication that takes place in a specific period of time, and none of the participants will appear as individuals. The object is for all the people with social behaviors in the place, regardless of gender, age, class or education level. Public signs belong to “one-way communication”, and its binding force or influence will not be as big as direct communication, but it is also used to act with words and deeds, and affects the behavior of the audience with a clear purpose. <br /> <br /> Public signs are everywhere, so what are their functions? Zhou Shuxia (Zhou Shuxia, 2017) thinks that, their functions can be divided into showing, warning, profiting, encouraging and eulogizing such five functions. <br /> <br /> Firstly, the public sign that has showing function offers all-round information about service, order, or informing service. Such as “Car Rental” and “Children and Senior Citizens Free”.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the public sign that has warning function comes up with restrictive or obligatory demands to typical people, which is often used through order, ban, information or persuasion tones. Such as: “Stand in Line” , and “Thieves Beware”. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the public sign that has profiting function promotes consumption, thus realizing enterprises’ economic profits. Such as: “Daily Special”, “Daily Service”. <br /> <br /> Fourthly, the public sign that has encouraging function calls for or encourages people to take actions for certain goals or tasks. Such as: “One Family, One Child”, and “Working together, we can make a world of difference”. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, the public sign that has eulogizing function gives wishes and chants to certain events or people to reach the goals of propaganda or education. Such as: “One World, One Dream”. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (Eugene Nida , 2004) said, Chinese-English translation of public signs embraces the conversion of two different languages and two different cultures, which is not only to achieve the language equivalence, cultural equivalence, but also to enhance the possibility of understanding and the reading of Chinese-English translation of public signs.<br /> <br /> Public signs are the translation with strong humanistic color (Wu Haoxi , 2019). <br /> <br /> However, there are many problems in Chinese-English public sign translation.<br /> <br /> In 2003, Clive W. J. Granger, a Nobel Economics Prize Winner talked of the settings and problems of public signs in Beijing when he was interviewed by a program of Beijing TV Station. He said: “Foreigners will feel a little bit nervous when they come to China, because they can not understand public signs in China. ” Clive’s comment extremely shows current problems in Chinese-English public sign translation (Lv Hefa, 2005). <br /> <br /> On June 20th, 2017, a national standard conference of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service was held in Beijing. The Vice Minister of the Education Ministry and Director of the National Language Commission stressed in the meeting: “The language and character industry of China is expanding from ‘striving to promote and normally use the national common language, scientifically protecting every nation’s language and character’ to ‘managing social foreign language use and improving foreign language service quality’. ” The national standard of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service is the standard of English translation and writing quality in public service fields, which stipulates the English translation principles, methods and requirements of transportation, tourism, culture, entertainment, physical exercise, education, medical health, postal service, telecommunication, catering, accommodation, commerce and finance these thirteen service fields. <br /> <br /> To sum up, there are still many major problems in China’s public sign translation, common and ubiquitous, which make foreign experts comment like that and the government use national force to normalize translation standards. Whether the translation of public signs in scenic spots into English is harmonious and unified has a great influence on cross-cultural communication (Pinkham John, 2000). <br /> <br /> '''III. The Causes of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> '''3. 1 The Basic Linguistic Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> To be a proficient Chinese-English public sign translator, one must, fundamentally, grasp basic linguistic rules of English and Chinese, otherwise he or she must make stupid mistakes, and some even primary learners will not make. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.1<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3684466622,1422277554&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.1 is a public sign put on a glass wall in a mall, the Chinese reads“全年无休(QUAN NIAN WU XIU)”, and it tries to use English to express that “This business runs the whole year”, so the precise translation should be “NO REST DAY ALL YEAR”. But there, we can see it was translated as“365DAY SA TEAR”, which does not belong to the grammatical law of English. So this is a big mistake. Only one who understands Chinese can understand. But for ordinary foreigners, they can not. So, when translating Chinese-English public sign, the translator must be clear about the target language, and know the basic grammatical venation, then begin to translate, instead of randomly putting some letters together and finishing. Otherwise, the translator will make a big mistake like this picture.<br /> <br /> A public sign in Haichang Ocean Park of Chengdu City, Sichuan Province reads &quot;Jellyfish Museum, the 2th floor&quot;. More specifically, it is a floor direction sign. Here, the correct English for the second floor should be “2nd”, not “2th”. Apparently that the translator has poor knowledge of English vocabulary, which led he or she to make such a ridiculous mistake. Actually, in English language, if there is a number contains “11”, “12”or “13”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “11th”, “12th” or “13th” respectively; And if there is a number contains“1”, “2”or “3”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “1st”, “2nd” or “3rd” respectively. For example, “101st”, “111th”, “201st”, “211th” and etc. <br /> <br /> No.3 is a warning sign of a tourist spot, reads &quot;The rockery danger, pleases no climb&quot;, whose Chinese meaning is “There stands a rockery, it is dangerous to climb, every one is forbidden from climbing it. ” The Chinese meaning is alright. But, when it was translated into English, a big mistake occurred: “The rockery danger Pleases no climb.”<br /> <br /> First, there should be “climbing” after “no”, not “climb”, this is just English grammar knowledge that can be learned in primary school; And the “Please” is followed by a “s”, why does the translator use third person singular at the top of a imperative sentence? Second, if the translator wants to tell the tourists that the rockery is dangerous and mustn’t be climbed, he or she should write: “The rockery is dangerous. Please don’t climb” or “Dangerous rockery. No climbing” or just “No climbing”. Unless the foreigners who see this sign have supreme understanding ability, they will not easily make sense of it. <br /> <br /> 3. 2 The Tendency Towards Chinglish and Mechanical Translation<br /> <br /> Knowing a little about English, then begin to translate public sign. This is ridiculous, which is definitely going to cause obvious mistakes. Especially when translating, there is a high probability that the translator will make Chinglish errors, or tend to seek for mechanical translation, which are the most common public sign translation problems in mainland China. With regard to the tendency towards Chinglish, it only proves that the translator’s basic skills of English are not so proficient, and he or she does not fit for translation work. For the tendency towards mechanical translation, on the one hand, it demonstrates that the translator is lazy, who is not willing to think about how to translate. On the other hand, it reveals his or her lack of basic English language knowledge. In fact, these two both can be easily avoided, only if the translator pays a little more attention to it or is earnest and dedicated to their work. All those mistakes should not have been made. <br /> <br /> No.4, this is a sign that is hung in an Internet celebrity milk tea shop: Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province. It reads &quot;out of the cup area&quot;. It originally means that the customers should queue here to get their milk tea after finishing paying. The translator should have easily translated “出杯区（CHU BEI QU）”into “FETCH AREA”, but it was translated as “OUT OF THE CUP AREA”, what a joke! Purely it was translated word-for-word. The translator did not understand its true meaning. Probably it was translated by a machine. As an Internet celebrity milk tea shop runner, when dealing with such kind of cultural issues, he or she should be extremely careful, earnest and cautious, instead of casually simply copying the contents given by a machine or hiring a third-rate translator and asking him or her to randomly translate. Large scale milk tea shops must shoulder their required obligations, and undertake necessary responsibilities and duties on public sign translation. Imagine that a foreigner, who can not understand it, stand there and think: What? Standing here is standing outside the cup? Maybe something interesting would happen. Let me try!<br /> All those will bring big and standing jokes. <br /> <br /> No.5 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province. It reads&quot; tourists get off area&quot;. Its Chinese meaning is: This is the place that tourists get off from a bus. But, it was translated as “Tourists get off area”, which fully shows the ignorance and lack of English language knowledge of the translators. People may can not help doubting whether it is copied from the translation given by a machine. Famous tourist spots like this, especially this kind of 5A tourist spot, can not even shoulder the cultural obligations, let alone developing in the long run. They should make big mistakes in such a little public sign translation! Do they only want to serve Chinese well while ignoring foreigners?<br /> <br /> Similarly, No.6 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province, and it reads &quot;up the mountain&quot;. The Chinese meaning is “This is the passage that leads tourists to climb the mountain”. The translation should have been a very easy and fun job, but when the sign is showed to tourists, a big big joke was born: “Up the mountain”. We can say “uphill way” or “uphill passage”, but, the translator obviously did not realize it. What’s more, when “up” is used as a verb, it is completely another meaning. It is also the symbol of such irresponsible spot management. <br /> <br /> No.7, it is a napkin given by an Internet celebrity milk tea shop (Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province ) for free after buying its milk tea. It reads &quot;more China, more fashion&quot;. At first glance, everything seems okay. But more carefully, we can find the mistake. The Chinese meaning is “If there are more elements with Chinese characteristics, it will be more fashionable.” But when translating, maybe with the aid of machine, or lack of a solid English knowledge foundation, it becomes “More China, more fashion”. If the customer is a Chinese, it does not matter, for he or she can understand it, and just shows a smile. But if foreigners see, they will be pretty shocked by the sight: What the hell is this? They will think that this shop lacks money to hire a good translator, and the managers are stupid. Furthermore, the Chinese national image will be badly affected. In fact, this sentence can be translated as “The more sinicization there is, the more fashion there will be” or “With greater Chinese characteristics come more fashion”. Easier? It can be “More sinicization breeds more fashion”. Translated like these, won’t it be much more correct and intelligible?<br /> <br /> '''3. 3 The Misunderstanding of the Public Sign Translators'''<br /> <br /> It is the little knowledge of English of the translators that makes them can not even spell a basic word correctly; Or due to carelessness, they make mistakes on public sign translation, thus causing mistakes on the meaning of the sign. All these are significant reasons why there are so many mistakes in Chinese-English public signs. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.8.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.8<br /> [https://www.sinaimg.cn/edu/cr/2015/0316/3124267229.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.8. The Chinese meaning of it is “The door or passage that leads you to the outside”, in short, “EXIT”. But the public sign was translated as“EXPORT”, so, what is “EXPORT”? In a word, it means trade among different countries. The commercial goods pass through the customs, being transported from one country to another country. Distinctly, the maker was careless, who has mixed the meaning of “出口（Chu Kou）”in Chinese, thus resulting in an obvious translation error. As for public sign translation, translators must weigh every word, and think over and over and over again, not just search online, and grab all the words you “discover”, which is a highly irresponsible behavior, an extremely irresponsible behavior to the society and the country . <br /> <br /> [[File:No.9.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.9<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4069547043,45136776&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.9 is from a hospital department. Its Chinese meaning is: Here is neurology emergency department. It uses a special logogram in Chinese. But, the maker was misled, so, he or she translated it as “God Medical”. If a person has a little common sense, he or she will be made to laugh wildly. It is completely the “Understanding of a sentence simply by a word”! That should be translated as “ Department of Emergency Neurology”. Such a casual translation will make Christians think that they can see God for real. Whether can he see death here or a way to heaven with a passionate God serving you? To some extent, this is disrespect for Christians, which can even cause disputes. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.10.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.10<br /> [https://ss0.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4055489075,1169617432&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.10 is photographed in a company building. Here, the Chinese means: this is the place where you can get boiled water. However, the translator of this public <br /> sign made a huge mistake, because he or she disintegrated the three Chinese words one by one, and thus translating them one by one, which can not be understood as a whole, let alone enable foreigners to understand the meaning of this public sign, and as a result, foreigners may not receive the service that they deserve. What’s worse, many people, including intelligent Chinese, when seeing this disqualified translation, will definitely be amused, and feel funny: What is this guy’s literate level?<br /> <br /> As a matter of fact, this public sign can be translated as “Boiled Water Room”. “开水”means “boiled water” in English. Certainly, the translator treated the “开”as a verb “open”, which is absolutely wrong. <br /> <br /> Further, this is a single room, not two or more, so we must use “room”, which is the plural form, instead of the singular form “rooms”. <br /> <br /> 3. 4 The Falsification and Loss of Information<br /> <br /> Originally, the managers want to use signs to warn people, but due to mistranslation, the information is tampered and missed, resulting in an opposite consequence, and producing big jokes. <br /> <br /> No.11 is a public warning sign in Liuxiang Barbecue Restaurant. It reads &quot; carefully hot&quot;. Is it a true warning? In the foreigners’ opinion, it is not. People who speak Chinese can realize that this sign was designed to warn customers not to be burned by the hot oven. However, the English translation is far from what it originally means. The correct translation can be “Careful! Hot!” or “Be Careful of the Hot Oven!” But according to the translation on the sign, it means “Carefully burn yourself”. Luckily, this is a small scale restaurant, if it were a large one, its reputation would be badly affected. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.12.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.12<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3765137851,1011242048&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.12 is a public sign in a large shopping center. As we all know, modern shopping centers now always use smooth and shiny tile floor as the ground, which makes the shopping centers look beautiful and attractive. However, smooth though it is, one big safety problem then comes into shape: The ground is too smooth to make shoppers slide and fall. Later, the managers made public signs like No.12 to warn people not to fall. The Chinese warning is okay, Chinese shoppers can understand, but when foreigners see this, he or she will burst out laughing: What? You order me to slide on the floor with care? What on earth do you mean? I have even seen an Internet celebrity girl posting an video clip that tells us a story that satirizes this mistranslation: The girl and her father slide joyfully on the ground in a shopping center while murmuring “Carefully slide! Carefully slide!” As a matter of fact, The correct Chinese-English translation should be “Caution! Slippery!” or “Beware of Wet Floor” or “Caution! Wet Floor”. Each one of the three is okay. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.13.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.13<br /> [https://ss2.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=461657809,3986868053&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.13 is a public sign that is put on the ceiling of a restaurant’s stair. Here, the translator wanted to pass such information by Chinese and English: Watch <br /> your head, do not hit the low ceiling of the stair. Be careful. Though the Chinese information is okay, the English, however, can not by understood by others, especially foreigners. <br /> <br /> Here, the makers wanted to warn the danger of the low ceiling, not to ask people to purposely hit the ceiling. So we can correct it as: “Watch Your Head”, or “Be Careful”. Both are okay. <br /> <br /> Here, the translator made a mistranslation, which reversed the original meaning when translating, thus producing a huge laughingstock. First, “碰”is not “meet”, but “hit”, according to this specific environment. It does not mean “meet someone”. Second, “小心碰头” means not to hit the ceiling, not to “meet carefully”. <br /> <br /> Throughout so many examples, every one can see that the mistakes of public sign translation are ubiquitous and common in daily life, which you can even randomly pick up one from any store you meet. Pervasive errors like these in public signs will negatively affect China’s reform and opening-up and the integration into international community, which will not only make foreigners misunderstand the meaning, but also seriously damage China’s national image. Therefore, the study of the public sign translation is extremely urgent and imperative. At present, translators must start from basic demand of Chinese-English public sign translation, endeavor to learn English well, cultivate a good sense of utilizing English and a great mindset of English utilization, proactively take part in English translation practice, and be highly alert and form a sense of “Using English language in a proper, correct, suitable and decent way”. Only then will the situation of Chinese-English public sign translation turn better. <br /> <br /> IV. Public Sign Translation Methods<br /> <br /> There is a saying goes: “Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards. ” So is the Chinese-English public sign translation. Zhang Yan (Zhang Yan, 2015) maintains in her paper that, the public sign translation methods can be summarized as four kinds. <br /> <br /> '''4. 1 Amplification'''<br /> <br /> Many new words that are with Chinese characteristics, especially combined with numbers, need using amplification to introduce to foreign readers. For example, in the past, “五讲四美三热爱(Wu Jiang Si Mei San Re Ai）”was translated as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves”. Many foreigners said that they could not understand it. Later, it was revised as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves” with the notation “ stress on decorum, manners, hygiene, discipline and morals; beauty of the mind, language, behavior and the environment; love of the motherland, socialism and the Communist Party”. Hence, foreigners can easily understand its connotation. <br /> <br /> '''4. 2 Ellipsis'''<br /> <br /> To make sure that the translation is concise and intelligible, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators must properly delete unnecessary words according to English expressing habits to achieve overall generalization. Such as: “Food Paradise”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 3 Re-translation'''<br /> <br /> Due to cultural differences, many folk adages with Chinese characteristics will not be understood by readers once simply read literally. So translators can moderately reorganize those sentences that can not be translated or understood. Such as: “Drinking and Driving Costs Your Life”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 4 Backward Translation'''<br /> <br /> There are two cases: Translating the cultural expressions that are borrowed from translation back into their original forms in the target language; Translating the expressions with obvious cultural characteristics into the idiomatic expressions in the target language. Such as: “Venus Florist”. <br /> The English public sign has its own cultural and pragmatic meanings. When doing the Chinese-English public sign translation, translators should consider about the cultural differences and avoid any form of ambiguity, misunderstanding or mistranslation, and offer high quality information service, thus making public sign translation advance with the times. <br /> <br /> '''V. Public Sign Translation Strategies'''<br /> <br /> He Xueyun (He Xueyun, 2006) holds in her thesis that, theoretically, semantic translation and communicative translation differ much. Semantic translation strives to keep the language specialty and unique express method of the original work, in order to express the original work’s thinking process; However, communicative translation’s key point lies in spreading information and enabling people to think, feel and act, giving play to the function of information that language conveys and the consequences it causes. Public sign translation must focus on results, and put readers first, only by this can we improve the current situation of public sign translation, thus achieving the purposes of public sign translation. <br /> <br /> Before beginning to do anything, we all need a world view and methodology to guide us to behave well. Likewise, when doing Chinese-English public sign translation, we also need guiding ideology to direct us. Here, I will show you four Chinese-English public sign translation strategies, which act as guiding ideology, which are definitely going to be a powerful weapon for you. Just remember them and practice them, you will gain a lot. <br /> <br /> '''5.1 No Grammatical, Semantic and Logical Error'''<br /> <br /> The most basic prerequisite of public sign translation is that there is no language error: No grammatical error, no vocabulary spelling error, no language context error, no Chinglish or machine-aided translation error. <br /> <br /> “This is office area, tourists mustn’t enter” can be translated as “Staff Only”, not “OFFICE AREA PLEASE DON’T COMING”, or you will make a grammatical and redundant error. “Be careful, don’t slip into water” can be translated as “Caution! Deep Water!” instead of “TAKE CARE! FALL INTO WATER CAREFULLY!” Otherwise, people will can not help laughing. <br /> <br /> One translator was not able to translate “The grass is so beautiful, are you sure you wan to walk on it?” into English public sign, so here comes <br /> “Fangcaoqiqi riding the Heren”. What a laughingstock! This is a combination between Chinese and English, without any grammar structure. Not to translate it will be a much better choice. We can concisely translate it as “Don’t Walk on the Beautiful Grass!”<br /> <br /> '''5. 2 Concise and Intelligible Translation'''<br /> <br /> One prominent character of public sign is conciseness. It asks people to ensure the translation is crystal clear and precise, without any compound or obscure sentence. Only by achieving this can the signs become popularized, instead of making people think over and over and over again to discover their cryptic meaning. <br /> <br /> The public sign translation must be concise and intelligible, which means that you not only need to precisely convey what the maker means to people, but also must be concise. People can understand it immediately without comprehension deviation or ambiguity. <br /> <br /> '''5. 3 Understanding of Cultural Background Differences'''<br /> <br /> When translating, every translator must thoroughly understand the culture of the targeted language. Translators must comprehensively understand each specific use of the targeted language under different cultural backgrounds. If not doing so, it may cause severe disputes, and even cause irresistible outcomes. Here are several examples. <br /> <br /> “Dragon” is a legendary animal in traditional Chinese culture. Chinese people often view themselves as “dragon”, and even say that they are “Descendants of the Dragon”. Thus, “Dragon” means holy and sacred thing in Chinese culture. But in English speaking countries, the meaning of “dragon” is not so. In these countries, “dragon” means something evil like Satan, sometimes it is even used to describe thugs, scoundrels or other bad behaviorists. Therefore, invariably coping the icon of “dragon” and using it in other cultures is a definite mistake. In a word, a public sign language translator must totally comprehend the cultural background differences. <br /> <br /> '''5. 4 Obedience to Certain Norms and Standards'''<br /> <br /> As long as someone is translating, he or she must obey certain rules, norms and standards. He mustn’t translate according to his will. This is a truth. <br /> For example, according to China’s first set of standards on how to regulate the use of foreign languages in China, which was jointly issued by the State Standards Commission and the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine on November 20, 2017 and officially implemented on December 1, 2017, some of the standards have been specified in detail. <br /> <br /> Names of tourist spots: Names of mountains, rivers and lakes should be written in Chinese pinyin. Translations of names of temples should vary according to different situations, so are the towers’ names. In line with external service needs, English explanations can be added. <br /> <br /> '''VI. The Future of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> China is a major powerful country, and is the country with the second highest Gross Domestic Product in the world, which is why China should keep close economic and cultural relationships with other countries. In order to integrate China with international community in a better way, there must be high quality public sign translation. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation must improve the China’s influence power in international community. High quality public sign translation represents that China is rich in translators and intellects, and shows that China can fulfill obligations and shoulder responsibilities as a major country. Achieving this means China not only takes responsibilities for Chinese people, but also for all human beings. Good quality public sign translation is definitely going to significantly synergize the course of reform and opening-up. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation is obliged to facilitate foreigners to travel in China, boost domestic consumption demand, form a new growth point for economy, promote the rise of Gross Domestic Product, and accelerate the comprehensive, coordinated and sustainable development. High quality public sign translation is also an integral part of the New Development Philosophy: Innovation, coordination, green, open and share. High quality public sign translation corresponds to the New Normal of Chinese economy. At present, the economy of China has been changing from developing at a high speed to develop at high quality, and is at the stage of changing economic development mode, transforming driving forces of economic development and optimizing the economic structure, so high quality public sign translation is badly needed. Thus, considering the big change of Chinese economy, achieving high quality public sign translation is an urgent affair. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation has the duty to embody a city’s humanism spirit, cultural speciality and charm, which is the inevitable requirement of core socialist values and system. It also promotes the spreading of Chinese culture, and improves the influence power of Chinese culture. High quality public sign translation also levels up Chinese people and overseas Chinese’s sense of identity and belonging. What’s more, it can narrow the gap between Chinese and foreigners, and acquire more recognition from them towards China. Domestically, high quality public sign translation can strengthen national cohesion; Externally, it will strengthen China’s soft power, and increase China’s international speaking right while creating national radiation power. <br /> It is an important measure to improve China’s public service and governance capability by establishing an evaluation mechanism and promoting the standardization of English translation. It is of great benefit to further improve China’s service level of opening to the outside world, demonstrate its cultural soft power and enhance its international image (Guo Jinghong, 2019). <br /> <br /> In short, looking forward to the future of Chinese-English public sign translation from a strategic perspective, translators must remain true to their original aspiration and keep their mission firmly in mind, which is: To be devoted to the future of socialism with Chinese characteristics, to be dedicated to the landscape of translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and to be committed to the sustainable development of Chinese-English public sign translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics. <br /> <br /> We must treat Chinese-English public sign translation with the point that advances with the times (Tian Guomin, 2019). The English translation of public signs of tourist attractions belongs to the category of cross-cultural communication, and the translator should have certain cross-cultural knowledge and awareness, so that the English translation can be more understood and accepted by the audience and truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication (Yang Hongyu, 2019). The communicative translation theory aims for the target readers (Gutt, 1991). Translation of public signs is a very important task in China with the increasing connection to the outside world (Newmark, 2001). Since reform and opening-up, China has been integrating into the international community day by day. To fully achieve this, as regards of Chinese-English public sign translation, we still have a long way to go. There is no time for us to delay the work of strengthening, proceeding, and improving public sign translation. The rising level of quality of Chinese-English public sign translation will improve both city image and urbanization level. He Xueyun contends in her article that, many people take it for granted that if one knows a foreign language, he then can translate. As a matter of fact, basic skills of public sign translation not only includes foreign language level, but also the knowledge of foreign cultures. <br /> <br /> '''VII. Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> So, how to facilitate the overall development of Chinese-English public sign translation？Firstly, we need to keep pace with the times. Language is constantly changing, so are many words and idioms, and so are public signs. In order to accurately convey information to the audience, it is essential to integrate the latest, most reliable and most accepted language into public signs. Secondly, it is necessary to fully understand the idiomatic usage of public signs, because public signs are mainly aimed at English speakers, so it is necessary to strengthen the accumulation of words, phrases and idioms, which is also the basis of translation. Thirdly, the translators of Chinese-English public signs should use accurate words and phrases in combination with specific environment and objects, and should not fail to convey the meaning or deviate from the original meaning, which otherwise will result in misunderstanding. Of course, only achieving the above is not enough. In order to do a good job in the translation of Chinese-English public signs, we need to keep improving our translation attitude and spirit of study, and constantly improve and summarize and innovate on the basis of the original, so as to make the translation of Chinese-English public signs more perfect and recognized by the international audience. It is very important for the academic community and people from all walks of life to analyze the problems in the application of public signs and put forward corresponding improvement countermeasures (Liu Xiaoping, 2019). <br /> <br /> A Chinese-English public sign translator must fully realize and shoulder the responsibilities that translators must carry, form a sense of community of a shared future, fully acknowledge the current situation of Chinese-English public sign translation, completely learn lessons from the predecessors who have made mistakes in Chinese-English public sign translation, totally implement the four public sign translation strategies I mentioned before, to make Chinese-English public sign translation serve the construction of a moderately prosperous society in all respect, the construction of modern powerful socialist country, the construction of building China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and the realization of the great Chinese dream, that is: the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> [1]Eugene Nida &amp; Charles Taber.（2004） [The Theory and Practice of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [2]Gutt &amp; Ernst, Agust. （1991）[Translation and Relevance: Cognition and Context] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> [3]Newmark, Peter. （2001）[Textbook of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [4]Pinkham, John.（2000） [The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br /> <br /> [5]Reiss. （2004）[Translation Criticism: the Potentials and Limitations] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [6]国家标准委.（2017） 公共服务领域英文译写规范<br /> <br /> [7]郭京红.（2019）公示语英译中的错误观点与评价方式 海外英语(23)154-155. <br /> <br /> [8]贺学耘. （2006）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略外语与外语教学,(03)57-59. <br /> <br /> [9]刘小平. （2019）公示语翻译中存在的问题及对策. 凯里学院学报, (04)72-74.<br /> <br /> [10]吕和发. （2005）公示语汉英翻译研究——以2012年奥运会主办城市伦敦为例 北京:中国翻译,(06)38. <br /> <br /> [11]田国民. （2019）谈汉语公示语的英译英语教师(22)110-113. <br /> <br /> [12]王回力. （2019）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略 延边教育学院学报(05)31-33. <br /> <br /> [13]吴浩熙, 李海红.（2019） 功能对等理论下的公示语翻译及策略 海外英语(20)59-61. <br /> <br /> [14]杨洪玉等.（2019） 旅游景点公共标识语的英文翻译 北京工业职业技术学院学报(04)122-126. <br /> <br /> [15]张焱. （2015）汉英翻译过程中的难译现象处理 北京:中国社会科学出版社(16)44-46<br /> <br /> [16]周树霞. （2017）浅析公示语的汉英翻译 校园英语(42)239-239.<br /> <br /> == A Study of Translation of Movie Titles in the Light of Venuti's Theory 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan==</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5&diff=109434 2020-12-10T04:19:44Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Reference */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第五部分(Part 5)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Thoughts'''=<br /> ==A Study on Creative Treason of Literature Translation - 李玉 Li Yu==<br /> ==On the Analysis of Three Kinds of Beauty in ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence-林敏 Lin Min 202020080616==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;林敏 Lin Min &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation, aiming to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language in a translation. Xu Yuanchong introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties” principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book, he said that the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem. This thesis is going to use such two theories to compare and analyze the two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond in our nation --Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version with some typical and representative examples, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.This thesis is divided into five parts: the first part roughly describes the purpose, method and significant of the study; the second part introduces the general idea and two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond; The third part introduces two translation theories functional equivalence and three beauty principle; the fourth part, some typical examples are selected and two theories are used to compare study the two versions. The fifth part summarizes the whole thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Functional Equivalence, Three Kinds of Beauty<br /> <br /> === 题目===<br /> 功能对等理论指导下《荷塘月色》英译本“三美”的传达<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 功能对等论是翻译理论中最重要的理论之一。功能对等论的目的是实现源语和目标语之间的功能对等。许渊冲在《毛泽东诗词四十二首》序言中提出的译诗的“三美”原则，即音美，意美和形美。本篇文章将利用这两个基本原则，通过一些有代表性的例子对译本进行比较学习，学习研究两篇文章是否符合功能对等。本篇论文共分为五部分，第一部分介绍了本研究的目的、意义和方法；第二部分介绍了《荷塘月色》的大意和两个英译本；第三部分对两个翻译原则：功能对等论和“三美”原则做了简要地介绍；第四部分选取了有代表性的例子，运用了两个理论对两译本进行了对比学习；第五部分对全文进行了总结。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 功能对等论，三美原则<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> With the advent of globalization as well as the development of Chinese economy, more and more Chinese literary works have been introduced abroad. Prose is one of the important part of China’s literature.However there is still not enough attention to the introduction of Chinese prose, especially Chinese modern prose. <br /> <br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''，the well-known lyric prose, written by the famous author Zhu Ziqing, has made a huge influence on the development of Chinese prose. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer's depressing mood. For this prose is a typical example of Chinese modern prose, many translators have given their translations of it, such as Zhu Chunshen, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang, Li Ming and Wang Jiaosheng. A large number of scholars have analyzed its different versions making great contribution to the prose translating. <br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation. Functional equivalence theory introduced by Nida, refers to the fact that the translation does not take rigid correspondence between words and structures as the standard, but aims to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language. The theory emphasizes that“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。<br /> <br /> Here, this paper selects This thesis selects two of the most famous English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen's version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, to compare and study, based on Xu Yuanchong's “Three Beauty” principle under the guidance of functional equivalence. This thesis will compare and analyze the two English versions, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> === 2. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' and Its English Versions ===<br /> Before comparing and analyzing the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' , we need learn some necessary information about the author who wrote it and the relatively background. At present, the two famous English versions are Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version .<br /> <br /> ====2.1 ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is the classical of lyric prose written by Zhu Ziqing in Tsinghua University, Beijing on July 1927，which depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer’s depressing mood. It was published in the Novel Monthly, one of the new literary journals which enjoys the reputation of “the first journal in the China’s literary world” in the 1920s.（Han,2018 ）Since it was published, the article has received both high praise and fierce criticism. From this perspective, it has witnessed the history of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> In this prose, the author is sleepless and sits in his yard to enjoy the cool in the evening. Suddenly, it occurred to his mind that the lotus pond where he passes every day and the pond must be different at night with the moonlight. So, the author wandered lonely on a cinder footpath around the lotus pond, he feels that he is a “free man”. As he sees the pond cover with trim lotus leaves and white lotus flowers, hearing the sounds of the cicadas and the frogs, Zhu thinks that “this animation was theirs alone, I had no part in it（Yang ,1990 ）.”<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Two English Versions ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is one of Zhu Ziqing’s masterpieces and was selected into Chinese textbook. Most scholars say that the prose is “文质相称，形神俱美” which has attracted an amount of scholars and students.（Chen ,2018）The prose has been introduced to foreign countries in different languages, especially in English since the May 4th Movement. The notable translations include Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, Li Ming’s version and Wang Jiaosheng’s version. This thesis choices Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version. Both Zhu ’s version and Yang’s version are faithful to the original meaning and concise to the sentence structure and close to the original style. But Zhu prefer to employ literal translation and Yang uses the free translation, like the words “热闹” ,“冷静”, “群居”and “独处”, Zhu translated these as “a serene and peaceful life”,“a busy and active one”, “being in solitude” and “in company”, in contrast Yang’s translation is “excitement and stillness”.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Basis of Theory ===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Functional Equivalence Theory ====<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Three Kinds of Beauty =====<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===4. On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence ===<br /> Zhu Ziqing used a large number of rhetorical devices and reduplicated words to describe the beauty of the lotus pond under the moonlight at night, to express his gloomy and upset mood, which brings great difficulty to translation, in his famous prose--''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. This part is aimed at using the functional equivalence theory and Xu Yuanchong’s theory of “Three Beauties” to analyze wheatear the two English versions of such prose achieving the degree of function equivalance.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 ====<br /> Words are the basic meaning of sentences. G •Leech divided “meaning” into two categories: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(Leech,1987) The conceptual meaning is the meaning that we can find in dictionary, and the associative meaning is the actually meaning of the word in the special context. It is a truly universal acknowledge that the meaning of the sentence is not simple addition of word meaning. Thus, the translator should find the conceptual meaning and the associative meaning of the original, especially the associative meaning. Here are some typical examples:<br /> <br /> Example 1: “这几天心里颇不宁静。”（Zhu Ziqing , 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu ’s version: “I have felt quite upset recently.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang ’s version: “The last few days have found me very restless.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> This sentence is the first sentence in the first paragraph. Here “不宁静” refers to “quite uncomfortable”, which can be translated as “upset, restless, untranquil, disquieting and so on”. However, considering Zhu Ziqing’s patriotic feeling and his responsibility for his wife and kid, he cannot devote his whole life to the great revolution. Therefore “不宁静” in the context means the author is anxiety, because he want to change his condition. Zhu Chunshen translated it as“upset”which means“unhappy or disappointed because of something unpleasant that has happened”in the ''OED'', which emphasized the unhappy mood. And Yang Xianyi employed it as “restless”, which means “unable to stay still or happy where you are, because you are bored or need a change ” in the ''OED'', which stressed on one needing a change. It is clear that the word “restless” is more exactly than the word “quiet” in this sentence.<br /> <br /> However,“宁静”has an end rhyme“ing”and neither“upset”in Zhu’s translation nor“restless”in Yang’s version opted the words with the same end rhyme for they both focused on the meaning. And such sentence in original text is a 9 characters short sentence with no subject, Yang translated it into 9 words,used the“the last few day”as the subject, while Zhu’s version only has 6 words and selected “I” as the subject. Therefore, Yang’s version is expressive to the original in this sentence and it retains the beauties of form and sense in this sentence at the same time. In short, the two versions are good translation, but the Yang’s version is much better from this point. <br /> <br /> Example 2“这是一条幽僻的路；白天也少人走，夜晚更加寂寞。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: It is peaceful and secluded here, a place not frequented by pedestrians even in the daytime; now at night, it looks more solitary......”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “It is off the beaten track and few pass this way even by day, so at night it is still more quiet.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> The word “幽僻” means “安静和人迹罕至” here. Zhu rendered the word “幽僻” into “peaceful and secluded”, emphasized that there is silent and private. Yang employed it into “off the beaten track” which means no one knows here and quiet. From this perspective, both translations are very similar in understanding the writer’s meaning.<br /> <br /> However, the word “幽僻” is an adjective word with two meanings: quiet and not disturbed by other people. Zhu’ s version “peaceful and secluded” ,are two adjective words and has two similar meanings, which keep the form and sense of the original sentence. In conclusion，according to the “Three Beauties” principle, Zhu’s translation is much better than Yang’s for it retains the form of the original.<br /> <br /> Example 3: “这路上阴森森的，有些怕人。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “The foliage, which, in a moon-less night, would loom somewhat frighteningly dark.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “ On nights when there is no moon the track is almost terrifyingly dark.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> In this sentence, Zhu Ziqing uses “怕人” to describe the atmosphere of the air on the road and his feeling of walking on this path at such a night. “怕人” referred to “令人害怕的” in Chinese, it is an adjective to present his feeling. “Frightening ” means “making you feel afraid”, and “terrifying” means “to make somebody extremely frightened”in the ''OED'' , which can be regarded as synonyms. Both use the adverb to translate the adjective “怕人”. But in Zhu’s translation, “the foliage” is “frighteningly dark” and in Yang’s version, “the track” is “terrifyingly dark”. Both translators have their own understanding of the original content, but the both translations are faithful to the word “怕人”. We could say the two translations achieve the beauty in sense. However, in “Three Beauties” principle, we should consider the beauty in form and sound. As for sound ,the last sound of “怕人” is [en] in Chinese, but both “frightening” and “terrifying” has the same end sound of [en]. As for “frightening” and “terrifying”, the last sound of these are [iŋ] which could be regarded as the similar pronunciation with [en] .So, the two translations achieved beauty in sound from this aspect. In all the both versions are great from this perspective.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 ====<br /> ====4.3 ====<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> ==Lexical Gap between English and Chinese and its translation strategies 孟莹 Meng Ying==<br /> <br /> ==On Form and Spirit in Translation 文偲荇 Wen Sixing==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> translation methods，form，sprit<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译方法，翻译的形与神<br /> <br /> ===The form of translation===<br /> <br /> ===The sprit of translation===<br /> <br /> ===Discussion===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories——Taking &quot;2017 APEC Speech&quot; as sample 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing==<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Strategies'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Study on the Translation Strategies, Translation Methods and Translation Techniques in Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao==<br /> <br /> ==Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” to “Visibility” 胡百辉 Hu Baihui==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Business Contracts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 胡瑾 Hu Jin==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization in China and the increasing frequency of modern commercial activities, commercial contracts are particularly vital in order to ensure the smooth progress of commercial activities. In a business contract, it is required to ensure that the expression of any text in the contract is accurate as far as possible, and the same is true when translating it. Contracts provide vital basis for the smooth development of business and the protection of rights. Accurate and vivid translation of contracts has an important impetus to the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations and the resolution of disputes. Therefore, it is of practical significance to study the translation of business contracts. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory, equivalence is first realized in meaning and then in form. Dynamic equivalence is used to break the static equivalence and maximize the meaning of the translation. This thesis gives a preliminary introduction to the translation of business contracts, studies the application of functional equivalence theory in contract translation, and puts forward some major translation skills and methods, which will be of some guiding significance to the future translation of business contracts, thus avoiding unnecessary disputes between the two parties.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> business contract; Functional Equivalence Theory; contract translation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中国全球化进程不断加快，现代商务活动日益频繁，为了确保商务活动的顺利进行，商务合同的签订显得尤为重要。在商务合同中，要求尽量确保合同中的每一个文字都表达准确，在对其进行翻译时也是如此。合同是确保业务开展顺利和进行权利保障的重要依托，对合同进行准确生动的翻译对业务的开展和权利、义务的保障以及出现争议时的解决等有着重要的推动力。因此，研究商务合同的翻译有一定的现实意义。根据奈达的功能对等理论，对等首先在意义上实现，然后在形式上实现，利用动态对等，打破静态对等，使译文意义最大化。此课题初步介绍了商务合同的翻译，研究了功能对等理论在合同翻译中的应用，提出了一些主要的翻译技巧和方法，对今后商务合同的翻译具有一定的指导作用，从而避免合同双方出现不必要的纠纷。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 商务合同；功能对等理论；合同翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since China promoted the Silk Road Economic Belt, China's economic exchanges with other countries in the world have been increasing day by day. China's exports volume is also increasing, and goods are exported to other countries in the world. In 2013, China overtook the United States as the world's largest trading nation. In this context, in order to ensure the smooth progress of transactions and reduce trade friction and disputes, commercial contracts, which have legal effect, have attracted more and more attention. Contract translation belongs to the category of legal translation. Accurate translation of contracts plays an important role in the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations, and the resolution of disputes. However, commercial disputes in China's foreign economic and trade business are very common, and many disputes are caused by various problems in contract translation. Therefore, they should be guided by scientific translation theories.<br /> This paper mainly includes 3 chapters. The first chapter is the introduction of business English contracts, including the definition of business contract, the categories of business contract, and the linguistic features of English business contract.<br /> The second chapter introduces the theoretical framework of functional equivalence translation, including Nida's main principles and viewpoints of functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> The third chapter is the main part of the article, including the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 General Introduction of Business Contract===<br /> <br /> This chapter first introduces the definition of business contract and the categories of business contract, and then analyzes the linguistic features of English business contract from lexical, syntactic and textual levels respectively. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> As an important link in foreign trade activities, business contracts have always been valued by people. Article 2 of The PRC Contract Law clearly stipulates that Commercial contract refers to the agreement clauses that are formally concluded according to law, notarized and must be abided by jointly in order to determine their respective rights and obligations during certain commercial cooperation between the parties concerned. It can be seen from this that a commercial contract is the result of the consensus reached by the parties and is a civil legal act. A legally established contract shall take effect from the date of its establishment and shall be legally binding. This provides a legal guarantee for effectively avoiding trade frictions. However, special attention should be paid to the fact that China's Economic Law on Foreign Contracts stipulates that commercial contracts can take many forms, such as formal contracts, letters of intent, memorandum, agreements, commissioned purchase orders, etc. But no matter what form it takes, it should be signed in writing. The oral agreement cannot be submitted to the court as evidence after the dispute occurs.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Categories and Structure of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> Based on different standards, business contracts can be divided into many categories. According to the contract maker, they can be divided into sales contract (made by the seller) and purchase contract (made by the buyer); according to the subject matter, they can be divided into technology transfer contracts, processing contracts, foreign labor contracts, and agency agreements, etc; according to the details of the contract, they can be divided into sales contract, sales confirmation letter, purchase contract and purchase confirmation letter; according to the price terms used in the contract, they can be divided into CIF contract, FOB contract and goods arrival contract, etc.<br /> Although there are many types of commercial contracts, the structure of commercial contracts is generally relatively fixed, generally including three parts: preface, text and contract end. The first part is the preface, which generally includes the name of the contract, the parties to the contract, the date of signing and the place of signing. The second part is the main body of the contract, which mainly stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties to the agreement, the specific conditions of the traded goods, such as commodity name, quantity, total value, delivery date and validity period, port of shipment and destination, insurance and confidentiality clauses, payment clauses,etc. The third part is the end, which mainly includes the signatures of all parties to the agreement, the language of the contract, the number of copies of the contract and the explanation of the validity of the contract.<br /> <br /> ====1.3 A Contrastive Analysis of Stylistic Features of Chinese and English Business Contracts====<br /> <br /> English business contract is a solemn style with the highest degree of formality among all styles of English. A comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English business contract in terms of vocabulary, syntax and discourse will be made in this chapter.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Lexical Features of Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> As the most basic semantic constituent unit, vocabulary plays the most basic and important role in the whole contract text. When reading any text, the characteristics of words can often reflect the characteristics of the whole text. Therefore, it is necessary to study the characteristics of vocabulary so as to lay a foundation for the study of the whole text.<br /> <br /> First of all, the use of archaism is the most prominent feature in international business contract English. The extensive use of archaic words in business contracts and legal styles fully reflects their solemn and serious style, which is related to the social function of English style of business contracts and the particularity of international business. The archaism most commonly used in business contract English are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中)，therein-after(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于).<br /> <br /> In contrast, some classical Chinese words are often used in Chinese business contract terms, such as“兹、若”. This is to reflect the conciseness and clarity of the Chinese contract text. However, strictly speaking, Chinese business contract terms are more straightforward, the classical Chinese vocabulary is less frequently used, and the stylistic features are not as obvious as English business contracts.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the use of synonyms is another feature of English business contracts. Two or more synonyms are often used together in English business contracts. This is to make the terms of the contract more precise and accurate, and to avoid ambiguities and omissions as much as possible, for example, by and between, sole and exclusive, make and enter into, etc. <br /> <br /> However, we must note that synonyms are not commonly used in Chinese business contracts. This is mainly because of the differences in expression habits between Chinese and English and the differences in legal and cultural traditions between countries.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, as a contractual document with legal effect, legal terms are also used in the contract. In formal English business contracts, drafters often use “convene” instead of “hold or assemble”; “dispatch” instead of “spread out or handout”; “terminate” instead of “stop”. Similarly, in Chinese business contracts, interpreters use“承诺”to indicate “commitment”;“撤销”to indicate“cancel”instead of “取消”;“裁决” to mean “decision” instead of “决定”. Finally, the contract contains many professional knowledge and terminology.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.2 Syntax Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> Besides vocabulary, the syntax of business contracts also has their own characteristics, such as common clauses, declarative sentences, passive voice, modal verbs, etc. <br /> <br /> The most obvious feature in business contracts is the use of subordinate clauses. They are in obvious positions to explain, restrict and supplement the meaning of the main sentence. The positions of these clauses are relatively flexible. For example, attributive clause can be placed together with the central word or separated from the central word. A noun can be modified by multiple attributive clauses, and an attributive clause can also modify multiple nouns. The adverbial clause of time can be placed either at the beginning of the sentence or at the middle and end of the sentence.<br /> <br /> In contrast, the positions of attributive clauses and adverbial clauses in Chinese are relatively fixed. The adverbial clause of time is usually next to the modified verb because there is no temporal change in Chinese verbs. Declarative sentences are clear in meaning, division of powers and responsibilities, objective and fair in stating facts, and conform to the requirements of business contract terms. Therefore, they are frequently used in Chinese and English business contracts, but interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences are seldom used.<br /> <br /> Passive sentences are also quite common in business contracts. The passive voice is often used when there is no need to clearly indicate the sender of the behavior and the emphasis is placed on the object of the behavior.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.3 Textual Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> The textual features of Chinese and English business contracts are mainly reflected in textual cohesion and textual structure.<br /> <br /> In business contracts, whether Chinese or English, contextual cohesion is realized by adding conjunctions or repetitions of words, which indicates the logical relationship between sentences and reflects the rigour and solemnity of business contract language.<br /> <br /> The discourse structure of Chinese and English business contracts is basically the same, with highly stylized features.<br /> <br /> This kind of consistency is not only to obtain formal uniformity, but also often mainly due to the requirements of meaning, so that readers have the impression that the contents expressed by clauses with the same sentence pattern are equivalent in the legal effect of the contract.①<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 General Study of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This chapter introduces Nida's functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida first proposed the“dynamic equivalence”theory, then further developed the theory, emphasizing the equivalence of two aspects, namely“formal equivalence”and“dynamic equivalence”.“Formal equivalence”emphasizes the form and content of the information itself and believes that the translation should be close to the original structure. “Dynamic equivalence”refers to“reproducing source language information from semantics to style with the closest (original) natural equivalent in the recipient language”.② Tan Zaixi（谭载喜） pointed out, in this definition, there are three key points: 1. Natural, the translation cannot have a translation cavity. 2. Closeness, referring to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of nature. 3. Equivalence, which is the core.<br /> <br /> After the proposal of dynamic equivalence, many disputes have arisen. It is considered as free translation or live translation. In order to change people's misunderstanding of it, Nida pointed out:“Everything in the text is meaningful, including speech forms, so forms cannot be sacrificed easily.”④ Therefore, he replaced“dynamic equivalence”with “functional equivalence”. There is no essential difference between the two, but the latter highlights the concept of“function”.<br /> <br /> On the question of which level equivalence should be reflected, Nida pointed out that in addition to content and form equivalence, style equivalence should also be considered.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida divided functional equivalence into“maximum functional equivalence”and“minimum functional equivalence”since absolute equivalence is impossible to achieve. The so-called“maximum functional equivalence”means that the target readers can understand the original text in a way consistent with the original readers and further appreciate the original text while“minimum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand how the original readers understand and appreciate the original through their understanding of the target text. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Researches on Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Abroad, Beekman(1972: 32) pointed out:“Nida's functional equivalence theory makes theorists and translators believe that a good translation must be able to convey the meaning and dynamics of the original text at the same time.”⑤ <br /> <br /> Wilss(2001: 51) stressed:“Nida's functional equivalence theory can be applied to translation practice because it can achieve effective translation.”⑥ Venuti said:<br /> Functional equivalence theory also eases the debate between translators on“domestication” and “foreignization” from the perspective of language and culture.⑦<br /> <br /> At home, Jin Di(金堤) put forward“equivalence theory”on the basis of“functional equivalence theory”, and applied it to the translation of Ulysses, which illustrates the feasibility of“functional equivalence” theory in practical translation. Tan Zaixi made a comprehensive and systematic summary of the formation process of Nida's translation theory and its profound connotation. In addition, in the CNKI database, retrieval using“functional equivalence theory” as the key word shows that there are 2444 related articles in various core journals and magazines.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Applicability of Functional Equivalence Theory to E-C Translation of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> At present, there are no authoritative translation principles and standards for commercial contract translation, but the three principles of contract translation put forward by Ma Huijuan(马会娟) are highly recognized: First, the words used are accurate and the translation is complete. The translator shall not add, delete or change any information contained in the contract at will. The language of the translation shall be accurate, complete and natural. Second, the organization is clear and the format is equivalent. The translation should correspond to the original text format as a whole and reproduce the structural features of the source language as much as possible. Third, the translation should be in line with the stylistic characteristics of the contract.<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory emphasizes content equivalence, form equivalence and style equivalence. These three requirements are consistent with the three principles above put forward by Ma Huijuan respectively. Both of them limit the translation standards from the aspects of content, form and style. Therefore, the functional equivalence theory can be fully applied to the translation practice of business contracts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Business Contract Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This part focuses on the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. Combining with actual translation cases, this chapter analyzes the common problems in contract translation and puts forward corresponding solutions. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Equivalence at the Lexical Level====<br /> <br /> Vocabulary is the basic component of sentences and chapters. In the specific translation process, if vocabulary translation is not handled well, sentence and chapter translation will be impossible.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Equivalence of Technical Terms—Literal Translation and Free Translation=====<br /> <br /> The contents of business contracts involve all trades and professions, and there are many subject matters, including many professional knowledge and terminology, which is a big obstacle for many translators who do not know the professional knowledge of the industry. Therefore, before translation, translators should understand the relevant industries involved in the contract and master the necessary knowledge in the industry so as to avoid the layman's words and semantic errors in the translation, which will affect the accuracy and formality of the contract and cannot achieve functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> Example1:The balance 80% ( Eighty percent ) of the contract value shall be paid against irrevocable L/C at 360 days sight to be accepted by both parties. <br /> 译文：合同金额的80%（百分之八十）以不可撤销信用证的方式在交单的360 天予以支付。<br /> <br /> Many words in the contract appear in the form of letter abbreviations. As shown in this example,“L/C”is the abbreviation of letter of credit, which is translated literally into“信用证”. This is a well-established translation method in the industry, which can reflect both the equivalence of meaning and the professionalism of language expression.<br /> <br /> Example2:“The seller shall present the following documents required for negotiation or collection to the banks.”<br /> 译文:“卖方应向银行提交议付或托收所需的下列文件。”<br /> <br /> In this sentence,“negotiation”and“collection”are both technical terms of the contract, they are translated into“议付”and“托收” respectively, instead of“谈判”and“收取”. The expressions not only conform to the professional expression of the economic and trade industry, but also accurately reflect the meaning of the original text and achieve the meaning and style equivalence emphasized by the functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> Example3:“UNIT PRICES: FOB Xingang, Tianjing USD 22 150.00 per unit (US Dollars twenty two thousand, one hundred and fifty only)。”<br /> 译文:“单价: FOB天津新港, 每辆22150.00美元（贰万贰仟壹佰伍拾美元）。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“FOB”is an abbreviation of “Free on board”. It can be translated into “FOB” by free translation or by shifting translation. This is mainly because the readers of business contracts themselves are professionals in the industry. They usually exchange price terms in the form of English letters and abbreviations in their daily work. Therefore, when translating such price terms, their source language expressions can be retained.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Equivalence of Archaism—Omission, Addition and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Archaisms are rarely used in modern English, but they are still common in business contracts. They can not only reflect the formal rigour of business contracts, but also highlight the conciseness and clarity of language. The archaisms most commonly used in English business contract are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中), hereinafter(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于), etc.<br /> <br /> Example1:“The parties hereto shall, first of all, settle any dispute arising from or in connection with the contract through amicable negotiation.” <br /> 译文:“合同双方首先应该通过友好协商，解决因合同而发生的或与合同相关的争议。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“hereto”means“本协议的、本合同的”. It can be translated with omission. The contract subject relationship is clear, literal translation will only lead to redundant repetition of the translation, so there is no need to translate it.<br /> <br /> Example2: Now, therefore, in consideration of the recitals set forth above and the mutual covenants, promises, and agreements contained herein, and other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged, the Parties do hereby agree as follows: <br /> 译文：因此，考虑到上述陈述和本协议中包含的共同契约、承诺和协议，以及其他良好和有价值的对价，双方特此达成如下协议，特此确认其接收和充分性。<br /> <br /> In this example, herein usually means“此中，于此”. But such translation here will confuse readers. Therefore, we can adopt addition and translate it into“此协议中”. Although this expression is not as concise as“于此”, accuracy is the first requirement in contract translation.<br /> <br /> Example3: After arrival of goods at port of destination, the buyer shall apply to China Commodity Inspection Bureau (hereinafter referred to as CCIB) for a further inspection as to the specifications and quantity/weight of the goods.<br /> 译文：货到目的港后，买方将申请中国商品检验局(以下简称商检局)对货物的规格和数量重量进行检验。<br /> <br /> In this case, the original meaning of“hereinafter”is“以下，在下文中”. Its original meaning is directly inserted into the sentence, which not only accurately expresses the original meaning, but also makes the translated language natural and smooth, meeting the requirements of functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Equivalence of Formal Words—Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> “Functional Equivalence”emphasizes the transmission of reading experience, requiring the translator to transmit not only language functions but also legal functions, so as to enable the target readers to feel the reading experience of the original readers. <br /> <br /> Example1: The agreement does not operate as an acceptance of any conflicting terms and conditions and shall prevail over any conflicting provision of any purchase order or any other instrument of Customer. <br /> 译文：本协议不接受任何与本协议产生冲突的任何条款。若在乙方订单或任何文件中出现与本协议相冲突的条款，应均以本协议为准。<br /> <br /> Example2:“Time of shipment: within 15 days after receipt of the advance payment and the L/C of balance value to be accepted by the × Bank.” <br /> 译文:“装运日期：收到预付款且剩余货款的信用证被××银行承兑后的15天内装运。”<br /> <br /> In the first example, although the basic meaning of“胜过”is also expressed, it is usually translated into“以....为准” or “效力高于”in legal texts. In the second example, the common meaning of“accept”is “接受”, but in legal translation it is usually translated as “承兑”. Formal words are usually translated according to conventions, so the difficulty in translation lies not in the choice of translation strategies, but in the grasp of semantics and the reproduction of style.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.4 Equivalence of Juxtaposition—Contracted Translation=====<br /> <br /> English business contracts often use two or more synonyms to ensure the uniqueness of words meaning. The functional equivalence theory emphasizes the equivalence of meaning and form, but in the actual translation process, the absolute equivalence between the two, that is, the “maximum functional equivalence”proposed by Nida, is impossible to realize.<br /> <br /> Example1:“The agreement is made and entered into on April 16, 2007 by and between Party A and Party B.”<br /> 译文:“此合同由甲乙双方于2007年4月16日达成。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“made and entered into”and“by and between”are juxtaposed by two pairs of synonyms. When translating, these words only need translate once, which is called contracted translation. <br /> <br /> Example2: This agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the subject matter hereof and supersedes all prior agreements, understanding, warranties, representations, negotiations and discussion, whether oral or written, of the parties except as specifically set forth herein.<br /> 译文：此合同是双方就合同主体所达成的全部协议，将取代双方过往所有口头或书面的协议、理解、声明、保证、谈判和讨论，在此明确阐明的除外。<br /> <br /> In this example, several synonyms are juxtaposed to make the terms of the contract include all relevant matters as much as possible so as to make the writing strict and clear. Here, we can adopt literal translation strategy, keeping the total number of words listed in the original text, and looking for the corresponding Chinese words to achieve the double equivalence of content and form. <br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Equivalence at the Syntactic Level====<br /> <br /> Cliches are commonly used in official document and usually have a fixed translation method. Passive sentences and subordinate clauses have long sentence patterns and complicated logical relations, which tests the translator's translation ability and logical expression ability. <br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Conventional Phrases—Imitation Translation=====<br /> <br /> There are many cliches in business contracts, which are common at the beginning and end of contracts.<br /> <br /> Example1:“In consideration of the mutual covenants contained in this agreement, the parties agree as follows:”<br /> 译文:“考虑到本协议中的共同承诺，协议双方约定如下:”<br /> <br /> Example2:This Agreement may be executed in two or more counterparts, each of which shall be deemed an original and all of which together shall constitute one instrument. <br /> 译文：本协议可签署两个或两个以上的副本，每一副本构成本协议的一份原件，所有副本构成一份法律文件。<br /> <br /> Although the original expression of each text is not the same, the basic meaning is the same. A relatively fixed translation method has been formed, so the translators should know the common expressions in advance, or look for the parallel text to imitate the translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Equivalence of Passive Sentence=====<br /> <br /> Passive voice is a typical language structure in English business contracts. It can effectively reflect the objectivity and fairness of contracts. However, unlike English, passive voice is seldom used in Chinese. Therefore, in translation, we usually use various translation strategies to convert passive voice into active voice. The most common translation strategy is conversion, that is, the object of the original text is converted into the subject, and the subject is converted into the object. <br /> <br /> Example1: This Contract is made by and between the Buyer and the Seller whereby the Buyer agree to buy and the Seller agrees to sell the commodity in attached Annex according to the terms and condition stipulated below: <br /> 译文：买卖双方同意按下述条款购买出售附件中的商品并签订本合同： <br /> <br /> Example2: Agent shall be entitled to nominate mandate other third parties to act upon behalf of Agent in generating business to the Parties, as Agent’s sole discretion. <br /> 译文：代理人有权自行指定、授权其他第三方代表代理人为缔约方带来业务。<br /> <br /> From the first example, “by and between” is used as adverbial in the sentence. The object“the Buyer and the Seller” is the originator of this sentence, which is transformed into the subject of Chinese, and the recipient of the action“this contract”is transformed into the object of Chinese, thus the passive sentence of English is transformed into the active sentence of Chinese. In addition, some passive sentences in business contracts can also be translated into active sentences without changing the subject of the original sentence, as shown in the second example.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Equivalence of Long Sentence—Combination, Division and Reconstruction=====<br /> <br /> Long sentences must contain many clauses and modifiers, and their writing ideas are quite different from those of Chinese. Therefore, how to split the sentences into several parts, how to extract the core meaning of complex logical relations and how to reorganize Chinese are the three major difficulties.<br /> <br /> Example1: Agent’s undertaking and obligation is to search, locate and refer (lead) potential and prospective clients/customers to Principal who are seriously interested, ready, willing and able to apply for the Product. <br /> 译文：代理人的责任和义务是为委托人寻找、定位和推荐（引导）潜在的、真正对本产品感兴趣、准备好且愿意申请的客户。<br /> <br /> This is a restrictive attributive clause. We often adopt a combination method, translating the subordinate clause into“...的” and putting it before the modifier in the form of adjectives. This is mainly due to the structural differences between English and Chinese. The attributive elements in Chinese are not as flexible as the attributive clauses in English. <br /> <br /> Example2: The parties may not assign or transfer this Agreement or any of its rights and obligations under this Agreement without the prior written consent of the other party, which shall not be unreasonably withheld. <br /> 译文：未经另一方事先书面同意，缔约方不得出让或转让本协议或本协议项下的各项权利和义务，此要求不得被无理拒绝。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a non-restrictive attributive clause. Since this clause and the antecedent are not closely related and generally play an explanatory role, we often use division method in E-C translation. That is to say, the two should be separated and naturally combined by repeating antecedents.<br /> <br /> Example3: Should Principal be reasonably sure that Agent violated this rule, or should any client/customer present proof of such violation, Agent will not be entitled to its omission for the particular client or group of clients and Principal may terminate this Agreement with immediate effect at its own discretion. <br /> 译文：如果委托人有理由确定代理人违反了此项规定，或如果有客户提供了其违反此项规定的证据，代理人将无权享这一客户或这一组客户的佣金，委托人可自行终止本协议，即刻生效。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a adverbial clause. The structure of“should+subject+verb”belongs to the unreal conditional sentence. But there is no such usage in Chinese. Therefore, we can reconstruct the original text according to the logical structure of the original sentence and adjust the word order appropriately to make it natural and more in line with the Chinese expression habits. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Equivalence at Textual Level====<br /> <br /> The text consists of sentences, so the following focuses on the cohesion and format of the text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Text Cohesion=====<br /> <br /> Text cohesion is realized through the use of conjunctions and lexical repetition, reflecting the rigour and solemnity of business contract language.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> Thereafter, this Agreement shall be renewed automatically for successive additional one-year terms under the same terms and conditions unless either party chooses not to continue the relationship and provides written notice 30 days prior to the natural expiration of the existing one-year term. <br /> 译文：此后，本协议应以同样的条款自动延期一年，除非任何一方选择解除合作关系，并在一年合同期满前30天提交书面通知。<br /> <br /> Here, explicit connectives,“thereafter, and, unless”are clearly translated, which is conducive to textual cohesion and indicates the logical relationship between sentences. Therefore, we can translate them into “此后、和/并、除非”, which not only realizes the formal equivalence between the translation and the original, but also achieves the semantic equivalence.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Text Format=====<br /> <br /> As one kind of legal documents, commercial contracts are highly normative and have strict writing format. Therefore, attention should be paid to the corresponding format in translation.<br /> <br /> Contract No: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Date: Aug. ××,2013 <br /> <br /> The Buyer: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Representative: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> The seller: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××<br /> <br /> Representative: ××××××<br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> 译文：合同编号：×××××× <br /> <br /> 日期：2013年8月×号 <br /> <br /> 买方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：×××××× <br /> <br /> 卖方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：××××××<br /> <br /> Here, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the contract text, and keep the format of the translation and the original text in alignment during translation. Firstly, capital words with the first letter should be emphasized in terms consistent with Chinese expression habits. Secondly, the parts marked in bold or italics in the contract shall still be marked in bold or italics in the translation.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> To sum up, according to the requirements of functional equivalence theory on translation quality, commercial contract translation should meet the following standards:<br /> <br /> In terms of content, first, the translation language should be natural and fluent and conform to Chinese expression habits. Second, pay attention to the professionalism of the language expression in the translation, avoid using colloquial expressions, and achieve the meaning equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> In terms of format, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the commercial contract text and try our best to achieve the formal equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> In terms of language style, the translation should retain the original language style as much as possible. The business contract language is professional and solemn, so the translation should reproduce the strict and formal legal style of the original text on the premise of ensuring accurate content and natural language.<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes and summarizes specific contract terms and puts forward countermeasures. Although the translation strategies given in this paper have certain universality, the research text is slightly narrower than that of the whole commercial contract text research. Due to the space limitation, the cases provided are limited. Therefore, the scope of the research text should be broadened and analyzed from a broader research perspective in future research.<br /> <br /> ===Notes===<br /> <br /> ① 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998: 310-312.<br /> <br /> ② Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986: 113-120.<br /> <br /> ③ 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2004: 23-27.<br /> <br /> ④ Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993: 119-130. <br /> <br /> ⑤ Beekman, J. &amp; C, John. Translating the word of God[M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974: 191-221.<br /> <br /> ⑥ Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001: 72-86.<br /> <br /> ⑦ Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995: 76-89.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> [1] Beekman, J. &amp; John C. Translating the word of God [M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974. <br /> <br /> [2] Catford, J. C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965. <br /> <br /> [3] Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> [4] Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986.<br /> <br /> [5] Nida, E. A., and R Taber, Charles. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. New York: E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1969.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995.<br /> <br /> [7] Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [8] Yallop, C. The construction of equivalence[A]. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2001.<br /> <br /> [9] 顿官刚. 经贸英语词汇的特点及翻译[J]. 山东外语教学, 2002, (2).<br /> <br /> [10] 廖瑛. 实用公关英语[M]. 上海: 对外经济贸易大学出版社, 2005.<br /> <br /> [11] 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998.<br /> <br /> [12] 苗锡璞. 功能对等理论指导下的商务英语翻译[J]. 内蒙古财经学院学报, 2011, (1).<br /> <br /> [13] 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> [14] 汪洋. 浅析商务合同的词汇与句法翻译技巧[J]. 科技文汇, 2009, (10).<br /> <br /> [15] 金堤. 等效翻译探索[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998.<br /> <br /> [16] 马会娟. 论商务文本翻译标准多元化[J]. 中国翻译, 2005, (3).<br /> <br /> ==The translator's invisibility 张毓婕 Zhang Yujie==<br /> <br /> ==Study of Domestication and foreignization in Cross-cultural Translation 顾东方 Gu Dongfang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's economic globalization, international cultural exchanges are expanding, and translation as a communication tool is also crucial. As a form of cross-cultural and cross-linguistic communication, translation is a kind of communication and interaction between two cultures with very different social backgrounds and cultural traditions. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, the application and selection of translation strategies should not only reflect the translator's style, but also directly affect the audience of the translated work among the target language readers. In 1995, Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization , in The Invisibility of Translators. domestication and foreignization are both opposed and unified, i.e. there is no such thing as absolute domestication or absolute foreignization. This paper will discuss the selection and application of domestication and foreignization in cross-cultural translation, based on the two translation strategies themselves and actual translation cases, so that translators can use these two translation strategies more flexibly in translation to better convey the meaning of the original texts and make the translations reach more readers, and thus promote the communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication and foreignization; cross-cutural; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在经济全球化的今天，国际间文化交流也在不断扩大，而翻译作为一种交流工具也显得至关重要。作为一种跨文化、跨语言交际的形式，翻译是一种社会背景与文化传统很不相同的两种文化间的交流与交往。因此，在跨文化翻译中，翻译策略的运用与选择不仅仅要体现出译者的风格，也会直接影响译作在目的语读者中的受众程度。美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出了归化与异化两种翻译策略。归化与异化，既对立又统一，也即绝对的归化或者绝对的异化都是不存在的。本文将从归化与异化这两种翻译策略的本身出发，并结合实际翻译案例，来探讨归化与异化在跨文化翻译当中的选择与运用，使得译者能够在翻译中更灵活地使用这两种翻译策略，更好地传达出原作的意蕴，使译作受众于更多的读者，以此促进不同文化之间的交流。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化与异化；跨文化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1. Definitions of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Domestication is to localize the original language and focuses on the target language or readers by conveying the original text in the way target readers are familiar with. In order to close the readers of target texts.Domesticated translation requires the translator to speak like a native author, and the translation must become authentic to the native language if the original author is to speak directly to the readers. It helps the reader to better understand the translation and enhances the readability and enjoyment of the translation.<br /> Foreignization is that the translator tries not to disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader can get closer to the author&quot;. In translation, it means to accommodate the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorb foreign expressions, require the translator to approach the author, and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the original content. The purpose of the foreignization strategy is to consider about the differences in national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationalities and linguistic styles, and to preserve the exoticism of the translated text for the readers.<br /> <br /> ===2.The relationship between literal translation and free translation ,and domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Historically, foreignization and domestication can be seen as extensions of, but not identical to, literal and free translation. The terms &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot; are English translation version. Literal translation is a kind of method or text that keeps the original content and the form of the original text. Free translation means that it keeps only the content of the original text, not the form of the original text. Literal translation appeared during the May 4th Movement, emphasizing the need for faithfulness to the original text so that the translation can be &quot;expressive&quot; and &quot;elegant&quot;. Literal translation does not mean translating word for word in mechanical way. Since English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate them word for word. Literal translation is to fully and accurately clarify the meaning of the original work, without any distortion or random addition or deletion of the original ideas to maintain the original style. Sometimes even the original mood or emotion, such as anger or embarrassment, sarcasm or irony, joy or happiness, should not be ignored. Fu Si Nian and Zheng Zhenduo both advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, literal translation is the overriding rule. The work of Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren, The Collected Works of Extra-territorial Novels, is regarded as the representative of literal translation. The free translation, on the other hand, starts from the meaning and requires only the main idea of the original text to be expressed without excessive attention to detail, but a natural flow of the translation. In translation, if we cannot directly adopt the structure and expression of the original, we must change the sentence structure and expression to convey the meaning of the original according to the form and characteristics of the expression. Since there are many differences between the original language and the translated language in word order, grammar, changing forms and rhetoric, we can only use appropriate ways to convey the meaning of the original and reproduce the effect of the original. Mr. Jing-Shen Zhao once said, &quot;A smooth and fluent version is better than one that focuses only on fidelity to the original&quot;. Obviously, Mr. Zhao was in favor of foreignization, and so did Mr Yan Fu. Foreignization has been used in many works of Yan Fu, for example, the Evolution and Ethics is a typical example . In literal translation, faithful to the original form should be placed first, followed by faithful to the original content, again the fluency and popularity of translated language; while in free translation, faithful to the original content should be placed first, translation language fluency and popularity of the second, but free translation is not limited to the form of the original. Some scholars often discuss literal translation, free translation and domestication and foreignization together, which is understandable, but it is necessary to make a distinction. Based on the level of language and culture,domestication and foreignization focus more on the use of language from the perspective of cultural differences and are a kind of translation strategy, while literal and free translation is a translation technique, which is only at the level of language. There may be only one main translation strategy for a text or a work, but each strategy may use both literal and free translation methods, and each method serves the general direction of the translation strategy. The choice of the main translation strategy depends on the purpose of the translation, if it is to maximize the understanding of foreign cultures or cross-cultural comparative study, then the main focus is on foreignization; if it is to understand the information or story development through reading, then the domestication may be the best choice. Taking the translation of the famous work Dream of the Red Chamber as an example, there are two versions by two masters, Yang Xianyi and Hawkes, the former adopts foreignization to deal with the cultural factors in the language, that is, to keep the source culture as much as possible in the translation, while Hawkes adopts domestication in order to avoid the conflict between two different cultures, Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. National and international research on the development of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> <br /> ===3.1.The history of the development of domestication and foreignization abroad.===<br /> The German translator Schleiermacher, in his work, On the Different Methods of Translation, elaborated the need for translations to bring the reader as close as possible to the original author, and for the first time introduced the concepts of domestication and foreignization.<br /> At the same time, in the British academic circles of the time, domestication was the main translation strategy, but Francis Newman in England, when discussing the transl ation work on Homer, advocated that translators should consciously translate in the ancient language to emphasize the heterogeneity of the work.<br /> In the 1960s A.D., Nida proposed the theory of domestication for the first time in many structuralist theoretical works, and since then the climax of the debate on domestication and foreignization rose on the stage in western translation field . In Nida's view, domesticated translation does not need to stick to the form of the original text, but only needs to express the content with the closest and most natural equivalent in the translated text to achieve equivalence.<br /> The French theorist Antoinette Bellman deplored the tendency of eliminating foreignization in translation through the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot;. He said: &quot;The proper theoretical goal of the translation action is to accept heterogeneity as it is.&quot; This view seems to have an impact on Venuti's strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot; .<br /> In his book The Invisibility of the Translator, Italian scholar Venuti discusses the &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator by combining the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization for the first time. He strongly advocates foreignization and questions domestication, arguing that domestication is essentially a means of cultural colonization by Western colonizers. At the same time, he also suggests that the purpose of translation is not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express linguistic and cultural differences.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Domestic development history on domestication and foreignization===<br /> The earliest translations of Buddhist scriptures have included the debate between assimilation and dissimilation. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the translator Zhiqian pioneered the translation style of using free translation instead of transliteration, which had far-reaching significance and influence in history.<br /> At the end of the 19th century, several other great translators emerged in Chinese history, and Yan Fu was one of them. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, foreign powers invaded extensively and the Chinese nation faced an existential crisis, under such a background, Yan Fu believed that translation must be carefully chosen based on the social and historical reality of the country into which it is translated. In the translation, the translator should take the literary tradition of the nation and the specific historical and cultural purpose as the main purpose, combining the cultural and linguistic background of the readers. The translator should not focus on how to be &quot;faithful to the original&quot;, but how to adapt to the social and cultural choices of the time.<br /> With the rise of the May 4th New Culture Movement, many translators tried to learn from foreign literature in order to transform literature and society.Lu Xun's most famous dictum relating to translation was &quot;I'd rather be faithful than smooth&quot;, and advocated &quot;preserving the foreign flavor as much as possible&quot; and &quot;the need for exoticism&quot;. <br /> After the founding of New China, China's translation industry entered the third high point, and a large number of Western and Soviet works were introduced, which was connected with the spiritual needs of people at that time. After the reform and opening up, with the influx of Western translation ideas, &quot;foreignization&quot; has emerged. Many scholars have put forward the idea that &quot;Foreignization is primary while domestication is supplementary&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===4.domestication and foreignization of cultural exchange translation===<br /> <br /> ===4.1the relationship between culture and language===<br /> In a broad sense, culture refers to the material and spiritual wealth created and accumulated by human beings in the course of social development; in a narrower sense, it refers to the ideology of society and the system of organizational constructs that corresponds to it. Culture has the following four basic characteristics 1) culture is owned and shared by all members of a society; 2) culture is acquired rather than inherited; 3) culture is biologically based; and 4) culture is based on a symbolic system. The relationship between language and culture is between the part and the whole; language is a subsystem of culture, and language cannot exist apart from culture; it embodies all the beliefs and emotions of a cultural group. Language and culture interact and influence each other and are inseparable. Based on the close relationship between language and culture, more consideration should be given to cultural factors in translation research, which means that translation research should be carried out in a more macro context. Translators should be aware of enough cultural differences when dealing with the cultural differences between the original language and the target language. Due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese, many English and Chinese phrases, although literally having the same or similar meanings, are inherently different. Therefore, a word-for-word translation without considering cultural factors can lead to ambiguity.<br /> <br /> ===4.2 Translatability and untranslatability of cultures===<br /> On the one hand, the similarity of human experience worldwide contributes to the translatability of cultures. In this regard, Nida has said that &quot;all human beings eat, work, sleep and procreate, and they produce objects such as furniture, tools and vehicles. They also organize themselves into families, clans, internal and external groups, nations and inter-national organizations. They have a conscious similarity in their views of the universe, values, religion and supernatural forces. In fact, the different groups of people in the world have much more in common with each other than they do with each other.&quot; It is the similarity of the cultures of different peoples that allows people of different cultures to understand each other and makes translation possible. Nida thus states, &quot;Linguists and anthropologists have discovered that what binds human beings together far outweighs what alienates them, and this is the basis for generating communication.&quot; Many expressions that are unique to one culture can be found almost identically in a culture and become the best evidence of cultural translatability.<br /> On the other hand, each people has a culture that is distinct from the others, which hinders mutual understanding with the others and may even cause cultural shock. Due to different cultural inheritances, the languages of different nationalities have their own symbol systems and lexical, syntactical and grammatical characteristics, which often make them untranslatable. For example, the Chinese phrase &quot;客上天然居，居然天客&quot; is one of the examples of untranslatable culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.3 Factors influencing cultural translation strategies===<br /> <br /> ===4.3.1.Motives and objectives of translation===<br /> <br /> Different motivations and purposes for translation lead to different translation principles and methods<br /> <br /> ===4.3.2.Text type===<br /> <br /> Different texts influence the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord, translation can be divided into instrumental translation, which refers to the means of transferring information from the source language to the target language, and documentary translation, which refers to the means of transferring information about communication activities from the source language to the target language. This type of translation emphasizes the transmission and conveyance of information and mainly includes non-literary writing, including advertising, media writing, scientific writing, propaganda and announcements, etc. With this method of translation, which is guided by the culture of the target language, the information that needs to be conveyed can be better expressed and accessed. The other type of text is documentary translation. This type of translation refers to the presentation of real communicative activities and information to the target language readers. The term &quot;documentary translation&quot; is appropriate for translating (language-)-specific expressions, where translation of language and content are equally important. eter Newmark distinguishes between communicative and semantic translation of such texts, emphasizing the &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot; of the message. &quot; in order to achieve the same effect on the readers of the original language as on those of the target language. Although this type of translation is a subjective process, the translator will attach great importance to the effect of the translation on the reader's mind. By reorganizing and rearranging the order of sentences, the translator will eliminate obscurities and ambiguities in order to achieve &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot;. Most non-literary writing, informative articles and books, as well as textbooks, bulletins, standardized writing, and novels are suitable for this type of communicative translation; because it emphasizes the need to have the same effect on both the original and target language readers, it often uses expressions that are customary and easily understood in the language in which they are written. Thus, communicative translation is equivalent to naturalized translation, where the translator's preference for idiomatic expressions is produced or determined by the translator's preference for the target language. Semantic translation attempts to get as close as possible to the exact meaning of the original text in terms of wording. Semantic translation focuses on the expression of the exact meaning of the content in order to preserve as accurate a style of the original text as possible. This type of translation is an objective process during which the translator focuses only on whether the translation is precise and retains the flavor of the original text. In this type of translation, the translator tries to preserve the semantic and syntactic structure of the original text, as well as the tone of the original text, etc. semantic translation applies to autobiographies, private correspondence, personal emotional texts and quotations. A semantic translation is equivalent to an alien translation in an attempt to achieve the preservation of the flavour of the original, due to the translator's original language preference.<br /> <br /> ===4.3.3Acceptance by readers===<br /> In the past, traditional translation theories placed one-sided emphasis on extra-author-centred and text-centred research, neglecting the involvement of translators and target language readers. Modern reception aesthetics considers the reader not as an unimportant and unnecessary perspective, but as a historical, active and creative factor in the relationship between author, text and reader. This is why different people have different interpretations of the same text of Hamlet. Naida was influenced by the acceptance of the aesthetic sub. His theory and practice of translation are very much focused on the readers' reflection. He pointed out that &quot;Judging the validity of a translation does not stop at the comparison of word meanings, grammar and rhetoric; what is important is the extent to which the recipient is able to understand and appreciate the translation correctly.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===4.4the cultural school of translation===<br /> In 1990, the representatives of the cultural school of translation, Bassnett and Lefevere, in their co-edited book Translation, History and Culture, formally proposed the slogan of &quot;Cultural Turn of Translation&quot;, which also marked the official emergence of the cultural school of translation. In the following years, they published several monographs, individually or together, discussing about the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. In the following years, they published several monographs, either individually or jointly, to discuss the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. Unlike the literary or linguistic schools of translation in the past, the cultural school is a school with a strong &quot;revolutionary&quot; element in translation theory, and some people even consider their views to be &quot;subversive&quot; to the previous translation theories. This is mainly because they especially emphasize the status of culture in translation and the importance of translation to the spread of culture and the promotion of social and cultural progress. Other translators, such as Lambert and Robyns, argue that translation is more accurately regarded as a communication activity between two cultures than as a bilingual conversion activity. Therefore, they believe that translation activity is a cultural conversion. In recent years, Chinese scholars have done some research and reflection on the essence of translation. In the researches of many scholars, under the current globalization environment ,the importance of translation to cultural exchange and communication is getting more and more attention from people. For example, Lv Jun proposes that &quot;translation is a kind of cross-cultural information exchange activities, and its essence is dissemination. To a certain extent, the viewpoint of Chinese scholars and the Western cultural schools can be said to echo each other. Language is not only a carrier of information, but also a carrier of culture. Therefore, in essence, translation as a kind of inter-linguistic communication, it is not only the conversion of language information , but also the transplantation of cultural information. Therefore, in essence, translation is not only a language information conversion, but also a cultural communication activity.<br /> <br /> ===5. discussion domestication and foreignization from translation examples===<br /> <br /> ===5.1 Application of domestication in English-Chinese Translation===<br /> Chinese famous writer Mo Yan has won the Nobel Prize for Literature for a series of works including Fatigue of Life and Death (2006) and Frog (2009) and American sinologist Ge Haowen should also be credited , who was called “the only midwife of Mo Yan’s works”.Ge's translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out reflects his consistent principle: &quot;The author is writing for the Chinese, while I am translating for foreigners,translating is a process of rewriting”. Ge Haowen did a lot of rewriting and compilation based on respecting the original work, and in the translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out, the domesticated translation reflects his relentless pursuit of &quot;accuracy&quot;, &quot;readability&quot; and &quot;acceptability&quot;. <br /> <br /> 例一： 常言道‘螃蟹过河随大流’，‘识时务者为俊杰’，不要顽固不化，不要充当挡路的石头，不要充硬汉子。<br /> <br /> Join the commune and stop working for yourself, end your quest for independence.Stop being headstrong,and an obstructionist.<br /> <br /> “螃蟹过河随大流” is a two-part allegorical saying in Chinese folks . It means &quot;following the majority of people to speak or act&quot;. A post-slip is a short, witty phrase that can be used as a philosophical and wisdom-boosting phrase. A man who knows the times is a hero&quot; is an idiom derived from a historical allusion, meaning &quot;only those who can recognize the trend of the times can become heroes and heroines&quot;. Ge Haowen domesticated these two slang expressions: first, because they have the same meaning as the one that follows: &quot;Don't be stubborn ...... don't be a tough guy anymore&quot;, which is used to kindly advise people who are unable to see the current affairs of the day, but are still stubbornly stubborn. The deletion of these two daily phrases does not affect the main content of the narrative and the expression of ideas in the context. Secondly, there is the concern that the translation may not produce the desired effect of depth, image, and humor as the source language. And then there is the fact that the target language readers are relatively unfamiliar with Chinese slang, so it is better to delete it directly than to translate it to increase the readers' reading burden and affect their understanding and grasp of the whole text. Ge Haowen's domesticated translation method reflects his holistic view of discourse as a unit<br /> <br /> 例二：但一个二十多岁就当了县级领导干部的人，和农村姑娘结婚的可能性几乎是零，无论她貌如西施还是色比婵娟。<br /> <br /> There was no chance that a leading country-level cadre in his twenties would ever actually marry a peasant girl , no matter how pretty or fetching she might be.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaojun ,Xishi, Diao Chan and Yang Yuhuan were the main characters with unique beauty at that time in historical illusions ,named as “Four Beauties in ancient times”.In the original work, Mo Yan chose only two historical figures, &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, to contrast and emphasize the beauty of rural girls. In the process of translation, Ge did not translate &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, nor did he make any commentary, but took into account the target audience's alienation from the historical allusion to the Four Beauties. Therefore, he adopt a domesticated translation method to make a simplification, breaking the constraints of the original language and enhancing the readability of the translation, without deviating from the original meaning.<br /> In the above example, when dealing with unfamiliar allusions or common sayings and proverbs, Ge Haowen boldly rewrote and deleted them, translating the work from the reader's point of view, so that the target readers will be pleased with his translation.<br /> 5.2 The Application of Foreignization in English-Chinese Translation<br /> The nature of foreignization is such that it deals with elements of the original language that are culturally distinctive, and the result of the translation is to bring in new forms of expression that are different from the mother tongue and the cultural connotations attached to them. Language is an open system with a strong capacity for absorption and inclusion. With the deepening of communication among countries and peoples, various languages have been enriched to different degrees, and variant translation plays a more important role in this process. In Chinese, the terms &quot;internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot; are used to refer to the &quot;Internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot;. &quot;Time is money&quot;, &quot;ivory tower&quot;, &quot;washroom&quot;.... (crocodile tears), &quot;black humor&quot; , and &quot;qi gong&quot; ), &quot;taijiquan&quot; , &quot;kong fu&quot; , &quot;typhon” These words did not originally exist in the Chinese and English language systems. However, translators make a large number of words with exoticism in the way of foreignization more popular and acceptable among the massive culture . Therefore, foreignization is not only beneficial to introduce local history and culture to foreign countries, but also gives local readers the opportunity to understand foreign customs and realize the purpose of cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> 例一.打破铁饭碗<br /> <br /> Break the”iron rice bowl”<br /> <br /> &quot;Iron rice bowl&quot; is a Chinese idiom, in Chinese we compare &quot;rice bowl&quot; to an occupation, while &quot;iron rice bowl&quot; refers to a stable job, no doubt, it is difficult to convert such words with obvious Chinese characteristics into the target language through the method of &quot;domestication&quot;, but foreignization not only retains the imagery of the source language, but also introduces the unique culture of China to Western readers.<br /> 例二.下海<br /> <br /> A.to jump into the sea of business<br /> <br /> B.To turn professional<br /> <br /> In the early days of reform and opening up, the word “jumping into the sea of business” was popular, mainly meaning the trend of doing business.For this new phenomenon ,translators adopt different methods. Text A used foreignization and direct translation while the later domestication. In comparison, the former was more expressive and vivid, conveying the meaning of source language in a proper way.<br /> Domestication and foreignization is more apparent in the literary translation. Here I will take the translation of Dream of the Red Chamber as an example and compare the translations of Mr. and Mrs. Yang Xianyi ,and Mr. Hawkes. The translation of Dream of the Red Chamber by Yang Xianyi and his wife is a typical representative of foreignization, which is highly praised by domestic readers, but some scholars have conducted a survey and found that it is far inferior to the British sinologist David Hawks in terms of the number of borrowed readers, citations and reprinted editions. Why the &quot;cold shoulder&quot;? Let's find out by comparing and analyzing some examples of the two translations.<br /> <br /> 例一.刘姥姥道: “这倒不然。谋事在人，成事在天。咱们谋到了，靠菩萨的保佑，有些机会，也未可知。”<br /> <br /> A.“ Don’t be so sure,” said Granny Liu. “Man proposes, Heaven disposes. Work out a plan,trust to Buddha,and something may come of it for all you know.”<br /> <br /> B.“ I wouldn’t say that.”said Grannie Liu.”Man proposes, God disposes.It is up to us to think of something. We must leave it to the good Lord to decide whether He’ll help us or not. Who knows, he might give us the opportunity we are looking for.”<br /> <br /> Dream of the Red Chamber is a literary work full of Buddhist and Taoist thoughts. Yang Xianyi and Hawks have different approaches to the phrase“谋事在人，成事在天”， which also reflects different religious thoughts. In Yang's translation, &quot;God&quot; is replaced by &quot;Heavenly Father,&quot; which is in line with the Chinese religious belief that Heavenly Father in control of everything, while retaining the religious flavor of the source culture. However, Hawks gave priority to the religious background and acceptance of the English readers, so he adopted the English proverb directly without any modification, thus transforming the Buddhism and Taoism in the East to Christianity in the West, in accordance with western religious belief and thinking ways.<br /> The two translations have their own merits. The choice of translation strategies is based on different objectives. Mainly depending on the foreignization stategy, Mr. and Mrs. Yang tried to spread Chinese literature classics and convey Chinese traditional culture originally.However, they didn't get the desired results.One of the main reasons is that Mr. and Mrs. Yang regard faithfulness as the first priority and overemphasize the foreign culture of the translated works, neglecting to consider the reception environment and the recognition of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===6.Conclusion===<br /> With the continuous expansion of international cultural exchanges, the human cultural gap is gradually narrowing, language as an important carrier of culture has also been affected by the same, an appropriate increase in the use of &quot;foreign&quot; translation,can not only inject the new elements into domestic culture, but also promote the spread of local culture, achieve cross-cultural exchange and accelerate the process of &quot;cultural globalization&quot;. It should be pointed out foreignization is not at the expense of forgetting one's own culture, on the contrary, it is based on the familiarity with other cultures, and then carry out painstaking, creative translation work. To give more attention to &quot;alienation&quot; translation is not to deny, reject the domesticated translation method, because domestication and foreignization play an irreplaceable rol in the target language and culture.Therefore, the two translations will always co-exist and complement each other. Flexible use of foreignization and domestication is the real way of addressing the cultural conflicts.<br /> <br /> ===7.Reference===<br /> 1. 王瑛. &quot;跨文化翻译中的归化和异化.&quot; 内蒙古财经学院学报(综合版) 03(2007):83-87.<br /> <br /> 2. 周永堃. &quot;归化异化在跨文化翻译中的选择与运用——以《红楼梦》和《生死疲劳》为例.&quot; 邵阳学院学报(社会科学版) 18.01(2019):103-108.<br /> <br /> 3.王红卫. &quot;跨文化交际翻译方法:归化和异化策略.&quot; 西南民族学院学报(哲学社会科学版) 9(2002):250-253.<br /> <br /> 4.熊兵. &quot;文化交流翻译的归化与异化.&quot; 中国科技翻译 16.003(2003):5-9.<br /> <br /> 5.刘苹. &quot;中国翻译史上的归化和异化.&quot; 滨州学院学报 24.001(2008):74-75.<br />  <br /> <br /> ==The Translation Strategies of Chinese Political Discourse under the Standard of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; 高明珠 Gao Mingzhu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With the development of globalization, the political communication among countries is more and more frequent, and the translation of political terms has gradually become one of the heated topics in the translation field. Political discourse translation is challenging, because not only does it concern the relationship between countries, national status, political attitude and other important issues, but also it is developmental. Political neologisms will keep emerging, and some political terms will contain new connotations with the advancement of the times. In addition to the above characteristics, Chinese political discourse has many affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases, metaphors.In 2008, Yang Mingxing and other scholars put forward the &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; based on Eugene Nida's &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; theory for the translation of Chinese political discourse, which pointed out that the translation of political discourse should follow the three principles of &quot;political&quot;, &quot;dynamic&quot; and &quot;balanced&quot;. On the basis of some related papers, this chapter will sum up the specific strategies such as supplement, omission, keeping or converting analogical body, adding explanation and narration for translating Chinese political discourse with characteristics of having lots of affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases and metaphors following the guidance of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> political equivalence Chinese political discourse translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着全球化的发展，各国间的政治交流愈加频繁，政治话语的翻译也逐渐成为翻译界讨论热点之一。政治话语的翻译是具有挑战性的，不仅是因为它关系到国与国之间的关系、国家地位、政治态度等重要问题，而且因为政治词汇是发展性的，政治词汇中会不断有新的词汇涌进，且某些政治词汇会随着时代的发展而增加新的内涵。而中国政治话语除了具有以上特点，它还有多词缀、缩写、四字短语[1]，多用隐喻等修辞手法的特点。2008年，杨明星等学者针对中国政治话语的翻译，基于尤金·奈达的“功能对等”理论提出了“政治等效”翻译标准，该标准指出政治话语的翻译要遵循“政治性”、“动态性”、“平衡性”三大原则。本文基于相关文献，总结出在该标准下，对中国政治话语在具有多词缀、缩写、四字短语及多采用隐喻这几个特点下的翻译可采用的具体的翻译策略，如增补法、省略法[1]、喻体保留法（完全保留、部分保留）、喻体转换法、喻底补充法、喻义直叙法[2]等。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 政治等效 中国政治话语 翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction of Background===<br /> <br /> Political discourse is mainly embodied in different types of communication carriers and discourse behaviors that elaborate a country's foreign policies, governance mechanisms or political ideas, including oral expression and written expression. Oral expressions includes leaders' speeches, the contents conveyed by various government agencies' press conferences, and written expressions includes diplomatic documents, white papers, legal provisions, treaties, agreements and communiques issued by relevant state agencies. With the improvement of China's comprehensive national strength and the continuous expansion of its global influence, the study of the translation standards, principles, strategies of Chinese political discourse has become an important topic in the field of translation. A study has shown that domestic political discourse translation studies started in 2000 and entered a stage of rapid development with the convening of the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012. The current research hot spots of political discourse translation include the translation of Xi Jinping's speeches and works, the application of various translation laws and interpretive theories, the principle of political equivalence and the theory of ecological translation(Chu Xingjun 2020,36).<br /> <br /> ===2. The Significance of Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> This chapter holds that the significance of political discourse translation mainly involves two aspects----politics and linguistics. Firstly, in terms of politics, translating political discourse is to facilitate the political communication between countries, show the country's political attitude, theory and policy to the outside world. Political discourse translation plays a significant role in promoting the relationship between the countries, taking one’s stand, safeguarding one’s national interests and shaping one’s national image and so on. Secondly, in terms of linguistics, political terms are developmental. With the advance of the times and the rapid development of the world, new political terms will constantly emerge, which is also the process of language expansion. The study of the translation of new words is not only the bounden duty of translators, but also of great significance to the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Difficulties in Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> The difficulties are mainly reflected in three aspects. Firstly, the translator should correctly understand the political connotation of the source language and translate it as the target language faithfully. Secondly, different expression ways between two languages. There are rare equivalent words in both languages, so when translating the source language as the target language, the expression habits of the target language users should be taken as account, so as to facilitate the target language users to accurately understand the original meaning. Especially, Chinese political discourse often present metaphor rhetoric which may not be easy for foreigners to understand, thus when translating such words, methods that we can adopt not only include literal translation, transliteration plus explanation, but also sometimes it would be better to translate those words on the basis of the target language’s culture to make the translation more vivid and help readers understand the meaning accurately. In a word, be more flexible in adopting methods according to different cases; Finally, the same political term may have different meanings in different contexts, or it may require translators to adopt different translation methods in different contexts. In addition, the connotation of some political terms will develop with the advance of The times. Therefore, translators should keep up with current events and deal with them flexibly in translation.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Connotations of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal and connotation of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard<br /> <br /> In 2008, US Department of Defense mistranslated the term &quot;韬光养晦&quot; to propaganda &quot;China threat theory&quot;. Therefore, based on Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, a scholar, Yang Mingxing, proposed the translation concept of &quot;political equivalence&quot; for the first time from the perspective of international relations and diplomatic analysis (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). The connotation of this concept mainly involves three aspects: firstly, the translator needs to truthfully convey the political thought of the source language as well as the speaker; secondly, when translating, the translator should choose the target language according to the expression ways that the target language users get used to, so that the information and political thoughts brought by the target text to the target language users are equivalent to those brought by the source text to the source language users; Thirdly, in different contexts and historical backgrounds, the connotations of political discourse will be different. Translators' translation should keep pace with the times and be determined in accordance with the situation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). In 2012, Yang Mingxing and other scholars further proposed three prominent principles or characteristics of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; translation standard: political, balanced and dynamic (Yang Mingxing, Yan Da 2012, 35). Among them, political nature, namely accurately grasping the political connotation of the source language, is the most prominent characteristic, which is determined by the strong political color of the political terms themselves. Balance means to strike a balance among source language, target language, speaker and audience without focusing on either side, and strive to make the effect produced by the translation in the foreign readers be similar or equivalent to that produced by the original text in local readers. Dynamic means that the equivalent process mentioned above is a dynamic equivalent process. Because political terms’ connotation changes with the advance of the times and varies from different contexts, translators need to keep pace with the times, follow up the connotation development of political terms, and translate flexibly according to different situations. In 2018, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed a compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + aesthetic representation&quot; on the basis of the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; (Yang Mingxing, Qi Jingjing 2018,15). This standard was put forward in the context of the appearance of ancient poetry in political discourse. Besides meeting the requirements of &quot;political equivalence&quot; mentioned above, this standard asks to take the literary beauty of ancient poetry and prose, such as rhythm, form, artistic conception, etc as account. In January 2020, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed another compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + image representation&quot; based on the frequently used the rhetoric device metaphor in political discourse(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2018,41). The purpose of realizing &quot;image reproduction&quot; and &quot;aesthetic reproduction&quot; is basically similar, both of which are to reproduce the aesthetic experience of the original text. In October 2020, Yang Mingxing and some other scholars made a review of several major diplomatic event in the Sino-British diplomatic history and put forward that the realization of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard should not only rely on the translator's ability, but also have some connections with the national policy of translation, translation system and equal speaking rights between two countries, among which equal speaking right is the key to realize &quot;political equivalence&quot;(Yang Mingxing 2020,05).<br /> <br /> (2)The differences between “political equivalence” and “functional equivalence” put forward by Nida<br /> <br /> Firstly, the &quot;equivalence&quot; emphasized by Nida does not pay enough attention to the political color of the original text in translation, ignoring the particularity of diplomatic or political discourse, and that whether the original text and translation are quite consistent in political standpoint and political connotation. Secondly, although functional equivalence pays attention to the information equivalence between the original text and the translated text, it does not pay enough attention to the real intention of the speaker of the original text, because the literal meaning of the original text cannot be equal with the political standpoint and ideological connotation of the speaker. Thirdly, the &quot;dynamic&quot; concept Nida proposed in “functional equivalence” theory ignores the dynamic changes in context and connotation of original text and translation, that is, for diplomatic or political discourse, the meaning of the original text is contemporary and does not remain unchanged. It changes constantly with the speaker's context, political tendency and historical background at that time. On the other hand, the target language is also dynamic, because the meaning and usage of the target language are constantly changing, the translator must keep track of the latest development of the target language and the domestic political and cultural background of the target audience (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> In a word, the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; is an important theory aiming at the translation of foreign affairs, diplomacy and political discourse, and provides theoretical guidance and normative requirements for the translation of political terms.<br /> <br /> ===5. Requirements of “Political Equivalence” for Translators ===<br /> <br /> First of all, pay attention to being close to both the source language and the target language, and grasp the relationship between the speaker or writer and the audience or reader. The translation should not only accurately convey the context meaning of the source language and the speaker's real intention, but also take the language habits and the way of thinking of the target language users into consideration, so as to achieve a mutual &quot;identity&quot; between the speaker or writer and the audience or reader. The translation of political discourse should not only correctly understand and express China's policy thoughts, but also fully consider the national emotions, language habits and identity psychology of the receiving country. If the translation only focuses on one side, it will be difficult to achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; and even cause political events (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;political equivalence&quot; must be dynamic. This kind of dynamic is not only related to the accurate understanding of the original text, but also involves the proper selection and use of the target language. It must always be in line with the context and political background of the speaker or writer as well as the audience or reader, which is the key to the realization of &quot;political equivalence&quot;. To translate political discourse or terms only by looking up the dictionary without considering the context is bound to make the translation be quite different from the original in meaning (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Thirdly, translation strategies should be flexible and diversified, and language forms should be constantly adjusted. To achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; in political terms translation, the translation strategies cannot be single, rigid, and the translation either cannot be confined to the primitive form of the original text, the original and even the extended concepts or connotations of the words in it. Translators should make the necessary adjustment and bold choices in supplement and omission to the language form of the original text in accordance with the context and the real thoughts of the speaker or writer and the background of the political relationships between the two countries. Idioms, allusions, myths and fables are the quintessence of a nation's language with its own characteristics, and they are the difficulties and key points in political terms translation. There are great differences between English and Chinese rhetorical devices, so it is necessary to strictly distinguish their differences in cultural connotation and political orientation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Fourthly, we should be familiar with the differences between English and Chinese customs, cultures, national feelings and ideologies. In the era of globalization, translation is not only the transformation of language symbols, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication behavior. The translation of political discourse is closely related to the cultural background of language. Due to the differences between China and West in way of thinking and language environment, corresponding words in English and Chinese have different national emotion and political connotation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Fifthly, master the background knowledge of China's foreign policy and international relations to ensure political correctness in the translation of political terms. Many countries have such sensitive issues as appellation, ethnicity, religion, sovereignty and territory. These are the &quot;minefields&quot; of political translation. When translating, one must handle it carefully and respect the language and cultural habits of the other party, otherwise it will easily lead to &quot;translation storm&quot; and affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> lastly, the grammatical phenomena and rules peculiar to English cannot be ignored. In English, there are many grammatical rules different from Chinese, such as tense, voice, subjunctive mood, singular and plural, case, article, etc. These language forms seem to have little effect, but if used improperly, they will often affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> ===6. Translation Straties under The Standard of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of the standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot;, the following translation strategies are provided for reference on the characteristics of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> (1) Characteristics of Chinese political discourse<br /> <br /> Affixes are often seen in Chinese political discourse such as “化” in &quot;现代化&quot; and &quot;城镇化&quot;, so are abbreviations like &quot;‘十四五’规划&quot;, &quot;四个自信&quot;, etc., and four-character phrases such as &quot;和平共处&quot;, &quot;和而不同&quot;, etc. Besides, metaphor is also used frequently in Chinese political discourse such as &quot;‘老虎’、‘苍蝇’一起打&quot;, among which &quot;老虎(tiger)&quot; and &quot;苍蝇(flies)&quot; refer to officials accused of bribery and corruption. So, how do we translate these words that have Chinese language characteristics but need us to take their political implications as consideration? Pointing at these characteristics, some scholars have proposed specific translation strategies based on the &quot;political equivalence&quot;standard.<br /> <br /> (2) The strategies of supplement and omission for affixes, four-character phrases and abbreviations(Wu Jing 2014, 30)<br /> <br /> ① supplement<br /> <br /> The supplement strategy is to add words appropriately in the translation so as to convey the meaning of the original text accurately. In the foreign translation of Chinese political terms, this strategy is mainly applicable to two situations. Firstly, the abbreviation, which is a refined utterance of many political words for the convenience of memory. When the target language users don’t have relevant knowledge or language background about those abbreviations, supplementary explanation plays its role. Secondly, four-character phrases. Four-character phrases are typical examples of Chinese expressions. In order to conform to the expression habits of the target language, these condensed words should be supplemented and explained so that the audience can understand the meaning of the original text correctly.<br /> <br /> The strategy of supplement can be applied to the following situations: firstly, supplement relevant knowledge background. For example, “‘十四五’规划”is translated by China Daily as “the 14th Five-Year Plan(2021-25) for economic and social development”. In the translation, “十四”is translated as “the 14th” and“五” is translated as “Five-Year”, which adds category words to those numbers and time horizon as well as the nature of the plan to the content; Secondly, supplement detailed content to abbreviations. For example,“四个自信”is translated as “confidence in the path, theory, system and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics.”<br /> <br /> ②Omission<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belong to two kinds of language families, having great differences from vocabulary to the sentence structure, expression ways, etc. There are very little equivalent words in the two languages, so in order to make the translation smoother and be more in line with the expression ways of the target language, translator can use the strategy----omission, namely omitting those expressions without practical significance but hindering translation work, on the basis of being loyal to the original text.<br /> <br /> The strategy of omission is often used in the process of translation from Chinese to English, and the translation of Chinese political terms is no exception. For emphasizing, Chinese political leaders often use parallel sentences or repeated words, so we can omit those repeated words in the translation. For example, “治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字仍然在扩大。”can be translated as “Governance, trust, development and peace deficits continue to grow.” In addition, there are situations where multiple sentences express the same meaning, in which omission is also available. For example, “改善人民生活，增进人民福祉。”can be translated as “improve people’s livelihood”.<br /> <br /> (3) Translation strategies for metaphor<br /> <br /> Metaphor refers to the use of known figurative concepts to explain abstract concepts in diplomatic discourse. The translation standard and strategies of metaphor are determined by their inherent special attributes, which are not only the key factors to select their translation strategies, but also the important yardstick to test whether those strategies are applicable(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41). Metaphor is an objective phenomenon that has existed in political discourse for a long time. Its special attributes are reflected in political discourse, such as high political sensitivity, high cultural load and strong national characteristics. In view of the strong political sensitivity of diplomatic discourse, plain and direct words in political discourse is often empty of words, which is difficult to produce obvious communicative effect in foreign relations. In most cases, metaphorical discourse can be used to imply and disseminate a country's diplomatic ideas, attitudes and positions to achieve better communication effects (Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41).<br /> <br /> Through reading relevant papers, this chapter finds that the translation strategies proposed by scholars for metaphorical rhetoric in political discourse are mainly as follows(Long Xinyuan, Li Qiuxia 2020, 27):<br /> <br /> ① Literal translation of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> Although English and Chinese belong to different language families, and the cultural background and geographical area on which they live are also different, language is created by human beings, and human emotions always have something in common. At the same time, human beings live in the same world, especially in an increasingly integrated world like today, where the communication between human beings and the collision between cultures are inevitable. As a result, we are becoming more tolerant and understanding of different cultures and languages. When translating metaphorical words with cultural characteristics, we can render the metaphorical words in literal translation under the condition that the audience can understand them correctly, which is easier to arouse emotional resonance and cultural identity.<br /> <br /> For example, “新时代的长征路” is translated as &quot;Long March of the new era&quot;. The original text compares China's development path in the new era to the new Long March. In Chinese history, the Long March was a bloody road trodden by the communist party of China to save the country and the people. On the one hand, the literal translation of &quot;The Long March&quot; retains the historical allusions used in the original text, so that the audience can understand its meaning only by a simple association. On the other hand, it is more conducive to show the national spirit of China.<br /> <br /> ② Substitution of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> After all, differences are greater than similarities between different languages, so sometimes adopting literal translation in the text using metaphor does not make the audience clear, but may mislead. However, different metaphorical entities are often used to express the same abstract concept between Chinese and English. At this time, in order to make the audience better understand and accept the original metaphor, translator can replace the original metaphorical entities with those referring to same thing in the target language, which can also improve the external communication effect of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> For example, foreign ministry spokesman Hua Chunying once said:”The US wants to make China a scapegoat(对于美国的花式‘甩锅’，我们不想接也不能接。).”“甩锅”is an internet buzzword in China used to vividly express the meaning of shifting the blame onto someone else. And “scapegoat” originates from an allusion in the Bible which has the same meaning with the Chinese word “甩锅”(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41), so translator made a conversion between the two words. In this way, English readers can better understand the political connotation of the original sentence. However, if adopting literal translation, English readers won’t understand.<br /> <br /> ③literal translation+explanation<br /> <br /> In some other cases, either literally translating those metaphorical entities or using corresponding ones to substitute them cannot eliminate the language barrier caused by cultural differences, then translator can adopt the strategy of “literal translation+explanation”, which is to literally translate the metaphor entity and then add explanation to it. In this way, the translation not only keeps the cultural characteristics of the source language while making English readers be clear with the meaning of them, but also contributes to the spread of Chinese culture to the outside world.<br /> <br /> For an instance, “不能腐的笼子越扎越牢”is translated as “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption has been strengthened”. The Chinese words “笼子”refers to the strict management institutions against corruption set up by Chinese government. Comparing the institution to the cage makes the action of fighting against corruption become more vivid. However, for English readers, it is hard to understand the original political connotation according to a simple word “cage”, so translator needs to add some explanations like “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption.” As a result, the meaning is clear and vivid.<br /> <br /> ④abandoning the figurative body and translate its connotation directly<br /> <br /> Metaphor, as a figure of speech, is highly culture-loaded, while political discourse is a kind of words with high political sensitivity. These characteristics make the translation of Chinese political discourse more difficult, and it is inevitable that translators may meet the situation where they cannot easily balance and take all these characteristics into consideration. At this time, the translator should choose to abandon the figurative body and keep the metaphorical meaning, after all, it is the first important thing to convey the correct political implication.<br /> <br /> For example, “保障‘米袋子’、‘菜篮子’安全”is translated as “ensure the security of grain supply and non-staple food supply”,among which the Chinese words “米袋子(rice bag)”and“菜篮子(vegetable basket)”refer to major grain supply and non-staple food supply respectively. Because rice is the staple food in most ares of China while vegetable is the complementary food, such a metaphor is very vivid and down to earth. However, it's hard for foreigners to understand the meaning of &quot;rice bag&quot; or &quot;vegetable basket&quot; without a similar living environment, so we have to discard the original figurative body and translate its meaning directly.<br /> <br /> ===7. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the summary of the above-mentioned translation strategies pointing at different situations in translating Chinese political discourse, we can see that every strategy follows the three principles under the standard of &quot;political equivalence” ---- political, balance and dynamic. Every translation strategy takes the correct transition of the political implications of the original text as the first rule, namely being political; and then keeps the cultural or linguistic characteristics of the original text as much as possible, namely keeping balance; additionally, adopting appropriate translation strategies according to different contexts or situations, namely being dynamic. The translation of political discourse has its particularity and is of great importance, so it is necessary to be careful when choosing translation strategies. Translators should not only have high linguistic literacy and fair political standpoint, but also keep up with current events, correctly and fully understand the political meaning of the original text, and make specific analysis according to different contexts and occasions to adopt the most appropriate translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===8. References===<br /> <br /> [1]楚行军. 中国政治话语翻译研究二十年(2000—2019)[Studies on the Translation of Chinese Political Discourse over the past 20 years(2000-2019)]——基于中国知网的分析[J]. 焦作师范高等专科学校学报,2020,36(03):24-27+40.<br /> <br /> [2]吴静. 基于“政治等效”的中国政治新词翻译策略解析[An analysis of translation strategies of Chinese new political terms on the basis of &quot;political equivalence&quot;][J]. 兰州文理学院学报(社会科学版),2014,30(01):95-98.<br /> <br /> [3]龙新元,李秋霞. “政治等效+认知趋同”：认知翻译观视阈下的政治文本翻译研究[&quot;Political Equivalence + Cognitive Convergence&quot; : A Study of political Text translation from the perspective of cognitive Translation][J]. 天津外国语大学学报,2020,27(05):104-120+161.<br /> <br /> [4]杨明星. 论外交语言翻译的“政治等效”——以邓小平外交理念“韬光养晦”的译法为例[The application of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; in diplomatic Language Translation -- Taking Deng Xiaoping's diplomatic idea &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2008,(05):90-94.<br /> <br /> [5]杨明星,闫达. “政治等效”理论框架下外交语言的翻译策略——以“不折腾”的译法为例[Translation strategies of diplomatic language under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;-- Taking the translation of &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2012,35(03):73-77.<br /> <br /> [6]杨明星,齐静静. 外交修辞的复合性翻译标准:“政治等效+审美再现”——以国家领导人外交演讲古诗文为例[The composite translation standard of diplomatic rhetoric: &quot;Political equivalence + aesthetic reproduction&quot; -- taking the ancient poems and essays in diplomatic speeches of national leaders as an example][J]. 中国外语,2018,15(06):89-96+109.<br /> <br /> [7]杨明星,赵玉倩. “政治等效+”框架下中国特色外交隐喻翻译策略研究[A research on translation strategies of metaphors in diplomatic discorses with Chinese characteristics under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence plus&quot;][J]. 中国翻译,2020,41(01):151-159+190.<br /> <br /> [8]杨明星,张琰. 中英外交翻译中“政治等效”与话语平等辩证关系分析——从马戛尔尼使华到共建“一带一路”(1792-2019)[Dialectical relationship between &quot;political equivalence&quot; and discourse equality in diplomatic translation between China and Britain -- from macartney's mission period to &quot;One Belt And One Road&quot; period(1792-2019)][J]. 上海翻译,2020,(05):24-29+94.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Appreciation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> == Study of Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden'' from the Stylistic Perspective 袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi 202020080664==<br /> &lt;center&gt;袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'' is a classic literary work of Henry David Thoreau, which has become a classic work in the Treasure house of American literature. The Chinese translator Xu Chi first translated it into China, and since then ''Walden'' has been retranslated and republished for many times. In China, the version of ''Walden'' translated by Xu Chi is the most widely spread and influential one, and has been highly regarded as a classic translation. There hve been a lot of studies on ''Walden'' both at home and abroad, such as studies on the ecology of the book, studies on birth background and living conditions of the author Henry David Thoreau, and systematic studies on Chinese translation version of ''Walden'' under different theoretical frameworks. However, there are few studies on Chinese translations of ''Walden'' from stylistic perspective. This paper will focus on the lexical, syntactic and rhetorical features of Xu Chi’s translation and analyze their stylistic effects. It is hoped that this study will be of certain value to the translation studies of ''Walden'' and the literary translation criticism from the stylistic perspective.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'', Chinese Translation of ''Walden'' by Xu Chi , Stylistics<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从文体学角度看《瓦尔登湖》徐迟译本<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》是亨利·大卫·梭罗的经典文学作品，已经成为美国文学宝库中的经典之作。中国译者徐迟首先将其译入国内，此后《瓦尔登湖》多次被重译再版。在中国，徐迟翻译的《瓦尔登湖》汉译本流传最广、影响最大，而且一直被推崇为“译文经典”。对于《瓦尔登湖》的研究，在国内和国外有很多，例如对散文涉及生态的研究，对于作者亨利·戴维·梭罗出生背景和生活状况的研究，以及不同的理论框架下对于《瓦尔登湖》中文翻译版本的系统研究。但是从文体学角度研究《瓦尔登湖》中译本的不多。本文着重探讨徐迟译本在词汇、句法、修辞层面上的特征，分析其文体效果。希望本研究对《瓦尔登湖》的翻译研究及从文体学视角开展文学翻译批评具有一定的参考价值。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》、徐迟中译本、文体学<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau and ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a collection of essays written by American writer Henry David Thoreau. Henry David Thoreau was born in 1817 and died in 1862. He was a famous writer, philosopher, representative of Transcendentalism, abolitionist of slavery and naturalist in the United States. He was deeply influenced by Emerson. He advocated returning to original mind and being close to nature. Thoreau created more than 20 first-class prose collections in his whole life. His essays are concise and powerful, simple and natural, full of thought, which hava unique style in American proses in the 19th century. In 1845, he lived in seclusion by Walden lake, two miles away from Concord. He cultivated and ate by himself and experienced a simple and close to nature life. Thoreau loved, appreciated and immersed in nature. He understood the world through nature and regarded the world as a whole for people to appreciate and enjoy. He advocated simple life, so he abandoned all material enjoyment and pursued spiritual enrichment. With a keen thinking of a philosopher and rigorous spirit of science, Thoreau put himself into the embrace of nature and explored everything around him.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a record of Thoreau’s life when he lived alone by Walden lake. ''Walden'' is composed of 18 essays, which record Thoreau's hands-on life by walden lake for two months from 1845 to 1847. This book advocates simple life, appeals readers to return to nature, and expresses Thoreau's love for nature. The simple way of life in the book reflects Thoreau’s view of nature.This book has certain philosophical significance as well as artistic and aesthetic value.<br /> ''Walden'' is a Transcendentalist classic and is recognized as the most popular non-fiction work in American literature. After more than 100 years of circulation, the book has become a classic in American literature. So far, it has been published in more than 150 editions and translated into more than 40 languages. <br /> Thoreau’s own practice in Walden lake and his works have a consistent proposition, that is, returning to nature. In his works, he constantly pointed out that most of modern people are trapped by family, work and various material needs, thus lost their spiritual pursuit and lived a materialistic life. Thoreau persisted in the pursuit of spiritual happiness and rejected material comforts. This is why Thoreau lived a simple life by Walden lake, enjoying a life of leisure while his neighbors pursued a life of wealth and material comforts, enslaved by their own desires.<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Xu Chi and His Translation of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi=====<br /> Xu Chi is famous for his poems, essays and reportage. He was once awarded by Mao Zedong's inscription of “poetry expresses ambition”, and he was known as &quot;Contemporary Chinese Goethe&quot; and &quot;Father of Reportage&quot;.<br /> Another little-known identity of this famous Chinese writer is being as a translator. He not only wrote poems, essays, reportages, novels and reviews, but also translated and introduced a large number of foreign literary works, with a total of 10 million words in his life.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden''=====<br /> In 1949, Xu translated Walden into Chinese called &quot;华尔腾&quot;, which failed to elicit widespread attention because at that time, people all over China were immersedin the joy of gaining cmancipation from feudalism and imperialism, so that ''Walden'',promoting tranquility and transcendentalism, was ignored.<br /> In 1982, Xu Chi retranslated it and titled it &quot;瓦尔登湖&quot;, which was so popular that it was republished for many times since then. Xu's version of ''Walden'' chosen in this study is its second edition, published in 1982, to which Xu Chi added a preface to present information about Thoreau and comments on ''Walden''. To some extent, readers are able to have a glimpse of Xu's own emotions and thoughts in his translation of ''Walden''. <br /> Xu Chi usually selected and translated works that were close to his own nature and could move him, because only in this way, he could have more resonance with the writers and their works, and reproduced the style of the original author. For Xu Chi, he expressed his own feelings and thoughts through translating these writers'works to a certain extent (Yao Junwei, 2005:146). Only when his soul was in harmony with Thoreau's, did Xu Chi love this book so much and rised to translating this book. It was in the summer of 1949 that Xu Chi began to translate Thoreau's ''Walden''. Because Xu Chi was extremely fond of this book, he spent lots of efforts in translating this famous work. In the first stage of translation, he tried to understand the meaning of the original work, hoping to be able to deeply understand the original work. He confessed that it was a very profound book which is full of translation challenges. He was very busy during the day, so he sometimes couldn't read it.Because this book was too difficult to understand, it seemed that this book was suddenly not so interseting and attractive to him, and it seemed that it was of no benefit to translate it. However, he found that his mood gradually became peaceful after dusk. When he read this book at this time, he suddenly felt the book quite interesting. What he saw was the chapters that could’t be seen in the daytime. The language was amazing, the words were shining, and his heart was touched. When the ningt became quiet, the book became not so obscure. Under the recitation, he could not help but be fascinated by it (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).<br /> His most successful translation is ''Walden'', which he translated first in 1949, then again in 1982 and in 1996. The masterpiece of David Thoreau, a famous American transcendentalist writer, still shines brightly in the vast Chinese translated literature. In recent ten years, there have been more than 20 new translations of ''Walden'', but Xu Chi's translation is still regarded as the best translation and is the first choice for many presses to publish as Chinese translations of ''Walden'' in recent years. Although there are many Chinese translations of ''Walden'', most of them take Xu Chi's translation as a reference (Wang Zhao 2009, 147), which indicates the authority of Xu Chi's translation.<br /> <br /> ====Style and Styllistics====<br /> =====Style=====<br /> Originated from the Latin or Greek word &quot;stile&quot; or &quot;stilus&quot;, &quot;style&quot; originally refers to a sharp instrument made of metal or bone, used as a writing tool, and later symbolizes a way of writing. At first, it was mainly used in writing. As time goes by, its application has been broadened into areas like music, dance, painting, fashion, behavior,literature, architecture and so on. As it has been mentioned in the introduction part, the research object ''Walden'' is a piece of literary work, consequently, this thesis will mainly study literary style.<br /> Since ancient times, style has always been the object of people's study. Aristotle, Cicero, Demetrius, and Quintilian all used style as an appropriate decoration for thought. This view prevailed throughout the Renaissance, when devices of style could be classified. An essayist or orator needs to construct his or her point of view by means of exemplary sentences and prescribed kinds of &quot;figures&quot; that conform to his or her mode of discourse.<br /> For a long time, the definition of style has remained varied, and different scholars have given different definitions of it. It is unnecessary and impractical here to list them all. Some definitions will be given below to help us understand what style is.<br /> One of the most successful attempts to define style in a comprehensive way is Leech and Short’s (1981). Although claiming that “unsuccessful attempts to attach a precise meaning” to the term “style” have often resulted in an impoverishment of the subject , they offer a list of the items forming the basis of their own concept of style, which can be summarized as follows:<br /> (a) Style is a way in which language is used; therefore it consists in choices made from the repertoire of the language; <br /> (b) A style is defined in terms of a domain of language use (e.g. what choices are made by a particular author, in a particular genre, or in a particular text);<br /> (c) Literary stylistics is typically concerned with explaining the relation between style and literary or aesthetic function;<br /> (d) Stylistic choice is limited to those aspects of linguistic choice which concern alternative ways of rendering the same subject matter.<br /> Nida Eugene (1982, 12) defines that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”So in translation of literary works, the author’s style should be represented through the translator’s style, and the translator’s style should depend on the style of the author. Many translators are good at representing different writers’styles and yet has its own unique translation style.<br /> The broad view of style includes the elements of linguistic style and non-linguistic style. Among them, the elements of language style mainly include the means of language style, such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structure and rhetorical devices, and the elements of non-language style include the author's emotion factor, the author's imagination factor and the author's intelligence factor. The narrow sense of style only involves the author's means of language style and rhetorical style (Lv Jun &amp; Hou Xiangqun 2001, 320).<br /> In conclude, translation (especially literary translation) as an across-culture process dose not only focus on the content of source text but also the style which is about how the writers write. Therefore, it is essential for a translator to know how to figure out the style of source text and reproduce it with target language.<br /> <br /> =====Styllistics=====<br /> Stylistics is a comprehensive frontier discipline that studies the characteristics, essence and laws of text forms, and is in the ascendant between linguistics, literature and art, aesthetics, psychology and other disciplines.<br /> It is difficult to determine when stylistics became a field of academic study. It can be argued, however, that it was not until the late 1950s that stylistics began to make significant and measurable progress. This is a young frontier discipline that is growing over time. Stylistics has developed into a well-targeted and technically effective interdisciplinary field of study, which is expected to provide useful insights for literary criticism and literature teaching. It has also been influencing translation criticism. Modern stylistics provides an important theoretical basis for translation studies. As far as the development of the subject of translation is concerned, stylistics has been recognized for its value and function. <br /> Modern stylistics uses the tools of formal linguistic analysis coupled with the methods of literary criticism; its goal is to try to isolate characteristic uses and functions of language and rhetoric rather than advance normative or prescriptive rules and patterns.<br /> <br /> =====Language Style and Stylistic Features of ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a masterpiece of prose style. It is concise, eloquent and profound in thought. Just as he pursues the simplest life, his language style of ''Walden'' can be summarized into four points: concise writing, accurate description, incisive argument, and pithy argumentation and causal narration. <br /> ''Walden'' is also a book aimed directly at the reader. Anyone who read this book feels that they are listening to and sharing Thoreau's ideals. This book is not easy for readers to understand, especially those who read it for the first time. Correspondingly, the prominent stylistic characteristics of ''Walden'' are manifested in four aspects: exquisite scenic description, complex syntax, various rhetorical devices and rich quotations．<br /> So it is helpful for the translator to understand the original text and reproduce the stylistic equivalence in the translation. Therefore, the translator should fully understand his stylistic characteristics, which is the premise of reproducing his style in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===Stylistic Features of ''Walden''===<br /> ====Lexical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Degree of Formality=====<br /> There are a lot of obsolete and old words in ''Walden''and the use of these words makes the book more flavor, solemn and elegant. However, the use of these words will also bring great trouble to the translation at the same time. It is difficult for the translators to grasp these words, so they can not use literal translation but use creative way to make readers feel what the author wants to express in this book.<br /> In ''Walden'', Thoreau uses concise words to demonstrate his own ideas, natural scenery and cultural customs of Walden Lake. Unlike official documents, regulations, or academic creations, general style of ''Walden'' suggests that Thoreau’s choice of words is less formal. This section aims to analyze the degree of formality of nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the Xu Chi’s translation. In terms of nouns, Xu Chi tends to choose words with literary charm and formal style, which are not suitable for the informal style of the original text.<br /> Example 1：<br /> …；where the washing is not put out, nor the fire, nor the mistress, and perhaps you are sometimes requested to move from off the trap—door; when the cook would descend into the cellar, and learn whether the ground is solid or hollow beneath you without stamping．(Thoreau 2012, 277—278)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：在那罩，洗瀣物不比晒在外面，炉火不熄，女主人也不会生气，也许有时要你移动一下，让厨子从地板门里走下地窖去，而你不用蹬脚就可以知道你的脚下是虚是实。 (徐迟 2009, 270)<br /> The passage describes part of Thoreau’s dream of a bigger house for more people. The original text provides a natural and causal description of the scenes and activities in Thoreau's dream house. There are five commas and a period in this 47-word sentence with employment of concrete nouns，the structure of the original is loose and casual. As can be seen from the above, &quot;washing&quot; in Xu's translation is loosely understood as “洗涤物” which means the process of eliminating unnecessary ingredients through detergent, which is formal in Chinese. Xu Chi reproduced the content of‘'the washing’’but he ignored the degree of formality in choosing word, thus falling to deliver the casualness reflected by the original text．<br /> Because ''Walden'' is full of depictions of landscape, adjectives are indispensable in Thoreau's creation of various images and pictures, as well as his insightful comments. Let us look at a example of it.<br /> Example 2：<br /> Often the poor man is not so cold and hungry as he is dirty and ragged and gross．(Thoreau 2012, 85)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：往往是那个穷人，邋遢、褴褛又粗野，但并没有途堡查选。(徐迟 2009, 83)<br /> The first adjective “poor” is used as an antecedent modifier and the other five adjectives are used as predicates. With the six adjectives being short and plain, the original text is generally of informal style. Xu transfered “cold and hungry” into a four-character noun phrase“冻馁之忧”which means “sufferings from cold and hunger.” However, this phrase is somewhat old-fashioned and is too formal to keep in line with the original style．Besides，it appears uncoordinated with three adjectives“邋遢、褴褛又粗野”being placed before the noun phrase“冻馁之忧”. So, it is not appropriate to reflect the original style.<br /> Verbs are also frequently employed in ''Walden'' to depict the fighting between animals or other activities. The degree of formality marked by verbs is the target of the study here. <br /> Example 3：<br /> I took up the chip on which the three I have particularly described were struggling, carried it into my house，and placed it under a tumbler on my window-sill，in order to see the issue．(Thoreau 2012, 262-263)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation：<br /> 我特别描写的三个战士在同一张木片上搏斗，我把这张木片拿进我的家里，放在我的窗槛上。罩在一个大杯子下面，以便考察结局。(徐迟 2009, 256)<br /> As we can see from the examples, these verbs are short and common in our everyday speech. They come mainly from Anglo-Saxon English and have informal stylistic characteristics. Therefore, the style of the original text is informal and should be preserved in Chinese translation. In this sentence, Thoreau prepared to wait and see with interest how the battle between the ants would go on after a series of arrangements. Xu Chi translated the word “see” into “考察”which sounds serious and formal, because “考察”means carefully checking certain items or situations, and is often used in formal situations, such as “考察人” or “考察情况”. So, Xu's version deviates from the original natural and informal flavor.<br /> <br /> =====Expressive Meaning=====<br /> Roman Jakobson, building on Karl Bühler (1934), coined the term expressive or emotive for one of the functions of language. He describes it as the function focused on the ADDRESSER [speaker], aims a direct expression of the speaker's attitude toward what he is speaking about (Jakobson 1960, 354) and gives interjections as the prime example of this function.<br /> It is worthy of our attention that differences between words in terms of expressive meaning are not simply equal to a matter of whether an expression of a certain attitude or evaluation is reproduced or not. The same attitude or evaluation may be expressed to widely varying degrees of forcefulness.<br /> Example 4：It is said that a flood-tide, with a westerly wind，and ice in the Neva, would sweep St. Petersburg from the face of the earth. (Thoreau 2012, 22)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：据说，涅瓦河要是涨了水，刮了西风，流来的冰块可以把圣彼得堡一下子大地的表面上冲掉的。 (徐迟 2009, 21)<br /> According to the Oxford Advanced English-Chinese Dictionary, &quot;sweeping&quot; is the act of sudden movement (of weather, fire, etc.), forcing a movement in an area or in a particular direction. In the original context, the combination of “flood tides, westerly winds, and ice” was destructive and therefore clearly detrimental to St.Petersburg. So the word &quot;sweep&quot; here reflects the speaker's negative attitude toward the possible outcome. Obviously, the word “冲掉” in Xu Chi’s translation is a neutral term and does not reflect the speaker’s attitude or feelings towards the potential disaster caused by flood tide, westerly winds and snow. Xu ignored the author’s emotional attitude, thus ignoring the influence that these forces may cause, and did not produce systematic equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====Syntactic Features of ''Walden''====<br /> Raffel (1994) points out that &quot;the syntax of prose shows the style of the author, and the reproduction of the original style is the key to prose translation which stresses not only what message says, but also how the message is said.&quot; So, the syntactic features of ''Walden'' should never be ignored.<br /> In the original text, short sentences in English have neat structure and harmonious rhythm. Xu Chi did not change the original structure in translation, but adopted literal translation. The so-called literal translation is to retain the content and language expression habits of the original text as well as the form and style of the original text under the condition that the target language allows. Since Both Chinese and English are discourse systems and they have something in common, literal translation is a good way to deal with them.<br /> Example 5:<br /> It is no dream of mine， To ornament a line; I cannot come nearer to God and Heaven, than I live to Walden even． I am its stony shore, and the breeze that passes o’er; In the hollow of my hand Are its water and its sand, and its deepest resort Lies high in my thought. (Thoreau 2012, 137) <br /> Xu Chi’s Translation:<br /> 这不是我的梦，用于装饰一行诗;我不能更接近上帝和天堂甚于我之生活在瓦尔登。我是它的圆石岸，飘拂而过的风;在我掌握的一握，是它的水，它的沙，而它的最深邃僻隐处,高高躺在我的思想中。 (Xu Chi 2012, 151)<br /> The translation of this paragraph has a neat structure, neat antithesis, and pays attention to the regularity and rhythm of the literal. The original is composed of ten verses and the translation retains the original format, which can increase the depth and appeal of the translation, thus producing artistic effect and aesthetic value.<br /> <br /> ====Rhetorical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Metaphor=====<br /> Metaphor means to &quot;shift a word from its original meaning to another word that is generally not interchangeable but similar, and to emphasize its identity, that is, the two are similar but not a simile&quot;.<br /> Example 6: <br /> Public opinion is a weak tyrant compared with our own private opinion. (Thoreau, 7)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation: 和我们的自知之明相比较，公众舆论这暴戾的君主也显得微弱无力。(徐迟，6）<br /> The ontology and metaphor in this sentence are &quot;public opinion&quot; and &quot;weak tyrant.&quot; There must be something similar between them. The following statement gives the reason: &quot;Compared to our own private opinions&quot;, which is quite clear. People are used to focusing on themselves in front of others, so public opinion is only slightly weak. The subtle use of metaphor shows Thoreau's wisdom and thorough understanding of human nature. Xu Chi dealt with this metaphor perfectly.<br /> =====Pun=====<br /> Puns are deliberately declared polysemous words or homonyms created with double meaning in a certain language environment, with implicit, humorous and profound effects. Newmark (2001, 217) points out that &quot;pun translation is unimportant but fascinating&quot;. The use of puns in Walden is remarkable.<br /> The basic function of pun in ''Walden'' is to express logical relations. Because puns can express two levels of meaning in a word, phrase, or sentence, they are often used as a link between the text before and after it. A key problem that haunts the reader when reading ''Walden'' is the lack of connection between the two passages. A clear logical relationship is a prerequisite for expressing other special effects, such as rhetorical and aesthetic effects. Therefore, the improper translation of puns will seriously affect logical coherence and other rhetorical devices.<br /> Example 7：<br /> If the name was not derived from that of some English locality - Saffron Walden, for instance, one might suppose that it was called originally Walled-in Pond. (Thoreau 2012, 209)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation: 如果这个湖名不是由当地一个叫萨福隆•瓦尔登的英国人的名字化出来的话，——那么，我想瓦尔登湖原来的名字可能是围而得湖。(徐迟 2009, 172)<br /> This classic example of puns has been discussed many times. Thoreau suggested that &quot;Walden&quot; might come from “Walled-in”. &quot;Walled-in Pond&quot;, as ahomophonic pun, serves as the logic link of the whole paragraph. Xu wisely translates it as “围而得”, retaining not only the similar pronunciation but also the importance of meaning. “围而得” maintains the logical relation of the whole paragraph.It is eye-catching and stimulates readers to think more about Thoreau's intentions to use this word.<br /> <br /> =====Personification=====<br /> Personification refers to &quot;the practice of representing a person, quality, or characteristic as a human being in art and literature.&quot; People subconsciously tend to reflect non-human things with their lives in order to express their feelings and thoughts. In view of the characteristics of human behavior, literary works can vividly express the feelings of the author, and make readers feel that the description of the object is more vivid and appropriate, which makes the article more vivid.<br /> Example 8：<br /> This further experience also I gained：I said to myself,1 will not plant beans and corn with so much industry another summer，but such seeds, if the seed is not lost, as sincerity, truth, simplicity, faith, innocence, and the like, and see if they will not grow in this soil，even with less toil and manurance，and sustain me, for surely it has not been exhausted for these crops. (Thoreau 2012, 186-187)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation:<br /> 我还获得了下面的更丰富的经验：我对我自己说，下一个夏天，我不要花那么大的劳力来种豆子和玉米了，我将种这样<br /> 这样一些种子像诚实、真理、纯朴、信心、天真等等，如果这些种子并没有失落，看看它们能否在这片土地上生长，能否以较少劳力和肥料；来维持我的生活，因为，地力一定还没消耗到不能种这些东西。 (徐迟 2009, 182)<br /> Thoreau here is sharing his experience in growing beans and his plans next summer with readers. As we know, words like “sincerity,truth，simplicity, faith and innocence” usually refer to qualities of human. But here, these words are adopted to describe the characteristics of seeds and humanize these seeds，constructing a vivid personification. Xu Chi reproduce the rhetorical feature of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The language of ''Walden'' is rich in vocabulary, complex and diverse sentence structure, the author's writing is flexible and fluent, and the use of various rhetoric makes the translation work more difficult. <br /> To sum up, Xu Chi’s translation appears more formal than the original text and some words of his translation can not reflect the expressive meaning of the original one. It is found that Xu Chi tended to use words with typical features of his time which seem out of date at present. But due to the time he lived in, we believe that Xu Chi’s version satisfied the need or linguistic expectation of the target readers of his time which has its significance. We also find that sentences in Xu's translation follow the syntax of English language. Xu Chi kept the structure beauty of the original work properly, respected the original work and kept the structure orderly, directly conveying Thoreau's thoughts and feelings. And Xu Chi indeed do well in reflecting rhetorical features of the original text, which is refered by many translators later. In general, Xu Chi's translation is close to the original text in style and language characteristics and is a classic translation of ''Walden''.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ==A Comparison Beteewn the Translation Systems Proposed by Tan Zai and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation. 王美玲 Wang Meiling==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;王美玲 Wang Meiling&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> The Renaissance is the fourth peak in the history of Western translation and a great development in the history of Western literature. During the 16th century and the period following the Renaissance in Europe, translation reached an unprecedented climax in the fields of thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion. At that time, the German translation of the Bible by the Martin Luther is the most well-known one in the whole translation circle, and its influence is unique and long-standing in Germany as well as in the whole Europe continent. Since the Reform and Opening-up, China has gradually stepped into the center of the world arena, and its literary works bearing the quintessence of Chinese culture has become a crucial bridge connecting the rest of the world with China. Despite the rise of machine translation, it can never replace the overwhelming role of human translation in the literary translation. Luther’s translation thoughts have exerted an important influence on the development of Western translation theories, so what sparks can be drawn between his translation principles and Chinese modern culture and literary works? This paper makes a brief comment on the main translation activities of renaissance, then compares the translation thoughts of Luther and Lu Xun, and applies Luther’s detailed translation rules to the actual translation practice,finally analyzes the influence of Luther’s translation thoughts and principles on modern translation practice and their significance for reference.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Renaissance; Luther; literary works; translation principles; influence;<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴运动是西方翻译史的第四次高潮，也是西方文学史上的一次大发展。文艺复兴在欧洲普遍开展的16世纪以及随后一个时期，翻译活动达到了前所未有的高峰，深入思想、政治、哲学、文学宗教等各个领域。在整个翻译界，德国马丁·路德的《圣经》德译本是该时期最负盛名的译本，其影响不论是在德国乃至整个欧洲都是独一无二且源远流长的。改革开放以来，中国日益走进世界舞台中央，承载着中华文化精髓的文学作品成为了重要桥梁。纵然机器翻译兴起，但绝不能替代人工翻译在文学翻译领域的绝对性地位。路德的翻译思想对西方翻译理论的发展产生了重要影响，那么其翻译思想和理论原则与中国当代文化及文学作品又能擦出什么样的火花呢？本文将通过对文艺复兴时期的主要翻译活动进行简评，再对比路德与鲁迅的翻译思想，接着将路德的翻译细则运用到实际的翻译实践中，分析路德的翻译思想及理论原则对于当代翻译实践的影响以及借鉴意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴；路德；文学作品；翻译原则；影响；<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> The Protestant Reformation Movement in Germany in the 16th century ushered in a new era of translation and dissemination of Bible.Under the protection of Protestantism, Martin Luther devoted himself to the German translation of the Bible. By the time of 1544 Luther’s death, 430 versions of his Bible translation had been published. In order to make common people more directly understand the meaning of the Bible, Martin Luther translated it in national language. He insisted on his translation thought and fought against the church power and his opponents. He made unremitting efforts in the great project of the Bible translation, which promoted the unification of German language and created a graceful literary language.His translation thoughts are still of great significance to the current translation theory and practice.&quot;First of all, from a historical point of view, translation has two main functions in promoting the birth and development of national culture and the transformation of national culture into world culture: one is to promote cultural exchange; the other is to disseminate ideas.&quot;<br /> <br /> Since the beginning of reform and opening-up, China has gradually stepped onto the world arena. China persists in its cultural development geared to the needs of the world and actively promotes cultural development to the world. Literary works bear the essence of Chinese culture, whose export is an crucial way to spread Chinese culture to the world. Over the years, despite the rise of machine translation, which has a certain practical role, it can not replace the overwhelming role of manual translation in literary translation. So what significance does Luther’s translation thought and theory born in the reform era have in guiding modern translation theory and practice, especially in the field of literary translation?<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Brief comments on translation thoughts in the period of Renaissance===<br /> <br /> '''1.1 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.2 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.3 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.4 '''<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Comparison of translation thoughts between Luther and Lu Xun===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 ===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 ===<br /> <br /> ==Study on Interpreter's Memory and Translation Memory in Interpreting 康浩宇 Kang Haoyu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br /> <br /> '''1.1 Background'''<br /> <br /> Memory plays an important role in interpreting and it is a kind of interpreting competence. The information processing in interpreting is complicated. When the information is input, interpreter first recognize and keep the information, which will then be analyzed, encoded, stored and retrieved. And the interpreter finally decode the information into target language(Wang Jianhua, 2019).Because of the fast input of information and limited time for pausing, great memory is required for interpreters. Whether a good or poor memory has a direct effect on the quality of interpreting. <br /> With the development of science and technology, machine translation and computer aided translation, which is also called CAT, was invented as two effective and efficient ways for translation. In CAT, there is a concept called translation memory. Different from human beings’ memory, translation memory is more likely a database. Nowadays, translation memory of CAT has been put into wide use in translation. And in recent years, translation memory has also been applied as a tool in interpreting. As the technology is not yet mature, there are still some limitation and weakness.<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Significance of the Study'''<br /> <br /> There are some studies on the memory of interpreters. But most of them focus on its practical aspects such as how to improve interpreters’ memory or how to make the best of memory in interpreting, instead of substantial facts. The nature of memory and mechanism of memory is also worthy to be studied, so readers can have better understanding and cognition of what is memory and how it works. Therefore, readers can better address our problems in memory of interpreting. The study will fully analyze memory from the aspect of psychology and science. And then it will study on memory of interpreting in details including systems, mechanism, coding and theories. <br /> Translation memory is quite a novel topic as it belongs to a sort of science and technology. As the world stepped into information era, digital era and even Artificial Intelligence era, translation memory has been used more widely than ever before. It really facilitates the translators as it both saves a lot of time and greatly improved the translation efficiency. However, there are few studies on the translation memory application in interpreting field. Actually, in many situations, interpreters also uses this kind of technology to help their interpreting. They study will research on the fact of translation memory in interpreting.<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Structure of the Study'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be developed in five chapters. <br /> Chapter 1, the introduction part, is initiated by introducing the background, research problems, and significance of the study.<br /> Chapter 2 is functioned to define and categorize the memory.<br /> Chapter 3 will present the memory mechanism and related theories in interpreting.<br /> Chapter 4 will mainly focus on the translation memory technology at present and its application in interpreting.<br /> The concluding chapter generalizes the content of the study and put forward the limitations.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Study on Memory===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 The definition of the Memory'''<br /> <br /> Memory has different definitions in different fields. Generally speaking, human memory is a reflection of what the brain has experienced. From the perspective of psychology, memory is the recognition, maintenance, reappearance of experienced things by the human brain, and it is the basis of advanced psychological activities such as thinking and imagination. It is the retention and extraction of past experience by human brain. It is a psychological process in which individual experience is accumulated and preserved in the mind. All things that have been perceived can be kept in people's minds, and can be reproduced when necessary. This refers to the process in which the human brain encodes, stores and extracts meaningful information input from the outside world(Peng Danlin，1991). From the perspective of neurology, human memory is closely related to the changes of chemical composition in hippocampus and brain. All memory that exists in the brain depends on various nerve cells of the brain, which are called neurons. According to information processing theory, memory process is the process of encoding, storing and extracting input information. Only coded information can be remembered. Coding is the process of processing and transforming the input information, and coding is the key stage of the whole memory process.<br /> <br /> '''2.2. Memory Systems'''<br /> <br /> Based on the structure, memory can be categorized into three systems. There are sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. The later two systems are also often referred as STM and LTM. The three memory systems are different from each other but closely related.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1 Sensory Memory'''<br /> <br /> As the shortest memory system, sensory memory is the first channel for human brain to get the information. It has some capacity. According the research in Cognitive Psychology(Wang Su, Wang Ansheng, 1992), People’s visual sensory capacity is more than 9 chunk while their auditory sensory memory capacity has less capacity, which is about chunk. chunk here are memory units, and the size of chunk varies with people's knowledge and experience. A chunk can be a word, a number, a phrase, a sentence, a word list, etc. Sensory memory works as temporary storage for sensory information. It depends on the physical nature of external stimulus to code the information and it is the real copy and transcription of the external stimulus. Most sensory memory can stay for one to two seconds and then disappear. Only with more attention and focus can the sensory memory be processed and then become short term memory(Bao Gang, 2005). People’s visual sensory memory can just keep for less than one second while their auditory sensory memory can keep for 4 seconds. It is inevitable that information will lose with the disappearance of sensory memory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2 Short Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Short term memory is the second memory system. Short term memory is based on the neuron network in hippocampus. It keeps the information that has been selected in the hippocampus of human brain. In some cases, part of information will move from the short memory in hippocampus to long term memory in cerebral cortex. In psychology, short term memory can keep for about one minute with the capacity of about 7 chunks. That means that people can memorize seven unrelated numbers or phonemes for about one minute with their short term memory. However, the capacity of short term memory is not decided by the amount of stimulus but by the modes of chunk and coding. Chunks can effectively expand the capacity of short-term memory. When processing information, people can use the knowledge and experience stored in long-term memory to combine several single stimuli into larger information units, which can effectively expand and increase short-term memory span and improve memory efficiency. Moreover, the coding of short-term memory is mainly auditory coding, and there are also visual coding and semantic coding. Instead of chunk and information unit, people can also use retelling to transfer short term memory to long term memory. Retelling refers to the psychological operation process of repeating the materials just memorized by language to consolidate memory. In the case of retelling, the learning materials kept in short-term memory will transfer to long-term memory. The content of short-term memory can be transformed into long-term memory by retelling. <br /> <br /> There is a special type of short term memory, working memory. The concept working memory was first proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. It is used to describe the process of a person temporarily memorizing the fact and thoughts when addressing problems or working(Baddeley, 2006). In spite of limited resources and storage time, working memory is still different from short term memory in temporary storage of information(Hitch, 2012). Compared with short term memory which store information passively, the working memory process is more dynamic. Generally speaking, there are three differences. First, working memory emphasizes storing and processing information at the same time, while short-term memory only focuses on information storage. Secondly, working memory is a multi-factor system, while short-term memory is a single system. Third, working memory is more important than short-term memory for many advanced brain functions and even almost all human cognitive work(Wang Jianhua, 2019). The disappear of short term memory is often due to the interruption.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3 Long Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Different from short term memory, long term memory is stored in human’s cerebral cortex where there is more room for storage. Long term memory is very important in keeping information for long time. It can keep information for more than one minute and even for a whole life. Its capacity is unlimited. All the information kept by long term memory has been selected and filtered.According to Tulving, long term memory is stored mainly as two types(Tulving, 1974). They are episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory is about one’s experience of some specific situations. Semantic memory refers to knowledge such as words, concepts, rules and other abstract things.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Memory Mechanism'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, the process of memory includes three key steps. They are memorizing, keeping and recalling. In interpreting, memorizing is related to interpreters’ listening and understanding to what the speaker says, keeping is related to the storage of original information and recalling refers to the output of interpreting.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 Memorizing'''<br /> <br /> Memorizing refers to the process of distinguishing and recognizing the characteristics of things and leaving a certain impression in the mind. Some things can be remembered after one perception, while most of the contents need to be perceived repeatedly, so that the new information can be connected with the existing knowledge structure. As the first step in the memory process, memorization has a very important influence on the memory effect. Therefore, understanding and mastering the rules of memorization will help improve memory(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997).<br /> <br /> According to whether memorization has a purpose or not, memorization can be divided into unconscious memorization and conscious memorization(Ma Zhengyu, 2013).<br /> Unconscious memorization refers to memorization that happens naturally without a predetermined purpose and without a certain effort of will. When they are perceived, there is no intention to memorize them, but these contents can reappear in people’s mind in the future naturally. And this is unconscious memorization. The content of unconscious memorization is an important part of experience, and it has great effect on people’s psychological activities and behaviors. Inadvertent experience can do as much help as existing experiences when people consciously face certain situations and deal with certain problems. In daily life, the environment, contact and work will influence people unconsciously in psychology and behavior. Generally speaking, there are two characteristics of unconscious memorization. First, the stimulation acts on people's sensory organs which is of great significance and attracts people's attention. For example, people will never forget new and different things; Second, it is in people's needs, interests and content so that it can produce deeper emotional experience. Unconsciousness plays a positive role in people's acquisition of knowledge and experience.<br /> <br /> Conscious memorization refers to memorizing with a predetermined purpose, which requires a certain amount of will and effort in the process of memorizing. The process of conscious memorization is controlled by the purpose of memorization. The purpose of memorization determines that memorizing process is an active coding process for memorizing content. This coding includes &quot;what to remember&quot; and &quot;how to remember&quot;. &quot;What to memorize&quot; determines the direction and content of memorization, and &quot;how to memorize&quot; is the method to better memorize the content. All people's knowledge and experience are acquired through conscious memorization and unconscious memorization. However, in terms of memorizing effect, conscious memorizing is better than unconscious memorizing(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 Keeping'''<br /> <br /> Keeping refers to the process of remaining and consolidating the memorized materials in brain. It is the process of information storage. Keeping is the middle step which is between memorizing and recalling and it is closely related the quality and effect of recalling.<br /> <br /> The effect of keeping is related to whether the materials to be memorized are vivid or not. When brains memorize verbal materials, if the materials are vivid, they can leave a deep impression on people, while the materials with empty contents are easy to be forgotten quickly. Many psychological experiments have also proved the important role of the &quot;image&quot; in the memory of human brain. The memory effect of image materials is generally better than that of words materials, and similarly, the effect of visual memory is generally better than that of auditory memory. This suggests that if interpreters make full use of the image carrier of the source language in interpreting memory, it is possible to improve their information storage of the source language(Bao Gang, 2005).<br /> <br /> Keeping is a dynamic process during which the amount and nature of the stored information could be changed. In the aspect of amount change, the amount of stored information will decrease with time. In other words, this is forgetting. Forgetting is a very natural phenomenon that experienced by every person. Although forgetting is a complex psychological phenomenon, its occurrence and development have certain rules. Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, was the first to do this research. He used meaningless syllables as experimental materials and himself as experimental object. After memorizing the materials, he relearned them at regular intervals, and drew the forgetting curve with the time and times saved by heavy school as the index. Forgetting curve reflects the relationship between forgetting variables and time variables. This curve shows the rule of forgetting: the process of forgetting is unbalanced, and the amount of forgetting is relatively large in the initial period after memorization, and then gradually decreases. That is, the speed of forgetting is fast at first and then slow. After Ebbinghaus, many people have studied the forgetting process and confirmed that Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve is basically correct(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997). <br /> <br /> Keeping is the process of consolidating what have been memorized in people's minds, and it is also the process of storing information. It is not a static and solidified process, but a process of reconstruction.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 Recalling'''<br /> <br /> The final step of memory is recalling. It is the process of retrieving the information that has been stored in people’s brain. <br /> Recalling is the reappearance process of past experiences in the mind under the action of certain inducement. Memories can be divided into two categories: intentional memories and unintentional memories. Intentional recalling is the recalling of past experience under the action of intended purpose. Unintentional memories are memories that happen naturally without a predetermined purpose. Memories can be divided into direct recalling and indirect recalling according to whether there are intermediary factors involved in the recalling process. Direct recalling is the recollection of old experiences directly aroused by current things. Indirect recalling is a kind of recalling with the help of intermediary factors. In terms of difficulty, indirect recalling is more difficult than direct recalling.<br /> <br /> '''2.4 Primacy Effect and Recency effect'''<br /> <br /> Primacy effect and recency effect are two famous phenomena related to people’s memory. And both of them play a very important role in interpreting.<br /> <br /> '''2.4.1 Primacy Effect'''<br /> <br /> The concept “primacy effect” was first proposed by A. S. Lochins, an American psychologist. It refers to the fact that the first impression has a huge effect. Although the first impression may not always be right, but it is most vivid and solid. In primacy effect, information input plays a key role. Experimental psychology research shows that the order of external information input is important in determining the cognitive effect. The first input information plays the most important role, and the last input information also plays a great role. This feature of brain processing information is the internal cause of the primacy effect. When different information is combined, people always tend to attach importance to the former information. Even if people pay attention to the following information, they will think that the following information is non-essential and accidental. More importantly, even if the following information is inconsistent with the former information, people will succumb to the former information.<br /> <br /> '''2.4.2 Recency Effect'''<br /> <br /> Recency effect, also put forward by American psychologist Lochins, refers to the phenomenon that when people memorize a series of things, the memory effect of the last part is better than that of the middle part. The reason is that the previous information is gradually blurred in memory, while the recent information clearer in short-term memory. Recency effect is contrary to the primacy effect, and recency effect emphasizes that the last received information has the greatest effect. In people's perception, when the information obtained before and after is different, if there is irrelevant work in the middle to separate them, then the latter information plays a greater role in forming the total impression.<br /> <br /> Obviously, the primacy effect and recency effect are different, or even opposite. The primacy effect emphasizes the information received initially, while recency effect pays more attention to the information that comes into contact later. However, the primary effect and recency effect exist in our society and play their respective functions. Through a large number of experiments, it is found that the primacy effect and recency effect depend on people themselves. Generally speaking, people with relatively simple cognitive structure are prone to produce the primacy effect, while those with complex cognitive structure are prone to produce recency effect.<br /> <br /> Although the primacy effect and recency effect are different form each other, both of the effects are extremely beneficial to the memory of interpreters, and they can be used in different interpreting situations(Wang Jianhua, 2019).<br /> <br /> == The Subtile Translation of Movie from the Perspective of Multimodal Discourse Analysis 王轩 Wang Xuan==<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> Mankind has entered the era of multimedia, so the language as a mono-modal form has been unable to fully express the meaning of communication. Thus we need some other modals to enhance, in order to fully express the meaning and reach the aim of communication, such as sound, visual image, color and so on. Thus the term Multimodality aroused linguist’s interest and attention. <br /> <br /> They conducted a lot of research and exploration in Multimodal Discourse Analysis. Multimodal Discourse Analysis is based on Halliday’s systemic functional linguistics as the foundation, Professor Zhang Delu points out that the Multimodal Discourse is a phenomenon which means use auditory, visual, tactile and other sensory and communicate through language, image, sound, movement and other symbolic resources. <br /> <br /> Martin points out that Multimodal Discourse Analysis is composed of five levels, they are: (1) cultural level (2) context level (3) significance level (4) form level (5) media level. By discussing the combination between the subtitle translation of “Benjamin Button” and Multimodal, the thesis is to analyze that how does the Multimodal Discourse Analysis affect the subtitle translation of movies. <br /> <br /> The thesis is based on the Multimodal Discourse Analysis theory as the foundation, aims to analyze the following three areas under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis: 1. The embodiment of Multimodality in the film “Benjamin Button”, then aims to analyze how does the subtitle and Multimodality combining to constructed the whole meaning under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis.2. The second goal is to discuss the relationship between the movie’s subtitles and other modals, and the relationship between different modals. 3. By discussing the analysis of the movie subtitle expression function in the process of overall significance, this thesis attempts to put forward some suggestions on the movie subtitle translation. <br /> Keywords: Multimodal Discourse Analysis；Audio-visual Product；Subtitle Translation<br /> <br /> === Chapter One Multimodal Discourse Analysis Theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 1.1 The Emergence And Development Of Multimodality '''<br /> <br /> At present, experts and scholars have entered the stage of multimodal discourse analysis. This is not an accidental phenomenon, but inevitable, because they think that discourse or discourse is a unit of meaning, but the expression of meaning is not only through a single language, on the contrary, it can be constructed by many other symbol systems besides language. <br /> <br /> Therefore, it is not comprehensive and specific to analyze discourse or discourse from the linguistic level, so multimodal discourse analysis comes into being. Multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in foreign countries, and has been widely studied and explored. However, it is still in its infancy in China, and has attracted much attention in recent years. <br /> <br /> In the early 1950s, American linguist Harris put forward the theory of discourse analysis for the first time. Since then, discourse analysts all over the world have been working hard to analyze and study, and have put forward many theories and methods of discourse analysis, and analyzed them through a large number of examples. <br /> <br /> However, almost all the theories and methods of discourse analysis focus on language and ignore other forms of meaning expression, such as image, music, color and so on. Therefore, the research on discourse analysis at that time was not comprehensive and had great limitations. In the 1990s, multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in western countries, which overcomes the limitations of discourse analysis to a certain extent. Therefore, once multimodal discourse analysis was proposed, it immediately attracted the attention of linguists and once became a hot topic. Especially in recent years, linguists at home and abroad have carried out extensive research and Exploration on multimodal discourse analysis. <br /> <br /> In foreign countries, R. Barthes is the first French scholar to systematically analyze multimodality. As a famous semiotician, R. Barthes adopts the semiotic perspective to study multimodality. Therefore, multimodal discourse has been analyzed with semiotics from the very beginning. Multimodal discourse analysis breaks through the shackles of traditional single language information, and integrates more research in other fields, such as psychology, cognitive science and sociology. R. Barthes discussed the interaction and relationship between image and language in the expression of meaning. Based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed a relatively perfect grammatical framework for the analysis of visual images, thus providing theoretical basis and analytical methods for multimodal discourse analysis. They believe that multimodality is a major feature of various discourses in modern society. In the digital age, these different modes play the same role in meaning reproduction. In addition, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed an image analysis framework based on three pure functions in image reading, namely reproduction, interaction and composition.. In a word, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen's multimodal communication theory mainly focuses on the symbolic resources and their use. <br /> <br /> In China, there are also in-depth and extensive research on multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Li Zhanzi analyzes multimodal discourse from the perspective of social semiotics, while Hu Zhuanglin, a professor of Peking University, studies multimodal semiotics in theory and practice, and proposes multimodal language teaching and research in social semiotics. Zhu Yongsheng has made an in-depth study on multimodality and summarized the theoretical basis and research methods of multimodal discourse analysis. Zhang Delu made a preliminary exploration on the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Zhang Delu pointed out that multimodal discourse refers to the use of hearing, vision, touch and other senses, through language, images, sounds, movements and other means and symbol resources for communication. This phenomenon is very common, which is mainly reflected in the following aspects. For example, in order to better understand poetry, people find that it can be attached with pictures, that is, it is attractive People's interest has reached the purpose of helping people understand. In addition, people can often add some auxiliary gestures or actions, and use different tone and tone when speaking, which is also a form of multimodality. However, multimodal discourse analysis has not been paid enough attention. Only in the study of modern linguistics, some linguists have paid attention to multimodality and started to study it from the perspective of non-verbal features and linguistic features. However, it is only studied as an auxiliary expression system of language, but not as a mode of meaning expression. Although multimedia discourse analysis came into being, it was not until recent years that scholars gradually realized the importance of multimedia discourse analysis. It can be seen that multimodality has attracted a large number of linguists in China and achieved fruitful results.<br /> <br /> ''' 1.2 The Theoretical Framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis '''<br /> <br /> Linguists have found that systemic functional linguistics can be used as the basic theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. The five levels are: (1) cultural level, including ideology as the main form of culture and genre as the potential choice of discourse mode. (2) The context level includes the context configuration composed of discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. (3) The meaning level includes discourse meaning and conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning. (4) At the formal level, there are different formal systems to realize meaning, including lexical grammar system of language, visual ideographic form and visual grammar system, auditory ideographic form and auditory grammar system, tactile ideographic form and tactile grammar system, etc., as well as the relationship between the grammar of various modes. (5) Media level is the material form of discourse in the material world, including linguistic and non-verbal. Systemic functional linguistics provides a relatively ready-made theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis. On this basis, Professor Zhang Delu proposed a comprehensive theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis: (1) cultural level, (2) context level, (3) content level, (4) expression level<br /> <br /> ''' 1.3 The Forms and Relations of Multimodal Discourse '''<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse forms include: language, picture sense, sound sense and feeling. The typical multimodal discourse mode is a kind of modal discourse, which can not fully express its meaning, or can not express its full meaning. It needs to be supplemented by another one. The relationship between these modes is called &quot;complementary relationship&quot;, while the other is called non complementary relationship. <br /> <br /> Complementary relationship can be divided into strengthening relationship and non strengthening relationship. Reinforcement relationship means that one mode is the main form of communication, while another or more forms strengthen it. For example, when expressing meaning, if language is the main form of communication, then other body movements such as gestures will strengthen the language. On the contrary, language may also be a reinforcement to other ways of communication. Strengthening relationship includes three kinds of relations: prominent, primary and secondary, and expanding. Non reinforcement refers to the relationship between two modes which are indispensable and complementary to each other. For example, in the process of watching a movie, the visual and auditory modes are combined with each other. There are also three forms of non strengthening relations: coordination, union and intersection. In the coordination relationship, different modes construct the whole meaning together, and the lack of any mode will be incomplete. Play the video at the same time, for example. The two modes of image and sound are both necessary and difficult to understand without one communication. In this case, the relationship between image and sound is harmonious. The joint relationship refers to the combination of different types of media in the same mode to express the meaning. For example, in the typical multimodal discourse form of film, the sound matched with the scene animation and the voice of interpretation are combined to reflect the meaning of auditory construction. The last one is the phenomenon of cross embodiment of meaning. For example, teachers do experiments while they are in the experimental class. At this time, the text is still unimodal. However, if you are talking with your friends about whether the weather is snowing, the size and shape of snow, and so on, the scene of snow, including the process and mode of snow, will directly participate in the overall meaning you want to express. At this time, your discourse has a strong situational dependence. A large part of the meaning of your speech is reflected by the situation, although the scene does not actively participate in it In your verbal communication. Therefore, context dependent discourse communication is multimodal.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Two Film subtitle translation theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 2.1 Film Works and Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> With the advent of the multimedia digital era, foreign film and television works continue to flow into China, so subtitle translation is becoming more and more important. More and more people use subtitles to obtain foreign related information, understand foreign cultures and even learn foreign languages. Subtitling affects people's cognition of things, and subtitle translation has become a professional auxiliary form to facilitate the audience to understand multimedia works. Gottlieb defines subtitle translation as &quot;a kind of written, additional and synchronous translation type for instantaneous and multi symbolic texts&quot;. (Gottlieb, 1997:309) in China, film and television translation started relatively late, and large-scale film and television translation began after the 1980s. <br /> <br /> Although the number of mass media translation has greatly increased, subtitle translation has not attracted enough attention of the academic community, and the research results on subtitle translation are few. In recent years, subtitle translation, as a field of translation, has attracted more and more attention from experts and scholars all over the world. Subtitles have two major functions: first, to deepen the audience's impression of some film content; second, to assist the lack of listening. There are two kinds of subtitles: the first is intralingual subtitle, the second is interlingual subtitle. Intralingual subtitle translation does not need to translate one language into another, but only converts the discourse into text. &quot;Interlingual subtitle refers to the translation of the source language into the target language and superimposed on the bottom of the screen while retaining the original sound of the film and television, which is commonly referred to as subtitle translation.&quot; (Li Yunxing, 2001:38)<br /> <br /> ''' 2.2 The Characteristics Of Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> Film subtitles are an important part of the film, and together with the visual image to construct the meaning, film subtitles can help the audience to understand the characteristics of the characters in the film, to master the character's character and to be familiar with the plot of the film. Film subtitle translation has the following characteristics: <br /> <br /> Firstly, colloquialism. Subtitle translation in movies is mainly the translation of dialogues between the characters in the film. Therefore, subtitle translation should be as colloquial as possible and conform to the expression characteristics of the characters. On the premise of ensuring the coherence and smoothness of the context, the subtitle translation should be as close to life as possible so as to achieve natural and realistic effect. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the characters in the film have their own unique personalities, which are often reflected by different language styles. Therefore, the second feature of film subtitle translation is to conform to the characters' personalities. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, emotional, emotional help the audience better understand the plot, so the film subtitle translation should reflect the true feelings, the translation should be able to put oneself in the position and into the role, to achieve the artistic effect of sincere.<br /> <br /> Fourthly, oral form is a typical feature of film subtitle translation, which is also the most obvious difference between film subtitle translation and literature translation. The basic task of translation is to provide a blueprint for dubbing. Therefore, the translation of subtitles should be consistent with the mouth shape of the characters as much as possible, and the accuracy and vividness of the translation should be guaranteed. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, popularization means popularization. Popularization means that the translation can be understood by the audience on the premise of smoothness, so as to achieve the purpose of clear understanding and appreciation of both refined and popular tastes. The ultimate goal of popularization is to serve the audience and make the translation a bridge for effective communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3 Strategies Of Film Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.1 Pay Attention To The Artistry Of Language '''<br /> <br /> It is said that film is the seventh art after literature, music, dance, drama, painting and sculpture. As a young art, the only one who knows his birthday, film appeared as a popular art from the very beginning. Film is an art form with unique means of expression, and the artistry of its language is the basic element of film. Although Goethe once said: art should never be the same as reality, and it is impossible to embody art. But it turns out that film is not only a popular art, and it is the most popular art, which is called a kind of popular culture. From the point of view of the film itself, most of the films are for people to watch, and the audience of the film comes from different social strata, so their education level is also different. Therefore, the language in the subtitle of film translation must be in line with the audience's acceptance ability and actual level, so as to make the translation understood by the audience, more clearly, and achieve both refined and popular tastes. However, the vulgarization and popularization of the target language does not mean the vulgarization and generalization of the language. The language of film is rich in expressive force, and the language of subtitle translation must be accurate, natural and vivid. Therefore, in the film subtitle translation, we should not only retain the language characteristics of the source language and absorb the characteristics of foreign language expression, but also abide by the language tradition of our own culture, and use words with cultural color of the target language to translate the original text, so as to truly achieve the purpose of translation.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.2 Literal Translation And Free Translation Should Be Audience-Centered '''<br /> <br /> The characteristics of film subtitle translation, i.e. instantaneity and popularity, determine its translation strategies. Subtitle translation must refer to the picture and sound of the film and television. Usually, the subtitle appears in front of the audience together with the original picture, so that the audience can not only enjoy the picture, but also have time to read the subtitle. This is the duality of subtitle translation. When the audience accepts the sound, picture and subtitle information of the original text, they are integrated, complementary and contradictory. Therefore, subtitle translation must consider that subtitle is not an independent mode, it includes the creation process and the reception process. In a word, both literal translation and free translation should focus on the audience. Literal translation can absorb new foreign factors and information, and can reflect foreign culture and sentiment. Free translation is easier to be accepted by the target language audience. Film subtitle translation must take into account the audience's language level and education, and take the audience of the target language as the center and adopt correct translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.3 Processing Of Cultural Information '''<br /> <br /> As an intermediary of cultural exchange, the translator's main purpose is to promote the exchange of different cultures and reduce the cultural gap. Because the film subtitle in the process of translation is subject to many restrictions, for example, there are a large number of words with strong cultural color and some special language forms, and there are many gaps in the culture of different languages and nations and can not be replaced, so it increases the difficulty of film translation. For example, when translating puns, word games and proverbs, translators usually have to give up, which is actually a treason to the original film. <br /> <br /> There are three strategies to deal with cultural information in Subtitle Translation: first, the principle of cultural compensation. The principle of cultural compensation aims to preserve and introduce the cultural characteristics of foreign countries, so that the audience can understand the films of different languages and cultures. Second, adopt the principle of cultural transplantation. This principle can make subtitles more vivid, authentic and vivid. Translators need to discard the cultural characteristics of the source language and abide by the native language, so that subtitles can be easily understood and accepted by the target language audience. When neither of the two strategies is desirable, we can only use the third strategy, namely the principle of cultural coordination, which inevitably leads to the loss of cultural information in the source language and the target language. When dealing with the cultural information in subtitle translation, translators should pay attention to the combination of these three strategies with the film picture, and give full play to the illustrative and explanatory nature of the pictures, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Three Subtitle Translation Of &quot;Rejuvenation&quot; From The Perspective Of Multimodal Discourse Analysis ===<br /> <br /> ''' 3.1 A Brief Introduction of 'Benjamind Button' '''<br /> <br /> 'Benjamin Button', directed by the famous director David Finch is adapted from Fitzgerald's novel of the same name; the film tells the story of a strange Benjamin Barton who violates the laws of nature and is born in the image of an ancient and rare old man. As time goes by, he even lives more and more young. It is a story about the reversal of life.<br /> <br /> The following part will analyze the characteristics of subtitles and the translation strategies that should be adopted in the expression of the film from the cultural level, context level, content level and expression level of the multimodal theoretical framework.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2 Multimodal Translation in Movie Subtiles '''<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.1 On Cultural Level '''<br /> <br /> Under the influence of thinking patterns and habits, people have gradually formed a specific form of expression in which language can understand each other in communication. Therefore, it is particularly important whether the cultural factors in films are properly translated. Zhang Delu believes that &quot;the cultural level is the key level to make communication possible&quot;. In some cases, the source language and the target language can not be translated literally. Therefore, in the process of translating movie subtitles, we should not only keep the original features, that is, faithfulness, but also take into account the habitual language awareness of the target audience, that is, free translation strategies should be adopted to make the translation smooth and consistent Cultural characteristics of the target language.<br /> <br /> The English title of the film is ‘The Curious Case of Benjamin Button’, and a version is ‘本杰明·巴顿奇事’, but the translation of ‘返老还童’ has a larger audience. First of all, there is an English name in the title of Benjamin Button, which makes people feel the obscurity of the literal translation of foreign words. In Chinese, four character idioms or five or seven character quatrains or metrical poems are more catchy and easy to be accepted; Secondly, the title of &quot;rejuvenate&quot; is very suitable for the protagonist's inverted and retrograde life trajectory. In a word, it is very brilliant; Finally, the idiom ‘返老还童’ comes from ancient legends, which expresses people's desire for immortality and rejuvenation. Although it is a legend, modern people also want to be young and energetic, so the title of ‘返老还童’ can attract more audiences.<br /> In this film, there are many translation notes added to the translation, which will explain the cross-cultural ambiguity clearly. Although there are many translations, it is the best way to make the audience accept accurate information.<br /> <br /> When Daisy, the heroine, is old, she lies on the hospital bed and introduces the name of the Watchmaker: “they had the best clock maker in all of the south to build that glorious clock. His name was Mr. gateau Mr. Cake.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “还请来整个南方最好的钟表匠建了那座雄伟的大钟。那人叫盖图先生……蛋糕先生” (盖图/Gateau 在法语中是蛋糕之意)<br /> <br /> There is such a narration at the foundation laying ceremony of clocks and clocks: “Papa said there were people everywhere. Even Teddy · Roosevelt came.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “爸爸说，那天人山人海。连泰迪·罗斯福也来了( 西奥多·罗斯福，昵称泰迪美国第26 任总统)”<br /> <br /> In the above two examples, the comments added to the translation itself are in brackets. In the former example, &quot;Mr. cake&quot; suddenly appears. In the latter example, how President Roosevelt called &quot;Teddy Roosevelt&quot; will make the target language audience very puzzled. Although the use of annotations makes translation numerous, it is the best way for the audience to quickly obtain accurate information. The audience knows that gateau means &quot;cake&quot; in French, and Roosevelt has a nickname of &quot;Teddy&quot;.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.2 On Context Level '''<br /> <br /> In a specific context, communication is constrained by contextual factors (Zhang Delu, 2009). The context level elaborated by Zhang Delu includes discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. In order to express meaning or transmit information, subtitle and context jointly promote the development of film plot. Subtitle translation should be subject to context. In order to make subtitle translation not appear fault phenomenon, the film plot will advance naturally, and subtitle translation should also play a role of connecting the preceding and the following. In this way, in the process of translation, the translator should consider the contextual factors and pay attention to the smoothness and coherence of the translation within the sentence itself and between the sentences in the text.<br /> <br /> When describing Queenie's fertility problem, Queenie sees Benjamin's heart full of love. Her husband, Mr. Weathers, said: I know you ain't got all the parts it takes to make one of your own, but this ain't your to keep. At first it was certainly hard to understand the meaning of this sentence, but as the plot developed, Queenie prayed to the pastor for a son. After her pregnancy, she announced happily: “I had a miracle happen. The Lord saw fit to answer my prayer.” <br /> <br /> Little Daisy explained here: “ ‘I had a miracle happen’ means pregnancy.” （她有孩子了） In this way, the words said by Mr. Weathers was interpreted as: “我知道你没法有自己的孩子，可你也不能抚养这个。” Using free translation strategy, it is clear and faithful to the meaning of the source language, which makes the target language audience quickly know that Queenie likes children's characteristics and cares for Benjamin, an ugly ‘monster’.<br /> <br /> When Benjamin and Daisy are reunited in New York, Benjamin said: “I thought I'd come here and sweet you off your feet or something.” The phrase &quot;sweep you off your feet&quot; means &quot;to make you fall suddenly and deeply in love with you&quot;（让你倾倒）. Benjamin and Daisy were separated from each other for many years at that time. Daisy, who was living in the dance circle, was popular and desirable there. Benjamin went to New York to find daisy after burying his father. He was in a mixed mood. In fact, he wanted to find a friend to express his melancholy. Therefore, Benjamin did not go to find Daisy to &quot;fall in love&quot; with her but &quot;I thought I'd give you a big surprise when I came suddenly&quot;(我本以为我突然过来找你会给你一个大惊喜), which is very brilliant. This sentence is more suitable for the protagonist's situation by using free translation strategy.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.3 On Content Level '''<br /> <br /> The content level of Zhang Delu's expression includes discourse meaning level and form level. Discourse meaning is the conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning conveyed in language expression. In the film, subtitle is the narrator's narration and dialogue content. Film discourse requires the translator to accurately express the subtitle meaning to the audience. In the process of subtitle translation, some gas words, names and address terms can be omitted, which still does not affect the expression of discourse meaning.<br /> <br /> “Well, I know I don't have much to show for myself.”（我知道自己没有什么才能。） The omission of &quot;well&quot; does not affect the translation, but is more concise and can be understood more quickly.<br /> <br /> “You know, you may've got a few more years out of it, but you choose to do something so special and unique that there were only a short window of time you could do it.” Daisy was in the dance business, but she had an accident later. Some expressions here such as “a few more years out of it” ( 跳几年舞), “something so special and unique”( 事业太与众不同), “a short window of time” （几年黄金时间) have been dealt more concrete, so the whole sentence is translated as: “也许，你能多跳几年舞，可你的事业太与众不同了，只有几年的黄金时间可以发展。” <br /> <br /> As for its form, the formal features of different modes are interrelated and reflect the discourse meaning together (Zhang Fulu, 2009). The film system includes animation, pictures, music, language and other auditory and visual modes. Therefore, subtitles, together with listening and visual modes, work together to promote the expression of film meaning.<br /> <br /> For example, Benjamin and Daisy finally met and got together. They whispered in the yellow-glowed room:<br /> Daisy: “Will you still love me when my skin grows old and saggy?” ( 我要是成了黄脸婆你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> Benjamin: “Will you still love me when I have acne? When I wet the bed? When I'm afraid of what's under the stairs?” ( 等我老到脸上长满青春痘，老到尿床，老到连楼梯下有什么都怕，你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> The pictures, music and language all revealed the happy and loving life of the two people. In general, the film is based on the narration of a diary. In the film, the dialogue between the present and the narration in the diary is carried out alternately. In addition, the old pictures, the statement of time and the voice change of the narrator are used to make the past and the present change clearly and naturally, and they are applied in the formal level.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.4 On Expression Level '''<br /> <br /> Zhang Fulu believes that the expression level can be divided into language media and non-verbal media. In the language media level, he thinks that the main forms of meaning communication are sound symbols and writing symbols. For films, subtitles and subtitle translation belong to writing symbols. In the process of translating subtitles, translators should fully consider the media characteristics such as voice size, intonation strength, tone, font size and layout, which play a very important role in the expression of films. The subtitles of the film are at the bottom of the screen. Except for the notes, the translation takes up a little bit more space, and most of the subtitles in the source language and the target language occupy one line, which ensures that the audience has enough time to read the information. Non verbal media include communicators' body and nonverbal means (mainly tools and environment). Nowadays, with the progress of science and technology, movies can be played in cinemas, networks and various electronic media, and the media for appreciation is rich.<br /> <br /> Throughout the film, the dying old Daisy's tone is slow and strenuous on the bed. With the development of the story, light or heavy, a TV beside the bed broadcast the change of Hurricane weather activity, and the weather change also reflects Daisy's condition at that time.<br /> Finally, Daisy hugged Benjamin, a baby in her arms, and watched him invert the end of her life. The dying Daisy dictated in a low voice and intermittent tone: &quot;he looked at me and Iknow that he knew who I was.&quot;. (他看着我，那一刻，我知道他认出来了) The sound of the hurricane alarm suddenly sounded, sharp and obvious, and the picture of the staff of the hospital of traditional Chinese medicine was flustered, symbolizing that Benjamin's reversal clock was also washed away, and Daisy finally passed away. The sound, picture and words of the whole film are closely linked. It tells the story of eternal love, though limited in time, which is extremely shocking and thought-provoking.<br /> <br /> The translator of the film tries his best to translate various modes such as discourse, picture, sound and music. The translation strategy is mainly free translation, and the subtitle processing is simple and appropriate, so that the audience can have a good understanding of the limited time in the film, only the eternal knowledge of love. Taking the film subtitle of &quot;rejuvenation&quot; as an example, this paper analyzes the characteristics of subtitle translation from the aspects of culture, context, content and expression, hoping to better understand multimodal discourse analysis and free translation strategies in film subtitle translation.<br /> <br /> ='''Machine Translation'''=<br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory - A Case Study of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈永相 Chen Yongxiang&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine (hereinafter referred to as TCM), the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, boasts the favorable curative effect and a good reputation across the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative” and national economy, TCM has been playing an increasingly significant role in international trade, attracting more attention of foreign medical experts and consumers. As the essential attachment of a medicine, medicine instructions belong to the genre of practical writing, characterized by the unique language structure and stylistic features, guiding doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicines, such as usage and dosage, actions and indications, contraindication, etc. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. Due to the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, however, plenty of problems appear on the C-E translation of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> According to Adaptation Theory proposed by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. Translation is a cross-cultural communication activity, which involves language usage and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so on between source language and target language, and to adapt with different contexts, mentalities, cultures, etc. so as to achieve the ideal goal, from which the Adaptation Theory can be applied exactly into the study of translation. This paper will apply Adaptation Theory, therefore, as the theoretical framework, to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. Employing the core concepts and investigating aspects of Adaptation Theory, the author tries to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine instruction translation, Adaptation Theory, Yulin Pharmaceutical Company <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 中药是我国医药文化的瑰宝，有着良好的疗效和口碑。随着“一带一路倡议”的稳步推进和中国经济的平稳发展，中药药品在国际贸易中所占比重日益增加，得到了国外许多医疗专家和消费者的关注。药品说明书作为药品的重要附件，是一种实用文体，有其自身的语言结构和文体特点，能够指导医生与患者了解和熟悉药品作用、用法用量、适应症和禁忌等。而中医药品说明书英译作为中医英译的一个重要组成部分，其英译质量决定了药品能否被医生和患者正确理解和使用，以及中医药产品的国际贸易繁荣。然而，由于英语和汉语之间存在着不可避免的语言和文化差异，中医药品说明书英译依然存在着较大问题。<br /> <br /> 比利时语用学家维索尔伦提出的语言顺应论认为，语言的使用是一个不断作出选择和顺应的动态过程。翻译作为一项跨文化交际活动，需要在源语与目的语之间，就用词、翻译策略等方面进行选择，对不同语境、心理、文化等层面作出顺应。可见顺应论适用于翻译研究。因此本文以顺应论作为理论依据，通过对广西玉林制药公司中医药品说明书英译进行分析研究，运用顺应论的核心概念和研究视角，进一步探讨如何更好地翻译中医药品说明书。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 中医药品说明书翻译，顺应论，玉林制药公司<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''1.Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''1.1 Research Background of the Study'''====<br /> <br /> As the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, TCM has been through a profound history in China. Since “The Belt and Road Initiative” proposed for the first time, as an indispensable part in medical industry, TCM has tapped the potential of development opportunity to boost its reform so as to better make inroads into the international market. Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a renowned TCM pharmacy enterprise mainly engaged in R&amp;D, production and sales of Chinese medicines, one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties. In 2015, Consun Pharmaceutical Group Lt. has successfully brought partial share of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, which, in return, brought opportunities for the IPO and industrialization of the company. As the essential attachment of TCM medicine, the instructions guide doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicine correctly, which closely relates to consumer safety and are of great significance. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. The high quality translation versions of TCM instructions will accelerate TCM to enter into the international market, to occupy more competitive market share, and to better popularize the excellent TCM culture. <br /> <br /> ===='''1.2 Significance and Purpose of the Study'''==== <br /> <br /> It is noticed that studies and researches on TCM at home and abroad have boomed since the ancient Silk Road period. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from experts. Because of the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, a lot of problems appear on the translation of TCM instructions. And against such a backdrop, there are still no settled rules or translation standards to be applied and favored in the translation of TCM instructions, hence it’s quite essential to touch upon the area of C-E translation of TCM instructions in a more comprehensive and systematic way so as to find out more effective methods and strategies for the instruction translation. Adaptation Theory is proposed by Jef Verschueren, he thinks that language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation is a type of language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so forth between source language and target language. A good translation version of TCM instructions can appropriately guide both doctors and patients to understand the pharmacological functions, usage and dosage, actions and indications and contraindications of medicines. Therefore, the quality of instruction translation has a direct impact on whether TCM can be favored and obtained a good reputation among overseas medical industry and consumers. This paper studies the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, trying to take the Company as a case study to further discuss how to translate TCM instructions in a better way. <br /> <br /> ==='''2.Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 Features of TCM Instructions'''====<br /> <br /> Being the essential attachment of a medicine, the instruction contains important information that explains what the medicine is, how to take it and the effects after taking it, guiding doctors and patients to understand and use medicines properly. It closely relates to consumers’ safety. Thus, TCM instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. However, the information covered in most TCM instructions is drug name, ingredients, actions and indications, usage and dosage, while adverse effects, precautions, pharmacological effects, drug interaction, contraindications etc. are quite simple, even without any description of these items, failing to meet the requirement of international standards. <br /> <br /> Besides, due to the profound history of TCM developed in China, most of the unique TCM languages derived from the abstract philosophical concepts of ancient times remain being used until now, say, classical style and semi-classical style, which are accepted and favored by the TCM community, causing difficulties in translating them into English. And hence four-character structure, vagueness and ambiguity of the language, and no equivalence between Chinese and English are the main features of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> The four-character structure is concise but comprehensive in meaning, implying the extensive and abstract medical concepts of TCM. The tradition of using it to describe the symptoms and ways of treatment in TCM hasn’t been changed over time but continued to be applied and advocated in modern society. The TCM instructions are difficult to understand and translate, for the peculiar traits of TCM language, as well as the technical terms coming, directly or indirectly, from the abstract medical concepts of TCM, characterized by the unique treatment method as a whole in human body, and seeking to find answers and balance principles in nature to explain the causes and treatments of diseases, which is usually not the literal one but beyond cognition. In addition, there are gaps and non-equivalence between TCM and Western Medicine. Most TCM instruction translations apply technical terms from Latin in terms of ingredients, but adopt simple words and phrases for describing actions and indications, since the TCM language with Chinese characteristics finds no match in English. Ordinary people, as well as translators, who do not have the professional knowledge may have great difficulty in understanding and translating them. <br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Studies of TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine wasn’t legal once in the United States until 1975, as many scholars and experts were skeptical about its medical theory and way of treatment. Since the establishment of China, the government has been devoting great efforts to the recognition and popularization of TCM across the world. And from then on, a lot of studies and researches based on the translation of TCM have been published at home and abroad. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from the experts. In view of the special wording and the abstract theory of TCM, the translation of TCM instructions is of great difficulty and complexity. <br /> <br /> Currently, the translation of TCM instructions on the market, to a large extent, lacks readability and translation standards. Against such a backdrop, some scholars have striven to make some breakthroughs yet. Nigel Wiseman (2000) systematically elaborates the concept of “oriented by the source” in his dissertation, Translation of Chinese Medicine Terms: A Source Oriented Approach, in terms of the translation of TCM language, believing that the translation of TCM, as well as the instructions, should respect the original style and keep it in the target text as much as possible. In 2002, Translation of TCM Directions (《中医药说明书的英译》) written by Ouyang Lifeng (2002) put forward some practical methods for the translation of TCM instructions. He advocates “naturalization” and “readjustment”, namely, adaptation strategy, should be applied in translation, and if necessary, some additions and deletions are acceptable on the basis of faithfulness to the original text. Guided by Professor Ouyang, his student, Xiaoqiong, applies Peter Newmark’s Communicative Approach in her master’s thesis, On the Translation of TCM Booklets of Direction-The Communicative Approach (2008) to study the features of TCM instructions, suggesting that different approaches should be adopted regarding to different parts of the instructions. On translation Strategies of Chinese Medicine Instruction from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches written by Luo Haiyan (2009) conducts a relatively profound research under the guidance of Functionalist Approach in terms of each part of TCM instructions. She finds out the translation of TCM instructions is not very identical and comprehensible. Cao Qing’s thesis, A Study on Translation of Chinese Pharmaceutical Instruction (2011) states the common problems of translation instructions and advises three translation methods, namely literal translation, conversion and free translation under the Skopos Theory. There are still other scholars aiming at one aspect or another to further study the translation of TCM instructions, all of which exert a significant impact for references in translating TCM instructions. From the perspectives of Zhang Mengjing (1995), Ning Zhishou and Liu Cuiwei (1997), and Fu Wei (2006), the current TCM instruction translation lacks faithfulness, readability and incompatibility with conventional norms, suggesting that more attention should be paid in this field. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn from the above literature that studies on TCM instruction translation can be conducted from a wide scope. For the great distinction between western and Chinese culture, and the abstract medical principles of TCM, much has to be done to make the translation of TCM instructions more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> ==='''3.Adaptation Theory Applied in Traditional Chinese Medicine Instruction Translation of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company'''===<br /> <br /> From what has been mentioned above, as the important attachment of TCM, the instructions provide the correct and detailed medical information to doctors and consumers, guiding them to take medicine scientifically and properly, and hence the medicine instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. As one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a famous brand in the whole country, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties, and the buyout also boosts the process of IPO and reform. Through observation of the C-E translation instructions of TCM for foreigners and export, hence there are some certain instructive significance for the translation of TCM instructions. Because of the special characteristics of TCM instructions and the limited information included in the instructions of the company, this part tries to analyze the C-E translation instructions from the perspective of Adaptation Theory, mainly employing the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Contextual Correlates of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> As introduced earlier, according to Verschueren, the ingredients of contextual correlates of adaptability largely include the physical world, social world, and mental world. However, the author will mainly concentrates on the adaptation to the mental world and social world due to the limited materials collected. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.1 Adaptation to the Mental World'''=====<br /> <br /> Regarding the mental world, it involves the personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations, intentions and so on of both sides of language users. In the translation process, translators should take target readers’ mind into account, not just concentrating on personal mental world or literally translating the original text from one language to another language without any adaptation. <br /> <br /> Basically, consumers of drugs tend to rely on more renowned brands when facing a bunch of medicines displayed on the shelves. The key to attract their attention not only counts on the high quality of TCM, but also on the instructions with rigorous standards, concise specification and overall comprehensibility, delivering a sense of authority and credibility. <br /> <br /> To begin with, the name of drugs is the most direct information delivered to the consumers. Thus, a good name of the TCM can catch the eyes of buyers in the very beginning. “正骨水” is the most famous and important product of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, however, the translation of its name in the instruction simply applies transliteration and Chinese Pinyin, namely, “Zheng Gu Shui” , which fails to adapt with the mental world of target readers. Apparently, Pinyin isn’t the way of expression that they are familiar with. Translators should consider their mental expectation and make adaptation with their familiar ways of expression. In that point, “Bone-setting Liquor” would be a better name for the medicine. “Bone-setting” means the medicine is effective for the symptoms of bone problems, and “liquor” implies the ingredients involved alcohol and other irritating ingredients so that consumers can be aware of the precautions and avoid using it on fragile mucous membranes and anabrotic wounds. Also, the same type of medicine can apply the same way of translation, such as, “金装正骨水” can be translated to “Golden Bone-setting Liquor”, and “极品正骨水” is rendered as “Superb Bone-setting Liquor”. Such a name conveys the correct medical information to consumers and better adapt to their thinking patterns. <br /> <br /> Another example is “睡安胶囊”, the translation version is “Shui’an Jiaonang” . Obviously, it will confuse foreigners since they don’t recognize Chinese Pinyin in their cognitive levels. Translators should at least use “capsule” to indicate the medicine is some type of capsules effective for the sleeping problems. A well-recognized name will arouse attention and interest among consumers, attracting them to purchase the medicine. In order to adapt with their mental expectation and intention, as Ouyang (2002) advocates, naturalization or domesticating translation can be applied in translation. “Sleep Mate” or “Insomnia Killer” can better attract their attention and adapt with their beliefs and cognitive levels. In English, “mate” is a common word, which will be more acceptable and natural in such combination, and “killer” combined with “insomnia” implies the meaning of solving the insomnia problems, which is also more suitable and adaptable with their emotions and motivations. <br /> <br /> A good name of the medicine can not only imply the function of the medicine, conveying the essential information to customers, but also can draw their attention and arouse their desires to purchase the medicine. Meeting the demand and preference with the mental world of target people is also one of the requirements of medicine instructions. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, if transliteration or simply adopting Chinese Pinyin to translate the names of medicines will confuse customers and cause misunderstanding, adaptation is required, and not just words, but also translation strategies should be taken consideration when making adaptation. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.2 Adaptation to the Social World'''=====<br /> <br /> Verschueren (2000:91) states that there is no principled limit to the range of social factors that linguistic choices are inter-adaptable with. Basically, social settings and culture play a significant role in the process of translation. What distinguishes TCM from Western Medicine mainly lies on the cultural differences. Language is the carrier of culture, and the cultural differences can be embodied in different languages, and then shown and reflected in society. Instruction translation, as the cross-cultural communication activity, is influenced largely by cultural differences in different social worlds. Followings are the very typical translation examples to illustrate the point:<br /> <br /> Example 1(感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> Source Text (ST): 用于感冒或流感发热，头痛鼻塞, 伤风咳嗽，咽痛，肢痛<br /> <br /> Target Text (TT): Used for the treatment of cold, flu and fever, headache and nasal congestion, wind damage cough, angina and melalgia<br /> <br /> Revised Text (RT): Used for cold, flu, fever, headache, snuffle, cough, sore throat and pain in muscles<br /> <br /> Traditionally, “伤风” in Chinese means getting cold because of the invasion of “风” into the human body. “风” is actually one of the six exogenous pathogenic factors according to the medical theory of TCM, which cannot be explained from the perspective of Western Medicine. In western society, people have no concept that the natural phenomenon, say, “风” or “火”, will cause diseases in the human body. So the revised text deletes this term with TCM characteristics to avoid ambiguity and makes it more natural and understandable in English. In addition, most common patients who seek to buy medicines in pharmacies might not have the specific knowledge of medical field due to different social settings and backgrounds, thus, “angina” and “melalgia” might be beyond recognition and acceptance. Western world highlights the importance of brevity and conciseness in their society, and they place emphasis on simplification and efficiency, seldom using the very technical terms in their lives. Such social settings and cultural differences must be considered so as to make adaptation when translating. Besides, “nasal congestion” is the word-for-word translation and may cause misunderstanding among foreigners. So the revised text adopts “snuffle” and “sore throat” to indicate the meaning of “鼻塞” and “咽痛”, applying these simple words to make adaptation with cultural differences in different social worlds, and renders “melalgia” into “pain in muscles” to better deliver the meaning of “肢痛”. <br /> <br /> Example 2 (治咳枇杷露)<br /> <br /> ST: 治疗儿童伤风呃逆，咳嗽痰盛<br /> <br /> TT: Used for children’s wind-damage hiccup, cough and exuberant phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Used for cold, hiccup, cough and sputum in children<br /> <br /> Similarly, example 2 also translates “ 伤风” into “ wind damage”, which is not appropriate in such description. As mentioned above, additions and deletions, if necessary, can be applied to make adaptation in translation. So the revised text deletes “wind damage” and “exuberant phlegm”, adopting noun coordination and making it more readable and adaptable to the social world of target readers. <br /> <br /> Literal translation of instructions is not always the first option in the C-E translation of instructions. For translators, the first thing they should consider is to be faithful to the original meaning of the text, not the text itself. They need to make adaptation to the target readers’ social world, for instance, social status, social settings, social background, cultural differences, etc., striving to make the translation concise and easy to understand in their society. Amid such different social worlds, translators must bear in mind to render localization of different cultures to make adaptation without causing ambiguity and misunderstanding while successfully keeping and delivering the implied meanings as much as possible.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:26, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 Structural Objects of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translationn'''====<br /> <br /> According to Verschueren, linguistic choice-making takes place at all levels of structure that shows variability of any kind (2000:15). As indicated in Part two, for the reason of limited information covered in the TCM instructions, the materials collected from the company would be more meaningful if concentrating on the lexical level of the actions and indications of the instructions, which exactly features the typical four-character structure and language traits of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.1 Adaptation to the Lexical Level'''=====<br /> <br /> Differences in lexical level between TCM and Western Medicine largely reflect on terminologies and descriptions of diseases. The four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning. Currently, most translation versions of instructions are literally word-for-word translation and transliteration, failing to deliver the correct meanings implied in those TCM terminologies and words and lacking readability and authenticity. Here are some typical translation examples of the actions and indications of the medicines in Yulin Pharmaceutical Company:<br /> <br /> Example 3(蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 小便频数<br /> <br /> TT: Frequent urination<br /> <br /> Example 4 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 祛风除湿 <br /> <br /> TT: Dispel wind and eliminated dampness<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve rheumatic pain<br /> <br /> Example 5 (珍黄丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 消肿止痛<br /> <br /> TT: Ease a swelling and relieve pain<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve swelling pain<br /> <br /> Chinese four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning, and most of them are the causal relationship. &quot;祛风除湿&quot; is a typical example. “风湿” is a disease caused by the invasion of “风” into the human body, if &quot;风邪&quot; cannot be removed from the body soon, &quot;湿&quot; will appear and gather together near the joints, causing diseases and pains in joints according to the medical theory of TCM. So, &quot;祛风&quot; is actually the result of &quot;除湿&quot;, and vice versa. And the example of “消肿止痛”, it is usually can be explained that pain is caused by swelling as the result of illness or injury. Once the swelling disappears, so does the pain. According to the example 3, &quot;小便频数&quot; is translated into “Frequent urination”, using the structure of &quot;adjective+noun&quot; in English, which is concise in form and easy to understand. So the revised text of example 4 and 5 can also adopt such structure and translate into &quot;Relieve rheumatic pain&quot; and &quot;Relieve swelling pain&quot;, not only implying the causal relationship between the lines, concise and simple, but also avoiding translating repetitive meaning. <br /> <br /> Example 6 (感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> ST: 止咳化痰<br /> <br /> TT: Suppress cough and transform phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve cough and sputum<br /> <br /> Example 7 (乌军治胆片)<br /> <br /> ST: 疏肝解郁 <br /> <br /> TT: To course the liver and resolve depression<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve Qi stagnation in liver<br /> <br /> From the above two examples, &quot;止咳化痰&quot; is translated into &quot;Suppress cough and transform phlegm&quot;, and &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is “To course the liver and resolve depression”. It is noticed that simply employing the literal meaning of words to translate TCM instructions doesn’t work, especially in such medical context. Translators cannot ignore the relationship between the words and the context then make translation of words in isolation. &quot;化痰' means the symptom of sputum would be relieved and cured soon after taking the medicine, and hence here, the key words are &quot;咳&quot; and &quot;痰&quot;, not the verbs. So the translation of &quot;Relieve cough and sputum&quot; would be more comprehensible and readable. And the example of &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is actually another one that can be evidenced the casual relationship in TCM language. &quot;疏&quot; and &quot;解&quot; deliver the same meaning in such context, and &quot;肝郁&quot; is not the meaning of &quot;depression of liver&quot; but the irregular circulation and stagnation of the abstract &quot;Qi&quot; in liver from the perspective of TCM. So translating into &quot;Relieve Qi stagnation in liver&quot; retains the original meaning of Chinese and makes it more acceptable. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.2 Summary'''=====<br /> <br /> Despite of the characteristics of four-character structure in TCM language, the phenomenon of repetitive meaning implied between the lines is quite common. For translators, they should fully understand what meanings indicated between those words and phrases prior to translating them into another language. According to Adaptation Theory, language has the properties of variability, negotiability and adaptability. Facing abundant choices of words in English, translators should choose the most appropriate words and expressions after negotiation to make adaptation to the lexical level, the structure, the context, etc. preferred in English.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, translators should make linguistic choices not just at the lexical level, but also the syntactic level, textual level, rhetorical level etc. literally all levels of linguistic structures. Due to the limited information contained in TCM instructions of the company, this part mainly develops from the adaptation of lexical level, finding out that most translations apply literal translation with abusive usage of words, failing to deliver the correct meaning implied in TCM language and lacking readability and authenticity.<br /> <br /> With the great progresses of TCM over years, Yin(阴) and Yang(阳), Wuxing(五行) and Qi(气), these basic concepts in TCM have been accepted and recognized among foreigners. It can be adopted directly when translating the TCM instructions. With regard to the verbs in TCM language, literal translation sometimes might arouse skepticism and confusion of target readers and fail to deliver the correct meaning and the effectiveness of medicines. Translators should adapt the wording preference in target language and try to naturalize the translation but avoid abusive usage of words. Thus translators in this field should be equipped with excellent bilingual ability, sufficient background knowledge of TCM and Western Medicine, and the understanding of linguistics.<br /> <br /> ===='''3.3 Dynamics of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> As stated above, translation is a process of dynamic adaptation and involves the process of structural reconstruction and meaning regeneration. According to Verschueren (2000:157) “...strategies are always involved in any type of communication.” It means not just linguistic choices, but also translation strategies are dynamic because of different time, context and structure of both sides of language usage and each of them varies in line with relative factors when language users make choices. <br /> <br /> The dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation can be embodied from different words, phrases and translation strategies, even different languages applied in the medicine instructions. As for the part of ingredients, the instructions of the company employ Latin to indicate each TCM, for instance: Radix Notoginseng (三七), Herba Artemisiae Scopariae (茵陈), Fructus Lycii (枸杞), Poria (茯苓), Radix Codonopsis (党参), Rhizoma Dioscoreae (山药). It is usually the part where doctors and experts who have the specific knowledge of this field would be interested in, and using Latin to translate the TCM is the international standard of naming medicines, hence it is a way of adaptation. While next to the part of actions and indications, it resorts to different words and phrases in English to describe the indications of each medicine. English is apparently a better option for its universality and compatibility that common people can easily understand what the medicine is, and how to take it. Such adaptation to each part of the instruction in language shows the dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation. Following are some examples to show the dynamics of adaptability in translation: <br /> <br /> Example 8 (正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To remove obstruction from collateralls and channels and relieve muscular contracture<br /> <br /> Example 9 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To relax and activate tendons<br /> <br /> As for the translation of “舒筋活络”, example 8 and example 9 employ different words to deliver the meaning. The former is detailed and elaborated, delivering the original meaning implied in the lines while the latter is relatively simple, only using “tendons” to express the meaning of “筋络”. Besides the different specifications of “正骨水” and “金装正骨水”, the ingredients of these two medicines also show a wide difference, contributing to the different words and methods adopted in the same description of indications. From the above examples, it can be noticed, to some extent, that translators go through negotiation and then make dynamic adaptation with regard to different medicines. <br /> <br /> Example 10 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 旺盛局部血液循环, 增强细胞活力<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen partial blood circulation and improve vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 11 (筋骨王)<br /> <br /> ST: 改善局部血液循环，增强细胞活力。<br /> <br /> TT: To accelerate local blood circulation, increase vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 10 and example 11 are actually delivering the same meaning, but they change the words and phrases to adapt with two different medicines. With the variability and adaptability of language, the meaning of “增强” can be expressed by “improve” and “increase”, and translators employs “partial” and “local” to express the meaning of “局部”. As for the similar actions and indications, the translations of which vary in different medicines, demonstrating that translation is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. <br /> <br /> Example 12 (睡安胶囊)<br /> <br /> ST: 清心除烦<br /> <br /> TT: To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation<br /> <br /> Example 13 (蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 壮阳益肾<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney<br /> <br /> Example 12 and example 13 apply free translation to deliver the meaning of actions and indications of these two medicines. “清心除烦” is rendered into “To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation”, and “To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney” is more like the paraphrase of “壮阳益肾”. Both the translations are much easier to understand and adapt to consumers’ mind in a better way. Unlike the others, the above translations avoid literal translation, which will be too demanding and abstract for both sides of translators and target people, and they resort to free translation to convey the correct pharmacological actions, simplifying the instructions and making adaptation with the translation strategies to better resolve the cultural differences. <br /> <br /> Translating a TCM instruction can never be a mechanical activity of making translation from one language to another; rather, it entails dynamic adaptation to the differences between source language and target language. According to the Adaptation Theory, language use is a dynamic process of linguistic choice-making, which should adapt to contextual correlates and structural objects of language. As a type of more complex language use related to different languages, C-E translation of TCM instructions is a dynamic process of adaptation to different contexts and linguistic structures. However, the dynamic linguistic choices require language users to go through negotiation with themselves when facing abundant choices to eventually choose the most appropriate forms and strategies in accordance with different contexts and linguistic structures so as to fulfill the communicative intention. In other words, translators should avoid abusive usage of variability and adaptability of language, being faithful to the original meaning of texts to meet the standard of translation as much as possible.<br /> <br /> ==='''4.Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Being a significant carrier of TCM information, the instruction is a bridge that links the excellent TCM theories and effectiveness to the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative”, TCM will be learned and used across the world at a much larger scale. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, this paper employs the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, mainly concentrating on the adaptation to the mental world, social world, and the adaptation to the lexical level to study the C-E translation of the TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn that the C-E translation of TCM instructions of the Company is not that satisfactory after research. It doesn’t deal with the cultural differences between TCM and Western Medicine properly. Literal translation and abusive usage of words frequently appear in the C-E translation of instructions, failing to deliver the correct meaning and lacking readability and credibility, having a bad impact on the brand image. While at same time, there are some places worthy to be praised from the perspective of Adaptation Theory. It shows the dynamics of adaptability in the C-E translation of TCM instructions, which can be demonstrated through the various words, phrases, strategies applied in the process of translation. Still, much work has to be done to improve the quality of translation and make it more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, as a way of language use, translation involves the continuous making of linguistic choices. Not only words, language forms and structures, but also strategies should be taken into consideration when translating. Translators should adapt with the differences between English and Chinese, and meanwhile, pay attention to the features of TCM instructions, avoiding some obvious mistakes to achieve the ultimate goal of keeping the original meaning of TCM while delivering the accurate and rigorous medical information to foreigners. So the author advocates that adaptation is required during the process of translation, combined with transliteration and literal translation for some simple and basic concepts in TCM that have been well-recognized by foreigners, free translation and domesticating translation should be adopted with regard to the cultural differences in translation, if necessary, additions and deletions are also appreciated on the basis of being faithful to the original meaning of texts. <br /> <br /> Unfortunately, due to the limited materials collected and the incompetence of the author, the analysis of this paper only applies the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability of Adaptation Theory, failing to study in a more comprehensive way. In addition, this paper only conducts the research in studying the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, failing to reach at a larger scale. Last but not least, there are still some drawbacks and imperfections in Adaptation Theory, which the author fails to touch upon for lacking of knowledge and experience. Still, the author is willing to take all comment and advice.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1] As Homby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [Z]. The Commercial Press, Oxford University, extended eighth edition, 2014. <br /> <br /> [2] Bhatia, V. K. Analyzing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings [M]. London: Longman, 1993. <br /> <br /> [3] Carl James. Error in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [4] Fischbach, Henry. Translation and Medicine [M]. American Translators Association Scholarly Monograph Series, 1998. <br /> <br /> [5] Nigel Wiseman. Translation of Chinese medicine terms: A source oriented approach [D].University of Exeter, 2000. <br /> <br /> [6] Verschueren J. Pragmatic as a Theory of Linguistic Adaptation [R]. International Pragmatic Association, 1987. <br /> <br /> [7] Verschueren, J. Understanding Pragmatics [M]. London: Edward Arnold Ltd., 1999;Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000. <br /> <br /> [8] 曹情. 中文药品说明书的翻译[D]. 湖南：南华大学, 2011. <br /> <br /> [9] 傅微. 语篇视点理论在中药说明书翻译中的运用[D]. 广西：广西大学外国语学院,2006. <br /> <br /> [10] 罗海燕. 功能主义翻译理论关照下的中药说明书的翻译[D]. 江苏：南京中医药大学, 2009. <br /> <br /> [11] 李照国. 中医基本名词术语英译国际标准化研究[M]. 上海科学技术出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> [12] 马邦新. 英文药品说明书的翻译[J]. 中国科技翻译, 1998(3): 16-18. <br /> <br /> [13] 宁之寿, 刘翠微. 也谈药品说明书的翻译[J]. 上海科技翻译, 1997(2): 31-33. <br /> <br /> [14] 欧阳利锋. 中医药说明书的英译[J]. 中国科技翻译, 2002, 15(2): 17-20. <br /> <br /> [15] 宋志平. 翻译:选择与顺应——语用顺应论视角下的翻译研究[J]. 中国翻译,2004(2): 21-25. <br /> <br /> [16] 肖琼. 中医药说明书的翻译[D]. 广东：广东外语外贸大学, 2008.<br /> <br /> [17] 袁斌业. 语言顺应论对翻译的启示[J]. 四川外国语学院院报, 2009(9), 111-113. <br /> <br /> [18] 张梦井. 药品说明书的英译问题[J]. 中国科技翻译, 1995(2): 6-9. <br /> <br /> [19] 周书梅. 顺应论视角下的翻译研究[J]. 山东省农业管理干部学院学报, 2013, 30(5): 138-140. <br /> <br /> --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Science and technology constitute a primary productive force. In the contemporary era, with the continuous development of science and technology, artificial intelligence has shown more and more mighty strength, and machine translation has also been derived in the field of translation. In this regard, many people are beginning to worry that machine translation will one day replace human translation. When it comes to me, science and technology is people-oriented, and the continuous development of it aims at servimg mankind in a better standard. Therefore, it is not realistic to separate science and technology from humanities. The appropriate way to solve this dilemma is to integrate the two to achieve the perfectly qualitative change of &quot;1 + 1 &gt; 2&quot;. This paper will first analyze the cons and pros of human translation and machine translation, and then explore the development of computer-aided translation based on the combination of the two types above and the progress should be made in different sectors among our society.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Human Translation, Machine Translation, CAT, Compatibility<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 机器翻译会取代人工翻译吗？<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 科技是第一生产力。在当代，随着科学技术的不断发展，人工智能展现出越来越强大的实力，在翻译领域也相应地衍生出了机器翻译。对此许多人都开始担心机器翻译终有一天会取代人工翻译。在笔者看来，科技以人为本，科学技术的不断发展是为了更好的为人类服务。因而将科技与人文割裂开来的观点是并不现实的，最好的解决办法应是将二者结合起来，实现1+1＞2的完美质变。本文将分析人工翻译与机器翻译各自的优势和劣势，进而探讨二者相结合的后的计算机辅助翻译的发展和社会各个层面应该做出的改进。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 人工翻译，机器翻译，计算机辅助翻译，融合<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> In these years, artificial intelligence has experienced a skipping development and more and more advanced technologies have been applied in our daily life. For example, many factories have introduced some robots to replace the repetitive works done by ordinary workers before. In addition, some restaurants have adopted robots to send the dishes to guests, etc. More and more cases in our life demonstrate the gigantic strength of science and technology. Panicked by this reality, a constantly growing number of people are worrying that they will lose their job one day when the artificial intelligence are more practical than them. This anxiety is also quite common in translation industry. In this field , human translation and machine translation are the main two kinds of translation method. The former merely rely on the single person to do tranlation, while the latter is based on the vast corpus and developed technique. Since this enormous contrast, some people put forward a question that “Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation?” The answer is absolutely “no”. Actually, these two approaches are not incompatible. Instead, they both have their own advantages and disadvantages and through analysis,we can find that they can remedy their shortbacks by learning the valuable aspects from the other so as to form a “perfect pitch”. In other words,they are complementary to each other. <br /> <br /> Based on these viewpoints, first of all , the pros and cons of human translation and machine translation will be displayed one by one and then the new type of translation---computer-aided translation will be analyzed in detail. At last,confronted with the constantly changing world there are somes personal suggestions for those who work in the translation industry or those who are preparing to march into this field as well as government, colleges and universities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Pros and Cons of Human Translation and Machine Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Human Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 The Advantages =====<br /> <br /> As the traditional main force of translation, mankind own some irreplaceable edges. <br /> <br /> Firstly, they master a sordid foundation about the translation work, including extensive vocabularies, complex grammars, the construction of sentences and so on and so forth. Therefore, it’s hardly for them to make such mistakes.<br /> <br /> Secondly, due to the advanced education they have received, a great number of them has an encyclopedic knowledge about many fileds. Furthmore, during the years of learning foreign languages, they have acquired not only the language knowledge but also the histories and cultures of these countries so that they are able to handle with the problems of cultural differences in translation very well.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, people have an capacity of rich emotion and thoughtful mind. When facing with some obscure translation materials, at the beginning they will make a transformation about it and then translate it with their understanding yet maintaining the main idea of the original texts. <br /> <br /> What is more, people are able to summarize the experiences and lessons in the process of translation and then form their own theory. Until now, there have existed a bunch of translation theories to guide the subsequent translators. Such as “faithfulness”(translation should convey the content of the original faithfully and accurately), “expressiveness”(smooth and fluent translation) and “elegance”(the translation should be exquisite) by Yanfu, &quot;functional equivalence&quot; by Eugene Nida, skopos theory by Hans Vermeer, etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Disadvantages=====<br /> <br /> However, the volume of brain is limited and it is impossible for mankind to memorize all the things in the world. Sometimes, they may forget what they have translated and in result cause a repetition of the same work they have done before.<br /> <br /> It is showed from some data that the output of human translation is 2000 words per person in eight hours(Chen, 30). Actually that speed is a little bit slow especially when there are strenuous tasks waiting for them. Besides, editors have to check and revise their translations which is quite time-wasting.<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most translators work for governments, institutions, companies or some rich indivuduals. And right now in the translation market ,the standard price are several hundred Yuan per thousand characters. And the wage of intepreting is even more expensive. As a result, ordinary people won’t bother to hire a private translator. Under some circumstances, human translation can’t give a hand to the needed immediately. For instance, when Chinese people are travelling in the foreign countries, they can’t understand the words of those foreigners. At that time, an opportune and cheap translation tool is more desirable.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Machine Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Superiorities=====<br /> <br /> In the condition mentioned above, machine translation can meet tourists' needs perfectly. There are many translation applications in the app store, just like Baidu Translation, Google Translation, Youdao Translation, Hujiang Translation and so on. All of them are free to use and able to translate the language you input in just 1 second. And these applications have covered dozens of foreign languages so as to be the optimizing choice for many people. <br /> <br /> Besides the adoptation in daily life, machine translation has also been utilized in some important conferences. &quot;Translation headset&quot; is one of the most popular translation tools. It is usually combined with a smartphone application to translate the foreign language it heard to users. &quot;After decades of research, we have created an algorithmic framework to recognize language patterns in the same way as the human brain (neural network),&quot; said Andrew Ochoa, CEO of Waverly labs. By combining it with speech recognition technology, we have greatly improved the accuracy of translation. &quot; Therefore, Wearable translation machines made by companies like Waverly labs are really popular at conferences(Huan, 17).<br /> <br /> With the development of science and technology as well as the artificial intelligence, the system of machine translation has been polished step by step. Nowadays, it has built a huge corpus which contains tens of millions of storations, and translation with high accuracy can be available in some non-literary texts. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 The Inferiorities=====<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, a lot of noticeable defects still remain in machine translation. When it comes to the literary genres just like proses, poems and ancient essays, machine translation is not familiar with the language habits of these genres so as to incline to a failure in comprehending the latent meaning of the words thus nor it can work out an outstanding translation. In most cases it will adopt the method of literal translation, which is a confusing version, which can not express the idea of source language and the images in it can be missed. Take the following poem for example:<br /> <br /> 江雪<br /> <br /> 唐 柳宗元<br /> <br /> 千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br /> <br /> 孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。<br /> <br /> '''Version of Baidu Translation'''<br /> <br /> River Snow<br /> <br /> Birds flying away,<br /> <br /> The trail of thousands of people;<br /> <br /> A lone boat with a straw hat,<br /> <br /> Fishing alone in cold river snow.<br /> <br /> '''Version of Xu Yuanchong'''<br /> <br /> Fishing in snow<br /> <br /> From hill to hill no bird in flight,<br /> <br /> From path to path no man in sight;<br /> <br /> A lonely fisherman afloat<br /> <br /> Is fishing snow in lonely boat.<br /> <br /> Between these two versions, we can easily identify which one is better. In Xu’s translation, he translates “鸟飞绝” &amp;“人踪灭”into “no bird in flight” and “no man in sight”, which get rid of the form of the original text, not only expressing the deep meaning, but also conforming to the English expression habit. In addition, due to the repetition of two sentences in the same pattern, readers can feel a strong sense of monotony. And The most splendid point is the rhyme of first two sentences and last two sentences, which makes the whole poem cathy and add the musical beauty of the translation (Dong &amp; Xue, 56). On the contrast, the first version by machine is inferior in that it fails to express the artistic conception of the poem. People can’t feel the beauty descriped in the poem. What’s worse, some readers may puzzle about its imcomplete images and incoherent sentences!<br /> <br /> Nor is this all, machines can’t grasp the rich emotions of mankind. Thus they incline to misundersand of tone and deep meaning of the words(Liang, 18). Nay, China has a broad and profound civilization and there are numerous of polysemous words in Chinese.Just like “意思”and “方便”.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> <br /> When Zhang San send money to his leader, an interesting dialogue occurs between them. Please explain the different meanings of “意思”in the following sentences.<br /> <br /> 领导(leader)：“你这是什么意思？”(Why do you send me money?)<br /> <br /> 张三(Zhang San)：“没什么意思，意思意思。”(No special purpose, just a small gift.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这就不够意思了。” (Why don’t you tell me your true purpose?)<br /> <br /> 张三：“小意思，小意思。”(Not a big deal.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这人真有意思。” (It’s so interesting of you.)<br /> <br /> 张三：“其实也没有别的意思。”(I don’t have other special intentions on you.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“那我就不好意思了。”(Well, since that, I will accept your money.)<br /> <br /> Apparently, it may even be difficult for some people to get the deep meaning behind this dialogue let alone the senseless machine. Machine translation derived from science and technology are always under the control of human beings, they are always working under the manipulation of humanbeings. Mankind possess an intelligible brain and they can cteate new things according to their needs and imaginations. While machine can not achieve the rich creativity as human brain.<br /> <br /> From all the analysis above, it can be easily seen that human translation and machine translation are strongly complementary. Thus, the best way is to combine them together to learn from the other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies.<br /> <br /> ====3. Computer-Aided Translation====<br /> <br /> To meet the constantly-increasing demand of the market, a new type of translation method named Computer-aided translation (CAT) emerges at the right moment. It is the combination of the two translation methods mentioned above and can help translators complete the translation work with high quality, efficiency and ease. Different from the previous machine translation software, it does not rely on the automatic translation of the computer, but accomplishes the whole translation process with the participation of human beings. Besides, its translation speed can be twice of the human translation, with the quality being the same standard or better. CAT makes a change from the arduous human translation to an automatic process, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Preponderance of This Method====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Translation Memory=====<br /> <br /> Translation memory system, the main tool of computer-aided translation, is a &quot;language database storing the original text and its translation&quot;. During the time when people are working out a translation, CAT are also constructing a translation memory corpus in the backstage. The corpus can automatically store all the translated content. What contributes to our great convenience is that the translation memory system will automatically search the contents in the translation memory database in the later translation. The system will automatically output the translation results if the contents are the same as the sentences and language fragments in the memory corpus; and if the structures or vocabularies of the materials are similar to the sentences in the translation memory database, it will also show corresponding translation references and suggestions. In a word, translation memory system can benifit translators to utilize the contents of previous translation effectively and avoid repeated work, thus greatly improving the speed and quality of translation and saving translation time. According to the statistics, the application of translation memory system can increase the average productivity by 30%, and reduce the translation cost by 15-30%(Chen, 31).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Terminology Database=====<br /> <br /> When stepping into the translation industry and becoming a professional translator. It is inevitable that people will be confronted with materials from various fields, just like iatrology, law and science. All of these industries have a great number of terminologies. While human’s brain are limited that they can’t remember all the terms. Under this condition, a ready-made terminology database can be extremely helpful.<br /> <br /> Terminology management system provides a shortcut for translators to automatically search for terms appearing in the translation materials by displaying terms in the interface window of translation memory database or using hotkeys to search the entries in terminology database. Some programs have other hotkey combinations that enable translators to add new terms to the terminology database at the same time during translation. Some more advanced systems allow translators to check interactively or in batch if the correct source / target word combination is used within and between translation memory fragments of a given project. There is also an independent term management system, which can provide workflow functions, visual taxonomy, and be used as a term Checker (similar to a spelling checker to mark terms that are not used correctly), and can also support other types of multilingual term categories, such as pictures, videos or sounds(Quanqiubaike).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Revise and Automatic Alignment=====<br /> <br /> After translators finish their task on CAT system, it will scan the translation and figure out the numbers of mistakes including spelling, punctuation and so on. This proofeading can make one’s translation more accurate. In addition, the aligner can divide the source text and the target text into multiple fragments and make sure the right match of them so as to build a translation memory database or other reference resources. Many aligners also enable translators to manually realign mismatched fragments (Quanqiubaike).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Current Situation====<br /> <br /> Right now, due to the tremendous market demand, CAT steps into the golden era of development. There are several popular CAT softwares such as Trados、Déjà V、TransStar、IBM Translation Manager、WordFisher、Wordfast，OmegaT, among which the most famous is the first one. Theses softwares have experienced a long period of development and are relatively mature. They make the translation progress much more convenient than before. However, CAT is not yet a consummate system right now. It has a few drawbacks to be solved. To begin with, CAT is insufficient in the construction of the corpus. Right now, most domestic CAT softwares only restore hundreds of thousands of entries in the database, which is far from enough to meet the needs of translators. In a result, many people gradually emerge the idea that CAT is not workable. People still have to rely on themselves to search the complicated documents and their work are not able to decrease as they want. Nor is this all, sometimes it can be hard for people to extract the terms they need becauese of the failure of identification and although some easy mistakes can be found out, it may be difficult for the system to check out the sophisticated errors, thus people have to spend more time to tackle with the problems in person. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Prospect====<br /> <br /> Despite of the insufficiency of CAT right now, the defects can’t obscure the virtues. CAT has greatly emancipated the productivity of translation industry. Not only that, it has played an important role in reducing translation time, cutting down labor costs, standardizing translation documents, maintaining terminology consistency and ensuring translation quality, etc. In the near future, it is bound to become the main trend of translation development with its wide application all over the world and the functional improvement of various translation software(Chen, 32). And the problems mentioned above can be effectively polished with the advancement of science and technology.<br /> <br /> ===4. Suggestions===<br /> <br /> Facing with the unstoppable trend of artificial intelligence and CAT, should mankind repulse it or accept it? Apparently, the second attitude is more reasonable. For one thing, we can’t hinder the inexorable trend. For another thing, this is a good opportunity for people to utilize the tool to improve themselves.<br /> <br /> So, first and foremost, people should set up an open attitude, accepting CAT with an embracing mentality. It is no need to be afraid that machine will surpass human. Instead mankind is always the master of science and technology. Putting oneself on a pedestal is not a good way to make progress. And holding fast to one’s established ideas will eventually be sifted out by the era. In Qing Dynasty(1636-1912), the emperor and even the whole country praised the nation as the great kingdom. Since ancient time, China was abundant in natural resources and they were self-sufficient and self-contained. Thus the government constantly puesued a policy of “cutting off the country from the outside world”. At that time, the Western countries were going on an unprececedentedly industrial revolution. Through the renovation, the westerners immensely improved their productive forces and their countries got a rapid development. When the trend were heard by the Chinese emperor, they disdained to learn from the technology and regarded it as a diabolic trick. In this way, the gap between the East and the West was larger and larger. It was not until the breaking of the Opium War that Chinese people realized they have lagged behind a lot. Once a country was backward, it would be insulted by anyone else. After that, the Qing government was constantly forced to sign treaties of humiliating the country and forfeiting its sovereignty. The citizens were plunged into dire suffering. Under this circumstance, social conflicts intensified. Finally, the revolution of 1911 broke out and overthrew the Qing Dynasty. A feudal dynasty of more than 200 years fell down. Since the principle that lagging behind leaves one vulnerable to attacks is even applicable to a country, let alone the ordinary people. There is an old saying that “He who goes with the tide prospers, and he who goes against it dies”. The power of science and technology should never be looked down upon. The original purpose of this is to benifit the mankind rather than overthrow us. It is a powerful tool to help us scale new heights. If tranlators refuse to acquire the new skill, they will one day be weeded out by the industry.<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of market, the quality of translation talents should be improved accordingly. The span for talent training of translation majors in China is relatively short that it has only been 10 years since the establishment of Bachelor of Translation and Interpreting(BTI) and Master of Translation and Interpreting(MTI) in Colleges and universities across the country. The current situation of translation technology education in the cultivation of translation professionals is not optimistic either. First of all, compared with foreign universities and domestic universities in Hongkong, Macao and Taiwan, there is still a long way to open translation technology courses in domestic universities. According to the research by Lv Lisong and Mu Lei(37), universities in Hong Kong and Taiwan of China work closely with translation companies to provide translation technology teaching for students. However, Manchester, London University, Ottawa University of Canada and other foreign universities have established a developed system in terms of machine translation, terminology management, translation technology training curriculum, personnel training mode and translation testing, and formed an effective model. On the contrary, many domestic colleges and universities still do not pay enough attention to translation technology education, which leads to the failure of translation technology education courses in some colleges and universities. A survey of 12 universities in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Chongqing, Liaoning, Jilin, Henan, Hebei, Hubei, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Sichuan and other provinces and universities found that 11 of the 43 universities (a large part of which are &quot;985&quot; universities and &quot;211&quot; universities) with MTI have not yet opened translation technology courses, accounting for 25%. If the scope of the survey is extended to the secondary and tertiary institutions, the situation may be even worse(Zhu, 106).<br /> <br /> In this regard, the education of Chinese mainland is a little bit backward. There are several reasons for this phenomenon. To begin with, the perception of the educators and education system are rather outdated. The existing education system pay much attention to the translation and interpreting ability of students. This is a common pattern in many middle schools, high schools and even colleges and universities. As an English major student, the writer has the personal experience. During the university period. The most courses still focus on the cultivation of the basic skills of students. Although there are translation and interpreting classes every week, the normal model is that at first teachers will teach some translation theories or techniques, and then there will be some exercises for students to practice. Students are almost inaccessible to computing courses. This may resulted from the short of appropriate funds for education. China is a nation with a great number of population, and its population growth rate is also fast. As a result, the pressure on education has been relatively high. The commonly used index to measure whether a country's financial education funds are sufficient or not is the proportion of financial education funds in Gross Domestic Product(GDP). In China, this proportion has been at a low level for a long time. Although the education funds have been increasing with the continuous development of China's economy after the Reform and Opening up, yet the fact is that “There are too many monks and too little gruel.”---the funds allocated to each school are still far from enough. Take Hunan province as an example. In the year of 2000, China's financial education funds accounted for 2.87% of GDP, which failed to reach the target of 4% of GDP in 2000 as proposed in the outline of China's education reform and development. In 2003, the GDP of Hunan Province was 463.4 billion yuan, and the national financial expenditure on education was 11.179 billion yuan, accounting for 2.44% of GDP, an increase of 0.01 percentage points over the previous year. However, in 2004, the proportion of national financial education expenditure in GDP decreased to 2.34%, which is still far from the target of 4%.(Wu, 14-15).<br /> <br /> Besides the deficiency of educational funds, the allocation of it is also a cause. Usually, colleges and universities tend to use the fund to ameliorate the living condition and the construction of infrastructures, and then stuents’ scholarship and subsideies are indispensible. What is more, the salaries of teachers and all the staffs are also a big expenditure. Besides these, many colleges and universities attaches great importance to the scientific research items so that more money will be involved in these projects. Opposely, the development of the liberal arts may be less highlighted. In response to this problem, the writer deems that government and universities should both make some changes. As for government, they should carry out a policy that encourage the cultivation of computer skills; when it comes to the colleges and universities, they are supposed to enlarge the investment in the multimedia intelligent classrooms, and more techers who are sufficient in the operation of CAT should be enrolled. So far, Peking University has open a major named CAT, which is aimed to cultivate the professional talents to meet the needs of market.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Will machine translation replace human translation or not? Toward this question, the answer is an absolute “No”. As far as I am concerned, both the human tranlation and machine translation have their pros and cons. Human are able to comprehend the complex emotions in the texts and handle it with flexible expressions. In this aspect, machine can’t reach the human standard just like examples of “《江雪》”and “意思”mentioned above. Besides, mankind are familiar with the differences between various of countries so as to minimize the rate of committing a blunder, while the machine doesn’t have a brain like human’s. Their work is to translate the materials according to the superficial meanings. However, machine owns a huge volume (much more larger than human brain)which can store numerous materials and its working speed is hundreds of times of human’s(Pang, 165). In the contemporary era, translators should first of all polish their translation skills and improve their ability to flexibly use various translation strategies and skills(Yao, 201-202). The old saying goes that “It takes a good blacksmith to make steel.” By the time, people are still the main force in the translation industry and machine translation stays in an auxiliary position. Human should not rely on machine to do all the works. The translators should improve their competitiveness through sordid multi-lingual knowledge, translation practice as well as stronger learning capacity and so on and so forth. At the same time, translators are also supposed to adopt an embracing attitude to acquire the comouter-aided translation skills. After all, with the further advancement of science and technology, the trend is inevitable. Actually, human translation and machine translation are highly compatible, which can greatly improve the translation efficiency and reduce people’s workload. Thus, the combination of the two methods is highly appreciated and the new type of CAT is bound to become the tide of the future.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Chen Yi,Fan Jiaolian. 陈谊,范姣莲.(2018). 计算机辅助翻译——新世纪翻译的趋势[Computer-Aided Translation-the Trend of Translation in the New Era] 中国现代教育装备[China mordern educational equipment] 30-32.<br /> <br /> Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao. 董务刚,薛家宝.(1996). 评许渊冲诗《江雪》[Appreciation of Xu Yuanchong's Translation &quot;Fishing in Snow&quot;] 盐城师专学报[Journal of Yancheng Normal School] 56.<br /> <br /> 计算机翻译会取代人工翻译吗？[Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not?] (2020) 环球采风[Globe Collections] 17.<br /> <br /> Liang Jie. 梁洁.(2020). 人工智能对翻译行业的影响[The Influence of Artificial Intelligence on Translation Industry] 家庭科技[Family Science and Technology] 17-18.<br /> <br /> Lv Lisong,Mu Lei. 吕立松,穆雷.(2007) 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[Technique of Translation-Aided Translation and Translation Education] 外语界[The Field of Foreign Language].<br /> <br /> Pang Yingyu. 庞盈羽. (2019) 谈机器翻译与人工翻译的关系—从机器翻译与计算机辅助翻译的发展角度[Analysis of the Relationship Between Machine Translation and Human Translation--From the Perspective of the Development of Machine Translation and Computer-Aided Translation]. 科学大众·科学教育[Scientific Masses·Scientific Education] 164-165.<br /> <br /> Global Encyclopedia. 全球百科. https://vibaike.com/<br /> <br /> Wu Sheng. 吴晟.(2016) 湖南省省属普通高校财政拨款体制研究[Research on the Financial Allocation System of Provincial Colleges and Universities in Hunan Province] 湖南师范大学[Hunnu Normal University] 14-16.<br /> <br /> Yaoli. 姚莉.(2020) 机器翻译时代,译者应该坚持技能与技术的融合[Translators Should Keep the Compatibility Between Skills and Technique in the Era of Machine Translation]. 科技经济导刊[Technology and Economic Guide] 201-202.<br /> <br /> Zhu Chaowei. 祝朝伟.（2018）机器翻译要取代作为人的译者了吗？—兼谈翻译人才培养中科技与人文的关系[Is Machine Translation Going to Replace Human Translators? -On the relationship between science and technology and Humanities in the cultivation of translation talents]. 外国语文[Foreign Literature] 106-108.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation 袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi==<br /> <br /> '''浅析汉语公示语的英译'''<br /> <br /> 英语笔译 袁天翼<br /> <br /> 摘 要：在这个经济全球化、政治多极化、文化全球化、科技现代化、信息共享化的时代，全球经济纵深发展，人类命运共同体日趋形成，人与人、国家与国家间的联系日益密切，这时，汉语公示语的英译问题便被提上了议程。尽管中国汉语公示语的英译翻译员越来越多，但是汉语公示语的英译问题层出不穷。本文简析了汉语公示语定义，例举了生活中常见的一些汉语公示语的英译典型问题，并针对此给出了一些翻译方法与策略，并进行了未来展望。<br /> <br /> 关键词：汉英翻译；公示语；翻译策略<br /> <br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> Yuan Tianyi <br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': In this economic globalization, political polarization, cultural globalization, technological modernization and informative sharing age, the global economy is deeply developing, and the human community with a shared future is coming into shape day by day. The relations among people and among countries are increasing day by day. At this time, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation become the topic of us. Though the number of Chinese-English public sign translators in China grows daily, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation emerge endlessly. This passage offers a brief analysis of the definition of Chinese-English public sign, points out some typical problems in Chinese-English public sign translation we see in daily life, analyzes some methods and strategies of Chinese-English public sign translation, and gives some outlooks on the future of Chinese-English public sign translation. <br /> <br /> '''Key Words''': Chinese-English translation; public sign; translation strategies<br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> '''I. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> The public sign is a specially applied literary form that was formed in modern times, which has a long history. It is used in public places and seen by the masses thus realizing unique communicative purposes. The public sign has become a crucial link in the communication between China and other countries in the international community. In the meantime, there are increasingly more experts and scholars paying attention to the translation of Chinese public signs into English. (Reiss, 2004). <br /> <br /> As an important tool for international communication, Chinese-English public sign translation plays an extremely important role in foreign friends’ understanding of Chinese culture（Wang Huili, 2019）. Its applied range is so wide that nearly covers every aspect of our daily life, including: Introductions of tourism trips, propaganda languages, warning languages, road signs, shop signs and advertising boards. It is mostly used on public infrastructure: Subway, airport, taxi, pier, tourist spot, park, street, community, shop, supermarket, restaurant, bank, hotel, cinema, hospital and etc. It uses simple words or sentences, or pictures only, or combines words and pictures to pass useful information to the masses, which not only serves Chinese people, but also is shown to the foreigners, which can help foreigners in China study, work and live. <br /> <br /> '''II. The Current Situation of Chinese-English Public Sign'''<br /> <br /> Public signs are an art of convincing others through effective verbal means, which are also components of language activities. They, in essence, belong to a special kind of communication. However, it is not a kind of face-to-face communication that takes place in a specific period of time, and none of the participants will appear as individuals. The object is for all the people with social behaviors in the place, regardless of gender, age, class or education level. Public signs belong to “one-way communication”, and its binding force or influence will not be as big as direct communication, but it is also used to act with words and deeds, and affects the behavior of the audience with a clear purpose. <br /> <br /> Public signs are everywhere, so what are their functions? Zhou Shuxia (Zhou Shuxia, 2017) thinks that, their functions can be divided into showing, warning, profiting, encouraging and eulogizing such five functions. <br /> <br /> Firstly, the public sign that has showing function offers all-round information about service, order, or informing service. Such as “Car Rental” and “Children and Senior Citizens Free”.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the public sign that has warning function comes up with restrictive or obligatory demands to typical people, which is often used through order, ban, information or persuasion tones. Such as: “Stand in Line” , and “Thieves Beware”. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the public sign that has profiting function promotes consumption, thus realizing enterprises’ economic profits. Such as: “Daily Special”, “Daily Service”. <br /> <br /> Fourthly, the public sign that has encouraging function calls for or encourages people to take actions for certain goals or tasks. Such as: “One Family, One Child”, and “Working together, we can make a world of difference”. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, the public sign that has eulogizing function gives wishes and chants to certain events or people to reach the goals of propaganda or education. Such as: “One World, One Dream”. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (Eugene Nida , 2004) said, Chinese-English translation of public signs embraces the conversion of two different languages and two different cultures, which is not only to achieve the language equivalence, cultural equivalence, but also to enhance the possibility of understanding and the reading of Chinese-English translation of public signs.<br /> <br /> Public signs are the translation with strong humanistic color (Wu Haoxi , 2019). <br /> <br /> However, there are many problems in Chinese-English public sign translation.<br /> <br /> In 2003, Clive W. J. Granger, a Nobel Economics Prize Winner talked of the settings and problems of public signs in Beijing when he was interviewed by a program of Beijing TV Station. He said: “Foreigners will feel a little bit nervous when they come to China, because they can not understand public signs in China. ” Clive’s comment extremely shows current problems in Chinese-English public sign translation (Lv Hefa, 2005). <br /> <br /> On June 20th, 2017, a national standard conference of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service was held in Beijing. The Vice Minister of the Education Ministry and Director of the National Language Commission stressed in the meeting: “The language and character industry of China is expanding from ‘striving to promote and normally use the national common language, scientifically protecting every nation’s language and character’ to ‘managing social foreign language use and improving foreign language service quality’. ” The national standard of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service is the standard of English translation and writing quality in public service fields, which stipulates the English translation principles, methods and requirements of transportation, tourism, culture, entertainment, physical exercise, education, medical health, postal service, telecommunication, catering, accommodation, commerce and finance these thirteen service fields. <br /> <br /> To sum up, there are still many major problems in China’s public sign translation, common and ubiquitous, which make foreign experts comment like that and the government use national force to normalize translation standards. Whether the translation of public signs in scenic spots into English is harmonious and unified has a great influence on cross-cultural communication (Pinkham John, 2000). <br /> <br /> '''III. The Causes of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> '''3. 1 The Basic Linguistic Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> To be a proficient Chinese-English public sign translator, one must, fundamentally, grasp basic linguistic rules of English and Chinese, otherwise he or she must make stupid mistakes, and some even primary learners will not make. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.1<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3684466622,1422277554&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.1 is a public sign put on a glass wall in a mall, the Chinese reads“全年无休(QUAN NIAN WU XIU)”, and it tries to use English to express that “This business runs the whole year”, so the precise translation should be “NO REST DAY ALL YEAR”. But there, we can see it was translated as“365DAY SA TEAR”, which does not belong to the grammatical law of English. So this is a big mistake. Only one who understands Chinese can understand. But for ordinary foreigners, they can not. So, when translating Chinese-English public sign, the translator must be clear about the target language, and know the basic grammatical venation, then begin to translate, instead of randomly putting some letters together and finishing. Otherwise, the translator will make a big mistake like this picture.<br /> <br /> A public sign in Haichang Ocean Park of Chengdu City, Sichuan Province reads &quot;Jellyfish Museum, the 2th floor&quot;. More specifically, it is a floor direction sign. Here, the correct English for the second floor should be “2nd”, not “2th”. Apparently that the translator has poor knowledge of English vocabulary, which led he or she to make such a ridiculous mistake. Actually, in English language, if there is a number contains “11”, “12”or “13”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “11th”, “12th” or “13th” respectively; And if there is a number contains“1”, “2”or “3”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “1st”, “2nd” or “3rd” respectively. For example, “101st”, “111th”, “201st”, “211th” and etc. <br /> <br /> No.3 is a warning sign of a tourist spot, reads &quot;The rockery danger, pleases no climb&quot;, whose Chinese meaning is “There stands a rockery, it is dangerous to climb, every one is forbidden from climbing it. ” The Chinese meaning is alright. But, when it was translated into English, a big mistake occurred: “The rockery danger Pleases no climb.”<br /> <br /> First, there should be “climbing” after “no”, not “climb”, this is just English grammar knowledge that can be learned in primary school; And the “Please” is followed by a “s”, why does the translator use third person singular at the top of a imperative sentence? Second, if the translator wants to tell the tourists that the rockery is dangerous and mustn’t be climbed, he or she should write: “The rockery is dangerous. Please don’t climb” or “Dangerous rockery. No climbing” or just “No climbing”. Unless the foreigners who see this sign have supreme understanding ability, they will not easily make sense of it. <br /> <br /> 3. 2 The Tendency Towards Chinglish and Mechanical Translation<br /> <br /> Knowing a little about English, then begin to translate public sign. This is ridiculous, which is definitely going to cause obvious mistakes. Especially when translating, there is a high probability that the translator will make Chinglish errors, or tend to seek for mechanical translation, which are the most common public sign translation problems in mainland China. With regard to the tendency towards Chinglish, it only proves that the translator’s basic skills of English are not so proficient, and he or she does not fit for translation work. For the tendency towards mechanical translation, on the one hand, it demonstrates that the translator is lazy, who is not willing to think about how to translate. On the other hand, it reveals his or her lack of basic English language knowledge. In fact, these two both can be easily avoided, only if the translator pays a little more attention to it or is earnest and dedicated to their work. All those mistakes should not have been made. <br /> <br /> No.4, this is a sign that is hung in an Internet celebrity milk tea shop: Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province. It reads &quot;out of the cup area&quot;. It originally means that the customers should queue here to get their milk tea after finishing paying. The translator should have easily translated “出杯区（CHU BEI QU）”into “FETCH AREA”, but it was translated as “OUT OF THE CUP AREA”, what a joke! Purely it was translated word-for-word. The translator did not understand its true meaning. Probably it was translated by a machine. As an Internet celebrity milk tea shop runner, when dealing with such kind of cultural issues, he or she should be extremely careful, earnest and cautious, instead of casually simply copying the contents given by a machine or hiring a third-rate translator and asking him or her to randomly translate. Large scale milk tea shops must shoulder their required obligations, and undertake necessary responsibilities and duties on public sign translation. Imagine that a foreigner, who can not understand it, stand there and think: What? Standing here is standing outside the cup? Maybe something interesting would happen. Let me try!<br /> All those will bring big and standing jokes. <br /> <br /> No.5 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province. It reads&quot; tourists get off area&quot;. Its Chinese meaning is: This is the place that tourists get off from a bus. But, it was translated as “Tourists get off area”, which fully shows the ignorance and lack of English language knowledge of the translators. People may can not help doubting whether it is copied from the translation given by a machine. Famous tourist spots like this, especially this kind of 5A tourist spot, can not even shoulder the cultural obligations, let alone developing in the long run. They should make big mistakes in such a little public sign translation! Do they only want to serve Chinese well while ignoring foreigners?<br /> <br /> Similarly, No.6 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province, and it reads &quot;up the mountain&quot;. The Chinese meaning is “This is the passage that leads tourists to climb the mountain”. The translation should have been a very easy and fun job, but when the sign is showed to tourists, a big big joke was born: “Up the mountain”. We can say “uphill way” or “uphill passage”, but, the translator obviously did not realize it. What’s more, when “up” is used as a verb, it is completely another meaning. It is also the symbol of such irresponsible spot management. <br /> <br /> No.7, it is a napkin given by an Internet celebrity milk tea shop (Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province ) for free after buying its milk tea. It reads &quot;more China, more fashion&quot;. At first glance, everything seems okay. But more carefully, we can find the mistake. The Chinese meaning is “If there are more elements with Chinese characteristics, it will be more fashionable.” But when translating, maybe with the aid of machine, or lack of a solid English knowledge foundation, it becomes “More China, more fashion”. If the customer is a Chinese, it does not matter, for he or she can understand it, and just shows a smile. But if foreigners see, they will be pretty shocked by the sight: What the hell is this? They will think that this shop lacks money to hire a good translator, and the managers are stupid. Furthermore, the Chinese national image will be badly affected. In fact, this sentence can be translated as “The more sinicization there is, the more fashion there will be” or “With greater Chinese characteristics come more fashion”. Easier? It can be “More sinicization breeds more fashion”. Translated like these, won’t it be much more correct and intelligible?<br /> <br /> '''3. 3 The Misunderstanding of the Public Sign Translators'''<br /> <br /> It is the little knowledge of English of the translators that makes them can not even spell a basic word correctly; Or due to carelessness, they make mistakes on public sign translation, thus causing mistakes on the meaning of the sign. All these are significant reasons why there are so many mistakes in Chinese-English public signs. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.8.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.8<br /> [https://www.sinaimg.cn/edu/cr/2015/0316/3124267229.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.8. The Chinese meaning of it is “The door or passage that leads you to the outside”, in short, “EXIT”. But the public sign was translated as“EXPORT”, so, what is “EXPORT”? In a word, it means trade among different countries. The commercial goods pass through the customs, being transported from one country to another country. Distinctly, the maker was careless, who has mixed the meaning of “出口（Chu Kou）”in Chinese, thus resulting in an obvious translation error. As for public sign translation, translators must weigh every word, and think over and over and over again, not just search online, and grab all the words you “discover”, which is a highly irresponsible behavior, an extremely irresponsible behavior to the society and the country . <br /> <br /> [[File:No.9.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.9<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4069547043,45136776&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.9 is from a hospital department. Its Chinese meaning is: Here is neurology emergency department. It uses a special logogram in Chinese. But, the maker was misled, so, he or she translated it as “God Medical”. If a person has a little common sense, he or she will be made to laugh wildly. It is completely the “Understanding of a sentence simply by a word”! That should be translated as “ Department of Emergency Neurology”. Such a casual translation will make Christians think that they can see God for real. Whether can he see death here or a way to heaven with a passionate God serving you? To some extent, this is disrespect for Christians, which can even cause disputes. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.10.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.10<br /> [https://ss0.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4055489075,1169617432&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.10 is photographed in a company building. Here, the Chinese means: this is the place where you can get boiled water. However, the translator of this public <br /> sign made a huge mistake, because he or she disintegrated the three Chinese words one by one, and thus translating them one by one, which can not be understood as a whole, let alone enable foreigners to understand the meaning of this public sign, and as a result, foreigners may not receive the service that they deserve. What’s worse, many people, including intelligent Chinese, when seeing this disqualified translation, will definitely be amused, and feel funny: What is this guy’s literate level?<br /> <br /> As a matter of fact, this public sign can be translated as “Boiled Water Room”. “开水”means “boiled water” in English. Certainly, the translator treated the “开”as a verb “open”, which is absolutely wrong. <br /> <br /> Further, this is a single room, not two or more, so we must use “room”, which is the plural form, instead of the singular form “rooms”. <br /> <br /> 3. 4 The Falsification and Loss of Information<br /> <br /> Originally, the managers want to use signs to warn people, but due to mistranslation, the information is tampered and missed, resulting in an opposite consequence, and producing big jokes. <br /> <br /> No.11 is a public warning sign in Liuxiang Barbecue Restaurant. It reads &quot; carefully hot&quot;. Is it a true warning? In the foreigners’ opinion, it is not. People who speak Chinese can realize that this sign was designed to warn customers not to be burned by the hot oven. However, the English translation is far from what it originally means. The correct translation can be “Careful! Hot!” or “Be Careful of the Hot Oven!” But according to the translation on the sign, it means “Carefully burn yourself”. Luckily, this is a small scale restaurant, if it were a large one, its reputation would be badly affected. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.12.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.12<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3765137851,1011242048&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.12 is a public sign in a large shopping center. As we all know, modern shopping centers now always use smooth and shiny tile floor as the ground, which makes the shopping centers look beautiful and attractive. However, smooth though it is, one big safety problem then comes into shape: The ground is too smooth to make shoppers slide and fall. Later, the managers made public signs like No.12 to warn people not to fall. The Chinese warning is okay, Chinese shoppers can understand, but when foreigners see this, he or she will burst out laughing: What? You order me to slide on the floor with care? What on earth do you mean? I have even seen an Internet celebrity girl posting an video clip that tells us a story that satirizes this mistranslation: The girl and her father slide joyfully on the ground in a shopping center while murmuring “Carefully slide! Carefully slide!” As a matter of fact, The correct Chinese-English translation should be “Caution! Slippery!” or “Beware of Wet Floor” or “Caution! Wet Floor”. Each one of the three is okay. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.13.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.13<br /> [https://ss2.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=461657809,3986868053&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.13 is a public sign that is put on the ceiling of a restaurant’s stair. Here, the translator wanted to pass such information by Chinese and English: Watch <br /> your head, do not hit the low ceiling of the stair. Be careful. Though the Chinese information is okay, the English, however, can not by understood by others, especially foreigners. <br /> <br /> Here, the makers wanted to warn the danger of the low ceiling, not to ask people to purposely hit the ceiling. So we can correct it as: “Watch Your Head”, or “Be Careful”. Both are okay. <br /> <br /> Here, the translator made a mistranslation, which reversed the original meaning when translating, thus producing a huge laughingstock. First, “碰”is not “meet”, but “hit”, according to this specific environment. It does not mean “meet someone”. Second, “小心碰头” means not to hit the ceiling, not to “meet carefully”. <br /> <br /> Throughout so many examples, every one can see that the mistakes of public sign translation are ubiquitous and common in daily life, which you can even randomly pick up one from any store you meet. Pervasive errors like these in public signs will negatively affect China’s reform and opening-up and the integration into international community, which will not only make foreigners misunderstand the meaning, but also seriously damage China’s national image. Therefore, the study of the public sign translation is extremely urgent and imperative. At present, translators must start from basic demand of Chinese-English public sign translation, endeavor to learn English well, cultivate a good sense of utilizing English and a great mindset of English utilization, proactively take part in English translation practice, and be highly alert and form a sense of “Using English language in a proper, correct, suitable and decent way”. Only then will the situation of Chinese-English public sign translation turn better. <br /> <br /> IV. Public Sign Translation Methods<br /> <br /> There is a saying goes: “Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards. ” So is the Chinese-English public sign translation. Zhang Yan (Zhang Yan, 2015) maintains in her paper that, the public sign translation methods can be summarized as four kinds. <br /> <br /> '''4. 1 Amplification'''<br /> <br /> Many new words that are with Chinese characteristics, especially combined with numbers, need using amplification to introduce to foreign readers. For example, in the past, “五讲四美三热爱(Wu Jiang Si Mei San Re Ai）”was translated as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves”. Many foreigners said that they could not understand it. Later, it was revised as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves” with the notation “ stress on decorum, manners, hygiene, discipline and morals; beauty of the mind, language, behavior and the environment; love of the motherland, socialism and the Communist Party”. Hence, foreigners can easily understand its connotation. <br /> <br /> '''4. 2 Ellipsis'''<br /> <br /> To make sure that the translation is concise and intelligible, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators must properly delete unnecessary words according to English expressing habits to achieve overall generalization. Such as: “Food Paradise”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 3 Re-translation'''<br /> <br /> Due to cultural differences, many folk adages with Chinese characteristics will not be understood by readers once simply read literally. So translators can moderately reorganize those sentences that can not be translated or understood. Such as: “Drinking and Driving Costs Your Life”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 4 Backward Translation'''<br /> <br /> There are two cases: Translating the cultural expressions that are borrowed from translation back into their original forms in the target language; Translating the expressions with obvious cultural characteristics into the idiomatic expressions in the target language. Such as: “Venus Florist”. <br /> The English public sign has its own cultural and pragmatic meanings. When doing the Chinese-English public sign translation, translators should consider about the cultural differences and avoid any form of ambiguity, misunderstanding or mistranslation, and offer high quality information service, thus making public sign translation advance with the times. <br /> <br /> '''V. Public Sign Translation Strategies'''<br /> <br /> He Xueyun (He Xueyun, 2006) holds in her thesis that, theoretically, semantic translation and communicative translation differ much. Semantic translation strives to keep the language specialty and unique express method of the original work, in order to express the original work’s thinking process; However, communicative translation’s key point lies in spreading information and enabling people to think, feel and act, giving play to the function of information that language conveys and the consequences it causes. Public sign translation must focus on results, and put readers first, only by this can we improve the current situation of public sign translation, thus achieving the purposes of public sign translation. <br /> <br /> Before beginning to do anything, we all need a world view and methodology to guide us to behave well. Likewise, when doing Chinese-English public sign translation, we also need guiding ideology to direct us. Here, I will show you four Chinese-English public sign translation strategies, which act as guiding ideology, which are definitely going to be a powerful weapon for you. Just remember them and practice them, you will gain a lot. <br /> <br /> '''5.1 No Grammatical, Semantic and Logical Error'''<br /> <br /> The most basic prerequisite of public sign translation is that there is no language error: No grammatical error, no vocabulary spelling error, no language context error, no Chinglish or machine-aided translation error. <br /> <br /> “This is office area, tourists mustn’t enter” can be translated as “Staff Only”, not “OFFICE AREA PLEASE DON’T COMING”, or you will make a grammatical and redundant error. “Be careful, don’t slip into water” can be translated as “Caution! Deep Water!” instead of “TAKE CARE! FALL INTO WATER CAREFULLY!” Otherwise, people will can not help laughing. <br /> <br /> One translator was not able to translate “The grass is so beautiful, are you sure you wan to walk on it?” into English public sign, so here comes <br /> “Fangcaoqiqi riding the Heren”. What a laughingstock! This is a combination between Chinese and English, without any grammar structure. Not to translate it will be a much better choice. We can concisely translate it as “Don’t Walk on the Beautiful Grass!”<br /> <br /> '''5. 2 Concise and Intelligible Translation'''<br /> <br /> One prominent character of public sign is conciseness. It asks people to ensure the translation is crystal clear and precise, without any compound or obscure sentence. Only by achieving this can the signs become popularized, instead of making people think over and over and over again to discover their cryptic meaning. <br /> <br /> The public sign translation must be concise and intelligible, which means that you not only need to precisely convey what the maker means to people, but also must be concise. People can understand it immediately without comprehension deviation or ambiguity. <br /> <br /> '''5. 3 Understanding of Cultural Background Differences'''<br /> <br /> When translating, every translator must thoroughly understand the culture of the targeted language. Translators must comprehensively understand each specific use of the targeted language under different cultural backgrounds. If not doing so, it may cause severe disputes, and even cause irresistible outcomes. Here are several examples. <br /> <br /> “Dragon” is a legendary animal in traditional Chinese culture. Chinese people often view themselves as “dragon”, and even say that they are “Descendants of the Dragon”. Thus, “Dragon” means holy and sacred thing in Chinese culture. But in English speaking countries, the meaning of “dragon” is not so. In these countries, “dragon” means something evil like Satan, sometimes it is even used to describe thugs, scoundrels or other bad behaviorists. Therefore, invariably coping the icon of “dragon” and using it in other cultures is a definite mistake. In a word, a public sign language translator must totally comprehend the cultural background differences. <br /> <br /> '''5. 4 Obedience to Certain Norms and Standards'''<br /> <br /> As long as someone is translating, he or she must obey certain rules, norms and standards. He mustn’t translate according to his will. This is a truth. <br /> For example, according to China’s first set of standards on how to regulate the use of foreign languages in China, which was jointly issued by the State Standards Commission and the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine on November 20, 2017 and officially implemented on December 1, 2017, some of the standards have been specified in detail. <br /> <br /> Names of tourist spots: Names of mountains, rivers and lakes should be written in Chinese pinyin. Translations of names of temples should vary according to different situations, so are the towers’ names. In line with external service needs, English explanations can be added. <br /> <br /> '''VI. The Future of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> China is a major powerful country, and is the country with the second highest Gross Domestic Product in the world, which is why China should keep close economic and cultural relationships with other countries. In order to integrate China with international community in a better way, there must be high quality public sign translation. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation must improve the China’s influence power in international community. High quality public sign translation represents that China is rich in translators and intellects, and shows that China can fulfill obligations and shoulder responsibilities as a major country. Achieving this means China not only takes responsibilities for Chinese people, but also for all human beings. Good quality public sign translation is definitely going to significantly synergize the course of reform and opening-up. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation is obliged to facilitate foreigners to travel in China, boost domestic consumption demand, form a new growth point for economy, promote the rise of Gross Domestic Product, and accelerate the comprehensive, coordinated and sustainable development. High quality public sign translation is also an integral part of the New Development Philosophy: Innovation, coordination, green, open and share. High quality public sign translation corresponds to the New Normal of Chinese economy. At present, the economy of China has been changing from developing at a high speed to develop at high quality, and is at the stage of changing economic development mode, transforming driving forces of economic development and optimizing the economic structure, so high quality public sign translation is badly needed. Thus, considering the big change of Chinese economy, achieving high quality public sign translation is an urgent affair. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation has the duty to embody a city’s humanism spirit, cultural speciality and charm, which is the inevitable requirement of core socialist values and system. It also promotes the spreading of Chinese culture, and improves the influence power of Chinese culture. High quality public sign translation also levels up Chinese people and overseas Chinese’s sense of identity and belonging. What’s more, it can narrow the gap between Chinese and foreigners, and acquire more recognition from them towards China. Domestically, high quality public sign translation can strengthen national cohesion; Externally, it will strengthen China’s soft power, and increase China’s international speaking right while creating national radiation power. <br /> It is an important measure to improve China’s public service and governance capability by establishing an evaluation mechanism and promoting the standardization of English translation. It is of great benefit to further improve China’s service level of opening to the outside world, demonstrate its cultural soft power and enhance its international image (Guo Jinghong, 2019). <br /> <br /> In short, looking forward to the future of Chinese-English public sign translation from a strategic perspective, translators must remain true to their original aspiration and keep their mission firmly in mind, which is: To be devoted to the future of socialism with Chinese characteristics, to be dedicated to the landscape of translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and to be committed to the sustainable development of Chinese-English public sign translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics. <br /> <br /> We must treat Chinese-English public sign translation with the point that advances with the times (Tian Guomin, 2019). The English translation of public signs of tourist attractions belongs to the category of cross-cultural communication, and the translator should have certain cross-cultural knowledge and awareness, so that the English translation can be more understood and accepted by the audience and truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication (Yang Hongyu, 2019). The communicative translation theory aims for the target readers (Gutt, 1991). Translation of public signs is a very important task in China with the increasing connection to the outside world (Newmark, 2001). Since reform and opening-up, China has been integrating into the international community day by day. To fully achieve this, as regards of Chinese-English public sign translation, we still have a long way to go. There is no time for us to delay the work of strengthening, proceeding, and improving public sign translation. The rising level of quality of Chinese-English public sign translation will improve both city image and urbanization level. He Xueyun contends in her article that, many people take it for granted that if one knows a foreign language, he then can translate. As a matter of fact, basic skills of public sign translation not only includes foreign language level, but also the knowledge of foreign cultures. <br /> <br /> '''VII. Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> So, how to facilitate the overall development of Chinese-English public sign translation？Firstly, we need to keep pace with the times. Language is constantly changing, so are many words and idioms, and so are public signs. In order to accurately convey information to the audience, it is essential to integrate the latest, most reliable and most accepted language into public signs. Secondly, it is necessary to fully understand the idiomatic usage of public signs, because public signs are mainly aimed at English speakers, so it is necessary to strengthen the accumulation of words, phrases and idioms, which is also the basis of translation. Thirdly, the translators of Chinese-English public signs should use accurate words and phrases in combination with specific environment and objects, and should not fail to convey the meaning or deviate from the original meaning, which otherwise will result in misunderstanding. Of course, only achieving the above is not enough. In order to do a good job in the translation of Chinese-English public signs, we need to keep improving our translation attitude and spirit of study, and constantly improve and summarize and innovate on the basis of the original, so as to make the translation of Chinese-English public signs more perfect and recognized by the international audience. It is very important for the academic community and people from all walks of life to analyze the problems in the application of public signs and put forward corresponding improvement countermeasures (Liu Xiaoping, 2019). <br /> <br /> A Chinese-English public sign translator must fully realize and shoulder the responsibilities that translators must carry, form a sense of community of a shared future, fully acknowledge the current situation of Chinese-English public sign translation, completely learn lessons from the predecessors who have made mistakes in Chinese-English public sign translation, totally implement the four public sign translation strategies I mentioned before, to make Chinese-English public sign translation serve the construction of a moderately prosperous society in all respect, the construction of modern powerful socialist country, the construction of building China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and the realization of the great Chinese dream, that is: the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> [1]Eugene Nida &amp; Charles Taber.（2004） [The Theory and Practice of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [2]Gutt &amp; Ernst, Agust. （1991）[Translation and Relevance: Cognition and Context] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> [3]Newmark, Peter. （2001）[Textbook of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [4]Pinkham, John.（2000） [The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br /> <br /> [5]Reiss. （2004）[Translation Criticism: the Potentials and Limitations] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [6]国家标准委.（2017） 公共服务领域英文译写规范<br /> <br /> [7]郭京红.（2019）公示语英译中的错误观点与评价方式 海外英语(23)154-155. <br /> <br /> [8]贺学耘. （2006）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略外语与外语教学,(03)57-59. <br /> <br /> [9]刘小平. （2019）公示语翻译中存在的问题及对策. 凯里学院学报, (04)72-74.<br /> <br /> [10]吕和发. （2005）公示语汉英翻译研究——以2012年奥运会主办城市伦敦为例 北京:中国翻译,(06)38. <br /> <br /> [11]田国民. （2019）谈汉语公示语的英译英语教师(22)110-113. <br /> <br /> [12]王回力. （2019）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略 延边教育学院学报(05)31-33. <br /> <br /> [13]吴浩熙, 李海红.（2019） 功能对等理论下的公示语翻译及策略 海外英语(20)59-61. <br /> <br /> [14]杨洪玉等.（2019） 旅游景点公共标识语的英文翻译 北京工业职业技术学院学报(04)122-126. <br /> <br /> [15]张焱. （2015）汉英翻译过程中的难译现象处理 北京:中国社会科学出版社(16)44-46<br /> <br /> [16]周树霞. （2017）浅析公示语的汉英翻译 校园英语(42)239-239.<br /> <br /> == A Study of Translation of Movie Titles in the Light of Venuti's Theory 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan==</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5&diff=109433 2020-12-10T04:00:29Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Reference */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第五部分(Part 5)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Thoughts'''=<br /> ==A Study on Creative Treason of Literature Translation - 李玉 Li Yu==<br /> ==On the Analysis of Three Kinds of Beauty in ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence-林敏 Lin Min 202020080616==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;林敏 Lin Min &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation, aiming to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language in a translation. Xu Yuanchong introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties” principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book, he said that the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem. This thesis is going to use such two theories to compare and analyze the two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond in our nation --Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version with some typical and representative examples, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.This thesis is divided into five parts: the first part roughly describes the purpose, method and significant of the study; the second part introduces the general idea and two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond; The third part introduces two translation theories functional equivalence and three beauty principle; the fourth part, some typical examples are selected and two theories are used to compare study the two versions. The fifth part summarizes the whole thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Functional Equivalence, Three Kinds of Beauty<br /> <br /> === 题目===<br /> 功能对等理论指导下《荷塘月色》英译本“三美”的传达<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 功能对等论是翻译理论中最重要的理论之一。功能对等论的目的是实现源语和目标语之间的功能对等。许渊冲在《毛泽东诗词四十二首》序言中提出的译诗的“三美”原则，即音美，意美和形美。本篇文章将利用这两个基本原则，通过一些有代表性的例子对译本进行比较学习，学习研究两篇文章是否符合功能对等。本篇论文共分为五部分，第一部分介绍了本研究的目的、意义和方法；第二部分介绍了《荷塘月色》的大意和两个英译本；第三部分对两个翻译原则：功能对等论和“三美”原则做了简要地介绍；第四部分选取了有代表性的例子，运用了两个理论对两译本进行了对比学习；第五部分对全文进行了总结。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 功能对等论，三美原则<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> With the advent of globalization as well as the development of Chinese economy, more and more Chinese literary works have been introduced abroad. Prose is one of the important part of China’s literature.However there is still not enough attention to the introduction of Chinese prose, especially Chinese modern prose. <br /> <br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''，the well-known lyric prose, written by the famous author Zhu Ziqing, has made a huge influence on the development of Chinese prose. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer's depressing mood. For this prose is a typical example of Chinese modern prose, many translators have given their translations of it, such as Zhu Chunshen, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang, Li Ming and Wang Jiaosheng. A large number of scholars have analyzed its different versions making great contribution to the prose translating. <br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation. Functional equivalence theory introduced by Nida, refers to the fact that the translation does not take rigid correspondence between words and structures as the standard, but aims to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language. The theory emphasizes that“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。<br /> <br /> Here, this paper selects This thesis selects two of the most famous English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen's version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, to compare and study, based on Xu Yuanchong's “Three Beauty” principle under the guidance of functional equivalence. This thesis will compare and analyze the two English versions, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> === 2. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' and Its English Versions ===<br /> Before comparing and analyzing the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' , we need learn some necessary information about the author who wrote it and the relatively background. At present, the two famous English versions are Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version .<br /> <br /> ====2.1 ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is the classical of lyric prose written by Zhu Ziqing in Tsinghua University, Beijing on July 1927，which depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer’s depressing mood. It was published in the Novel Monthly, one of the new literary journals which enjoys the reputation of “the first journal in the China’s literary world” in the 1920s.（Han,2018 ）Since it was published, the article has received both high praise and fierce criticism. From this perspective, it has witnessed the history of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> In this prose, the author is sleepless and sits in his yard to enjoy the cool in the evening. Suddenly, it occurred to his mind that the lotus pond where he passes every day and the pond must be different at night with the moonlight. So, the author wandered lonely on a cinder footpath around the lotus pond, he feels that he is a “free man”. As he sees the pond cover with trim lotus leaves and white lotus flowers, hearing the sounds of the cicadas and the frogs, Zhu thinks that “this animation was theirs alone, I had no part in it（Yang ,1990 ）.”<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Two English Versions ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is one of Zhu Ziqing’s masterpieces and was selected into Chinese textbook. Most scholars say that the prose is “文质相称，形神俱美” which has attracted an amount of scholars and students.（Chen ,2018）The prose has been introduced to foreign countries in different languages, especially in English since the May 4th Movement. The notable translations include Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, Li Ming’s version and Wang Jiaosheng’s version. This thesis choices Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version. Both Zhu ’s version and Yang’s version are faithful to the original meaning and concise to the sentence structure and close to the original style. But Zhu prefer to employ literal translation and Yang uses the free translation, like the words “热闹” ,“冷静”, “群居”and “独处”, Zhu translated these as “a serene and peaceful life”,“a busy and active one”, “being in solitude” and “in company”, in contrast Yang’s translation is “excitement and stillness”.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Basis of Theory ===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Functional Equivalence Theory ====<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Three Kinds of Beauty =====<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===4. On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence ===<br /> Zhu Ziqing used a large number of rhetorical devices and reduplicated words to describe the beauty of the lotus pond under the moonlight at night, to express his gloomy and upset mood, which brings great difficulty to translation, in his famous prose--''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. This part is aimed at using the functional equivalence theory and Xu Yuanchong’s theory of “Three Beauties” to analyze wheatear the two English versions of such prose achieving the degree of function equivalance.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 ====<br /> Words are the basic meaning of sentences. G •Leech divided “meaning” into two categories: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(Leech,1987) The conceptual meaning is the meaning that we can find in dictionary, and the associative meaning is the actually meaning of the word in the special context. It is a truly universal acknowledge that the meaning of the sentence is not simple addition of word meaning. Thus, the translator should find the conceptual meaning and the associative meaning of the original, especially the associative meaning. Here are some typical examples:<br /> <br /> Example 1: “这几天心里颇不宁静。”（Zhu Ziqing , 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu ’s version: “I have felt quite upset recently.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang ’s version: “The last few days have found me very restless.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> This sentence is the first sentence in the first paragraph. Here “不宁静” refers to “quite uncomfortable”, which can be translated as “upset, restless, untranquil, disquieting and so on”. However, considering Zhu Ziqing’s patriotic feeling and his responsibility for his wife and kid, he cannot devote his whole life to the great revolution. Therefore “不宁静” in the context means the author is anxiety, because he want to change his condition. Zhu Chunshen translated it as“upset”which means“unhappy or disappointed because of something unpleasant that has happened”in the ''OED'', which emphasized the unhappy mood. And Yang Xianyi employed it as “restless”, which means “unable to stay still or happy where you are, because you are bored or need a change ” in the ''OED'', which stressed on one needing a change. It is clear that the word “restless” is more exactly than the word “quiet” in this sentence.<br /> <br /> However,“宁静”has an end rhyme“ing”and neither“upset”in Zhu’s translation nor“restless”in Yang’s version opted the words with the same end rhyme for they both focused on the meaning. And such sentence in original text is a 9 characters short sentence with no subject, Yang translated it into 9 words,used the“the last few day”as the subject, while Zhu’s version only has 6 words and selected “I” as the subject. Therefore, Yang’s version is expressive to the original in this sentence and it retains the beauties of form and sense in this sentence at the same time. In short, the two versions are good translation, but the Yang’s version is much better from this point. <br /> <br /> Example 2“这是一条幽僻的路；白天也少人走，夜晚更加寂寞。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: It is peaceful and secluded here, a place not frequented by pedestrians even in the daytime; now at night, it looks more solitary......”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “It is off the beaten track and few pass this way even by day, so at night it is still more quiet.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> The word “幽僻” means “安静和人迹罕至” here. Zhu rendered the word “幽僻” into “peaceful and secluded”, emphasized that there is silent and private. Yang employed it into “off the beaten track” which means no one knows here and quiet. From this perspective, both translations are very similar in understanding the writer’s meaning.<br /> <br /> However, the word “幽僻” is an adjective word with two meanings: quiet and not disturbed by other people. Zhu’ s version “peaceful and secluded” ,are two adjective words and has two similar meanings, which keep the form and sense of the original sentence. In conclusion，according to the “Three Beauties” principle, Zhu’s translation is much better than Yang’s for it retains the form of the original.<br /> <br /> Example 3: “这路上阴森森的，有些怕人。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “The foliage, which, in a moon-less night, would loom somewhat frighteningly dark.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “ On nights when there is no moon the track is almost terrifyingly dark.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> In this sentence, Zhu Ziqing uses “怕人” to describe the atmosphere of the air on the road and his feeling of walking on this path at such a night. “怕人” referred to “令人害怕的” in Chinese, it is an adjective to present his feeling. “Frightening ” means “making you feel afraid”, and “terrifying” means “to make somebody extremely frightened”in the ''OED'' , which can be regarded as synonyms. Both use the adverb to translate the adjective “怕人”. But in Zhu’s translation, “the foliage” is “frighteningly dark” and in Yang’s version, “the track” is “terrifyingly dark”. Both translators have their own understanding of the original content, but the both translations are faithful to the word “怕人”. We could say the two translations achieve the beauty in sense. However, in “Three Beauties” principle, we should consider the beauty in form and sound. As for sound ,the last sound of “怕人” is [en] in Chinese, but both “frightening” and “terrifying” has the same end sound of [en]. As for “frightening” and “terrifying”, the last sound of these are [iŋ] which could be regarded as the similar pronunciation with [en] .So, the two translations achieved beauty in sound from this aspect. In all the both versions are great from this perspective.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 ====<br /> ====4.3 ====<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> ==Lexical Gap between English and Chinese and its translation strategies 孟莹 Meng Ying==<br /> <br /> ==On Form and Spirit in Translation 文偲荇 Wen Sixing==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> translation methods，form，sprit<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译方法，翻译的形与神<br /> <br /> ===The form of translation===<br /> <br /> ===The sprit of translation===<br /> <br /> ===Discussion===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories——Taking &quot;2017 APEC Speech&quot; as sample 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing==<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Strategies'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Study on the Translation Strategies, Translation Methods and Translation Techniques in Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao==<br /> <br /> ==Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” to “Visibility” 胡百辉 Hu Baihui==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Business Contracts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 胡瑾 Hu Jin==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization in China and the increasing frequency of modern commercial activities, commercial contracts are particularly vital in order to ensure the smooth progress of commercial activities. In a business contract, it is required to ensure that the expression of any text in the contract is accurate as far as possible, and the same is true when translating it. Contracts provide vital basis for the smooth development of business and the protection of rights. Accurate and vivid translation of contracts has an important impetus to the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations and the resolution of disputes. Therefore, it is of practical significance to study the translation of business contracts. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory, equivalence is first realized in meaning and then in form. Dynamic equivalence is used to break the static equivalence and maximize the meaning of the translation. This thesis gives a preliminary introduction to the translation of business contracts, studies the application of functional equivalence theory in contract translation, and puts forward some major translation skills and methods, which will be of some guiding significance to the future translation of business contracts, thus avoiding unnecessary disputes between the two parties.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> business contract; Functional Equivalence Theory; contract translation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中国全球化进程不断加快，现代商务活动日益频繁，为了确保商务活动的顺利进行，商务合同的签订显得尤为重要。在商务合同中，要求尽量确保合同中的每一个文字都表达准确，在对其进行翻译时也是如此。合同是确保业务开展顺利和进行权利保障的重要依托，对合同进行准确生动的翻译对业务的开展和权利、义务的保障以及出现争议时的解决等有着重要的推动力。因此，研究商务合同的翻译有一定的现实意义。根据奈达的功能对等理论，对等首先在意义上实现，然后在形式上实现，利用动态对等，打破静态对等，使译文意义最大化。此课题初步介绍了商务合同的翻译，研究了功能对等理论在合同翻译中的应用，提出了一些主要的翻译技巧和方法，对今后商务合同的翻译具有一定的指导作用，从而避免合同双方出现不必要的纠纷。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 商务合同；功能对等理论；合同翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since China promoted the Silk Road Economic Belt, China's economic exchanges with other countries in the world have been increasing day by day. China's exports volume is also increasing, and goods are exported to other countries in the world. In 2013, China overtook the United States as the world's largest trading nation. In this context, in order to ensure the smooth progress of transactions and reduce trade friction and disputes, commercial contracts, which have legal effect, have attracted more and more attention. Contract translation belongs to the category of legal translation. Accurate translation of contracts plays an important role in the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations, and the resolution of disputes. However, commercial disputes in China's foreign economic and trade business are very common, and many disputes are caused by various problems in contract translation. Therefore, they should be guided by scientific translation theories.<br /> This paper mainly includes 3 chapters. The first chapter is the introduction of business English contracts, including the definition of business contract, the categories of business contract, and the linguistic features of English business contract.<br /> The second chapter introduces the theoretical framework of functional equivalence translation, including Nida's main principles and viewpoints of functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> The third chapter is the main part of the article, including the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 General Introduction of Business Contract===<br /> <br /> This chapter first introduces the definition of business contract and the categories of business contract, and then analyzes the linguistic features of English business contract from lexical, syntactic and textual levels respectively. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> As an important link in foreign trade activities, business contracts have always been valued by people. Article 2 of The PRC Contract Law clearly stipulates that Commercial contract refers to the agreement clauses that are formally concluded according to law, notarized and must be abided by jointly in order to determine their respective rights and obligations during certain commercial cooperation between the parties concerned. It can be seen from this that a commercial contract is the result of the consensus reached by the parties and is a civil legal act. A legally established contract shall take effect from the date of its establishment and shall be legally binding. This provides a legal guarantee for effectively avoiding trade frictions. However, special attention should be paid to the fact that China's Economic Law on Foreign Contracts stipulates that commercial contracts can take many forms, such as formal contracts, letters of intent, memorandum, agreements, commissioned purchase orders, etc. But no matter what form it takes, it should be signed in writing. The oral agreement cannot be submitted to the court as evidence after the dispute occurs.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Categories and Structure of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> Based on different standards, business contracts can be divided into many categories. According to the contract maker, they can be divided into sales contract (made by the seller) and purchase contract (made by the buyer); according to the subject matter, they can be divided into technology transfer contracts, processing contracts, foreign labor contracts, and agency agreements, etc; according to the details of the contract, they can be divided into sales contract, sales confirmation letter, purchase contract and purchase confirmation letter; according to the price terms used in the contract, they can be divided into CIF contract, FOB contract and goods arrival contract, etc.<br /> Although there are many types of commercial contracts, the structure of commercial contracts is generally relatively fixed, generally including three parts: preface, text and contract end. The first part is the preface, which generally includes the name of the contract, the parties to the contract, the date of signing and the place of signing. The second part is the main body of the contract, which mainly stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties to the agreement, the specific conditions of the traded goods, such as commodity name, quantity, total value, delivery date and validity period, port of shipment and destination, insurance and confidentiality clauses, payment clauses,etc. The third part is the end, which mainly includes the signatures of all parties to the agreement, the language of the contract, the number of copies of the contract and the explanation of the validity of the contract.<br /> <br /> ====1.3 A Contrastive Analysis of Stylistic Features of Chinese and English Business Contracts====<br /> <br /> English business contract is a solemn style with the highest degree of formality among all styles of English. A comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English business contract in terms of vocabulary, syntax and discourse will be made in this chapter.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Lexical Features of Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> As the most basic semantic constituent unit, vocabulary plays the most basic and important role in the whole contract text. When reading any text, the characteristics of words can often reflect the characteristics of the whole text. Therefore, it is necessary to study the characteristics of vocabulary so as to lay a foundation for the study of the whole text.<br /> <br /> First of all, the use of archaism is the most prominent feature in international business contract English. The extensive use of archaic words in business contracts and legal styles fully reflects their solemn and serious style, which is related to the social function of English style of business contracts and the particularity of international business. The archaism most commonly used in business contract English are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中)，therein-after(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于).<br /> <br /> In contrast, some classical Chinese words are often used in Chinese business contract terms, such as“兹、若”. This is to reflect the conciseness and clarity of the Chinese contract text. However, strictly speaking, Chinese business contract terms are more straightforward, the classical Chinese vocabulary is less frequently used, and the stylistic features are not as obvious as English business contracts.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the use of synonyms is another feature of English business contracts. Two or more synonyms are often used together in English business contracts. This is to make the terms of the contract more precise and accurate, and to avoid ambiguities and omissions as much as possible, for example, by and between, sole and exclusive, make and enter into, etc. <br /> <br /> However, we must note that synonyms are not commonly used in Chinese business contracts. This is mainly because of the differences in expression habits between Chinese and English and the differences in legal and cultural traditions between countries.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, as a contractual document with legal effect, legal terms are also used in the contract. In formal English business contracts, drafters often use “convene” instead of “hold or assemble”; “dispatch” instead of “spread out or handout”; “terminate” instead of “stop”. Similarly, in Chinese business contracts, interpreters use“承诺”to indicate “commitment”;“撤销”to indicate“cancel”instead of “取消”;“裁决” to mean “decision” instead of “决定”. Finally, the contract contains many professional knowledge and terminology.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.2 Syntax Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> Besides vocabulary, the syntax of business contracts also has their own characteristics, such as common clauses, declarative sentences, passive voice, modal verbs, etc. <br /> <br /> The most obvious feature in business contracts is the use of subordinate clauses. They are in obvious positions to explain, restrict and supplement the meaning of the main sentence. The positions of these clauses are relatively flexible. For example, attributive clause can be placed together with the central word or separated from the central word. A noun can be modified by multiple attributive clauses, and an attributive clause can also modify multiple nouns. The adverbial clause of time can be placed either at the beginning of the sentence or at the middle and end of the sentence.<br /> <br /> In contrast, the positions of attributive clauses and adverbial clauses in Chinese are relatively fixed. The adverbial clause of time is usually next to the modified verb because there is no temporal change in Chinese verbs. Declarative sentences are clear in meaning, division of powers and responsibilities, objective and fair in stating facts, and conform to the requirements of business contract terms. Therefore, they are frequently used in Chinese and English business contracts, but interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences are seldom used.<br /> <br /> Passive sentences are also quite common in business contracts. The passive voice is often used when there is no need to clearly indicate the sender of the behavior and the emphasis is placed on the object of the behavior.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.3 Textual Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> The textual features of Chinese and English business contracts are mainly reflected in textual cohesion and textual structure.<br /> <br /> In business contracts, whether Chinese or English, contextual cohesion is realized by adding conjunctions or repetitions of words, which indicates the logical relationship between sentences and reflects the rigour and solemnity of business contract language.<br /> <br /> The discourse structure of Chinese and English business contracts is basically the same, with highly stylized features.<br /> <br /> This kind of consistency is not only to obtain formal uniformity, but also often mainly due to the requirements of meaning, so that readers have the impression that the contents expressed by clauses with the same sentence pattern are equivalent in the legal effect of the contract.①<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 General Study of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This chapter introduces Nida's functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida first proposed the“dynamic equivalence”theory, then further developed the theory, emphasizing the equivalence of two aspects, namely“formal equivalence”and“dynamic equivalence”.“Formal equivalence”emphasizes the form and content of the information itself and believes that the translation should be close to the original structure. “Dynamic equivalence”refers to“reproducing source language information from semantics to style with the closest (original) natural equivalent in the recipient language”.② Tan Zaixi（谭载喜） pointed out, in this definition, there are three key points: 1. Natural, the translation cannot have a translation cavity. 2. Closeness, referring to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of nature. 3. Equivalence, which is the core.<br /> <br /> After the proposal of dynamic equivalence, many disputes have arisen. It is considered as free translation or live translation. In order to change people's misunderstanding of it, Nida pointed out:“Everything in the text is meaningful, including speech forms, so forms cannot be sacrificed easily.”④ Therefore, he replaced“dynamic equivalence”with “functional equivalence”. There is no essential difference between the two, but the latter highlights the concept of“function”.<br /> <br /> On the question of which level equivalence should be reflected, Nida pointed out that in addition to content and form equivalence, style equivalence should also be considered.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida divided functional equivalence into“maximum functional equivalence”and“minimum functional equivalence”since absolute equivalence is impossible to achieve. The so-called“maximum functional equivalence”means that the target readers can understand the original text in a way consistent with the original readers and further appreciate the original text while“minimum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand how the original readers understand and appreciate the original through their understanding of the target text. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Researches on Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Abroad, Beekman(1972: 32) pointed out:“Nida's functional equivalence theory makes theorists and translators believe that a good translation must be able to convey the meaning and dynamics of the original text at the same time.”⑤ <br /> <br /> Wilss(2001: 51) stressed:“Nida's functional equivalence theory can be applied to translation practice because it can achieve effective translation.”⑥ Venuti said:<br /> Functional equivalence theory also eases the debate between translators on“domestication” and “foreignization” from the perspective of language and culture.⑦<br /> <br /> At home, Jin Di(金堤) put forward“equivalence theory”on the basis of“functional equivalence theory”, and applied it to the translation of Ulysses, which illustrates the feasibility of“functional equivalence” theory in practical translation. Tan Zaixi made a comprehensive and systematic summary of the formation process of Nida's translation theory and its profound connotation. In addition, in the CNKI database, retrieval using“functional equivalence theory” as the key word shows that there are 2444 related articles in various core journals and magazines.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Applicability of Functional Equivalence Theory to E-C Translation of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> At present, there are no authoritative translation principles and standards for commercial contract translation, but the three principles of contract translation put forward by Ma Huijuan(马会娟) are highly recognized: First, the words used are accurate and the translation is complete. The translator shall not add, delete or change any information contained in the contract at will. The language of the translation shall be accurate, complete and natural. Second, the organization is clear and the format is equivalent. The translation should correspond to the original text format as a whole and reproduce the structural features of the source language as much as possible. Third, the translation should be in line with the stylistic characteristics of the contract.<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory emphasizes content equivalence, form equivalence and style equivalence. These three requirements are consistent with the three principles above put forward by Ma Huijuan respectively. Both of them limit the translation standards from the aspects of content, form and style. Therefore, the functional equivalence theory can be fully applied to the translation practice of business contracts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Business Contract Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This part focuses on the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. Combining with actual translation cases, this chapter analyzes the common problems in contract translation and puts forward corresponding solutions. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Equivalence at the Lexical Level====<br /> <br /> Vocabulary is the basic component of sentences and chapters. In the specific translation process, if vocabulary translation is not handled well, sentence and chapter translation will be impossible.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Equivalence of Technical Terms—Literal Translation and Free Translation=====<br /> <br /> The contents of business contracts involve all trades and professions, and there are many subject matters, including many professional knowledge and terminology, which is a big obstacle for many translators who do not know the professional knowledge of the industry. Therefore, before translation, translators should understand the relevant industries involved in the contract and master the necessary knowledge in the industry so as to avoid the layman's words and semantic errors in the translation, which will affect the accuracy and formality of the contract and cannot achieve functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> Example1:The balance 80% ( Eighty percent ) of the contract value shall be paid against irrevocable L/C at 360 days sight to be accepted by both parties. <br /> 译文：合同金额的80%（百分之八十）以不可撤销信用证的方式在交单的360 天予以支付。<br /> <br /> Many words in the contract appear in the form of letter abbreviations. As shown in this example,“L/C”is the abbreviation of letter of credit, which is translated literally into“信用证”. This is a well-established translation method in the industry, which can reflect both the equivalence of meaning and the professionalism of language expression.<br /> <br /> Example2:“The seller shall present the following documents required for negotiation or collection to the banks.”<br /> 译文:“卖方应向银行提交议付或托收所需的下列文件。”<br /> <br /> In this sentence,“negotiation”and“collection”are both technical terms of the contract, they are translated into“议付”and“托收” respectively, instead of“谈判”and“收取”. The expressions not only conform to the professional expression of the economic and trade industry, but also accurately reflect the meaning of the original text and achieve the meaning and style equivalence emphasized by the functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> Example3:“UNIT PRICES: FOB Xingang, Tianjing USD 22 150.00 per unit (US Dollars twenty two thousand, one hundred and fifty only)。”<br /> 译文:“单价: FOB天津新港, 每辆22150.00美元（贰万贰仟壹佰伍拾美元）。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“FOB”is an abbreviation of “Free on board”. It can be translated into “FOB” by free translation or by shifting translation. This is mainly because the readers of business contracts themselves are professionals in the industry. They usually exchange price terms in the form of English letters and abbreviations in their daily work. Therefore, when translating such price terms, their source language expressions can be retained.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Equivalence of Archaism—Omission, Addition and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Archaisms are rarely used in modern English, but they are still common in business contracts. They can not only reflect the formal rigour of business contracts, but also highlight the conciseness and clarity of language. The archaisms most commonly used in English business contract are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中), hereinafter(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于), etc.<br /> <br /> Example1:“The parties hereto shall, first of all, settle any dispute arising from or in connection with the contract through amicable negotiation.” <br /> 译文:“合同双方首先应该通过友好协商，解决因合同而发生的或与合同相关的争议。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“hereto”means“本协议的、本合同的”. It can be translated with omission. The contract subject relationship is clear, literal translation will only lead to redundant repetition of the translation, so there is no need to translate it.<br /> <br /> Example2: Now, therefore, in consideration of the recitals set forth above and the mutual covenants, promises, and agreements contained herein, and other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged, the Parties do hereby agree as follows: <br /> 译文：因此，考虑到上述陈述和本协议中包含的共同契约、承诺和协议，以及其他良好和有价值的对价，双方特此达成如下协议，特此确认其接收和充分性。<br /> <br /> In this example, herein usually means“此中，于此”. But such translation here will confuse readers. Therefore, we can adopt addition and translate it into“此协议中”. Although this expression is not as concise as“于此”, accuracy is the first requirement in contract translation.<br /> <br /> Example3: After arrival of goods at port of destination, the buyer shall apply to China Commodity Inspection Bureau (hereinafter referred to as CCIB) for a further inspection as to the specifications and quantity/weight of the goods.<br /> 译文：货到目的港后，买方将申请中国商品检验局(以下简称商检局)对货物的规格和数量重量进行检验。<br /> <br /> In this case, the original meaning of“hereinafter”is“以下，在下文中”. Its original meaning is directly inserted into the sentence, which not only accurately expresses the original meaning, but also makes the translated language natural and smooth, meeting the requirements of functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Equivalence of Formal Words—Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> “Functional Equivalence”emphasizes the transmission of reading experience, requiring the translator to transmit not only language functions but also legal functions, so as to enable the target readers to feel the reading experience of the original readers. <br /> <br /> Example1: The agreement does not operate as an acceptance of any conflicting terms and conditions and shall prevail over any conflicting provision of any purchase order or any other instrument of Customer. <br /> 译文：本协议不接受任何与本协议产生冲突的任何条款。若在乙方订单或任何文件中出现与本协议相冲突的条款，应均以本协议为准。<br /> <br /> Example2:“Time of shipment: within 15 days after receipt of the advance payment and the L/C of balance value to be accepted by the × Bank.” <br /> 译文:“装运日期：收到预付款且剩余货款的信用证被××银行承兑后的15天内装运。”<br /> <br /> In the first example, although the basic meaning of“胜过”is also expressed, it is usually translated into“以....为准” or “效力高于”in legal texts. In the second example, the common meaning of“accept”is “接受”, but in legal translation it is usually translated as “承兑”. Formal words are usually translated according to conventions, so the difficulty in translation lies not in the choice of translation strategies, but in the grasp of semantics and the reproduction of style.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.4 Equivalence of Juxtaposition—Contracted Translation=====<br /> <br /> English business contracts often use two or more synonyms to ensure the uniqueness of words meaning. The functional equivalence theory emphasizes the equivalence of meaning and form, but in the actual translation process, the absolute equivalence between the two, that is, the “maximum functional equivalence”proposed by Nida, is impossible to realize.<br /> <br /> Example1:“The agreement is made and entered into on April 16, 2007 by and between Party A and Party B.”<br /> 译文:“此合同由甲乙双方于2007年4月16日达成。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“made and entered into”and“by and between”are juxtaposed by two pairs of synonyms. When translating, these words only need translate once, which is called contracted translation. <br /> <br /> Example2: This agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the subject matter hereof and supersedes all prior agreements, understanding, warranties, representations, negotiations and discussion, whether oral or written, of the parties except as specifically set forth herein.<br /> 译文：此合同是双方就合同主体所达成的全部协议，将取代双方过往所有口头或书面的协议、理解、声明、保证、谈判和讨论，在此明确阐明的除外。<br /> <br /> In this example, several synonyms are juxtaposed to make the terms of the contract include all relevant matters as much as possible so as to make the writing strict and clear. Here, we can adopt literal translation strategy, keeping the total number of words listed in the original text, and looking for the corresponding Chinese words to achieve the double equivalence of content and form. <br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Equivalence at the Syntactic Level====<br /> <br /> Cliches are commonly used in official document and usually have a fixed translation method. Passive sentences and subordinate clauses have long sentence patterns and complicated logical relations, which tests the translator's translation ability and logical expression ability. <br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Conventional Phrases—Imitation Translation=====<br /> <br /> There are many cliches in business contracts, which are common at the beginning and end of contracts.<br /> <br /> Example1:“In consideration of the mutual covenants contained in this agreement, the parties agree as follows:”<br /> 译文:“考虑到本协议中的共同承诺，协议双方约定如下:”<br /> <br /> Example2:This Agreement may be executed in two or more counterparts, each of which shall be deemed an original and all of which together shall constitute one instrument. <br /> 译文：本协议可签署两个或两个以上的副本，每一副本构成本协议的一份原件，所有副本构成一份法律文件。<br /> <br /> Although the original expression of each text is not the same, the basic meaning is the same. A relatively fixed translation method has been formed, so the translators should know the common expressions in advance, or look for the parallel text to imitate the translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Equivalence of Passive Sentence=====<br /> <br /> Passive voice is a typical language structure in English business contracts. It can effectively reflect the objectivity and fairness of contracts. However, unlike English, passive voice is seldom used in Chinese. Therefore, in translation, we usually use various translation strategies to convert passive voice into active voice. The most common translation strategy is conversion, that is, the object of the original text is converted into the subject, and the subject is converted into the object. <br /> <br /> Example1: This Contract is made by and between the Buyer and the Seller whereby the Buyer agree to buy and the Seller agrees to sell the commodity in attached Annex according to the terms and condition stipulated below: <br /> 译文：买卖双方同意按下述条款购买出售附件中的商品并签订本合同： <br /> <br /> Example2: Agent shall be entitled to nominate mandate other third parties to act upon behalf of Agent in generating business to the Parties, as Agent’s sole discretion. <br /> 译文：代理人有权自行指定、授权其他第三方代表代理人为缔约方带来业务。<br /> <br /> From the first example, “by and between” is used as adverbial in the sentence. The object“the Buyer and the Seller” is the originator of this sentence, which is transformed into the subject of Chinese, and the recipient of the action“this contract”is transformed into the object of Chinese, thus the passive sentence of English is transformed into the active sentence of Chinese. In addition, some passive sentences in business contracts can also be translated into active sentences without changing the subject of the original sentence, as shown in the second example.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Equivalence of Long Sentence—Combination, Division and Reconstruction=====<br /> <br /> Long sentences must contain many clauses and modifiers, and their writing ideas are quite different from those of Chinese. Therefore, how to split the sentences into several parts, how to extract the core meaning of complex logical relations and how to reorganize Chinese are the three major difficulties.<br /> <br /> Example1: Agent’s undertaking and obligation is to search, locate and refer (lead) potential and prospective clients/customers to Principal who are seriously interested, ready, willing and able to apply for the Product. <br /> 译文：代理人的责任和义务是为委托人寻找、定位和推荐（引导）潜在的、真正对本产品感兴趣、准备好且愿意申请的客户。<br /> <br /> This is a restrictive attributive clause. We often adopt a combination method, translating the subordinate clause into“...的” and putting it before the modifier in the form of adjectives. This is mainly due to the structural differences between English and Chinese. The attributive elements in Chinese are not as flexible as the attributive clauses in English. <br /> <br /> Example2: The parties may not assign or transfer this Agreement or any of its rights and obligations under this Agreement without the prior written consent of the other party, which shall not be unreasonably withheld. <br /> 译文：未经另一方事先书面同意，缔约方不得出让或转让本协议或本协议项下的各项权利和义务，此要求不得被无理拒绝。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a non-restrictive attributive clause. Since this clause and the antecedent are not closely related and generally play an explanatory role, we often use division method in E-C translation. That is to say, the two should be separated and naturally combined by repeating antecedents.<br /> <br /> Example3: Should Principal be reasonably sure that Agent violated this rule, or should any client/customer present proof of such violation, Agent will not be entitled to its omission for the particular client or group of clients and Principal may terminate this Agreement with immediate effect at its own discretion. <br /> 译文：如果委托人有理由确定代理人违反了此项规定，或如果有客户提供了其违反此项规定的证据，代理人将无权享这一客户或这一组客户的佣金，委托人可自行终止本协议，即刻生效。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a adverbial clause. The structure of“should+subject+verb”belongs to the unreal conditional sentence. But there is no such usage in Chinese. Therefore, we can reconstruct the original text according to the logical structure of the original sentence and adjust the word order appropriately to make it natural and more in line with the Chinese expression habits. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Equivalence at Textual Level====<br /> <br /> The text consists of sentences, so the following focuses on the cohesion and format of the text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Text Cohesion=====<br /> <br /> Text cohesion is realized through the use of conjunctions and lexical repetition, reflecting the rigour and solemnity of business contract language.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> Thereafter, this Agreement shall be renewed automatically for successive additional one-year terms under the same terms and conditions unless either party chooses not to continue the relationship and provides written notice 30 days prior to the natural expiration of the existing one-year term. <br /> 译文：此后，本协议应以同样的条款自动延期一年，除非任何一方选择解除合作关系，并在一年合同期满前30天提交书面通知。<br /> <br /> Here, explicit connectives,“thereafter, and, unless”are clearly translated, which is conducive to textual cohesion and indicates the logical relationship between sentences. Therefore, we can translate them into “此后、和/并、除非”, which not only realizes the formal equivalence between the translation and the original, but also achieves the semantic equivalence.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Text Format=====<br /> <br /> As one kind of legal documents, commercial contracts are highly normative and have strict writing format. Therefore, attention should be paid to the corresponding format in translation.<br /> <br /> Contract No: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Date: Aug. ××,2013 <br /> <br /> The Buyer: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Representative: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> The seller: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××<br /> <br /> Representative: ××××××<br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> 译文：合同编号：×××××× <br /> <br /> 日期：2013年8月×号 <br /> <br /> 买方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：×××××× <br /> <br /> 卖方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：××××××<br /> <br /> Here, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the contract text, and keep the format of the translation and the original text in alignment during translation. Firstly, capital words with the first letter should be emphasized in terms consistent with Chinese expression habits. Secondly, the parts marked in bold or italics in the contract shall still be marked in bold or italics in the translation.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> To sum up, according to the requirements of functional equivalence theory on translation quality, commercial contract translation should meet the following standards:<br /> <br /> In terms of content, first, the translation language should be natural and fluent and conform to Chinese expression habits. Second, pay attention to the professionalism of the language expression in the translation, avoid using colloquial expressions, and achieve the meaning equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> In terms of format, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the commercial contract text and try our best to achieve the formal equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> In terms of language style, the translation should retain the original language style as much as possible. The business contract language is professional and solemn, so the translation should reproduce the strict and formal legal style of the original text on the premise of ensuring accurate content and natural language.<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes and summarizes specific contract terms and puts forward countermeasures. Although the translation strategies given in this paper have certain universality, the research text is slightly narrower than that of the whole commercial contract text research. Due to the space limitation, the cases provided are limited. Therefore, the scope of the research text should be broadened and analyzed from a broader research perspective in future research.<br /> <br /> ===Notes===<br /> <br /> ① 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998: 310-312.<br /> <br /> ② Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986: 113-120.<br /> <br /> ③ 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2004: 23-27.<br /> <br /> ④ Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993: 119-130. <br /> <br /> ⑤ Beekman, J. &amp; C, John. Translating the word of God[M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974: 191-221.<br /> <br /> ⑥ Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001: 72-86.<br /> <br /> ⑦ Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995: 76-89.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> [1] Beekman, J. &amp; John C. Translating the word of God [M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974. <br /> <br /> [2] Catford, J. C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965. <br /> <br /> [3] Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> [4] Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986.<br /> <br /> [5] Nida, E. A., and R Taber, Charles. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. New York: E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1969.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995.<br /> <br /> [7] Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [8] Yallop, C. The construction of equivalence[A]. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2001.<br /> <br /> [9] 顿官刚. 经贸英语词汇的特点及翻译[J]. 山东外语教学, 2002, (2).<br /> <br /> [10] 廖瑛. 实用公关英语[M]. 上海: 对外经济贸易大学出版社, 2005.<br /> <br /> [11] 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998.<br /> <br /> [12] 苗锡璞. 功能对等理论指导下的商务英语翻译[J]. 内蒙古财经学院学报, 2011, (1).<br /> <br /> [13] 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> [14] 汪洋. 浅析商务合同的词汇与句法翻译技巧[J]. 科技文汇, 2009, (10).<br /> <br /> [15] 金堤. 等效翻译探索[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998.<br /> <br /> [16] 马会娟. 论商务文本翻译标准多元化[J]. 中国翻译, 2005, (3).<br /> <br /> ==The translator's invisibility 张毓婕 Zhang Yujie==<br /> <br /> ==Study of Domestication and foreignization in Cross-cultural Translation 顾东方 Gu Dongfang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's economic globalization, international cultural exchanges are expanding, and translation as a communication tool is also crucial. As a form of cross-cultural and cross-linguistic communication, translation is a kind of communication and interaction between two cultures with very different social backgrounds and cultural traditions. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, the application and selection of translation strategies should not only reflect the translator's style, but also directly affect the audience of the translated work among the target language readers. In 1995, Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization , in The Invisibility of Translators. domestication and foreignization are both opposed and unified, i.e. there is no such thing as absolute domestication or absolute foreignization. This paper will discuss the selection and application of domestication and foreignization in cross-cultural translation, based on the two translation strategies themselves and actual translation cases, so that translators can use these two translation strategies more flexibly in translation to better convey the meaning of the original texts and make the translations reach more readers, and thus promote the communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication and foreignization; cross-cutural; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在经济全球化的今天，国际间文化交流也在不断扩大，而翻译作为一种交流工具也显得至关重要。作为一种跨文化、跨语言交际的形式，翻译是一种社会背景与文化传统很不相同的两种文化间的交流与交往。因此，在跨文化翻译中，翻译策略的运用与选择不仅仅要体现出译者的风格，也会直接影响译作在目的语读者中的受众程度。美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出了归化与异化两种翻译策略。归化与异化，既对立又统一，也即绝对的归化或者绝对的异化都是不存在的。本文将从归化与异化这两种翻译策略的本身出发，并结合实际翻译案例，来探讨归化与异化在跨文化翻译当中的选择与运用，使得译者能够在翻译中更灵活地使用这两种翻译策略，更好地传达出原作的意蕴，使译作受众于更多的读者，以此促进不同文化之间的交流。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化与异化；跨文化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1. Definitions of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Domestication is to localize the original language and focuses on the target language or readers by conveying the original text in the way target readers are familiar with. In order to close the readers of target texts.Domesticated translation requires the translator to speak like a native author, and the translation must become authentic to the native language if the original author is to speak directly to the readers. It helps the reader to better understand the translation and enhances the readability and enjoyment of the translation.<br /> Foreignization is that the translator tries not to disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader can get closer to the author&quot;. In translation, it means to accommodate the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorb foreign expressions, require the translator to approach the author, and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the original content. The purpose of the foreignization strategy is to consider about the differences in national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationalities and linguistic styles, and to preserve the exoticism of the translated text for the readers.<br /> <br /> ===2.The relationship between literal translation and free translation ,and domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Historically, foreignization and domestication can be seen as extensions of, but not identical to, literal and free translation. The terms &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot; are English translation version. Literal translation is a kind of method or text that keeps the original content and the form of the original text. Free translation means that it keeps only the content of the original text, not the form of the original text. Literal translation appeared during the May 4th Movement, emphasizing the need for faithfulness to the original text so that the translation can be &quot;expressive&quot; and &quot;elegant&quot;. Literal translation does not mean translating word for word in mechanical way. Since English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate them word for word. Literal translation is to fully and accurately clarify the meaning of the original work, without any distortion or random addition or deletion of the original ideas to maintain the original style. Sometimes even the original mood or emotion, such as anger or embarrassment, sarcasm or irony, joy or happiness, should not be ignored. Fu Si Nian and Zheng Zhenduo both advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, literal translation is the overriding rule. The work of Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren, The Collected Works of Extra-territorial Novels, is regarded as the representative of literal translation. The free translation, on the other hand, starts from the meaning and requires only the main idea of the original text to be expressed without excessive attention to detail, but a natural flow of the translation. In translation, if we cannot directly adopt the structure and expression of the original, we must change the sentence structure and expression to convey the meaning of the original according to the form and characteristics of the expression. Since there are many differences between the original language and the translated language in word order, grammar, changing forms and rhetoric, we can only use appropriate ways to convey the meaning of the original and reproduce the effect of the original. Mr. Jing-Shen Zhao once said, &quot;A smooth and fluent version is better than one that focuses only on fidelity to the original&quot;. Obviously, Mr. Zhao was in favor of foreignization, and so did Mr Yan Fu. Foreignization has been used in many works of Yan Fu, for example, the Evolution and Ethics is a typical example . In literal translation, faithful to the original form should be placed first, followed by faithful to the original content, again the fluency and popularity of translated language; while in free translation, faithful to the original content should be placed first, translation language fluency and popularity of the second, but free translation is not limited to the form of the original. Some scholars often discuss literal translation, free translation and domestication and foreignization together, which is understandable, but it is necessary to make a distinction. Based on the level of language and culture,domestication and foreignization focus more on the use of language from the perspective of cultural differences and are a kind of translation strategy, while literal and free translation is a translation technique, which is only at the level of language. There may be only one main translation strategy for a text or a work, but each strategy may use both literal and free translation methods, and each method serves the general direction of the translation strategy. The choice of the main translation strategy depends on the purpose of the translation, if it is to maximize the understanding of foreign cultures or cross-cultural comparative study, then the main focus is on foreignization; if it is to understand the information or story development through reading, then the domestication may be the best choice. Taking the translation of the famous work Dream of the Red Chamber as an example, there are two versions by two masters, Yang Xianyi and Hawkes, the former adopts foreignization to deal with the cultural factors in the language, that is, to keep the source culture as much as possible in the translation, while Hawkes adopts domestication in order to avoid the conflict between two different cultures, Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. National and international research on the development of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> <br /> ===3.1.The history of the development of domestication and foreignization abroad.===<br /> The German translator Schleiermacher, in his work, On the Different Methods of Translation, elaborated the need for translations to bring the reader as close as possible to the original author, and for the first time introduced the concepts of domestication and foreignization.<br /> At the same time, in the British academic circles of the time, domestication was the main translation strategy, but Francis Newman in England, when discussing the transl ation work on Homer, advocated that translators should consciously translate in the ancient language to emphasize the heterogeneity of the work.<br /> In the 1960s A.D., Nida proposed the theory of domestication for the first time in many structuralist theoretical works, and since then the climax of the debate on domestication and foreignization rose on the stage in western translation field . In Nida's view, domesticated translation does not need to stick to the form of the original text, but only needs to express the content with the closest and most natural equivalent in the translated text to achieve equivalence.<br /> The French theorist Antoinette Bellman deplored the tendency of eliminating foreignization in translation through the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot;. He said: &quot;The proper theoretical goal of the translation action is to accept heterogeneity as it is.&quot; This view seems to have an impact on Venuti's strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot; .<br /> In his book The Invisibility of the Translator, Italian scholar Venuti discusses the &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator by combining the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization for the first time. He strongly advocates foreignization and questions domestication, arguing that domestication is essentially a means of cultural colonization by Western colonizers. At the same time, he also suggests that the purpose of translation is not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express linguistic and cultural differences.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Domestic development history on domestication and foreignization===<br /> The earliest translations of Buddhist scriptures have included the debate between assimilation and dissimilation. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the translator Zhiqian pioneered the translation style of using free translation instead of transliteration, which had far-reaching significance and influence in history.<br /> At the end of the 19th century, several other great translators emerged in Chinese history, and Yan Fu was one of them. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, foreign powers invaded extensively and the Chinese nation faced an existential crisis, under such a background, Yan Fu believed that translation must be carefully chosen based on the social and historical reality of the country into which it is translated. In the translation, the translator should take the literary tradition of the nation and the specific historical and cultural purpose as the main purpose, combining the cultural and linguistic background of the readers. The translator should not focus on how to be &quot;faithful to the original&quot;, but how to adapt to the social and cultural choices of the time.<br /> With the rise of the May 4th New Culture Movement, many translators tried to learn from foreign literature in order to transform literature and society.Lu Xun's most famous dictum relating to translation was &quot;I'd rather be faithful than smooth&quot;, and advocated &quot;preserving the foreign flavor as much as possible&quot; and &quot;the need for exoticism&quot;. <br /> After the founding of New China, China's translation industry entered the third high point, and a large number of Western and Soviet works were introduced, which was connected with the spiritual needs of people at that time. After the reform and opening up, with the influx of Western translation ideas, &quot;foreignization&quot; has emerged. Many scholars have put forward the idea that &quot;Foreignization is primary while domestication is supplementary&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===4.domestication and foreignization of cultural exchange translation===<br /> <br /> ===4.1the relationship between culture and language===<br /> In a broad sense, culture refers to the material and spiritual wealth created and accumulated by human beings in the course of social development; in a narrower sense, it refers to the ideology of society and the system of organizational constructs that corresponds to it. Culture has the following four basic characteristics 1) culture is owned and shared by all members of a society; 2) culture is acquired rather than inherited; 3) culture is biologically based; and 4) culture is based on a symbolic system. The relationship between language and culture is between the part and the whole; language is a subsystem of culture, and language cannot exist apart from culture; it embodies all the beliefs and emotions of a cultural group. Language and culture interact and influence each other and are inseparable. Based on the close relationship between language and culture, more consideration should be given to cultural factors in translation research, which means that translation research should be carried out in a more macro context. Translators should be aware of enough cultural differences when dealing with the cultural differences between the original language and the target language. Due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese, many English and Chinese phrases, although literally having the same or similar meanings, are inherently different. Therefore, a word-for-word translation without considering cultural factors can lead to ambiguity.<br /> <br /> ===4.2 Translatability and untranslatability of cultures===<br /> On the one hand, the similarity of human experience worldwide contributes to the translatability of cultures. In this regard, Nida has said that &quot;all human beings eat, work, sleep and procreate, and they produce objects such as furniture, tools and vehicles. They also organize themselves into families, clans, internal and external groups, nations and inter-national organizations. They have a conscious similarity in their views of the universe, values, religion and supernatural forces. In fact, the different groups of people in the world have much more in common with each other than they do with each other.&quot; It is the similarity of the cultures of different peoples that allows people of different cultures to understand each other and makes translation possible. Nida thus states, &quot;Linguists and anthropologists have discovered that what binds human beings together far outweighs what alienates them, and this is the basis for generating communication.&quot; Many expressions that are unique to one culture can be found almost identically in a culture and become the best evidence of cultural translatability.<br /> On the other hand, each people has a culture that is distinct from the others, which hinders mutual understanding with the others and may even cause cultural shock. Due to different cultural inheritances, the languages of different nationalities have their own symbol systems and lexical, syntactical and grammatical characteristics, which often make them untranslatable. For example, the Chinese phrase &quot;客上天然居，居然天客&quot; is one of the examples of untranslatable culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.3 Factors influencing cultural translation strategies===<br /> <br /> ===4.3.1.Motives and objectives of translation===<br /> <br /> Different motivations and purposes for translation lead to different translation principles and methods<br /> <br /> ===4.3.2.Text type===<br /> <br /> Different texts influence the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord, translation can be divided into instrumental translation, which refers to the means of transferring information from the source language to the target language, and documentary translation, which refers to the means of transferring information about communication activities from the source language to the target language. This type of translation emphasizes the transmission and conveyance of information and mainly includes non-literary writing, including advertising, media writing, scientific writing, propaganda and announcements, etc. With this method of translation, which is guided by the culture of the target language, the information that needs to be conveyed can be better expressed and accessed. The other type of text is documentary translation. This type of translation refers to the presentation of real communicative activities and information to the target language readers. The term &quot;documentary translation&quot; is appropriate for translating (language-)-specific expressions, where translation of language and content are equally important. eter Newmark distinguishes between communicative and semantic translation of such texts, emphasizing the &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot; of the message. &quot; in order to achieve the same effect on the readers of the original language as on those of the target language. Although this type of translation is a subjective process, the translator will attach great importance to the effect of the translation on the reader's mind. By reorganizing and rearranging the order of sentences, the translator will eliminate obscurities and ambiguities in order to achieve &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot;. Most non-literary writing, informative articles and books, as well as textbooks, bulletins, standardized writing, and novels are suitable for this type of communicative translation; because it emphasizes the need to have the same effect on both the original and target language readers, it often uses expressions that are customary and easily understood in the language in which they are written. Thus, communicative translation is equivalent to naturalized translation, where the translator's preference for idiomatic expressions is produced or determined by the translator's preference for the target language. Semantic translation attempts to get as close as possible to the exact meaning of the original text in terms of wording. Semantic translation focuses on the expression of the exact meaning of the content in order to preserve as accurate a style of the original text as possible. This type of translation is an objective process during which the translator focuses only on whether the translation is precise and retains the flavor of the original text. In this type of translation, the translator tries to preserve the semantic and syntactic structure of the original text, as well as the tone of the original text, etc. semantic translation applies to autobiographies, private correspondence, personal emotional texts and quotations. A semantic translation is equivalent to an alien translation in an attempt to achieve the preservation of the flavour of the original, due to the translator's original language preference.<br /> <br /> ===4.3.3Acceptance by readers===<br /> In the past, traditional translation theories placed one-sided emphasis on extra-author-centred and text-centred research, neglecting the involvement of translators and target language readers. Modern reception aesthetics considers the reader not as an unimportant and unnecessary perspective, but as a historical, active and creative factor in the relationship between author, text and reader. This is why different people have different interpretations of the same text of Hamlet. Naida was influenced by the acceptance of the aesthetic sub. His theory and practice of translation are very much focused on the readers' reflection. He pointed out that &quot;Judging the validity of a translation does not stop at the comparison of word meanings, grammar and rhetoric; what is important is the extent to which the recipient is able to understand and appreciate the translation correctly.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===4.4the cultural school of translation===<br /> In 1990, the representatives of the cultural school of translation, Bassnett and Lefevere, in their co-edited book Translation, History and Culture, formally proposed the slogan of &quot;Cultural Turn of Translation&quot;, which also marked the official emergence of the cultural school of translation. In the following years, they published several monographs, individually or together, discussing about the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. In the following years, they published several monographs, either individually or jointly, to discuss the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. Unlike the literary or linguistic schools of translation in the past, the cultural school is a school with a strong &quot;revolutionary&quot; element in translation theory, and some people even consider their views to be &quot;subversive&quot; to the previous translation theories. This is mainly because they especially emphasize the status of culture in translation and the importance of translation to the spread of culture and the promotion of social and cultural progress. Other translators, such as Lambert and Robyns, argue that translation is more accurately regarded as a communication activity between two cultures than as a bilingual conversion activity. Therefore, they believe that translation activity is a cultural conversion. In recent years, Chinese scholars have done some research and reflection on the essence of translation. In the researches of many scholars, under the current globalization environment ,the importance of translation to cultural exchange and communication is getting more and more attention from people. For example, Lv Jun proposes that &quot;translation is a kind of cross-cultural information exchange activities, and its essence is dissemination. To a certain extent, the viewpoint of Chinese scholars and the Western cultural schools can be said to echo each other. Language is not only a carrier of information, but also a carrier of culture. Therefore, in essence, translation as a kind of inter-linguistic communication, it is not only the conversion of language information , but also the transplantation of cultural information. Therefore, in essence, translation is not only a language information conversion, but also a cultural communication activity.<br /> <br /> ===5. discussion domestication and foreignization from translation examples===<br /> <br /> ===5.1 Application of domestication in English-Chinese Translation===<br /> Chinese famous writer Mo Yan has won the Nobel Prize for Literature for a series of works including Fatigue of Life and Death (2006) and Frog (2009) and American sinologist Ge Haowen should also be credited , who was called “the only midwife of Mo Yan’s works”.Ge's translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out reflects his consistent principle: &quot;The author is writing for the Chinese, while I am translating for foreigners,translating is a process of rewriting”. Ge Haowen did a lot of rewriting and compilation based on respecting the original work, and in the translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out, the domesticated translation reflects his relentless pursuit of &quot;accuracy&quot;, &quot;readability&quot; and &quot;acceptability&quot;. <br /> <br /> 例一： 常言道‘螃蟹过河随大流’，‘识时务者为俊杰’，不要顽固不化，不要充当挡路的石头，不要充硬汉子。<br /> <br /> Join the commune and stop working for yourself, end your quest for independence.Stop being headstrong,and an obstructionist.<br /> <br /> “螃蟹过河随大流” is a two-part allegorical saying in Chinese folks . It means &quot;following the majority of people to speak or act&quot;. A post-slip is a short, witty phrase that can be used as a philosophical and wisdom-boosting phrase. A man who knows the times is a hero&quot; is an idiom derived from a historical allusion, meaning &quot;only those who can recognize the trend of the times can become heroes and heroines&quot;. Ge Haowen domesticated these two slang expressions: first, because they have the same meaning as the one that follows: &quot;Don't be stubborn ...... don't be a tough guy anymore&quot;, which is used to kindly advise people who are unable to see the current affairs of the day, but are still stubbornly stubborn. The deletion of these two daily phrases does not affect the main content of the narrative and the expression of ideas in the context. Secondly, there is the concern that the translation may not produce the desired effect of depth, image, and humor as the source language. And then there is the fact that the target language readers are relatively unfamiliar with Chinese slang, so it is better to delete it directly than to translate it to increase the readers' reading burden and affect their understanding and grasp of the whole text. Ge Haowen's domesticated translation method reflects his holistic view of discourse as a unit<br /> <br /> 例二：但一个二十多岁就当了县级领导干部的人，和农村姑娘结婚的可能性几乎是零，无论她貌如西施还是色比婵娟。<br /> <br /> There was no chance that a leading country-level cadre in his twenties would ever actually marry a peasant girl , no matter how pretty or fetching she might be.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaojun ,Xishi, Diao Chan and Yang Yuhuan were the main characters with unique beauty at that time in historical illusions ,named as “Four Beauties in ancient times”.In the original work, Mo Yan chose only two historical figures, &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, to contrast and emphasize the beauty of rural girls. In the process of translation, Ge did not translate &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, nor did he make any commentary, but took into account the target audience's alienation from the historical allusion to the Four Beauties. Therefore, he adopt a domesticated translation method to make a simplification, breaking the constraints of the original language and enhancing the readability of the translation, without deviating from the original meaning.<br /> In the above example, when dealing with unfamiliar allusions or common sayings and proverbs, Ge Haowen boldly rewrote and deleted them, translating the work from the reader's point of view, so that the target readers will be pleased with his translation.<br /> 5.2 The Application of Foreignization in English-Chinese Translation<br /> The nature of foreignization is such that it deals with elements of the original language that are culturally distinctive, and the result of the translation is to bring in new forms of expression that are different from the mother tongue and the cultural connotations attached to them. Language is an open system with a strong capacity for absorption and inclusion. With the deepening of communication among countries and peoples, various languages have been enriched to different degrees, and variant translation plays a more important role in this process. In Chinese, the terms &quot;internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot; are used to refer to the &quot;Internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot;. &quot;Time is money&quot;, &quot;ivory tower&quot;, &quot;washroom&quot;.... (crocodile tears), &quot;black humor&quot; , and &quot;qi gong&quot; ), &quot;taijiquan&quot; , &quot;kong fu&quot; , &quot;typhon” These words did not originally exist in the Chinese and English language systems. However, translators make a large number of words with exoticism in the way of foreignization more popular and acceptable among the massive culture . Therefore, foreignization is not only beneficial to introduce local history and culture to foreign countries, but also gives local readers the opportunity to understand foreign customs and realize the purpose of cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> 例一.打破铁饭碗<br /> <br /> Break the”iron rice bowl”<br /> <br /> &quot;Iron rice bowl&quot; is a Chinese idiom, in Chinese we compare &quot;rice bowl&quot; to an occupation, while &quot;iron rice bowl&quot; refers to a stable job, no doubt, it is difficult to convert such words with obvious Chinese characteristics into the target language through the method of &quot;domestication&quot;, but foreignization not only retains the imagery of the source language, but also introduces the unique culture of China to Western readers.<br /> 例二.下海<br /> <br /> A.to jump into the sea of business<br /> <br /> B.To turn professional<br /> <br /> In the early days of reform and opening up, the word “jumping into the sea of business” was popular, mainly meaning the trend of doing business.For this new phenomenon ,translators adopt different methods. Text A used foreignization and direct translation while the later domestication. In comparison, the former was more expressive and vivid, conveying the meaning of source language in a proper way.<br /> Domestication and foreignization is more apparent in the literary translation. Here I will take the translation of Dream of the Red Chamber as an example and compare the translations of Mr. and Mrs. Yang Xianyi ,and Mr. Hawkes. The translation of Dream of the Red Chamber by Yang Xianyi and his wife is a typical representative of foreignization, which is highly praised by domestic readers, but some scholars have conducted a survey and found that it is far inferior to the British sinologist David Hawks in terms of the number of borrowed readers, citations and reprinted editions. Why the &quot;cold shoulder&quot;? Let's find out by comparing and analyzing some examples of the two translations.<br /> <br /> 例一.刘姥姥道: “这倒不然。谋事在人，成事在天。咱们谋到了，靠菩萨的保佑，有些机会，也未可知。”<br /> <br /> A.“ Don’t be so sure,” said Granny Liu. “Man proposes, Heaven disposes. Work out a plan,trust to Buddha,and something may come of it for all you know.”<br /> <br /> B.“ I wouldn’t say that.”said Grannie Liu.”Man proposes, God disposes.It is up to us to think of something. We must leave it to the good Lord to decide whether He’ll help us or not. Who knows, he might give us the opportunity we are looking for.”<br /> <br /> Dream of the Red Chamber is a literary work full of Buddhist and Taoist thoughts. Yang Xianyi and Hawks have different approaches to the phrase“谋事在人，成事在天”， which also reflects different religious thoughts. In Yang's translation, &quot;God&quot; is replaced by &quot;Heavenly Father,&quot; which is in line with the Chinese religious belief that Heavenly Father in control of everything, while retaining the religious flavor of the source culture. However, Hawks gave priority to the religious background and acceptance of the English readers, so he adopted the English proverb directly without any modification, thus transforming the Buddhism and Taoism in the East to Christianity in the West, in accordance with western religious belief and thinking ways.<br /> The two translations have their own merits. The choice of translation strategies is based on different objectives. Mainly depending on the foreignization stategy, Mr. and Mrs. Yang tried to spread Chinese literature classics and convey Chinese traditional culture originally.However, they didn't get the desired results.One of the main reasons is that Mr. and Mrs. Yang regard faithfulness as the first priority and overemphasize the foreign culture of the translated works, neglecting to consider the reception environment and the recognition of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===6.Conclusion===<br /> With the continuous expansion of international cultural exchanges, the human cultural gap is gradually narrowing, language as an important carrier of culture has also been affected by the same, an appropriate increase in the use of &quot;foreign&quot; translation,can not only inject the new elements into domestic culture, but also promote the spread of local culture, achieve cross-cultural exchange and accelerate the process of &quot;cultural globalization&quot;. It should be pointed out foreignization is not at the expense of forgetting one's own culture, on the contrary, it is based on the familiarity with other cultures, and then carry out painstaking, creative translation work. To give more attention to &quot;alienation&quot; translation is not to deny, reject the domesticated translation method, because domestication and foreignization play an irreplaceable rol in the target language and culture.Therefore, the two translations will always co-exist and complement each other. Flexible use of foreignization and domestication is the real way of addressing the cultural conflicts.<br /> <br /> ===7.Reference===<br /> 1. 王瑛. &quot;跨文化翻译中的归化和异化.&quot; 内蒙古财经学院学报(综合版) 03(2007):83-87.<br /> <br /> 2. 周永堃. &quot;归化异化在跨文化翻译中的选择与运用——以《红楼梦》和《生死疲劳》为例.&quot; 邵阳学院学报(社会科学版) 18.01(2019):103-108.<br /> <br /> 3.王红卫. &quot;跨文化交际翻译方法:归化和异化策略.&quot; 西南民族学院学报(哲学社会科学版) 9(2002):250-253.<br /> <br /> 4.熊兵. &quot;文化交流翻译的归化与异化.&quot; 中国科技翻译 16.003(2003):5-9.<br /> <br /> 5.刘苹. &quot;中国翻译史上的归化和异化.&quot; 滨州学院学报 24.001(2008):74-75.<br />  <br /> <br /> ==The Translation Strategies of Chinese Political Discourse under the Standard of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; 高明珠 Gao Mingzhu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With the development of globalization, the political communication among countries is more and more frequent, and the translation of political terms has gradually become one of the heated topics in the translation field. Political discourse translation is challenging, because not only does it concern the relationship between countries, national status, political attitude and other important issues, but also it is developmental. Political neologisms will keep emerging, and some political terms will contain new connotations with the advancement of the times. In addition to the above characteristics, Chinese political discourse has many affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases, metaphors.In 2008, Yang Mingxing and other scholars put forward the &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; based on Eugene Nida's &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; theory for the translation of Chinese political discourse, which pointed out that the translation of political discourse should follow the three principles of &quot;political&quot;, &quot;dynamic&quot; and &quot;balanced&quot;. On the basis of some related papers, this chapter will sum up the specific strategies such as supplement, omission, keeping or converting analogical body, adding explanation and narration for translating Chinese political discourse with characteristics of having lots of affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases and metaphors following the guidance of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> political equivalence Chinese political discourse translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着全球化的发展，各国间的政治交流愈加频繁，政治话语的翻译也逐渐成为翻译界讨论热点之一。政治话语的翻译是具有挑战性的，不仅是因为它关系到国与国之间的关系、国家地位、政治态度等重要问题，而且因为政治词汇是发展性的，政治词汇中会不断有新的词汇涌进，且某些政治词汇会随着时代的发展而增加新的内涵。而中国政治话语除了具有以上特点，它还有多词缀、缩写、四字短语[1]，多用隐喻等修辞手法的特点。2008年，杨明星等学者针对中国政治话语的翻译，基于尤金·奈达的“功能对等”理论提出了“政治等效”翻译标准，该标准指出政治话语的翻译要遵循“政治性”、“动态性”、“平衡性”三大原则。本文基于相关文献，总结出在该标准下，对中国政治话语在具有多词缀、缩写、四字短语及多采用隐喻这几个特点下的翻译可采用的具体的翻译策略，如增补法、省略法[1]、喻体保留法（完全保留、部分保留）、喻体转换法、喻底补充法、喻义直叙法[2]等。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 政治等效 中国政治话语 翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction of Background===<br /> <br /> Political discourse is mainly embodied in different types of communication carriers and discourse behaviors that elaborate a country's foreign policies, governance mechanisms or political ideas, including oral expression and written expression. Oral expressions includes leaders' speeches, the contents conveyed by various government agencies' press conferences, and written expressions includes diplomatic documents, white papers, legal provisions, treaties, agreements and communiques issued by relevant state agencies. With the improvement of China's comprehensive national strength and the continuous expansion of its global influence, the study of the translation standards, principles, strategies of Chinese political discourse has become an important topic in the field of translation. A study has shown that domestic political discourse translation studies started in 2000 and entered a stage of rapid development with the convening of the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012. The current research hot spots of political discourse translation include the translation of Xi Jinping's speeches and works, the application of various translation laws and interpretive theories, the principle of political equivalence and the theory of ecological translation(Chu Xingjun 2020,36).<br /> <br /> ===2. The Significance of Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> This chapter holds that the significance of political discourse translation mainly involves two aspects----politics and linguistics. Firstly, in terms of politics, translating political discourse is to facilitate the political communication between countries, show the country's political attitude, theory and policy to the outside world. Political discourse translation plays a significant role in promoting the relationship between the countries, taking one’s stand, safeguarding one’s national interests and shaping one’s national image and so on. Secondly, in terms of linguistics, political terms are developmental. With the advance of the times and the rapid development of the world, new political terms will constantly emerge, which is also the process of language expansion. The study of the translation of new words is not only the bounden duty of translators, but also of great significance to the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Difficulties in Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> The difficulties are mainly reflected in three aspects. Firstly, the translator should correctly understand the political connotation of the source language and translate it as the target language faithfully. Secondly, different expression ways between two languages. There are rare equivalent words in both languages, so when translating the source language as the target language, the expression habits of the target language users should be taken as account, so as to facilitate the target language users to accurately understand the original meaning. Especially, Chinese political discourse often present metaphor rhetoric which may not be easy for foreigners to understand, thus when translating such words, methods that we can adopt not only include literal translation, transliteration plus explanation, but also sometimes it would be better to translate those words on the basis of the target language’s culture to make the translation more vivid and help readers understand the meaning accurately. In a word, be more flexible in adopting methods according to different cases; Finally, the same political term may have different meanings in different contexts, or it may require translators to adopt different translation methods in different contexts. In addition, the connotation of some political terms will develop with the advance of The times. Therefore, translators should keep up with current events and deal with them flexibly in translation.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Connotations of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal and connotation of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard<br /> <br /> In 2008, US Department of Defense mistranslated the term &quot;韬光养晦&quot; to propaganda &quot;China threat theory&quot;. Therefore, based on Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, a scholar, Yang Mingxing, proposed the translation concept of &quot;political equivalence&quot; for the first time from the perspective of international relations and diplomatic analysis (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). The connotation of this concept mainly involves three aspects: firstly, the translator needs to truthfully convey the political thought of the source language as well as the speaker; secondly, when translating, the translator should choose the target language according to the expression ways that the target language users get used to, so that the information and political thoughts brought by the target text to the target language users are equivalent to those brought by the source text to the source language users; Thirdly, in different contexts and historical backgrounds, the connotations of political discourse will be different. Translators' translation should keep pace with the times and be determined in accordance with the situation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). In 2012, Yang Mingxing and other scholars further proposed three prominent principles or characteristics of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; translation standard: political, balanced and dynamic (Yang Mingxing, Yan Da 2012, 35). Among them, political nature, namely accurately grasping the political connotation of the source language, is the most prominent characteristic, which is determined by the strong political color of the political terms themselves. Balance means to strike a balance among source language, target language, speaker and audience without focusing on either side, and strive to make the effect produced by the translation in the foreign readers be similar or equivalent to that produced by the original text in local readers. Dynamic means that the equivalent process mentioned above is a dynamic equivalent process. Because political terms’ connotation changes with the advance of the times and varies from different contexts, translators need to keep pace with the times, follow up the connotation development of political terms, and translate flexibly according to different situations. In 2018, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed a compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + aesthetic representation&quot; on the basis of the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; (Yang Mingxing, Qi Jingjing 2018,15). This standard was put forward in the context of the appearance of ancient poetry in political discourse. Besides meeting the requirements of &quot;political equivalence&quot; mentioned above, this standard asks to take the literary beauty of ancient poetry and prose, such as rhythm, form, artistic conception, etc as account. In January 2020, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed another compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + image representation&quot; based on the frequently used the rhetoric device metaphor in political discourse(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2018,41). The purpose of realizing &quot;image reproduction&quot; and &quot;aesthetic reproduction&quot; is basically similar, both of which are to reproduce the aesthetic experience of the original text. In October 2020, Yang Mingxing and some other scholars made a review of several major diplomatic event in the Sino-British diplomatic history and put forward that the realization of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard should not only rely on the translator's ability, but also have some connections with the national policy of translation, translation system and equal speaking rights between two countries, among which equal speaking right is the key to realize &quot;political equivalence&quot;(Yang Mingxing 2020,05).<br /> <br /> (2)The differences between “political equivalence” and “functional equivalence” put forward by Nida<br /> <br /> Firstly, the &quot;equivalence&quot; emphasized by Nida does not pay enough attention to the political color of the original text in translation, ignoring the particularity of diplomatic or political discourse, and that whether the original text and translation are quite consistent in political standpoint and political connotation. Secondly, although functional equivalence pays attention to the information equivalence between the original text and the translated text, it does not pay enough attention to the real intention of the speaker of the original text, because the literal meaning of the original text cannot be equal with the political standpoint and ideological connotation of the speaker. Thirdly, the &quot;dynamic&quot; concept Nida proposed in “functional equivalence” theory ignores the dynamic changes in context and connotation of original text and translation, that is, for diplomatic or political discourse, the meaning of the original text is contemporary and does not remain unchanged. It changes constantly with the speaker's context, political tendency and historical background at that time. On the other hand, the target language is also dynamic, because the meaning and usage of the target language are constantly changing, the translator must keep track of the latest development of the target language and the domestic political and cultural background of the target audience (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> In a word, the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; is an important theory aiming at the translation of foreign affairs, diplomacy and political discourse, and provides theoretical guidance and normative requirements for the translation of political terms.<br /> <br /> ===5. Requirements of “Political Equivalence” for Translators ===<br /> <br /> First of all, pay attention to being close to both the source language and the target language, and grasp the relationship between the speaker or writer and the audience or reader. The translation should not only accurately convey the context meaning of the source language and the speaker's real intention, but also take the language habits and the way of thinking of the target language users into consideration, so as to achieve a mutual &quot;identity&quot; between the speaker or writer and the audience or reader. The translation of political discourse should not only correctly understand and express China's policy thoughts, but also fully consider the national emotions, language habits and identity psychology of the receiving country. If the translation only focuses on one side, it will be difficult to achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; and even cause political events (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;political equivalence&quot; must be dynamic. This kind of dynamic is not only related to the accurate understanding of the original text, but also involves the proper selection and use of the target language. It must always be in line with the context and political background of the speaker or writer as well as the audience or reader, which is the key to the realization of &quot;political equivalence&quot;. To translate political discourse or terms only by looking up the dictionary without considering the context is bound to make the translation be quite different from the original in meaning (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Thirdly, translation strategies should be flexible and diversified, and language forms should be constantly adjusted. To achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; in political terms translation, the translation strategies cannot be single, rigid, and the translation either cannot be confined to the primitive form of the original text, the original and even the extended concepts or connotations of the words in it. Translators should make the necessary adjustment and bold choices in supplement and omission to the language form of the original text in accordance with the context and the real thoughts of the speaker or writer and the background of the political relationships between the two countries. Idioms, allusions, myths and fables are the quintessence of a nation's language with its own characteristics, and they are the difficulties and key points in political terms translation. There are great differences between English and Chinese rhetorical devices, so it is necessary to strictly distinguish their differences in cultural connotation and political orientation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Fourthly, we should be familiar with the differences between English and Chinese customs, cultures, national feelings and ideologies. In the era of globalization, translation is not only the transformation of language symbols, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication behavior. The translation of political discourse is closely related to the cultural background of language. Due to the differences between China and West in way of thinking and language environment, corresponding words in English and Chinese have different national emotion and political connotation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Fifthly, master the background knowledge of China's foreign policy and international relations to ensure political correctness in the translation of political terms. Many countries have such sensitive issues as appellation, ethnicity, religion, sovereignty and territory. These are the &quot;minefields&quot; of political translation. When translating, one must handle it carefully and respect the language and cultural habits of the other party, otherwise it will easily lead to &quot;translation storm&quot; and affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> lastly, the grammatical phenomena and rules peculiar to English cannot be ignored. In English, there are many grammatical rules different from Chinese, such as tense, voice, subjunctive mood, singular and plural, case, article, etc. These language forms seem to have little effect, but if used improperly, they will often affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> ===6. Translation Straties under The Standard of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of the standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot;, the following translation strategies are provided for reference on the characteristics of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> (1) Characteristics of Chinese political discourse<br /> <br /> Affixes are often seen in Chinese political discourse such as “化” in &quot;现代化&quot; and &quot;城镇化&quot;, so are abbreviations like &quot;‘十四五’规划&quot;, &quot;四个自信&quot;, etc., and four-character phrases such as &quot;和平共处&quot;, &quot;和而不同&quot;, etc. Besides, metaphor is also used frequently in Chinese political discourse such as &quot;‘老虎’、‘苍蝇’一起打&quot;, among which &quot;老虎(tiger)&quot; and &quot;苍蝇(flies)&quot; refer to officials accused of bribery and corruption. So, how do we translate these words that have Chinese language characteristics but need us to take their political implications as consideration? Pointing at these characteristics, some scholars have proposed specific translation strategies based on the &quot;political equivalence&quot;standard.<br /> <br /> (2) The strategies of supplement and omission for affixes, four-character phrases and abbreviations(Wu Jing 2014, 30)<br /> <br /> ① supplement<br /> <br /> The supplement strategy is to add words appropriately in the translation so as to convey the meaning of the original text accurately. In the foreign translation of Chinese political terms, this strategy is mainly applicable to two situations. Firstly, the abbreviation, which is a refined utterance of many political words for the convenience of memory. When the target language users don’t have relevant knowledge or language background about those abbreviations, supplementary explanation plays its role. Secondly, four-character phrases. Four-character phrases are typical examples of Chinese expressions. In order to conform to the expression habits of the target language, these condensed words should be supplemented and explained so that the audience can understand the meaning of the original text correctly.<br /> <br /> The strategy of supplement can be applied to the following situations: firstly, supplement relevant knowledge background. For example, “‘十四五’规划”is translated by China Daily as “the 14th Five-Year Plan(2021-25) for economic and social development”. In the translation, “十四”is translated as “the 14th” and“五” is translated as “Five-Year”, which adds category words to those numbers and time horizon as well as the nature of the plan to the content; Secondly, supplement detailed content to abbreviations. For example,“四个自信”is translated as “confidence in the path, theory, system and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics.”<br /> <br /> ②Omission<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belong to two kinds of language families, having great differences from vocabulary to the sentence structure, expression ways, etc. There are very little equivalent words in the two languages, so in order to make the translation smoother and be more in line with the expression ways of the target language, translator can use the strategy----omission, namely omitting those expressions without practical significance but hindering translation work, on the basis of being loyal to the original text.<br /> <br /> The strategy of omission is often used in the process of translation from Chinese to English, and the translation of Chinese political terms is no exception. For emphasizing, Chinese political leaders often use parallel sentences or repeated words, so we can omit those repeated words in the translation. For example, “治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字仍然在扩大。”can be translated as “Governance, trust, development and peace deficits continue to grow.” In addition, there are situations where multiple sentences express the same meaning, in which omission is also available. For example, “改善人民生活，增进人民福祉。”can be translated as “improve people’s livelihood”.<br /> <br /> (3) Translation strategies for metaphor<br /> <br /> Metaphor refers to the use of known figurative concepts to explain abstract concepts in diplomatic discourse. The translation standard and strategies of metaphor are determined by their inherent special attributes, which are not only the key factors to select their translation strategies, but also the important yardstick to test whether those strategies are applicable(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41). Metaphor is an objective phenomenon that has existed in political discourse for a long time. Its special attributes are reflected in political discourse, such as high political sensitivity, high cultural load and strong national characteristics. In view of the strong political sensitivity of diplomatic discourse, plain and direct words in political discourse is often empty of words, which is difficult to produce obvious communicative effect in foreign relations. In most cases, metaphorical discourse can be used to imply and disseminate a country's diplomatic ideas, attitudes and positions to achieve better communication effects (Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41).<br /> <br /> Through reading relevant papers, this chapter finds that the translation strategies proposed by scholars for metaphorical rhetoric in political discourse are mainly as follows(Long Xinyuan, Li Qiuxia 2020, 27):<br /> <br /> ① Literal translation of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> Although English and Chinese belong to different language families, and the cultural background and geographical area on which they live are also different, language is created by human beings, and human emotions always have something in common. At the same time, human beings live in the same world, especially in an increasingly integrated world like today, where the communication between human beings and the collision between cultures are inevitable. As a result, we are becoming more tolerant and understanding of different cultures and languages. When translating metaphorical words with cultural characteristics, we can render the metaphorical words in literal translation under the condition that the audience can understand them correctly, which is easier to arouse emotional resonance and cultural identity.<br /> <br /> For example, “新时代的长征路” is translated as &quot;Long March of the new era&quot;. The original text compares China's development path in the new era to the new Long March. In Chinese history, the Long March was a bloody road trodden by the communist party of China to save the country and the people. On the one hand, the literal translation of &quot;The Long March&quot; retains the historical allusions used in the original text, so that the audience can understand its meaning only by a simple association. On the other hand, it is more conducive to show the national spirit of China.<br /> <br /> ② Substitution of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> After all, differences are greater than similarities between different languages, so sometimes adopting literal translation in the text using metaphor does not make the audience clear, but may mislead. However, different metaphorical entities are often used to express the same abstract concept between Chinese and English. At this time, in order to make the audience better understand and accept the original metaphor, translator can replace the original metaphorical entities with those referring to same thing in the target language, which can also improve the external communication effect of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> For example, foreign ministry spokesman Hua Chunying once said:”The US wants to make China a scapegoat(对于美国的花式‘甩锅’，我们不想接也不能接。).”“甩锅”is an internet buzzword in China used to vividly express the meaning of shifting the blame onto someone else. And “scapegoat” originates from an allusion in the Bible which has the same meaning with the Chinese word “甩锅”(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41), so translator made a conversion between the two words. In this way, English readers can better understand the political connotation of the original sentence. However, if adopting literal translation, English readers won’t understand.<br /> <br /> ③literal translation+explanation<br /> <br /> In some other cases, either literally translating those metaphorical entities or using corresponding ones to substitute them cannot eliminate the language barrier caused by cultural differences, then translator can adopt the strategy of “literal translation+explanation”, which is to literally translate the metaphor entity and then add explanation to it. In this way, the translation not only keeps the cultural characteristics of the source language while making English readers be clear with the meaning of them, but also contributes to the spread of Chinese culture to the outside world.<br /> <br /> For an instance, “不能腐的笼子越扎越牢”is translated as “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption has been strengthened”. The Chinese words “笼子”refers to the strict management institutions against corruption set up by Chinese government. Comparing the institution to the cage makes the action of fighting against corruption become more vivid. However, for English readers, it is hard to understand the original political connotation according to a simple word “cage”, so translator needs to add some explanations like “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption.” As a result, the meaning is clear and vivid.<br /> <br /> ④abandoning the figurative body and translate its connotation directly<br /> <br /> Metaphor, as a figure of speech, is highly culture-loaded, while political discourse is a kind of words with high political sensitivity. These characteristics make the translation of Chinese political discourse more difficult, and it is inevitable that translators may meet the situation where they cannot easily balance and take all these characteristics into consideration. At this time, the translator should choose to abandon the figurative body and keep the metaphorical meaning, after all, it is the first important thing to convey the correct political implication.<br /> <br /> For example, “保障‘米袋子’、‘菜篮子’安全”is translated as “ensure the security of grain supply and non-staple food supply”,among which the Chinese words “米袋子(rice bag)”and“菜篮子(vegetable basket)”refer to major grain supply and non-staple food supply respectively. Because rice is the staple food in most ares of China while vegetable is the complementary food, such a metaphor is very vivid and down to earth. However, it's hard for foreigners to understand the meaning of &quot;rice bag&quot; or &quot;vegetable basket&quot; without a similar living environment, so we have to discard the original figurative body and translate its meaning directly.<br /> <br /> ===7. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the summary of the above-mentioned translation strategies pointing at different situations in translating Chinese political discourse, we can see that every strategy follows the three principles under the standard of &quot;political equivalence” ---- political, balance and dynamic. Every translation strategy takes the correct transition of the political implications of the original text as the first rule, namely being political; and then keeps the cultural or linguistic characteristics of the original text as much as possible, namely keeping balance; additionally, adopting appropriate translation strategies according to different contexts or situations, namely being dynamic. The translation of political discourse has its particularity and is of great importance, so it is necessary to be careful when choosing translation strategies. Translators should not only have high linguistic literacy and fair political standpoint, but also keep up with current events, correctly and fully understand the political meaning of the original text, and make specific analysis according to different contexts and occasions to adopt the most appropriate translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===8. References===<br /> <br /> [1]楚行军. 中国政治话语翻译研究二十年(2000—2019)[Studies on the Translation of Chinese Political Discourse over the past 20 years(2000-2019)]——基于中国知网的分析[J]. 焦作师范高等专科学校学报,2020,36(03):24-27+40.<br /> <br /> [2]吴静. 基于“政治等效”的中国政治新词翻译策略解析[An analysis of translation strategies of Chinese new political terms on the basis of &quot;political equivalence&quot;][J]. 兰州文理学院学报(社会科学版),2014,30(01):95-98.<br /> <br /> [3]龙新元,李秋霞. “政治等效+认知趋同”：认知翻译观视阈下的政治文本翻译研究[&quot;Political Equivalence + Cognitive Convergence&quot; : A Study of political Text translation from the perspective of cognitive Translation][J]. 天津外国语大学学报,2020,27(05):104-120+161.<br /> <br /> [4]杨明星. 论外交语言翻译的“政治等效”——以邓小平外交理念“韬光养晦”的译法为例[The application of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; in diplomatic Language Translation -- Taking Deng Xiaoping's diplomatic idea &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2008,(05):90-94.<br /> <br /> [5]杨明星,闫达. “政治等效”理论框架下外交语言的翻译策略——以“不折腾”的译法为例[Translation strategies of diplomatic language under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;-- Taking the translation of &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2012,35(03):73-77.<br /> <br /> [6]杨明星,齐静静. 外交修辞的复合性翻译标准:“政治等效+审美再现”——以国家领导人外交演讲古诗文为例[The composite translation standard of diplomatic rhetoric: &quot;Political equivalence + aesthetic reproduction&quot; -- taking the ancient poems and essays in diplomatic speeches of national leaders as an example][J]. 中国外语,2018,15(06):89-96+109.<br /> <br /> [7]杨明星,赵玉倩. “政治等效+”框架下中国特色外交隐喻翻译策略研究[A research on translation strategies of metaphors in diplomatic discorses with Chinese characteristics under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence plus&quot;][J]. 中国翻译,2020,41(01):151-159+190.<br /> <br /> [8]杨明星,张琰. 中英外交翻译中“政治等效”与话语平等辩证关系分析——从马戛尔尼使华到共建“一带一路”(1792-2019)[Dialectical relationship between &quot;political equivalence&quot; and discourse equality in diplomatic translation between China and Britain -- from macartney's mission period to &quot;One Belt And One Road&quot; period(1792-2019)][J]. 上海翻译,2020,(05):24-29+94.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Appreciation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> == Study of Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden'' from the Stylistic Perspective 袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi 202020080664==<br /> &lt;center&gt;袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'' is a classic literary work of Henry David Thoreau, which has become a classic work in the Treasure house of American literature. The Chinese translator Xu Chi first translated it into China, and since then ''Walden'' has been retranslated and republished for many times. In China, the version of ''Walden'' translated by Xu Chi is the most widely spread and influential one, and has been highly regarded as a classic translation. There hve been a lot of studies on ''Walden'' both at home and abroad, such as studies on the ecology of the book, studies on birth background and living conditions of the author Henry David Thoreau, and systematic studies on Chinese translation version of ''Walden'' under different theoretical frameworks. However, there are few studies on Chinese translations of ''Walden'' from stylistic perspective. This paper will focus on the lexical, syntactic and rhetorical features of Xu Chi’s translation and analyze their stylistic effects. It is hoped that this study will be of certain value to the translation studies of ''Walden'' and the literary translation criticism from the stylistic perspective.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'', Chinese Translation of ''Walden'' by Xu Chi , Stylistics<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从文体学角度看《瓦尔登湖》徐迟译本<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》是亨利·大卫·梭罗的经典文学作品，已经成为美国文学宝库中的经典之作。中国译者徐迟首先将其译入国内，此后《瓦尔登湖》多次被重译再版。在中国，徐迟翻译的《瓦尔登湖》汉译本流传最广、影响最大，而且一直被推崇为“译文经典”。对于《瓦尔登湖》的研究，在国内和国外有很多，例如对散文涉及生态的研究，对于作者亨利·戴维·梭罗出生背景和生活状况的研究，以及不同的理论框架下对于《瓦尔登湖》中文翻译版本的系统研究。但是从文体学角度研究《瓦尔登湖》中译本的不多。本文着重探讨徐迟译本在词汇、句法、修辞层面上的特征，分析其文体效果。希望本研究对《瓦尔登湖》的翻译研究及从文体学视角开展文学翻译批评具有一定的参考价值。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》、徐迟中译本、文体学<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau and ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a collection of essays written by American writer Henry David Thoreau. Henry David Thoreau was born in 1817 and died in 1862. He was a famous writer, philosopher, representative of Transcendentalism, abolitionist of slavery and naturalist in the United States. He was deeply influenced by Emerson. He advocated returning to original mind and being close to nature. Thoreau created more than 20 first-class prose collections in his whole life. His essays are concise and powerful, simple and natural, full of thought, which hava unique style in American proses in the 19th century. In 1845, he lived in seclusion by Walden lake, two miles away from Concord. He cultivated and ate by himself and experienced a simple and close to nature life. Thoreau loved, appreciated and immersed in nature. He understood the world through nature and regarded the world as a whole for people to appreciate and enjoy. He advocated simple life, so he abandoned all material enjoyment and pursued spiritual enrichment. With a keen thinking of a philosopher and rigorous spirit of science, Thoreau put himself into the embrace of nature and explored everything around him.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a record of Thoreau’s life when he lived alone by Walden lake. ''Walden'' is composed of 18 essays, which record Thoreau's hands-on life by walden lake for two months from 1845 to 1847. This book advocates simple life, appeals readers to return to nature, and expresses Thoreau's love for nature. The simple way of life in the book reflects Thoreau’s view of nature.This book has certain philosophical significance as well as artistic and aesthetic value.<br /> ''Walden'' is a Transcendentalist classic and is recognized as the most popular non-fiction work in American literature. After more than 100 years of circulation, the book has become a classic in American literature. So far, it has been published in more than 150 editions and translated into more than 40 languages. <br /> Thoreau’s own practice in Walden lake and his works have a consistent proposition, that is, returning to nature. In his works, he constantly pointed out that most of modern people are trapped by family, work and various material needs, thus lost their spiritual pursuit and lived a materialistic life. Thoreau persisted in the pursuit of spiritual happiness and rejected material comforts. This is why Thoreau lived a simple life by Walden lake, enjoying a life of leisure while his neighbors pursued a life of wealth and material comforts, enslaved by their own desires.<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Xu Chi and His Translation of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi=====<br /> Xu Chi is famous for his poems, essays and reportage. He was once awarded by Mao Zedong's inscription of “poetry expresses ambition”, and he was known as &quot;Contemporary Chinese Goethe&quot; and &quot;Father of Reportage&quot;.<br /> Another little-known identity of this famous Chinese writer is being as a translator. He not only wrote poems, essays, reportages, novels and reviews, but also translated and introduced a large number of foreign literary works, with a total of 10 million words in his life.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden''=====<br /> In 1949, Xu translated Walden into Chinese called &quot;华尔腾&quot;, which failed to elicit widespread attention because at that time, people all over China were immersedin the joy of gaining cmancipation from feudalism and imperialism, so that ''Walden'',promoting tranquility and transcendentalism, was ignored.<br /> In 1982, Xu Chi retranslated it and titled it &quot;瓦尔登湖&quot;, which was so popular that it was republished for many times since then. Xu's version of ''Walden'' chosen in this study is its second edition, published in 1982, to which Xu Chi added a preface to present information about Thoreau and comments on ''Walden''. To some extent, readers are able to have a glimpse of Xu's own emotions and thoughts in his translation of ''Walden''. <br /> Xu Chi usually selected and translated works that were close to his own nature and could move him, because only in this way, he could have more resonance with the writers and their works, and reproduced the style of the original author. For Xu Chi, he expressed his own feelings and thoughts through translating these writers'works to a certain extent (Yao Junwei, 2005:146). Only when his soul was in harmony with Thoreau's, did Xu Chi love this book so much and rised to translating this book. It was in the summer of 1949 that Xu Chi began to translate Thoreau's ''Walden''. Because Xu Chi was extremely fond of this book, he spent lots of efforts in translating this famous work. In the first stage of translation, he tried to understand the meaning of the original work, hoping to be able to deeply understand the original work. He confessed that it was a very profound book which is full of translation challenges. He was very busy during the day, so he sometimes couldn't read it.Because this book was too difficult to understand, it seemed that this book was suddenly not so interseting and attractive to him, and it seemed that it was of no benefit to translate it. However, he found that his mood gradually became peaceful after dusk. When he read this book at this time, he suddenly felt the book quite interesting. What he saw was the chapters that could’t be seen in the daytime. The language was amazing, the words were shining, and his heart was touched. When the ningt became quiet, the book became not so obscure. Under the recitation, he could not help but be fascinated by it (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).<br /> His most successful translation is ''Walden'', which he translated first in 1949, then again in 1982 and in 1996. The masterpiece of David Thoreau, a famous American transcendentalist writer, still shines brightly in the vast Chinese translated literature. In recent ten years, there have been more than 20 new translations of ''Walden'', but Xu Chi's translation is still regarded as the best translation and is the first choice for many presses to publish as Chinese translations of ''Walden'' in recent years. Although there are many Chinese translations of ''Walden'', most of them take Xu Chi's translation as a reference (Wang Zhao 2009, 147), which indicates the authority of Xu Chi's translation.<br /> <br /> ====Style and Styllistics====<br /> =====Style=====<br /> Originated from the Latin or Greek word &quot;stile&quot; or &quot;stilus&quot;, &quot;style&quot; originally refers to a sharp instrument made of metal or bone, used as a writing tool, and later symbolizes a way of writing. At first, it was mainly used in writing. As time goes by, its application has been broadened into areas like music, dance, painting, fashion, behavior,literature, architecture and so on. As it has been mentioned in the introduction part, the research object ''Walden'' is a piece of literary work, consequently, this thesis will mainly study literary style.<br /> Since ancient times, style has always been the object of people's study. Aristotle, Cicero, Demetrius, and Quintilian all used style as an appropriate decoration for thought. This view prevailed throughout the Renaissance, when devices of style could be classified. An essayist or orator needs to construct his or her point of view by means of exemplary sentences and prescribed kinds of &quot;figures&quot; that conform to his or her mode of discourse.<br /> For a long time, the definition of style has remained varied, and different scholars have given different definitions of it. It is unnecessary and impractical here to list them all. Some definitions will be given below to help us understand what style is.<br /> One of the most successful attempts to define style in a comprehensive way is Leech and Short’s (1981). Although claiming that “unsuccessful attempts to attach a precise meaning” to the term “style” have often resulted in an impoverishment of the subject , they offer a list of the items forming the basis of their own concept of style, which can be summarized as follows:<br /> (a) Style is a way in which language is used; therefore it consists in choices made from the repertoire of the language; <br /> (b) A style is defined in terms of a domain of language use (e.g. what choices are made by a particular author, in a particular genre, or in a particular text);<br /> (c) Literary stylistics is typically concerned with explaining the relation between style and literary or aesthetic function;<br /> (d) Stylistic choice is limited to those aspects of linguistic choice which concern alternative ways of rendering the same subject matter.<br /> Nida Eugene (1982, 12) defines that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”So in translation of literary works, the author’s style should be represented through the translator’s style, and the translator’s style should depend on the style of the author. Many translators are good at representing different writers’styles and yet has its own unique translation style.<br /> The broad view of style includes the elements of linguistic style and non-linguistic style. Among them, the elements of language style mainly include the means of language style, such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structure and rhetorical devices, and the elements of non-language style include the author's emotion factor, the author's imagination factor and the author's intelligence factor. The narrow sense of style only involves the author's means of language style and rhetorical style (Lv Jun &amp; Hou Xiangqun 2001, 320).<br /> In conclude, translation (especially literary translation) as an across-culture process dose not only focus on the content of source text but also the style which is about how the writers write. Therefore, it is essential for a translator to know how to figure out the style of source text and reproduce it with target language.<br /> <br /> =====Styllistics=====<br /> Stylistics is a comprehensive frontier discipline that studies the characteristics, essence and laws of text forms, and is in the ascendant between linguistics, literature and art, aesthetics, psychology and other disciplines.<br /> It is difficult to determine when stylistics became a field of academic study. It can be argued, however, that it was not until the late 1950s that stylistics began to make significant and measurable progress. This is a young frontier discipline that is growing over time. Stylistics has developed into a well-targeted and technically effective interdisciplinary field of study, which is expected to provide useful insights for literary criticism and literature teaching. It has also been influencing translation criticism. Modern stylistics provides an important theoretical basis for translation studies. As far as the development of the subject of translation is concerned, stylistics has been recognized for its value and function. <br /> Modern stylistics uses the tools of formal linguistic analysis coupled with the methods of literary criticism; its goal is to try to isolate characteristic uses and functions of language and rhetoric rather than advance normative or prescriptive rules and patterns.<br /> <br /> =====Language Style and Stylistic Features of ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a masterpiece of prose style. It is concise, eloquent and profound in thought. Just as he pursues the simplest life, his language style of ''Walden'' can be summarized into four points: concise writing, accurate description, incisive argument, and pithy argumentation and causal narration. <br /> ''Walden'' is also a book aimed directly at the reader. Anyone who read this book feels that they are listening to and sharing Thoreau's ideals. This book is not easy for readers to understand, especially those who read it for the first time. Correspondingly, the prominent stylistic characteristics of ''Walden'' are manifested in four aspects: exquisite scenic description, complex syntax, various rhetorical devices and rich quotations．<br /> So it is helpful for the translator to understand the original text and reproduce the stylistic equivalence in the translation. Therefore, the translator should fully understand his stylistic characteristics, which is the premise of reproducing his style in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===Stylistic Features of ''Walden''===<br /> ====Lexical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Degree of Formality=====<br /> There are a lot of obsolete and old words in ''Walden''and the use of these words makes the book more flavor, solemn and elegant. However, the use of these words will also bring great trouble to the translation at the same time. It is difficult for the translators to grasp these words, so they can not use literal translation but use creative way to make readers feel what the author wants to express in this book.<br /> In ''Walden'', Thoreau uses concise words to demonstrate his own ideas, natural scenery and cultural customs of Walden Lake. Unlike official documents, regulations, or academic creations, general style of ''Walden'' suggests that Thoreau’s choice of words is less formal. This section aims to analyze the degree of formality of nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the Xu Chi’s translation. In terms of nouns, Xu Chi tends to choose words with literary charm and formal style, which are not suitable for the informal style of the original text.<br /> Example 1：<br /> …；where the washing is not put out, nor the fire, nor the mistress, and perhaps you are sometimes requested to move from off the trap—door; when the cook would descend into the cellar, and learn whether the ground is solid or hollow beneath you without stamping．(Thoreau 2012, 277—278)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：在那罩，洗瀣物不比晒在外面，炉火不熄，女主人也不会生气，也许有时要你移动一下，让厨子从地板门里走下地窖去，而你不用蹬脚就可以知道你的脚下是虚是实。 (徐迟 2009, 270)<br /> The passage describes part of Thoreau’s dream of a bigger house for more people. The original text provides a natural and causal description of the scenes and activities in Thoreau's dream house. There are five commas and a period in this 47-word sentence with employment of concrete nouns，the structure of the original is loose and casual. As can be seen from the above, &quot;washing&quot; in Xu's translation is loosely understood as “洗涤物” which means the process of eliminating unnecessary ingredients through detergent, which is formal in Chinese. Xu Chi reproduced the content of‘'the washing’’but he ignored the degree of formality in choosing word, thus falling to deliver the casualness reflected by the original text．<br /> Because ''Walden'' is full of depictions of landscape, adjectives are indispensable in Thoreau's creation of various images and pictures, as well as his insightful comments. Let us look at a example of it.<br /> Example 2：<br /> Often the poor man is not so cold and hungry as he is dirty and ragged and gross．(Thoreau 2012, 85)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：往往是那个穷人，邋遢、褴褛又粗野，但并没有途堡查选。(徐迟 2009, 83)<br /> The first adjective “poor” is used as an antecedent modifier and the other five adjectives are used as predicates. With the six adjectives being short and plain, the original text is generally of informal style. Xu transfered “cold and hungry” into a four-character noun phrase“冻馁之忧”which means “sufferings from cold and hunger.” However, this phrase is somewhat old-fashioned and is too formal to keep in line with the original style．Besides，it appears uncoordinated with three adjectives“邋遢、褴褛又粗野”being placed before the noun phrase“冻馁之忧”. So, it is not appropriate to reflect the original style.<br /> Verbs are also frequently employed in ''Walden'' to depict the fighting between animals or other activities. The degree of formality marked by verbs is the target of the study here. <br /> Example 3：<br /> I took up the chip on which the three I have particularly described were struggling, carried it into my house，and placed it under a tumbler on my window-sill，in order to see the issue．(Thoreau 2012, 262-263)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation：<br /> 我特别描写的三个战士在同一张木片上搏斗，我把这张木片拿进我的家里，放在我的窗槛上。罩在一个大杯子下面，以便考察结局。(徐迟 2009, 256)<br /> As we can see from the examples, these verbs are short and common in our everyday speech. They come mainly from Anglo-Saxon English and have informal stylistic characteristics. Therefore, the style of the original text is informal and should be preserved in Chinese translation. In this sentence, Thoreau prepared to wait and see with interest how the battle between the ants would go on after a series of arrangements. Xu Chi translated the word “see” into “考察”which sounds serious and formal, because “考察”means carefully checking certain items or situations, and is often used in formal situations, such as “考察人” or “考察情况”. So, Xu's version deviates from the original natural and informal flavor.<br /> <br /> =====Expressive Meaning=====<br /> Roman Jakobson, building on Karl Bühler (1934), coined the term expressive or emotive for one of the functions of language. He describes it as the function focused on the ADDRESSER [speaker], aims a direct expression of the speaker's attitude toward what he is speaking about (Jakobson 1960, 354) and gives interjections as the prime example of this function.<br /> It is worthy of our attention that differences between words in terms of expressive meaning are not simply equal to a matter of whether an expression of a certain attitude or evaluation is reproduced or not. The same attitude or evaluation may be expressed to widely varying degrees of forcefulness.<br /> Example 4：It is said that a flood-tide, with a westerly wind，and ice in the Neva, would sweep St. Petersburg from the face of the earth. (Thoreau 2012, 22)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：据说，涅瓦河要是涨了水，刮了西风，流来的冰块可以把圣彼得堡一下子大地的表面上冲掉的。 (徐迟 2009, 21)<br /> According to the Oxford Advanced English-Chinese Dictionary, &quot;sweeping&quot; is the act of sudden movement (of weather, fire, etc.), forcing a movement in an area or in a particular direction. In the original context, the combination of “flood tides, westerly winds, and ice” was destructive and therefore clearly detrimental to St.Petersburg. So the word &quot;sweep&quot; here reflects the speaker's negative attitude toward the possible outcome. Obviously, the word “冲掉” in Xu Chi’s translation is a neutral term and does not reflect the speaker’s attitude or feelings towards the potential disaster caused by flood tide, westerly winds and snow. Xu ignored the author’s emotional attitude, thus ignoring the influence that these forces may cause, and did not produce systematic equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====Syntactic Features of ''Walden''====<br /> Raffel (1994) points out that &quot;the syntax of prose shows the style of the author, and the reproduction of the original style is the key to prose translation which stresses not only what message says, but also how the message is said.&quot; So, the syntactic features of ''Walden'' should never be ignored.<br /> In the original text, short sentences in English have neat structure and harmonious rhythm. Xu Chi did not change the original structure in translation, but adopted literal translation. The so-called literal translation is to retain the content and language expression habits of the original text as well as the form and style of the original text under the condition that the target language allows. Since Both Chinese and English are discourse systems and they have something in common, literal translation is a good way to deal with them.<br /> Example 5:<br /> It is no dream of mine， To ornament a line; I cannot come nearer to God and Heaven, than I live to Walden even． I am its stony shore, and the breeze that passes o’er; In the hollow of my hand Are its water and its sand, and its deepest resort Lies high in my thought. (Thoreau 2012, 137) <br /> Xu Chi’s Translation:<br /> 这不是我的梦，用于装饰一行诗;我不能更接近上帝和天堂甚于我之生活在瓦尔登。我是它的圆石岸，飘拂而过的风;在我掌握的一握，是它的水，它的沙，而它的最深邃僻隐处,高高躺在我的思想中。 (Xu Chi 2012, 151)<br /> The translation of this paragraph has a neat structure, neat antithesis, and pays attention to the regularity and rhythm of the literal. The original is composed of ten verses and the translation retains the original format, which can increase the depth and appeal of the translation, thus producing artistic effect and aesthetic value.<br /> <br /> ====Rhetorical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Metaphor=====<br /> Metaphor means to &quot;shift a word from its original meaning to another word that is generally not interchangeable but similar, and to emphasize its identity, that is, the two are similar but not a simile&quot;.<br /> Example 6: <br /> Public opinion is a weak tyrant compared with our own private opinion. (Thoreau, 7)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation: 和我们的自知之明相比较，公众舆论这暴戾的君主也显得微弱无力。(徐迟，6）<br /> The ontology and metaphor in this sentence are &quot;public opinion&quot; and &quot;weak tyrant.&quot; There must be something similar between them. The following statement gives the reason: &quot;Compared to our own private opinions&quot;, which is quite clear. People are used to focusing on themselves in front of others, so public opinion is only slightly weak. The subtle use of metaphor shows Thoreau's wisdom and thorough understanding of human nature. Xu Chi dealt with this metaphor perfectly.<br /> =====Pun=====<br /> Puns are deliberately declared polysemous words or homonyms created with double meaning in a certain language environment, with implicit, humorous and profound effects. Newmark (2001, 217) points out that &quot;pun translation is unimportant but fascinating&quot;. The use of puns in Walden is remarkable.<br /> The basic function of pun in ''Walden'' is to express logical relations. Because puns can express two levels of meaning in a word, phrase, or sentence, they are often used as a link between the text before and after it. A key problem that haunts the reader when reading ''Walden'' is the lack of connection between the two passages. A clear logical relationship is a prerequisite for expressing other special effects, such as rhetorical and aesthetic effects. Therefore, the improper translation of puns will seriously affect logical coherence and other rhetorical devices.<br /> Example 7：<br /> If the name was not derived from that of some English locality - Saffron Walden, for instance, one might suppose that it was called originally Walled-in Pond. (Thoreau 2012, 209)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation: 如果这个湖名不是由当地一个叫萨福隆•瓦尔登的英国人的名字化出来的话，——那么，我想瓦尔登湖原来的名字可能是围而得湖。(徐迟 2009, 172)<br /> This classic example of puns has been discussed many times. Thoreau suggested that &quot;Walden&quot; might come from “Walled-in”. &quot;Walled-in Pond&quot;, as ahomophonic pun, serves as the logic link of the whole paragraph. Xu wisely translates it as “围而得”, retaining not only the similar pronunciation but also the importance of meaning. “围而得” maintains the logical relation of the whole paragraph.It is eye-catching and stimulates readers to think more about Thoreau's intentions to use this word.<br /> <br /> =====Personification=====<br /> Personification refers to &quot;the practice of representing a person, quality, or characteristic as a human being in art and literature.&quot; People subconsciously tend to reflect non-human things with their lives in order to express their feelings and thoughts. In view of the characteristics of human behavior, literary works can vividly express the feelings of the author, and make readers feel that the description of the object is more vivid and appropriate, which makes the article more vivid.<br /> Example 8：<br /> This further experience also I gained：I said to myself,1 will not plant beans and corn with so much industry another summer，but such seeds, if the seed is not lost, as sincerity, truth, simplicity, faith, innocence, and the like, and see if they will not grow in this soil，even with less toil and manurance，and sustain me, for surely it has not been exhausted for these crops. (Thoreau 2012, 186-187)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation:<br /> 我还获得了下面的更丰富的经验：我对我自己说，下一个夏天，我不要花那么大的劳力来种豆子和玉米了，我将种这样<br /> 这样一些种子像诚实、真理、纯朴、信心、天真等等，如果这些种子并没有失落，看看它们能否在这片土地上生长，能否以较少劳力和肥料；来维持我的生活，因为，地力一定还没消耗到不能种这些东西。 (徐迟 2009, 182)<br /> Thoreau here is sharing his experience in growing beans and his plans next summer with readers. As we know, words like “sincerity,truth，simplicity, faith and innocence” usually refer to qualities of human. But here, these words are adopted to describe the characteristics of seeds and humanize these seeds，constructing a vivid personification. Xu Chi reproduce the rhetorical feature of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The language of ''Walden'' is rich in vocabulary, complex and diverse sentence structure, the author's writing is flexible and fluent, and the use of various rhetoric makes the translation work more difficult. <br /> To sum up, Xu Chi’s translation appears more formal than the original text and some words of his translation can not reflect the expressive meaning of the original one. It is found that Xu Chi tended to use words with typical features of his time which seem out of date at present. But due to the time he lived in, we believe that Xu Chi’s version satisfied the need or linguistic expectation of the target readers of his time which has its significance. We also find that sentences in Xu's translation follow the syntax of English language. Xu Chi kept the structure beauty of the original work properly, respected the original work and kept the structure orderly, directly conveying Thoreau's thoughts and feelings. And Xu Chi indeed do well in reflecting rhetorical features of the original text, which is refered by many translators later. In general, Xu Chi's translation is close to the original text in style and language characteristics and is a classic translation of ''Walden''.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ==A Comparison Beteewn the Translation Systems Proposed by Tan Zai and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation. 王美玲 Wang Meiling==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;王美玲 Wang Meiling&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> The Renaissance is the fourth peak in the history of Western translation and a great development in the history of Western literature. During the 16th century and the period following the Renaissance in Europe, translation reached an unprecedented climax in the fields of thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion. At that time, the German translation of the Bible by the Martin Luther is the most well-known one in the whole translation circle, and its influence is unique and long-standing in Germany as well as in the whole Europe continent. Since the Reform and Opening-up, China has gradually stepped into the center of the world arena, and its literary works bearing the quintessence of Chinese culture has become a crucial bridge connecting the rest of the world with China. Despite the rise of machine translation, it can never replace the overwhelming role of human translation in the literary translation. Luther’s translation thoughts have exerted an important influence on the development of Western translation theories, so what sparks can be drawn between his translation principles and Chinese modern culture and literary works? This paper makes a brief comment on the main translation activities of renaissance, then compares the translation thoughts of Luther and Lu Xun, and applies Luther’s detailed translation rules to the actual translation practice,finally analyzes the influence of Luther’s translation thoughts and principles on modern translation practice and their significance for reference.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Renaissance; Luther; literary works; translation principles; influence;<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴运动是西方翻译史的第四次高潮，也是西方文学史上的一次大发展。文艺复兴在欧洲普遍开展的16世纪以及随后一个时期，翻译活动达到了前所未有的高峰，深入思想、政治、哲学、文学宗教等各个领域。在整个翻译界，德国马丁·路德的《圣经》德译本是该时期最负盛名的译本，其影响不论是在德国乃至整个欧洲都是独一无二且源远流长的。改革开放以来，中国日益走进世界舞台中央，承载着中华文化精髓的文学作品成为了重要桥梁。纵然机器翻译兴起，但绝不能替代人工翻译在文学翻译领域的绝对性地位。路德的翻译思想对西方翻译理论的发展产生了重要影响，那么其翻译思想和理论原则与中国当代文化及文学作品又能擦出什么样的火花呢？本文将通过对文艺复兴时期的主要翻译活动进行简评，再对比路德与鲁迅的翻译思想，接着将路德的翻译细则运用到实际的翻译实践中，分析路德的翻译思想及理论原则对于当代翻译实践的影响以及借鉴意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴；路德；文学作品；翻译原则；影响；<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> The Protestant Reformation Movement in Germany in the 16th century ushered in a new era of translation and dissemination of Bible.Under the protection of Protestantism, Martin Luther devoted himself to the German translation of the Bible. By the time of 1544 Luther’s death, 430 versions of his Bible translation had been published. In order to make common people more directly understand the meaning of the Bible, Martin Luther translated it in national language. He insisted on his translation thought and fought against the church power and his opponents. He made unremitting efforts in the great project of the Bible translation, which promoted the unification of German language and created a graceful literary language.His translation thoughts are still of great significance to the current translation theory and practice.&quot;First of all, from a historical point of view, translation has two main functions in promoting the birth and development of national culture and the transformation of national culture into world culture: one is to promote cultural exchange; the other is to disseminate ideas.&quot;<br /> <br /> Since the beginning of reform and opening-up, China has gradually stepped onto the world arena. China persists in its cultural development geared to the needs of the world and actively promotes cultural development to the world. Literary works bear the essence of Chinese culture, whose export is an crucial way to spread Chinese culture to the world. Over the years, despite the rise of machine translation, which has a certain practical role, it can not replace the overwhelming role of manual translation in literary translation. So what significance does Luther’s translation thought and theory born in the reform era have in guiding modern translation theory and practice, especially in the field of literary translation?<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Brief comments on translation thoughts in the period of Renaissance===<br /> <br /> '''1.1 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.2 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.3 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.4 '''<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Comparison of translation thoughts between Luther and Lu Xun===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 ===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 ===<br /> <br /> ==Study on Interpreter's Memory and Translation Memory in Interpreting 康浩宇 Kang Haoyu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br /> <br /> '''1.1 Background'''<br /> <br /> Memory plays an important role in interpreting and it is a kind of interpreting competence. The information processing in interpreting is complicated. When the information is input, interpreter first recognize and keep the information, which will then be analyzed, encoded, stored and retrieved. And the interpreter finally decode the information into target language(Wang Jianhua, 2019).Because of the fast input of information and limited time for pausing, great memory is required for interpreters. Whether a good or poor memory has a direct effect on the quality of interpreting. <br /> With the development of science and technology, machine translation and computer aided translation, which is also called CAT, was invented as two effective and efficient ways for translation. In CAT, there is a concept called translation memory. Different from human beings’ memory, translation memory is more likely a database. Nowadays, translation memory of CAT has been put into wide use in translation. And in recent years, translation memory has also been applied as a tool in interpreting. As the technology is not yet mature, there are still some limitation and weakness.<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Significance of the Study'''<br /> <br /> There are some studies on the memory of interpreters. But most of them focus on its practical aspects such as how to improve interpreters’ memory or how to make the best of memory in interpreting, instead of substantial facts. The nature of memory and mechanism of memory is also worthy to be studied, so readers can have better understanding and cognition of what is memory and how it works. Therefore, readers can better address our problems in memory of interpreting. The study will fully analyze memory from the aspect of psychology and science. And then it will study on memory of interpreting in details including systems, mechanism, coding and theories. <br /> Translation memory is quite a novel topic as it belongs to a sort of science and technology. As the world stepped into information era, digital era and even Artificial Intelligence era, translation memory has been used more widely than ever before. It really facilitates the translators as it both saves a lot of time and greatly improved the translation efficiency. However, there are few studies on the translation memory application in interpreting field. Actually, in many situations, interpreters also uses this kind of technology to help their interpreting. They study will research on the fact of translation memory in interpreting.<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Structure of the Study'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be developed in five chapters. <br /> Chapter 1, the introduction part, is initiated by introducing the background, research problems, and significance of the study.<br /> Chapter 2 is functioned to define and categorize the memory.<br /> Chapter 3 will present the memory mechanism and related theories in interpreting.<br /> Chapter 4 will mainly focus on the translation memory technology at present and its application in interpreting.<br /> The concluding chapter generalizes the content of the study and put forward the limitations.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Study on Memory===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 The definition of the Memory'''<br /> <br /> Memory has different definitions in different fields. Generally speaking, human memory is a reflection of what the brain has experienced. From the perspective of psychology, memory is the recognition, maintenance, reappearance of experienced things by the human brain, and it is the basis of advanced psychological activities such as thinking and imagination. It is the retention and extraction of past experience by human brain. It is a psychological process in which individual experience is accumulated and preserved in the mind. All things that have been perceived can be kept in people's minds, and can be reproduced when necessary. This refers to the process in which the human brain encodes, stores and extracts meaningful information input from the outside world(Peng Danlin，1991). From the perspective of neurology, human memory is closely related to the changes of chemical composition in hippocampus and brain. All memory that exists in the brain depends on various nerve cells of the brain, which are called neurons. According to information processing theory, memory process is the process of encoding, storing and extracting input information. Only coded information can be remembered. Coding is the process of processing and transforming the input information, and coding is the key stage of the whole memory process.<br /> <br /> '''2.2. Memory Systems'''<br /> <br /> Based on the structure, memory can be categorized into three systems. There are sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. The later two systems are also often referred as STM and LTM. The three memory systems are different from each other but closely related.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1 Sensory Memory'''<br /> <br /> As the shortest memory system, sensory memory is the first channel for human brain to get the information. It has some capacity. According the research in Cognitive Psychology(Wang Su, Wang Ansheng, 1992), People’s visual sensory capacity is more than 9 chunk while their auditory sensory memory capacity has less capacity, which is about chunk. chunk here are memory units, and the size of chunk varies with people's knowledge and experience. A chunk can be a word, a number, a phrase, a sentence, a word list, etc. Sensory memory works as temporary storage for sensory information. It depends on the physical nature of external stimulus to code the information and it is the real copy and transcription of the external stimulus. Most sensory memory can stay for one to two seconds and then disappear. Only with more attention and focus can the sensory memory be processed and then become short term memory(Bao Gang, 2005). People’s visual sensory memory can just keep for less than one second while their auditory sensory memory can keep for 4 seconds. It is inevitable that information will lose with the disappearance of sensory memory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2 Short Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Short term memory is the second memory system. Short term memory is based on the neuron network in hippocampus. It keeps the information that has been selected in the hippocampus of human brain. In some cases, part of information will move from the short memory in hippocampus to long term memory in cerebral cortex. In psychology, short term memory can keep for about one minute with the capacity of about 7 chunks. That means that people can memorize seven unrelated numbers or phonemes for about one minute with their short term memory. However, the capacity of short term memory is not decided by the amount of stimulus but by the modes of chunk and coding. Chunks can effectively expand the capacity of short-term memory. When processing information, people can use the knowledge and experience stored in long-term memory to combine several single stimuli into larger information units, which can effectively expand and increase short-term memory span and improve memory efficiency. Moreover, the coding of short-term memory is mainly auditory coding, and there are also visual coding and semantic coding. Instead of chunk and information unit, people can also use retelling to transfer short term memory to long term memory. Retelling refers to the psychological operation process of repeating the materials just memorized by language to consolidate memory. In the case of retelling, the learning materials kept in short-term memory will transfer to long-term memory. The content of short-term memory can be transformed into long-term memory by retelling. <br /> <br /> There is a special type of short term memory, working memory. The concept working memory was first proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. It is used to describe the process of a person temporarily memorizing the fact and thoughts when addressing problems or working(Baddeley, 2006). In spite of limited resources and storage time, working memory is still different from short term memory in temporary storage of information(Hitch, 2012). Compared with short term memory which store information passively, the working memory process is more dynamic. Generally speaking, there are three differences. First, working memory emphasizes storing and processing information at the same time, while short-term memory only focuses on information storage. Secondly, working memory is a multi-factor system, while short-term memory is a single system. Third, working memory is more important than short-term memory for many advanced brain functions and even almost all human cognitive work(Wang Jianhua, 2019). The disappear of short term memory is often due to the interruption.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3 Long Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Different from short term memory, long term memory is stored in human’s cerebral cortex where there is more room for storage. Long term memory is very important in keeping information for long time. It can keep information for more than one minute and even for a whole life. Its capacity is unlimited. All the information kept by long term memory has been selected and filtered.According to Tulving, long term memory is stored mainly as two types(Tulving, 1974). They are episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory is about one’s experience of some specific situations. Semantic memory refers to knowledge such as words, concepts, rules and other abstract things.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Memory Mechanism'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, the process of memory includes three key steps. They are memorizing, keeping and recalling. In interpreting, memorizing is related to interpreters’ listening and understanding to what the speaker says, keeping is related to the storage of original information and recalling refers to the output of interpreting.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 Memorizing'''<br /> <br /> Memorizing refers to the process of distinguishing and recognizing the characteristics of things and leaving a certain impression in the mind. Some things can be remembered after one perception, while most of the contents need to be perceived repeatedly, so that the new information can be connected with the existing knowledge structure. As the first step in the memory process, memorization has a very important influence on the memory effect. Therefore, understanding and mastering the rules of memorization will help improve memory(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997).<br /> <br /> According to whether memorization has a purpose or not, memorization can be divided into unconscious memorization and conscious memorization(Ma Zhengyu, 2013).<br /> Unconscious memorization refers to memorization that happens naturally without a predetermined purpose and without a certain effort of will. When they are perceived, there is no intention to memorize them, but these contents can reappear in people’s mind in the future naturally. And this is unconscious memorization. The content of unconscious memorization is an important part of experience, and it has great effect on people’s psychological activities and behaviors. Inadvertent experience can do as much help as existing experiences when people consciously face certain situations and deal with certain problems. In daily life, the environment, contact and work will influence people unconsciously in psychology and behavior. Generally speaking, there are two characteristics of unconscious memorization. First, the stimulation acts on people's sensory organs which is of great significance and attracts people's attention. For example, people will never forget new and different things; Second, it is in people's needs, interests and content so that it can produce deeper emotional experience. Unconsciousness plays a positive role in people's acquisition of knowledge and experience.<br /> <br /> Conscious memorization refers to memorizing with a predetermined purpose, which requires a certain amount of will and effort in the process of memorizing. The process of conscious memorization is controlled by the purpose of memorization. The purpose of memorization determines that memorizing process is an active coding process for memorizing content. This coding includes &quot;what to remember&quot; and &quot;how to remember&quot;. &quot;What to memorize&quot; determines the direction and content of memorization, and &quot;how to memorize&quot; is the method to better memorize the content. All people's knowledge and experience are acquired through conscious memorization and unconscious memorization. However, in terms of memorizing effect, conscious memorizing is better than unconscious memorizing(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 Keeping'''<br /> <br /> Keeping refers to the process of remaining and consolidating the memorized materials in brain. It is the process of information storage. Keeping is the middle step which is between memorizing and recalling and it is closely related the quality and effect of recalling.<br /> <br /> The effect of keeping is related to whether the materials to be memorized are vivid or not. When brains memorize verbal materials, if the materials are vivid, they can leave a deep impression on people, while the materials with empty contents are easy to be forgotten quickly. Many psychological experiments have also proved the important role of the &quot;image&quot; in the memory of human brain. The memory effect of image materials is generally better than that of words materials, and similarly, the effect of visual memory is generally better than that of auditory memory. This suggests that if interpreters make full use of the image carrier of the source language in interpreting memory, it is possible to improve their information storage of the source language(Bao Gang, 2005).<br /> <br /> Keeping is a dynamic process during which the amount and nature of the stored information could be changed. In the aspect of amount change, the amount of stored information will decrease with time. In other words, this is forgetting. Forgetting is a very natural phenomenon that experienced by every person. Although forgetting is a complex psychological phenomenon, its occurrence and development have certain rules. Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, was the first to do this research. He used meaningless syllables as experimental materials and himself as experimental object. After memorizing the materials, he relearned them at regular intervals, and drew the forgetting curve with the time and times saved by heavy school as the index. Forgetting curve reflects the relationship between forgetting variables and time variables. This curve shows the rule of forgetting: the process of forgetting is unbalanced, and the amount of forgetting is relatively large in the initial period after memorization, and then gradually decreases. That is, the speed of forgetting is fast at first and then slow. After Ebbinghaus, many people have studied the forgetting process and confirmed that Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve is basically correct(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997). <br /> <br /> Keeping is the process of consolidating what have been memorized in people's minds, and it is also the process of storing information. It is not a static and solidified process, but a process of reconstruction.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 Recalling'''<br /> <br /> The final step of memory is recalling. It is the process of retrieving the information that has been stored in people’s brain. <br /> Recalling is the reappearance process of past experiences in the mind under the action of certain inducement. Memories can be divided into two categories: intentional memories and unintentional memories. Intentional recalling is the recalling of past experience under the action of intended purpose. Unintentional memories are memories that happen naturally without a predetermined purpose. Memories can be divided into direct recalling and indirect recalling according to whether there are intermediary factors involved in the recalling process. Direct recalling is the recollection of old experiences directly aroused by current things. Indirect recalling is a kind of recalling with the help of intermediary factors. In terms of difficulty, indirect recalling is more difficult than direct recalling.<br /> <br /> '''2.4 Primacy Effect and Recency effect'''<br /> <br /> Primacy effect and recency effect are two famous phenomena related to people’s memory. And both of them play a very important role in interpreting.<br /> <br /> '''2.4.1 Primacy Effect'''<br /> <br /> The concept “primacy effect” was first proposed by A. S. Lochins, an American psychologist. It refers to the fact that the first impression has a huge effect. Although the first impression may not always be right, but it is most vivid and solid. In primacy effect, information input plays a key role. Experimental psychology research shows that the order of external information input is important in determining the cognitive effect. The first input information plays the most important role, and the last input information also plays a great role. This feature of brain processing information is the internal cause of the primacy effect. When different information is combined, people always tend to attach importance to the former information. Even if people pay attention to the following information, they will think that the following information is non-essential and accidental. More importantly, even if the following information is inconsistent with the former information, people will succumb to the former information.<br /> <br /> '''2.4.2 Recency Effect'''<br /> <br /> Recency effect, also put forward by American psychologist Lochins, refers to the phenomenon that when people memorize a series of things, the memory effect of the last part is better than that of the middle part. The reason is that the previous information is gradually blurred in memory, while the recent information clearer in short-term memory. Recency effect is contrary to the primacy effect, and recency effect emphasizes that the last received information has the greatest effect. In people's perception, when the information obtained before and after is different, if there is irrelevant work in the middle to separate them, then the latter information plays a greater role in forming the total impression.<br /> <br /> Obviously, the primacy effect and recency effect are different, or even opposite. The primacy effect emphasizes the information received initially, while recency effect pays more attention to the information that comes into contact later. However, the primary effect and recency effect exist in our society and play their respective functions. Through a large number of experiments, it is found that the primacy effect and recency effect depend on people themselves. Generally speaking, people with relatively simple cognitive structure are prone to produce the primacy effect, while those with complex cognitive structure are prone to produce recency effect.<br /> <br /> Although the primacy effect and recency effect are different form each other, both of the effects are extremely beneficial to the memory of interpreters, and they can be used in different interpreting situations(Wang Jianhua, 2019).<br /> <br /> == The Subtile Translation of Movie from the Perspective of Multimodal Discourse Analysis 王轩 Wang Xuan==<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> Mankind has entered the era of multimedia, so the language as a mono-modal form has been unable to fully express the meaning of communication. Thus we need some other modals to enhance, in order to fully express the meaning and reach the aim of communication, such as sound, visual image, color and so on. Thus the term Multimodality aroused linguist’s interest and attention. <br /> <br /> They conducted a lot of research and exploration in Multimodal Discourse Analysis. Multimodal Discourse Analysis is based on Halliday’s systemic functional linguistics as the foundation, Professor Zhang Delu points out that the Multimodal Discourse is a phenomenon which means use auditory, visual, tactile and other sensory and communicate through language, image, sound, movement and other symbolic resources. <br /> <br /> Martin points out that Multimodal Discourse Analysis is composed of five levels, they are: (1) cultural level (2) context level (3) significance level (4) form level (5) media level. By discussing the combination between the subtitle translation of “Benjamin Button” and Multimodal, the thesis is to analyze that how does the Multimodal Discourse Analysis affect the subtitle translation of movies. <br /> <br /> The thesis is based on the Multimodal Discourse Analysis theory as the foundation, aims to analyze the following three areas under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis: 1. The embodiment of Multimodality in the film “Benjamin Button”, then aims to analyze how does the subtitle and Multimodality combining to constructed the whole meaning under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis.2. The second goal is to discuss the relationship between the movie’s subtitles and other modals, and the relationship between different modals. 3. By discussing the analysis of the movie subtitle expression function in the process of overall significance, this thesis attempts to put forward some suggestions on the movie subtitle translation. <br /> Keywords: Multimodal Discourse Analysis；Audio-visual Product；Subtitle Translation<br /> <br /> === Chapter One Multimodal Discourse Analysis Theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 1.1 The Emergence And Development Of Multimodality '''<br /> <br /> At present, experts and scholars have entered the stage of multimodal discourse analysis. This is not an accidental phenomenon, but inevitable, because they think that discourse or discourse is a unit of meaning, but the expression of meaning is not only through a single language, on the contrary, it can be constructed by many other symbol systems besides language. <br /> <br /> Therefore, it is not comprehensive and specific to analyze discourse or discourse from the linguistic level, so multimodal discourse analysis comes into being. Multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in foreign countries, and has been widely studied and explored. However, it is still in its infancy in China, and has attracted much attention in recent years. <br /> <br /> In the early 1950s, American linguist Harris put forward the theory of discourse analysis for the first time. Since then, discourse analysts all over the world have been working hard to analyze and study, and have put forward many theories and methods of discourse analysis, and analyzed them through a large number of examples. <br /> <br /> However, almost all the theories and methods of discourse analysis focus on language and ignore other forms of meaning expression, such as image, music, color and so on. Therefore, the research on discourse analysis at that time was not comprehensive and had great limitations. In the 1990s, multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in western countries, which overcomes the limitations of discourse analysis to a certain extent. Therefore, once multimodal discourse analysis was proposed, it immediately attracted the attention of linguists and once became a hot topic. Especially in recent years, linguists at home and abroad have carried out extensive research and Exploration on multimodal discourse analysis. <br /> <br /> In foreign countries, R. Barthes is the first French scholar to systematically analyze multimodality. As a famous semiotician, R. Barthes adopts the semiotic perspective to study multimodality. Therefore, multimodal discourse has been analyzed with semiotics from the very beginning. Multimodal discourse analysis breaks through the shackles of traditional single language information, and integrates more research in other fields, such as psychology, cognitive science and sociology. R. Barthes discussed the interaction and relationship between image and language in the expression of meaning. Based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed a relatively perfect grammatical framework for the analysis of visual images, thus providing theoretical basis and analytical methods for multimodal discourse analysis. They believe that multimodality is a major feature of various discourses in modern society. In the digital age, these different modes play the same role in meaning reproduction. In addition, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed an image analysis framework based on three pure functions in image reading, namely reproduction, interaction and composition.. In a word, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen's multimodal communication theory mainly focuses on the symbolic resources and their use. <br /> <br /> In China, there are also in-depth and extensive research on multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Li Zhanzi analyzes multimodal discourse from the perspective of social semiotics, while Hu Zhuanglin, a professor of Peking University, studies multimodal semiotics in theory and practice, and proposes multimodal language teaching and research in social semiotics. Zhu Yongsheng has made an in-depth study on multimodality and summarized the theoretical basis and research methods of multimodal discourse analysis. Zhang Delu made a preliminary exploration on the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Zhang Delu pointed out that multimodal discourse refers to the use of hearing, vision, touch and other senses, through language, images, sounds, movements and other means and symbol resources for communication. This phenomenon is very common, which is mainly reflected in the following aspects. For example, in order to better understand poetry, people find that it can be attached with pictures, that is, it is attractive People's interest has reached the purpose of helping people understand. In addition, people can often add some auxiliary gestures or actions, and use different tone and tone when speaking, which is also a form of multimodality. However, multimodal discourse analysis has not been paid enough attention. Only in the study of modern linguistics, some linguists have paid attention to multimodality and started to study it from the perspective of non-verbal features and linguistic features. However, it is only studied as an auxiliary expression system of language, but not as a mode of meaning expression. Although multimedia discourse analysis came into being, it was not until recent years that scholars gradually realized the importance of multimedia discourse analysis. It can be seen that multimodality has attracted a large number of linguists in China and achieved fruitful results.<br /> <br /> ''' 1.2 The Theoretical Framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis '''<br /> <br /> Linguists have found that systemic functional linguistics can be used as the basic theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. The five levels are: (1) cultural level, including ideology as the main form of culture and genre as the potential choice of discourse mode. (2) The context level includes the context configuration composed of discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. (3) The meaning level includes discourse meaning and conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning. (4) At the formal level, there are different formal systems to realize meaning, including lexical grammar system of language, visual ideographic form and visual grammar system, auditory ideographic form and auditory grammar system, tactile ideographic form and tactile grammar system, etc., as well as the relationship between the grammar of various modes. (5) Media level is the material form of discourse in the material world, including linguistic and non-verbal. Systemic functional linguistics provides a relatively ready-made theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis. On this basis, Professor Zhang Delu proposed a comprehensive theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis: (1) cultural level, (2) context level, (3) content level, (4) expression level<br /> <br /> ''' 1.3 The Forms and Relations of Multimodal Discourse '''<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse forms include: language, picture sense, sound sense and feeling. The typical multimodal discourse mode is a kind of modal discourse, which can not fully express its meaning, or can not express its full meaning. It needs to be supplemented by another one. The relationship between these modes is called &quot;complementary relationship&quot;, while the other is called non complementary relationship. <br /> <br /> Complementary relationship can be divided into strengthening relationship and non strengthening relationship. Reinforcement relationship means that one mode is the main form of communication, while another or more forms strengthen it. For example, when expressing meaning, if language is the main form of communication, then other body movements such as gestures will strengthen the language. On the contrary, language may also be a reinforcement to other ways of communication. Strengthening relationship includes three kinds of relations: prominent, primary and secondary, and expanding. Non reinforcement refers to the relationship between two modes which are indispensable and complementary to each other. For example, in the process of watching a movie, the visual and auditory modes are combined with each other. There are also three forms of non strengthening relations: coordination, union and intersection. In the coordination relationship, different modes construct the whole meaning together, and the lack of any mode will be incomplete. Play the video at the same time, for example. The two modes of image and sound are both necessary and difficult to understand without one communication. In this case, the relationship between image and sound is harmonious. The joint relationship refers to the combination of different types of media in the same mode to express the meaning. For example, in the typical multimodal discourse form of film, the sound matched with the scene animation and the voice of interpretation are combined to reflect the meaning of auditory construction. The last one is the phenomenon of cross embodiment of meaning. For example, teachers do experiments while they are in the experimental class. At this time, the text is still unimodal. However, if you are talking with your friends about whether the weather is snowing, the size and shape of snow, and so on, the scene of snow, including the process and mode of snow, will directly participate in the overall meaning you want to express. At this time, your discourse has a strong situational dependence. A large part of the meaning of your speech is reflected by the situation, although the scene does not actively participate in it In your verbal communication. Therefore, context dependent discourse communication is multimodal.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Two Film subtitle translation theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 2.1 Film Works and Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> With the advent of the multimedia digital era, foreign film and television works continue to flow into China, so subtitle translation is becoming more and more important. More and more people use subtitles to obtain foreign related information, understand foreign cultures and even learn foreign languages. Subtitling affects people's cognition of things, and subtitle translation has become a professional auxiliary form to facilitate the audience to understand multimedia works. Gottlieb defines subtitle translation as &quot;a kind of written, additional and synchronous translation type for instantaneous and multi symbolic texts&quot;. (Gottlieb, 1997:309) in China, film and television translation started relatively late, and large-scale film and television translation began after the 1980s. <br /> <br /> Although the number of mass media translation has greatly increased, subtitle translation has not attracted enough attention of the academic community, and the research results on subtitle translation are few. In recent years, subtitle translation, as a field of translation, has attracted more and more attention from experts and scholars all over the world. Subtitles have two major functions: first, to deepen the audience's impression of some film content; second, to assist the lack of listening. There are two kinds of subtitles: the first is intralingual subtitle, the second is interlingual subtitle. Intralingual subtitle translation does not need to translate one language into another, but only converts the discourse into text. &quot;Interlingual subtitle refers to the translation of the source language into the target language and superimposed on the bottom of the screen while retaining the original sound of the film and television, which is commonly referred to as subtitle translation.&quot; (Li Yunxing, 2001:38)<br /> <br /> ''' 2.2 The Characteristics Of Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> Film subtitles are an important part of the film, and together with the visual image to construct the meaning, film subtitles can help the audience to understand the characteristics of the characters in the film, to master the character's character and to be familiar with the plot of the film. Film subtitle translation has the following characteristics: <br /> <br /> Firstly, colloquialism. Subtitle translation in movies is mainly the translation of dialogues between the characters in the film. Therefore, subtitle translation should be as colloquial as possible and conform to the expression characteristics of the characters. On the premise of ensuring the coherence and smoothness of the context, the subtitle translation should be as close to life as possible so as to achieve natural and realistic effect. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the characters in the film have their own unique personalities, which are often reflected by different language styles. Therefore, the second feature of film subtitle translation is to conform to the characters' personalities. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, emotional, emotional help the audience better understand the plot, so the film subtitle translation should reflect the true feelings, the translation should be able to put oneself in the position and into the role, to achieve the artistic effect of sincere.<br /> <br /> Fourthly, oral form is a typical feature of film subtitle translation, which is also the most obvious difference between film subtitle translation and literature translation. The basic task of translation is to provide a blueprint for dubbing. Therefore, the translation of subtitles should be consistent with the mouth shape of the characters as much as possible, and the accuracy and vividness of the translation should be guaranteed. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, popularization means popularization. Popularization means that the translation can be understood by the audience on the premise of smoothness, so as to achieve the purpose of clear understanding and appreciation of both refined and popular tastes. The ultimate goal of popularization is to serve the audience and make the translation a bridge for effective communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3 Strategies Of Film Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.1 Pay Attention To The Artistry Of Language '''<br /> <br /> It is said that film is the seventh art after literature, music, dance, drama, painting and sculpture. As a young art, the only one who knows his birthday, film appeared as a popular art from the very beginning. Film is an art form with unique means of expression, and the artistry of its language is the basic element of film. Although Goethe once said: art should never be the same as reality, and it is impossible to embody art. But it turns out that film is not only a popular art, and it is the most popular art, which is called a kind of popular culture. From the point of view of the film itself, most of the films are for people to watch, and the audience of the film comes from different social strata, so their education level is also different. Therefore, the language in the subtitle of film translation must be in line with the audience's acceptance ability and actual level, so as to make the translation understood by the audience, more clearly, and achieve both refined and popular tastes. However, the vulgarization and popularization of the target language does not mean the vulgarization and generalization of the language. The language of film is rich in expressive force, and the language of subtitle translation must be accurate, natural and vivid. Therefore, in the film subtitle translation, we should not only retain the language characteristics of the source language and absorb the characteristics of foreign language expression, but also abide by the language tradition of our own culture, and use words with cultural color of the target language to translate the original text, so as to truly achieve the purpose of translation.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.2 Literal Translation And Free Translation Should Be Audience-Centered '''<br /> <br /> The characteristics of film subtitle translation, i.e. instantaneity and popularity, determine its translation strategies. Subtitle translation must refer to the picture and sound of the film and television. Usually, the subtitle appears in front of the audience together with the original picture, so that the audience can not only enjoy the picture, but also have time to read the subtitle. This is the duality of subtitle translation. When the audience accepts the sound, picture and subtitle information of the original text, they are integrated, complementary and contradictory. Therefore, subtitle translation must consider that subtitle is not an independent mode, it includes the creation process and the reception process. In a word, both literal translation and free translation should focus on the audience. Literal translation can absorb new foreign factors and information, and can reflect foreign culture and sentiment. Free translation is easier to be accepted by the target language audience. Film subtitle translation must take into account the audience's language level and education, and take the audience of the target language as the center and adopt correct translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.3 Processing Of Cultural Information '''<br /> <br /> As an intermediary of cultural exchange, the translator's main purpose is to promote the exchange of different cultures and reduce the cultural gap. Because the film subtitle in the process of translation is subject to many restrictions, for example, there are a large number of words with strong cultural color and some special language forms, and there are many gaps in the culture of different languages and nations and can not be replaced, so it increases the difficulty of film translation. For example, when translating puns, word games and proverbs, translators usually have to give up, which is actually a treason to the original film. <br /> <br /> There are three strategies to deal with cultural information in Subtitle Translation: first, the principle of cultural compensation. The principle of cultural compensation aims to preserve and introduce the cultural characteristics of foreign countries, so that the audience can understand the films of different languages and cultures. Second, adopt the principle of cultural transplantation. This principle can make subtitles more vivid, authentic and vivid. Translators need to discard the cultural characteristics of the source language and abide by the native language, so that subtitles can be easily understood and accepted by the target language audience. When neither of the two strategies is desirable, we can only use the third strategy, namely the principle of cultural coordination, which inevitably leads to the loss of cultural information in the source language and the target language. When dealing with the cultural information in subtitle translation, translators should pay attention to the combination of these three strategies with the film picture, and give full play to the illustrative and explanatory nature of the pictures, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Three Subtitle Translation Of &quot;Rejuvenation&quot; From The Perspective Of Multimodal Discourse Analysis ===<br /> <br /> ''' 3.1 A Brief Introduction of 'Benjamind Button' '''<br /> <br /> 'Benjamin Button', directed by the famous director David Finch is adapted from Fitzgerald's novel of the same name; the film tells the story of a strange Benjamin Barton who violates the laws of nature and is born in the image of an ancient and rare old man. As time goes by, he even lives more and more young. It is a story about the reversal of life.<br /> <br /> The following part will analyze the characteristics of subtitles and the translation strategies that should be adopted in the expression of the film from the cultural level, context level, content level and expression level of the multimodal theoretical framework.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2 Multimodal Translation in Movie Subtiles '''<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.1 On Cultural Level '''<br /> <br /> Under the influence of thinking patterns and habits, people have gradually formed a specific form of expression in which language can understand each other in communication. Therefore, it is particularly important whether the cultural factors in films are properly translated. Zhang Delu believes that &quot;the cultural level is the key level to make communication possible&quot;. In some cases, the source language and the target language can not be translated literally. Therefore, in the process of translating movie subtitles, we should not only keep the original features, that is, faithfulness, but also take into account the habitual language awareness of the target audience, that is, free translation strategies should be adopted to make the translation smooth and consistent Cultural characteristics of the target language.<br /> <br /> The English title of the film is ‘The Curious Case of Benjamin Button’, and a version is ‘本杰明·巴顿奇事’, but the translation of ‘返老还童’ has a larger audience. First of all, there is an English name in the title of Benjamin Button, which makes people feel the obscurity of the literal translation of foreign words. In Chinese, four character idioms or five or seven character quatrains or metrical poems are more catchy and easy to be accepted; Secondly, the title of &quot;rejuvenate&quot; is very suitable for the protagonist's inverted and retrograde life trajectory. In a word, it is very brilliant; Finally, the idiom ‘返老还童’ comes from ancient legends, which expresses people's desire for immortality and rejuvenation. Although it is a legend, modern people also want to be young and energetic, so the title of ‘返老还童’ can attract more audiences.<br /> In this film, there are many translation notes added to the translation, which will explain the cross-cultural ambiguity clearly. Although there are many translations, it is the best way to make the audience accept accurate information.<br /> <br /> When Daisy, the heroine, is old, she lies on the hospital bed and introduces the name of the Watchmaker: “they had the best clock maker in all of the south to build that glorious clock. His name was Mr. gateau Mr. Cake.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “还请来整个南方最好的钟表匠建了那座雄伟的大钟。那人叫盖图先生……蛋糕先生” (盖图/Gateau 在法语中是蛋糕之意)<br /> <br /> There is such a narration at the foundation laying ceremony of clocks and clocks: “Papa said there were people everywhere. Even Teddy · Roosevelt came.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “爸爸说，那天人山人海。连泰迪·罗斯福也来了( 西奥多·罗斯福，昵称泰迪美国第26 任总统)”<br /> <br /> In the above two examples, the comments added to the translation itself are in brackets. In the former example, &quot;Mr. cake&quot; suddenly appears. In the latter example, how President Roosevelt called &quot;Teddy Roosevelt&quot; will make the target language audience very puzzled. Although the use of annotations makes translation numerous, it is the best way for the audience to quickly obtain accurate information. The audience knows that gateau means &quot;cake&quot; in French, and Roosevelt has a nickname of &quot;Teddy&quot;.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.2 On Context Level '''<br /> <br /> In a specific context, communication is constrained by contextual factors (Zhang Delu, 2009). The context level elaborated by Zhang Delu includes discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. In order to express meaning or transmit information, subtitle and context jointly promote the development of film plot. Subtitle translation should be subject to context. In order to make subtitle translation not appear fault phenomenon, the film plot will advance naturally, and subtitle translation should also play a role of connecting the preceding and the following. In this way, in the process of translation, the translator should consider the contextual factors and pay attention to the smoothness and coherence of the translation within the sentence itself and between the sentences in the text.<br /> <br /> When describing Queenie's fertility problem, Queenie sees Benjamin's heart full of love. Her husband, Mr. Weathers, said: I know you ain't got all the parts it takes to make one of your own, but this ain't your to keep. At first it was certainly hard to understand the meaning of this sentence, but as the plot developed, Queenie prayed to the pastor for a son. After her pregnancy, she announced happily: “I had a miracle happen. The Lord saw fit to answer my prayer.” <br /> <br /> Little Daisy explained here: “ ‘I had a miracle happen’ means pregnancy.” （她有孩子了） In this way, the words said by Mr. Weathers was interpreted as: “我知道你没法有自己的孩子，可你也不能抚养这个。” Using free translation strategy, it is clear and faithful to the meaning of the source language, which makes the target language audience quickly know that Queenie likes children's characteristics and cares for Benjamin, an ugly ‘monster’.<br /> <br /> When Benjamin and Daisy are reunited in New York, Benjamin said: “I thought I'd come here and sweet you off your feet or something.” The phrase &quot;sweep you off your feet&quot; means &quot;to make you fall suddenly and deeply in love with you&quot;（让你倾倒）. Benjamin and Daisy were separated from each other for many years at that time. Daisy, who was living in the dance circle, was popular and desirable there. Benjamin went to New York to find daisy after burying his father. He was in a mixed mood. In fact, he wanted to find a friend to express his melancholy. Therefore, Benjamin did not go to find Daisy to &quot;fall in love&quot; with her but &quot;I thought I'd give you a big surprise when I came suddenly&quot;(我本以为我突然过来找你会给你一个大惊喜), which is very brilliant. This sentence is more suitable for the protagonist's situation by using free translation strategy.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.3 On Content Level '''<br /> <br /> The content level of Zhang Delu's expression includes discourse meaning level and form level. Discourse meaning is the conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning conveyed in language expression. In the film, subtitle is the narrator's narration and dialogue content. Film discourse requires the translator to accurately express the subtitle meaning to the audience. In the process of subtitle translation, some gas words, names and address terms can be omitted, which still does not affect the expression of discourse meaning.<br /> <br /> “Well, I know I don't have much to show for myself.”（我知道自己没有什么才能。） The omission of &quot;well&quot; does not affect the translation, but is more concise and can be understood more quickly.<br /> <br /> “You know, you may've got a few more years out of it, but you choose to do something so special and unique that there were only a short window of time you could do it.” Daisy was in the dance business, but she had an accident later. Some expressions here such as “a few more years out of it” ( 跳几年舞), “something so special and unique”( 事业太与众不同), “a short window of time” （几年黄金时间) have been dealt more concrete, so the whole sentence is translated as: “也许，你能多跳几年舞，可你的事业太与众不同了，只有几年的黄金时间可以发展。” <br /> <br /> As for its form, the formal features of different modes are interrelated and reflect the discourse meaning together (Zhang Fulu, 2009). The film system includes animation, pictures, music, language and other auditory and visual modes. Therefore, subtitles, together with listening and visual modes, work together to promote the expression of film meaning.<br /> <br /> For example, Benjamin and Daisy finally met and got together. They whispered in the yellow-glowed room:<br /> Daisy: “Will you still love me when my skin grows old and saggy?” ( 我要是成了黄脸婆你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> Benjamin: “Will you still love me when I have acne? When I wet the bed? When I'm afraid of what's under the stairs?” ( 等我老到脸上长满青春痘，老到尿床，老到连楼梯下有什么都怕，你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> The pictures, music and language all revealed the happy and loving life of the two people. In general, the film is based on the narration of a diary. In the film, the dialogue between the present and the narration in the diary is carried out alternately. In addition, the old pictures, the statement of time and the voice change of the narrator are used to make the past and the present change clearly and naturally, and they are applied in the formal level.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.4 On Expression Level '''<br /> <br /> Zhang Fulu believes that the expression level can be divided into language media and non-verbal media. In the language media level, he thinks that the main forms of meaning communication are sound symbols and writing symbols. For films, subtitles and subtitle translation belong to writing symbols. In the process of translating subtitles, translators should fully consider the media characteristics such as voice size, intonation strength, tone, font size and layout, which play a very important role in the expression of films. The subtitles of the film are at the bottom of the screen. Except for the notes, the translation takes up a little bit more space, and most of the subtitles in the source language and the target language occupy one line, which ensures that the audience has enough time to read the information. Non verbal media include communicators' body and nonverbal means (mainly tools and environment). Nowadays, with the progress of science and technology, movies can be played in cinemas, networks and various electronic media, and the media for appreciation is rich.<br /> <br /> Throughout the film, the dying old Daisy's tone is slow and strenuous on the bed. With the development of the story, light or heavy, a TV beside the bed broadcast the change of Hurricane weather activity, and the weather change also reflects Daisy's condition at that time.<br /> Finally, Daisy hugged Benjamin, a baby in her arms, and watched him invert the end of her life. The dying Daisy dictated in a low voice and intermittent tone: &quot;he looked at me and Iknow that he knew who I was.&quot;. (他看着我，那一刻，我知道他认出来了) The sound of the hurricane alarm suddenly sounded, sharp and obvious, and the picture of the staff of the hospital of traditional Chinese medicine was flustered, symbolizing that Benjamin's reversal clock was also washed away, and Daisy finally passed away. The sound, picture and words of the whole film are closely linked. It tells the story of eternal love, though limited in time, which is extremely shocking and thought-provoking.<br /> <br /> The translator of the film tries his best to translate various modes such as discourse, picture, sound and music. The translation strategy is mainly free translation, and the subtitle processing is simple and appropriate, so that the audience can have a good understanding of the limited time in the film, only the eternal knowledge of love. Taking the film subtitle of &quot;rejuvenation&quot; as an example, this paper analyzes the characteristics of subtitle translation from the aspects of culture, context, content and expression, hoping to better understand multimodal discourse analysis and free translation strategies in film subtitle translation.<br /> <br /> ='''Machine Translation'''=<br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory - A Case Study of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈永相 Chen Yongxiang&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine (hereinafter referred to as TCM), the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, boasts the favorable curative effect and a good reputation across the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative” and national economy, TCM has been playing an increasingly significant role in international trade, attracting more attention of foreign medical experts and consumers. As the essential attachment of a medicine, medicine instructions belong to the genre of practical writing, characterized by the unique language structure and stylistic features, guiding doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicines, such as usage and dosage, actions and indications, contraindication, etc. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. Due to the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, however, plenty of problems appear on the C-E translation of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> According to Adaptation Theory proposed by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. Translation is a cross-cultural communication activity, which involves language usage and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so on between source language and target language, and to adapt with different contexts, mentalities, cultures, etc. so as to achieve the ideal goal, from which the Adaptation Theory can be applied exactly into the study of translation. This paper will apply Adaptation Theory, therefore, as the theoretical framework, to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. Employing the core concepts and investigating aspects of Adaptation Theory, the author tries to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine instruction translation, Adaptation Theory, Yulin Pharmaceutical Company <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 中药是我国医药文化的瑰宝，有着良好的疗效和口碑。随着“一带一路倡议”的稳步推进和中国经济的平稳发展，中药药品在国际贸易中所占比重日益增加，得到了国外许多医疗专家和消费者的关注。药品说明书作为药品的重要附件，是一种实用文体，有其自身的语言结构和文体特点，能够指导医生与患者了解和熟悉药品作用、用法用量、适应症和禁忌等。而中医药品说明书英译作为中医英译的一个重要组成部分，其英译质量决定了药品能否被医生和患者正确理解和使用，以及中医药产品的国际贸易繁荣。然而，由于英语和汉语之间存在着不可避免的语言和文化差异，中医药品说明书英译依然存在着较大问题。<br /> <br /> 比利时语用学家维索尔伦提出的语言顺应论认为，语言的使用是一个不断作出选择和顺应的动态过程。翻译作为一项跨文化交际活动，需要在源语与目的语之间，就用词、翻译策略等方面进行选择，对不同语境、心理、文化等层面作出顺应。可见顺应论适用于翻译研究。因此本文以顺应论作为理论依据，通过对广西玉林制药公司中医药品说明书英译进行分析研究，运用顺应论的核心概念和研究视角，进一步探讨如何更好地翻译中医药品说明书。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 中医药品说明书翻译，顺应论，玉林制药公司<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''1.Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''1.1 Research Background of the Study'''====<br /> <br /> As the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, TCM has been through a profound history in China. Since “The Belt and Road Initiative” proposed for the first time, as an indispensable part in medical industry, TCM has tapped the potential of development opportunity to boost its reform so as to better make inroads into the international market. Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a renowned TCM pharmacy enterprise mainly engaged in R&amp;D, production and sales of Chinese medicines, one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties. In 2015, Consun Pharmaceutical Group Lt. has successfully brought partial share of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, which, in return, brought opportunities for the IPO and industrialization of the company. As the essential attachment of TCM medicine, the instructions guide doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicine correctly, which closely relates to consumer safety and are of great significance. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. The high quality translation versions of TCM instructions will accelerate TCM to enter into the international market, to occupy more competitive market share, and to better popularize the excellent TCM culture. <br /> <br /> ===='''1.2 Significance and Purpose of the Study'''==== <br /> <br /> It is noticed that studies and researches on TCM at home and abroad have boomed since the ancient Silk Road period. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from experts. Because of the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, a lot of problems appear on the translation of TCM instructions. And against such a backdrop, there are still no settled rules or translation standards to be applied and favored in the translation of TCM instructions, hence it’s quite essential to touch upon the area of C-E translation of TCM instructions in a more comprehensive and systematic way so as to find out more effective methods and strategies for the instruction translation. Adaptation Theory is proposed by Jef Verschueren, he thinks that language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation is a type of language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so forth between source language and target language. A good translation version of TCM instructions can appropriately guide both doctors and patients to understand the pharmacological functions, usage and dosage, actions and indications and contraindications of medicines. Therefore, the quality of instruction translation has a direct impact on whether TCM can be favored and obtained a good reputation among overseas medical industry and consumers. This paper studies the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, trying to take the Company as a case study to further discuss how to translate TCM instructions in a better way. <br /> <br /> ==='''2.Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 Features of TCM Instructions'''====<br /> <br /> Being the essential attachment of a medicine, the instruction contains important information that explains what the medicine is, how to take it and the effects after taking it, guiding doctors and patients to understand and use medicines properly. It closely relates to consumers’ safety. Thus, TCM instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. However, the information covered in most TCM instructions is drug name, ingredients, actions and indications, usage and dosage, while adverse effects, precautions, pharmacological effects, drug interaction, contraindications etc. are quite simple, even without any description of these items, failing to meet the requirement of international standards. <br /> <br /> Besides, due to the profound history of TCM developed in China, most of the unique TCM languages derived from the abstract philosophical concepts of ancient times remain being used until now, say, classical style and semi-classical style, which are accepted and favored by the TCM community, causing difficulties in translating them into English. And hence four-character structure, vagueness and ambiguity of the language, and no equivalence between Chinese and English are the main features of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> The four-character structure is concise but comprehensive in meaning, implying the extensive and abstract medical concepts of TCM. The tradition of using it to describe the symptoms and ways of treatment in TCM hasn’t been changed over time but continued to be applied and advocated in modern society. The TCM instructions are difficult to understand and translate, for the peculiar traits of TCM language, as well as the technical terms coming, directly or indirectly, from the abstract medical concepts of TCM, characterized by the unique treatment method as a whole in human body, and seeking to find answers and balance principles in nature to explain the causes and treatments of diseases, which is usually not the literal one but beyond cognition. In addition, there are gaps and non-equivalence between TCM and Western Medicine. Most TCM instruction translations apply technical terms from Latin in terms of ingredients, but adopt simple words and phrases for describing actions and indications, since the TCM language with Chinese characteristics finds no match in English. Ordinary people, as well as translators, who do not have the professional knowledge may have great difficulty in understanding and translating them. <br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Studies of TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine wasn’t legal once in the United States until 1975, as many scholars and experts were skeptical about its medical theory and way of treatment. Since the establishment of China, the government has been devoting great efforts to the recognition and popularization of TCM across the world. And from then on, a lot of studies and researches based on the translation of TCM have been published at home and abroad. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from the experts. In view of the special wording and the abstract theory of TCM, the translation of TCM instructions is of great difficulty and complexity. <br /> <br /> Currently, the translation of TCM instructions on the market, to a large extent, lacks readability and translation standards. Against such a backdrop, some scholars have striven to make some breakthroughs yet. Nigel Wiseman (2000) systematically elaborates the concept of “oriented by the source” in his dissertation, Translation of Chinese Medicine Terms: A Source Oriented Approach, in terms of the translation of TCM language, believing that the translation of TCM, as well as the instructions, should respect the original style and keep it in the target text as much as possible. In 2002, Translation of TCM Directions (《中医药说明书的英译》) written by Ouyang Lifeng (2002) put forward some practical methods for the translation of TCM instructions. He advocates “naturalization” and “readjustment”, namely, adaptation strategy, should be applied in translation, and if necessary, some additions and deletions are acceptable on the basis of faithfulness to the original text. Guided by Professor Ouyang, his student, Xiaoqiong, applies Peter Newmark’s Communicative Approach in her master’s thesis, On the Translation of TCM Booklets of Direction-The Communicative Approach (2008) to study the features of TCM instructions, suggesting that different approaches should be adopted regarding to different parts of the instructions. On translation Strategies of Chinese Medicine Instruction from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches written by Luo Haiyan (2009) conducts a relatively profound research under the guidance of Functionalist Approach in terms of each part of TCM instructions. She finds out the translation of TCM instructions is not very identical and comprehensible. Cao Qing’s thesis, A Study on Translation of Chinese Pharmaceutical Instruction (2011) states the common problems of translation instructions and advises three translation methods, namely literal translation, conversion and free translation under the Skopos Theory. There are still other scholars aiming at one aspect or another to further study the translation of TCM instructions, all of which exert a significant impact for references in translating TCM instructions. From the perspectives of Zhang Mengjing (1995), Ning Zhishou and Liu Cuiwei (1997), and Fu Wei (2006), the current TCM instruction translation lacks faithfulness, readability and incompatibility with conventional norms, suggesting that more attention should be paid in this field. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn from the above literature that studies on TCM instruction translation can be conducted from a wide scope. For the great distinction between western and Chinese culture, and the abstract medical principles of TCM, much has to be done to make the translation of TCM instructions more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> ==='''3.Adaptation Theory Applied in Traditional Chinese Medicine Instruction Translation of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company'''===<br /> <br /> From what has been mentioned above, as the important attachment of TCM, the instructions provide the correct and detailed medical information to doctors and consumers, guiding them to take medicine scientifically and properly, and hence the medicine instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. As one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a famous brand in the whole country, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties, and the buyout also boosts the process of IPO and reform. Through observation of the C-E translation instructions of TCM for foreigners and export, hence there are some certain instructive significance for the translation of TCM instructions. Because of the special characteristics of TCM instructions and the limited information included in the instructions of the company, this part tries to analyze the C-E translation instructions from the perspective of Adaptation Theory, mainly employing the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Contextual Correlates of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> As introduced earlier, according to Verschueren, the ingredients of contextual correlates of adaptability largely include the physical world, social world, and mental world. However, the author will mainly concentrates on the adaptation to the mental world and social world due to the limited materials collected. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.1 Adaptation to the Mental World'''=====<br /> <br /> Regarding the mental world, it involves the personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations, intentions and so on of both sides of language users. In the translation process, translators should take target readers’ mind into account, not just concentrating on personal mental world or literally translating the original text from one language to another language without any adaptation. <br /> <br /> Basically, consumers of drugs tend to rely on more renowned brands when facing a bunch of medicines displayed on the shelves. The key to attract their attention not only counts on the high quality of TCM, but also on the instructions with rigorous standards, concise specification and overall comprehensibility, delivering a sense of authority and credibility. <br /> <br /> To begin with, the name of drugs is the most direct information delivered to the consumers. Thus, a good name of the TCM can catch the eyes of buyers in the very beginning. “正骨水” is the most famous and important product of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, however, the translation of its name in the instruction simply applies transliteration and Chinese Pinyin, namely, “Zheng Gu Shui” , which fails to adapt with the mental world of target readers. Apparently, Pinyin isn’t the way of expression that they are familiar with. Translators should consider their mental expectation and make adaptation with their familiar ways of expression. In that point, “Bone-setting Liquor” would be a better name for the medicine. “Bone-setting” means the medicine is effective for the symptoms of bone problems, and “liquor” implies the ingredients involved alcohol and other irritating ingredients so that consumers can be aware of the precautions and avoid using it on fragile mucous membranes and anabrotic wounds. Also, the same type of medicine can apply the same way of translation, such as, “金装正骨水” can be translated to “Golden Bone-setting Liquor”, and “极品正骨水” is rendered as “Superb Bone-setting Liquor”. Such a name conveys the correct medical information to consumers and better adapt to their thinking patterns. <br /> <br /> Another example is “睡安胶囊”, the translation version is “Shui’an Jiaonang” . Obviously, it will confuse foreigners since they don’t recognize Chinese Pinyin in their cognitive levels. Translators should at least use “capsule” to indicate the medicine is some type of capsules effective for the sleeping problems. A well-recognized name will arouse attention and interest among consumers, attracting them to purchase the medicine. In order to adapt with their mental expectation and intention, as Ouyang (2002) advocates, naturalization or domesticating translation can be applied in translation. “Sleep Mate” or “Insomnia Killer” can better attract their attention and adapt with their beliefs and cognitive levels. In English, “mate” is a common word, which will be more acceptable and natural in such combination, and “killer” combined with “insomnia” implies the meaning of solving the insomnia problems, which is also more suitable and adaptable with their emotions and motivations. <br /> <br /> A good name of the medicine can not only imply the function of the medicine, conveying the essential information to customers, but also can draw their attention and arouse their desires to purchase the medicine. Meeting the demand and preference with the mental world of target people is also one of the requirements of medicine instructions. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, if transliteration or simply adopting Chinese Pinyin to translate the names of medicines will confuse customers and cause misunderstanding, adaptation is required, and not just words, but also translation strategies should be taken consideration when making adaptation. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.2 Adaptation to the Social World'''=====<br /> <br /> Verschueren (2000:91) states that there is no principled limit to the range of social factors that linguistic choices are inter-adaptable with. Basically, social settings and culture play a significant role in the process of translation. What distinguishes TCM from Western Medicine mainly lies on the cultural differences. Language is the carrier of culture, and the cultural differences can be embodied in different languages, and then shown and reflected in society. Instruction translation, as the cross-cultural communication activity, is influenced largely by cultural differences in different social worlds. Followings are the very typical translation examples to illustrate the point:<br /> <br /> Example 1(感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> Source Text (ST): 用于感冒或流感发热，头痛鼻塞, 伤风咳嗽，咽痛，肢痛<br /> <br /> Target Text (TT): Used for the treatment of cold, flu and fever, headache and nasal congestion, wind damage cough, angina and melalgia<br /> <br /> Revised Text (RT): Used for cold, flu, fever, headache, snuffle, cough, sore throat and pain in muscles<br /> <br /> Traditionally, “伤风” in Chinese means getting cold because of the invasion of “风” into the human body. “风” is actually one of the six exogenous pathogenic factors according to the medical theory of TCM, which cannot be explained from the perspective of Western Medicine. In western society, people have no concept that the natural phenomenon, say, “风” or “火”, will cause diseases in the human body. So the revised text deletes this term with TCM characteristics to avoid ambiguity and makes it more natural and understandable in English. In addition, most common patients who seek to buy medicines in pharmacies might not have the specific knowledge of medical field due to different social settings and backgrounds, thus, “angina” and “melalgia” might be beyond recognition and acceptance. Western world highlights the importance of brevity and conciseness in their society, and they place emphasis on simplification and efficiency, seldom using the very technical terms in their lives. Such social settings and cultural differences must be considered so as to make adaptation when translating. Besides, “nasal congestion” is the word-for-word translation and may cause misunderstanding among foreigners. So the revised text adopts “snuffle” and “sore throat” to indicate the meaning of “鼻塞” and “咽痛”, applying these simple words to make adaptation with cultural differences in different social worlds, and renders “melalgia” into “pain in muscles” to better deliver the meaning of “肢痛”. <br /> <br /> Example 2 (治咳枇杷露)<br /> <br /> ST: 治疗儿童伤风呃逆，咳嗽痰盛<br /> <br /> TT: Used for children’s wind-damage hiccup, cough and exuberant phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Used for cold, hiccup, cough and sputum in children<br /> <br /> Similarly, example 2 also translates “ 伤风” into “ wind damage”, which is not appropriate in such description. As mentioned above, additions and deletions, if necessary, can be applied to make adaptation in translation. So the revised text deletes “wind damage” and “exuberant phlegm”, adopting noun coordination and making it more readable and adaptable to the social world of target readers. <br /> <br /> Literal translation of instructions is not always the first option in the C-E translation of instructions. For translators, the first thing they should consider is to be faithful to the original meaning of the text, not the text itself. They need to make adaptation to the target readers’ social world, for instance, social status, social settings, social background, cultural differences, etc., striving to make the translation concise and easy to understand in their society. Amid such different social worlds, translators must bear in mind to render localization of different cultures to make adaptation without causing ambiguity and misunderstanding while successfully keeping and delivering the implied meanings as much as possible.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:26, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 Structural Objects of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translationn'''====<br /> <br /> According to Verschueren, linguistic choice-making takes place at all levels of structure that shows variability of any kind (2000:15). As indicated in Part two, for the reason of limited information covered in the TCM instructions, the materials collected from the company would be more meaningful if concentrating on the lexical level of the actions and indications of the instructions, which exactly features the typical four-character structure and language traits of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.1 Adaptation to the Lexical Level'''=====<br /> <br /> Differences in lexical level between TCM and Western Medicine largely reflect on terminologies and descriptions of diseases. The four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning. Currently, most translation versions of instructions are literally word-for-word translation and transliteration, failing to deliver the correct meanings implied in those TCM terminologies and words and lacking readability and authenticity. Here are some typical translation examples of the actions and indications of the medicines in Yulin Pharmaceutical Company:<br /> <br /> Example 3(蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 小便频数<br /> <br /> TT: Frequent urination<br /> <br /> Example 4 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 祛风除湿 <br /> <br /> TT: Dispel wind and eliminated dampness<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve rheumatic pain<br /> <br /> Example 5 (珍黄丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 消肿止痛<br /> <br /> TT: Ease a swelling and relieve pain<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve swelling pain<br /> <br /> Chinese four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning, and most of them are the causal relationship. &quot;祛风除湿&quot; is a typical example. “风湿” is a disease caused by the invasion of “风” into the human body, if &quot;风邪&quot; cannot be removed from the body soon, &quot;湿&quot; will appear and gather together near the joints, causing diseases and pains in joints according to the medical theory of TCM. So, &quot;祛风&quot; is actually the result of &quot;除湿&quot;, and vice versa. And the example of “消肿止痛”, it is usually can be explained that pain is caused by swelling as the result of illness or injury. Once the swelling disappears, so does the pain. According to the example 3, &quot;小便频数&quot; is translated into “Frequent urination”, using the structure of &quot;adjective+noun&quot; in English, which is concise in form and easy to understand. So the revised text of example 4 and 5 can also adopt such structure and translate into &quot;Relieve rheumatic pain&quot; and &quot;Relieve swelling pain&quot;, not only implying the causal relationship between the lines, concise and simple, but also avoiding translating repetitive meaning. <br /> <br /> Example 6 (感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> ST: 止咳化痰<br /> <br /> TT: Suppress cough and transform phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve cough and sputum<br /> <br /> Example 7 (乌军治胆片)<br /> <br /> ST: 疏肝解郁 <br /> <br /> TT: To course the liver and resolve depression<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve Qi stagnation in liver<br /> <br /> From the above two examples, &quot;止咳化痰&quot; is translated into &quot;Suppress cough and transform phlegm&quot;, and &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is “To course the liver and resolve depression”. It is noticed that simply employing the literal meaning of words to translate TCM instructions doesn’t work, especially in such medical context. Translators cannot ignore the relationship between the words and the context then make translation of words in isolation. &quot;化痰' means the symptom of sputum would be relieved and cured soon after taking the medicine, and hence here, the key words are &quot;咳&quot; and &quot;痰&quot;, not the verbs. So the translation of &quot;Relieve cough and sputum&quot; would be more comprehensible and readable. And the example of &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is actually another one that can be evidenced the casual relationship in TCM language. &quot;疏&quot; and &quot;解&quot; deliver the same meaning in such context, and &quot;肝郁&quot; is not the meaning of &quot;depression of liver&quot; but the irregular circulation and stagnation of the abstract &quot;Qi&quot; in liver from the perspective of TCM. So translating into &quot;Relieve Qi stagnation in liver&quot; retains the original meaning of Chinese and makes it more acceptable. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.2 Summary'''=====<br /> <br /> Despite of the characteristics of four-character structure in TCM language, the phenomenon of repetitive meaning implied between the lines is quite common. For translators, they should fully understand what meanings indicated between those words and phrases prior to translating them into another language. According to Adaptation Theory, language has the properties of variability, negotiability and adaptability. Facing abundant choices of words in English, translators should choose the most appropriate words and expressions after negotiation to make adaptation to the lexical level, the structure, the context, etc. preferred in English.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, translators should make linguistic choices not just at the lexical level, but also the syntactic level, textual level, rhetorical level etc. literally all levels of linguistic structures. Due to the limited information contained in TCM instructions of the company, this part mainly develops from the adaptation of lexical level, finding out that most translations apply literal translation with abusive usage of words, failing to deliver the correct meaning implied in TCM language and lacking readability and authenticity.<br /> <br /> With the great progresses of TCM over years, Yin(阴) and Yang(阳), Wuxing(五行) and Qi(气), these basic concepts in TCM have been accepted and recognized among foreigners. It can be adopted directly when translating the TCM instructions. With regard to the verbs in TCM language, literal translation sometimes might arouse skepticism and confusion of target readers and fail to deliver the correct meaning and the effectiveness of medicines. Translators should adapt the wording preference in target language and try to naturalize the translation but avoid abusive usage of words. Thus translators in this field should be equipped with excellent bilingual ability, sufficient background knowledge of TCM and Western Medicine, and the understanding of linguistics.<br /> <br /> ===='''3.3 Dynamics of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> As stated above, translation is a process of dynamic adaptation and involves the process of structural reconstruction and meaning regeneration. According to Verschueren (2000:157) “...strategies are always involved in any type of communication.” It means not just linguistic choices, but also translation strategies are dynamic because of different time, context and structure of both sides of language usage and each of them varies in line with relative factors when language users make choices. <br /> <br /> The dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation can be embodied from different words, phrases and translation strategies, even different languages applied in the medicine instructions. As for the part of ingredients, the instructions of the company employ Latin to indicate each TCM, for instance: Radix Notoginseng (三七), Herba Artemisiae Scopariae (茵陈), Fructus Lycii (枸杞), Poria (茯苓), Radix Codonopsis (党参), Rhizoma Dioscoreae (山药). It is usually the part where doctors and experts who have the specific knowledge of this field would be interested in, and using Latin to translate the TCM is the international standard of naming medicines, hence it is a way of adaptation. While next to the part of actions and indications, it resorts to different words and phrases in English to describe the indications of each medicine. English is apparently a better option for its universality and compatibility that common people can easily understand what the medicine is, and how to take it. Such adaptation to each part of the instruction in language shows the dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation. Following are some examples to show the dynamics of adaptability in translation: <br /> <br /> Example 8 (正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To remove obstruction from collateralls and channels and relieve muscular contracture<br /> <br /> Example 9 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To relax and activate tendons<br /> <br /> As for the translation of “舒筋活络”, example 8 and example 9 employ different words to deliver the meaning. The former is detailed and elaborated, delivering the original meaning implied in the lines while the latter is relatively simple, only using “tendons” to express the meaning of “筋络”. Besides the different specifications of “正骨水” and “金装正骨水”, the ingredients of these two medicines also show a wide difference, contributing to the different words and methods adopted in the same description of indications. From the above examples, it can be noticed, to some extent, that translators go through negotiation and then make dynamic adaptation with regard to different medicines. <br /> <br /> Example 10 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 旺盛局部血液循环, 增强细胞活力<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen partial blood circulation and improve vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 11 (筋骨王)<br /> <br /> ST: 改善局部血液循环，增强细胞活力。<br /> <br /> TT: To accelerate local blood circulation, increase vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 10 and example 11 are actually delivering the same meaning, but they change the words and phrases to adapt with two different medicines. With the variability and adaptability of language, the meaning of “增强” can be expressed by “improve” and “increase”, and translators employs “partial” and “local” to express the meaning of “局部”. As for the similar actions and indications, the translations of which vary in different medicines, demonstrating that translation is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. <br /> <br /> Example 12 (睡安胶囊)<br /> <br /> ST: 清心除烦<br /> <br /> TT: To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation<br /> <br /> Example 13 (蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 壮阳益肾<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney<br /> <br /> Example 12 and example 13 apply free translation to deliver the meaning of actions and indications of these two medicines. “清心除烦” is rendered into “To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation”, and “To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney” is more like the paraphrase of “壮阳益肾”. Both the translations are much easier to understand and adapt to consumers’ mind in a better way. Unlike the others, the above translations avoid literal translation, which will be too demanding and abstract for both sides of translators and target people, and they resort to free translation to convey the correct pharmacological actions, simplifying the instructions and making adaptation with the translation strategies to better resolve the cultural differences. <br /> <br /> Translating a TCM instruction can never be a mechanical activity of making translation from one language to another; rather, it entails dynamic adaptation to the differences between source language and target language. According to the Adaptation Theory, language use is a dynamic process of linguistic choice-making, which should adapt to contextual correlates and structural objects of language. As a type of more complex language use related to different languages, C-E translation of TCM instructions is a dynamic process of adaptation to different contexts and linguistic structures. However, the dynamic linguistic choices require language users to go through negotiation with themselves when facing abundant choices to eventually choose the most appropriate forms and strategies in accordance with different contexts and linguistic structures so as to fulfill the communicative intention. In other words, translators should avoid abusive usage of variability and adaptability of language, being faithful to the original meaning of texts to meet the standard of translation as much as possible.<br /> <br /> ==='''4.Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Being a significant carrier of TCM information, the instruction is a bridge that links the excellent TCM theories and effectiveness to the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative”, TCM will be learned and used across the world at a much larger scale. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, this paper employs the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, mainly concentrating on the adaptation to the mental world, social world, and the adaptation to the lexical level to study the C-E translation of the TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn that the C-E translation of TCM instructions of the Company is not that satisfactory after research. It doesn’t deal with the cultural differences between TCM and Western Medicine properly. Literal translation and abusive usage of words frequently appear in the C-E translation of instructions, failing to deliver the correct meaning and lacking readability and credibility, having a bad impact on the brand image. While at same time, there are some places worthy to be praised from the perspective of Adaptation Theory. It shows the dynamics of adaptability in the C-E translation of TCM instructions, which can be demonstrated through the various words, phrases, strategies applied in the process of translation. Still, much work has to be done to improve the quality of translation and make it more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, as a way of language use, translation involves the continuous making of linguistic choices. Not only words, language forms and structures, but also strategies should be taken into consideration when translating. Translators should adapt with the differences between English and Chinese, and meanwhile, pay attention to the features of TCM instructions, avoiding some obvious mistakes to achieve the ultimate goal of keeping the original meaning of TCM while delivering the accurate and rigorous medical information to foreigners. So the author advocates that adaptation is required during the process of translation, combined with transliteration and literal translation for some simple and basic concepts in TCM that have been well-recognized by foreigners, free translation and domesticating translation should be adopted with regard to the cultural differences in translation, if necessary, additions and deletions are also appreciated on the basis of being faithful to the original meaning of texts. <br /> <br /> Unfortunately, due to the limited materials collected and the incompetence of the author, the analysis of this paper only applies the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability of Adaptation Theory, failing to study in a more comprehensive way. In addition, this paper only conducts the research in studying the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, failing to reach at a larger scale. Last but not least, there are still some drawbacks and imperfections in Adaptation Theory, which the author fails to touch upon for lacking of knowledge and experience. Still, the author is willing to take all comment and advice.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1] As Homby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [Z]. The Commercial Press, Oxford University, extended eighth edition, 2014. <br /> <br /> [2] Bhatia, V. K. Analyzing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings [M]. London: Longman, 1993. <br /> <br /> [3] Carl James. Error in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [4] Fischbach, Henry. Translation and Medicine [M]. American Translators Association Scholarly Monograph Series, 1998. <br /> <br /> [5] Nigel Wiseman. Translation of Chinese medicine terms: A source oriented approach [D].University of Exeter, 2000. <br /> <br /> [6] Verschueren J. Pragmatic as a Theory of Linguistic Adaptation [R]. International Pragmatic Association, 1987. <br /> <br /> [7] Verschueren, J. Understanding Pragmatics [M]. London: Edward Arnold Ltd., 1999;Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000. <br /> <br /> [8] 曹情. 中文药品说明书的翻译[D]. 湖南：南华大学, 2011. <br /> <br /> [9] 傅微. 语篇视点理论在中药说明书翻译中的运用[D]. 广西：广西大学外国语学院,2006. <br /> <br /> [10] 罗海燕. 功能主义翻译理论关照下的中药说明书的翻译[D]. 江苏：南京中医药大学, 2009. <br /> <br /> [11] 李照国. 中医基本名词术语英译国际标准化研究[M]. 上海科学技术出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> [12] 马邦新. 英文药品说明书的翻译[J]. 中国科技翻译, 1998(3): 16-18. <br /> <br /> [13] 宁之寿, 刘翠微. 也谈药品说明书的翻译[J]. 上海科技翻译, 1997(2): 31-33. <br /> <br /> [14] 欧阳利锋. 中医药说明书的英译[J]. 中国科技翻译, 2002, 15(2): 17-20. <br /> <br /> [15] 宋志平. 翻译:选择与顺应——语用顺应论视角下的翻译研究[J]. 中国翻译,2004(2): 21-25. <br /> <br /> [16] 肖琼. 中医药说明书的翻译[D]. 广东：广东外语外贸大学, 2008.<br /> <br /> [17] 袁斌业. 语言顺应论对翻译的启示[J]. 四川外国语学院院报, 2009(9), 111-113. <br /> <br /> [18] 张梦井. 药品说明书的英译问题[J]. 中国科技翻译, 1995(2): 6-9. <br /> <br /> [19] 周书梅. 顺应论视角下的翻译研究[J]. 山东省农业管理干部学院学报, 2013, 30(5): 138-140. <br /> <br /> --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Science and technology constitute a primary productive force. In the contemporary era, with the continuous development of science and technology, artificial intelligence has shown more and more mighty strength, and machine translation has also been derived in the field of translation. In this regard, many people are beginning to worry that machine translation will one day replace human translation. When it comes to me, science and technology is people-oriented, and the continuous development of it aims at servimg mankind in a better standard. Therefore, it is not realistic to separate science and technology from humanities. The appropriate way to solve this dilemma is to integrate the two to achieve the perfectly qualitative change of &quot;1 + 1 &gt; 2&quot;. This paper will first analyze the cons and pros of human translation and machine translation, and then explore the development of computer-aided translation based on the combination of the two types above and the progress should be made in different sectors among our society.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Human Translation, Machine Translation, CAT, Compatibility<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 机器翻译会取代人工翻译吗？<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 科技是第一生产力。在当代，随着科学技术的不断发展，人工智能展现出越来越强大的实力，在翻译领域也相应地衍生出了机器翻译。对此许多人都开始担心机器翻译终有一天会取代人工翻译。在笔者看来，科技以人为本，科学技术的不断发展是为了更好的为人类服务。因而将科技与人文割裂开来的观点是并不现实的，最好的解决办法应是将二者结合起来，实现1+1＞2的完美质变。本文将分析人工翻译与机器翻译各自的优势和劣势，进而探讨二者相结合的后的计算机辅助翻译的发展和社会各个层面应该做出的改进。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 人工翻译，机器翻译，计算机辅助翻译，融合<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> In these years, artificial intelligence has experienced a skipping development and more and more advanced technologies have been applied in our daily life. For example, many factories have introduced some robots to replace the repetitive works done by ordinary workers before. In addition, some restaurants have adopted robots to send the dishes to guests, etc. More and more cases in our life demonstrate the gigantic strength of science and technology. Panicked by this reality, a constantly growing number of people are worrying that they will lose their job one day when the artificial intelligence are more practical than them. This anxiety is also quite common in translation industry. In this field , human translation and machine translation are the main two kinds of translation method. The former merely rely on the single person to do tranlation, while the latter is based on the vast corpus and developed technique. Since this enormous contrast, some people put forward a question that “Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation?” The answer is absolutely “no”. Actually, these two approaches are not incompatible. Instead, they both have their own advantages and disadvantages and through analysis,we can find that they can remedy their shortbacks by learning the valuable aspects from the other so as to form a “perfect pitch”. In other words,they are complementary to each other. <br /> <br /> Based on these viewpoints, first of all , the pros and cons of human translation and machine translation will be displayed one by one and then the new type of translation---computer-aided translation will be analyzed in detail. At last,confronted with the constantly changing world there are somes personal suggestions for those who work in the translation industry or those who are preparing to march into this field as well as government, colleges and universities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Pros and Cons of Human Translation and Machine Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Human Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 The Advantages =====<br /> <br /> As the traditional main force of translation, mankind own some irreplaceable edges. <br /> <br /> Firstly, they master a sordid foundation about the translation work, including extensive vocabularies, complex grammars, the construction of sentences and so on and so forth. Therefore, it’s hardly for them to make such mistakes.<br /> <br /> Secondly, due to the advanced education they have received, a great number of them has an encyclopedic knowledge about many fileds. Furthmore, during the years of learning foreign languages, they have acquired not only the language knowledge but also the histories and cultures of these countries so that they are able to handle with the problems of cultural differences in translation very well.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, people have an capacity of rich emotion and thoughtful mind. When facing with some obscure translation materials, at the beginning they will make a transformation about it and then translate it with their understanding yet maintaining the main idea of the original texts. <br /> <br /> What is more, people are able to summarize the experiences and lessons in the process of translation and then form their own theory. Until now, there have existed a bunch of translation theories to guide the subsequent translators. Such as “faithfulness”(translation should convey the content of the original faithfully and accurately), “expressiveness”(smooth and fluent translation) and “elegance”(the translation should be exquisite) by Yanfu, &quot;functional equivalence&quot; by Eugene Nida, skopos theory by Hans Vermeer, etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Disadvantages=====<br /> <br /> However, the volume of brain is limited and it is impossible for mankind to memorize all the things in the world. Sometimes, they may forget what they have translated and in result cause a repetition of the same work they have done before.<br /> <br /> It is showed from some data that the output of human translation is 2000 words per person in eight hours(Chen, 30). Actually that speed is a little bit slow especially when there are strenuous tasks waiting for them. Besides, editors have to check and revise their translations which is quite time-wasting.<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most translators work for governments, institutions, companies or some rich indivuduals. And right now in the translation market ,the standard price are several hundred Yuan per thousand characters. And the wage of intepreting is even more expensive. As a result, ordinary people won’t bother to hire a private translator. Under some circumstances, human translation can’t give a hand to the needed immediately. For instance, when Chinese people are travelling in the foreign countries, they can’t understand the words of those foreigners. At that time, an opportune and cheap translation tool is more desirable.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Machine Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Superiorities=====<br /> <br /> In the condition mentioned above, machine translation can meet tourists' needs perfectly. There are many translation applications in the app store, just like Baidu Translation, Google Translation, Youdao Translation, Hujiang Translation and so on. All of them are free to use and able to translate the language you input in just 1 second. And these applications have covered dozens of foreign languages so as to be the optimizing choice for many people. <br /> <br /> Besides the adoptation in daily life, machine translation has also been utilized in some important conferences. &quot;Translation headset&quot; is one of the most popular translation tools. It is usually combined with a smartphone application to translate the foreign language it heard to users. &quot;After decades of research, we have created an algorithmic framework to recognize language patterns in the same way as the human brain (neural network),&quot; said Andrew Ochoa, CEO of Waverly labs. By combining it with speech recognition technology, we have greatly improved the accuracy of translation. &quot; Therefore, Wearable translation machines made by companies like Waverly labs are really popular at conferences(Huan, 17).<br /> <br /> With the development of science and technology as well as the artificial intelligence, the system of machine translation has been polished step by step. Nowadays, it has built a huge corpus which contains tens of millions of storations, and translation with high accuracy can be available in some non-literary texts. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 The Inferiorities=====<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, a lot of noticeable defects still remain in machine translation. When it comes to the literary genres just like proses, poems and ancient essays, machine translation is not familiar with the language habits of these genres so as to incline to a failure in comprehending the latent meaning of the words thus nor it can work out an outstanding translation. In most cases it will adopt the method of literal translation, which is a confusing version, which can not express the idea of source language and the images in it can be missed. Take the following poem for example:<br /> <br /> 江雪<br /> <br /> 唐 柳宗元<br /> <br /> 千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br /> <br /> 孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。<br /> <br /> '''Version of Baidu Translation'''<br /> <br /> River Snow<br /> <br /> Birds flying away,<br /> <br /> The trail of thousands of people;<br /> <br /> A lone boat with a straw hat,<br /> <br /> Fishing alone in cold river snow.<br /> <br /> '''Version of Xu Yuanchong'''<br /> <br /> Fishing in snow<br /> <br /> From hill to hill no bird in flight,<br /> <br /> From path to path no man in sight;<br /> <br /> A lonely fisherman afloat<br /> <br /> Is fishing snow in lonely boat.<br /> <br /> Between these two versions, we can easily identify which one is better. In Xu’s translation, he translates “鸟飞绝” &amp;“人踪灭”into “no bird in flight” and “no man in sight”, which get rid of the form of the original text, not only expressing the deep meaning, but also conforming to the English expression habit. In addition, due to the repetition of two sentences in the same pattern, readers can feel a strong sense of monotony. And The most splendid point is the rhyme of first two sentences and last two sentences, which makes the whole poem cathy and add the musical beauty of the translation (Dong &amp; Xue, 56). On the contrast, the first version by machine is inferior in that it fails to express the artistic conception of the poem. People can’t feel the beauty descriped in the poem. What’s worse, some readers may puzzle about its imcomplete images and incoherent sentences!<br /> <br /> Nor is this all, machines can’t grasp the rich emotions of mankind. Thus they incline to misundersand of tone and deep meaning of the words(Liang, 18). Nay, China has a broad and profound civilization and there are numerous of polysemous words in Chinese.Just like “意思”and “方便”.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> <br /> When Zhang San send money to his leader, an interesting dialogue occurs between them. Please explain the different meanings of “意思”in the following sentences.<br /> <br /> 领导(leader)：“你这是什么意思？”(Why do you send me money?)<br /> <br /> 张三(Zhang San)：“没什么意思，意思意思。”(No special purpose, just a small gift.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这就不够意思了。” (Why don’t you tell me your true purpose?)<br /> <br /> 张三：“小意思，小意思。”(Not a big deal.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这人真有意思。” (It’s so interesting of you.)<br /> <br /> 张三：“其实也没有别的意思。”(I don’t have other special intentions on you.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“那我就不好意思了。”(Well, since that, I will accept your money.)<br /> <br /> Apparently, it may even be difficult for some people to get the deep meaning behind this dialogue let alone the senseless machine. Machine translation derived from science and technology are always under the control of human beings, they are always working under the manipulation of humanbeings. Mankind possess an intelligible brain and they can cteate new things according to their needs and imaginations. While machine can not achieve the rich creativity as human brain.<br /> <br /> From all the analysis above, it can be easily seen that human translation and machine translation are strongly complementary. Thus, the best way is to combine them together to learn from the other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies.<br /> <br /> ====3. Computer-Aided Translation====<br /> <br /> To meet the constantly-increasing demand of the market, a new type of translation method named Computer-aided translation (CAT) emerges at the right moment. It is the combination of the two translation methods mentioned above and can help translators complete the translation work with high quality, efficiency and ease. Different from the previous machine translation software, it does not rely on the automatic translation of the computer, but accomplishes the whole translation process with the participation of human beings. Besides, its translation speed can be twice of the human translation, with the quality being the same standard or better. CAT makes a change from the arduous human translation to an automatic process, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Preponderance of This Method====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Translation Memory=====<br /> <br /> Translation memory system, the main tool of computer-aided translation, is a &quot;language database storing the original text and its translation&quot;. During the time when people are working out a translation, CAT are also constructing a translation memory corpus in the backstage. The corpus can automatically store all the translated content. What contributes to our great convenience is that the translation memory system will automatically search the contents in the translation memory database in the later translation. The system will automatically output the translation results if the contents are the same as the sentences and language fragments in the memory corpus; and if the structures or vocabularies of the materials are similar to the sentences in the translation memory database, it will also show corresponding translation references and suggestions. In a word, translation memory system can benifit translators to utilize the contents of previous translation effectively and avoid repeated work, thus greatly improving the speed and quality of translation and saving translation time. According to the statistics, the application of translation memory system can increase the average productivity by 30%, and reduce the translation cost by 15-30%(Chen, 31).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Terminology Database=====<br /> <br /> When stepping into the translation industry and becoming a professional translator. It is inevitable that people will be confronted with materials from various fields, just like iatrology, law and science. All of these industries have a great number of terminologies. While human’s brain are limited that they can’t remember all the terms. Under this condition, a ready-made terminology database can be extremely helpful.<br /> <br /> Terminology management system provides a shortcut for translators to automatically search for terms appearing in the translation materials by displaying terms in the interface window of translation memory database or using hotkeys to search the entries in terminology database. Some programs have other hotkey combinations that enable translators to add new terms to the terminology database at the same time during translation. Some more advanced systems allow translators to check interactively or in batch if the correct source / target word combination is used within and between translation memory fragments of a given project. There is also an independent term management system, which can provide workflow functions, visual taxonomy, and be used as a term Checker (similar to a spelling checker to mark terms that are not used correctly), and can also support other types of multilingual term categories, such as pictures, videos or sounds(Quanqiubaike).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Revise and Automatic Alignment=====<br /> <br /> After translators finish their task on CAT system, it will scan the translation and figure out the numbers of mistakes including spelling, punctuation and so on. This proofeading can make one’s translation more accurate. In addition, the aligner can divide the source text and the target text into multiple fragments and make sure the right match of them so as to build a translation memory database or other reference resources. Many aligners also enable translators to manually realign mismatched fragments (Quanqiubaike).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Current Situation====<br /> <br /> Right now, due to the tremendous market demand, CAT steps into the golden era of development. There are several popular CAT softwares such as Trados、Déjà V、TransStar、IBM Translation Manager、WordFisher、Wordfast，OmegaT, among which the most famous is the first one. Theses softwares have experienced a long period of development and are relatively mature. They make the translation progress much more convenient than before. However, CAT is not yet a consummate system right now. It has a few drawbacks to be solved. To begin with, CAT is insufficient in the construction of the corpus. Right now, most domestic CAT softwares only restore hundreds of thousands of entries in the database, which is far from enough to meet the needs of translators. In a result, many people gradually emerge the idea that CAT is not workable. People still have to rely on themselves to search the complicated documents and their work are not able to decrease as they want. Nor is this all, sometimes it can be hard for people to extract the terms they need becauese of the failure of identification and although some easy mistakes can be found out, it may be difficult for the system to check out the sophisticated errors, thus people have to spend more time to tackle with the problems in person. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Prospect====<br /> <br /> Despite of the insufficiency of CAT right now, the defects can’t obscure the virtues. CAT has greatly emancipated the productivity of translation industry. Not only that, it has played an important role in reducing translation time, cutting down labor costs, standardizing translation documents, maintaining terminology consistency and ensuring translation quality, etc. In the near future, it is bound to become the main trend of translation development with its wide application all over the world and the functional improvement of various translation software(Chen, 32). And the problems mentioned above can be effectively polished with the advancement of science and technology.<br /> <br /> ===4. Suggestions===<br /> <br /> Facing with the unstoppable trend of artificial intelligence and CAT, should mankind repulse it or accept it? Apparently, the second attitude is more reasonable. For one thing, we can’t hinder the inexorable trend. For another thing, this is a good opportunity for people to utilize the tool to improve themselves.<br /> <br /> So, first and foremost, people should set up an open attitude, accepting CAT with an embracing mentality. It is no need to be afraid that machine will surpass human. Instead mankind is always the master of science and technology. Putting oneself on a pedestal is not a good way to make progress. And holding fast to one’s established ideas will eventually be sifted out by the era. In Qing Dynasty(1636-1912), the emperor and even the whole country praised the nation as the great kingdom. Since ancient time, China was abundant in natural resources and they were self-sufficient and self-contained. Thus the government constantly puesued a policy of “cutting off the country from the outside world”. At that time, the Western countries were going on an unprececedentedly industrial revolution. Through the renovation, the westerners immensely improved their productive forces and their countries got a rapid development. When the trend were heard by the Chinese emperor, they disdained to learn from the technology and regarded it as a diabolic trick. In this way, the gap between the East and the West was larger and larger. It was not until the breaking of the Opium War that Chinese people realized they have lagged behind a lot. Once a country was backward, it would be insulted by anyone else. After that, the Qing government was constantly forced to sign treaties of humiliating the country and forfeiting its sovereignty. The citizens were plunged into dire suffering. Under this circumstance, social conflicts intensified. Finally, the revolution of 1911 broke out and overthrew the Qing Dynasty. A feudal dynasty of more than 200 years fell down. Since the principle that lagging behind leaves one vulnerable to attacks is even applicable to a country, let alone the ordinary people. There is an old saying that “He who goes with the tide prospers, and he who goes against it dies”. The power of science and technology should never be looked down upon. The original purpose of this is to benifit the mankind rather than overthrow us. It is a powerful tool to help us scale new heights. If tranlators refuse to acquire the new skill, they will one day be weeded out by the industry.<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of market, the quality of translation talents should be improved accordingly. The span for talent training of translation majors in China is relatively short that it has only been 10 years since the establishment of Bachelor of Translation and Interpreting(BTI) and Master of Translation and Interpreting(MTI) in Colleges and universities across the country. The current situation of translation technology education in the cultivation of translation professionals is not optimistic either. First of all, compared with foreign universities and domestic universities in Hongkong, Macao and Taiwan, there is still a long way to open translation technology courses in domestic universities. According to the research by Lv Lisong and Mu Lei(37), universities in Hong Kong and Taiwan of China work closely with translation companies to provide translation technology teaching for students. However, Manchester, London University, Ottawa University of Canada and other foreign universities have established a developed system in terms of machine translation, terminology management, translation technology training curriculum, personnel training mode and translation testing, and formed an effective model. On the contrary, many domestic colleges and universities still do not pay enough attention to translation technology education, which leads to the failure of translation technology education courses in some colleges and universities. A survey of 12 universities in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Chongqing, Liaoning, Jilin, Henan, Hebei, Hubei, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Sichuan and other provinces and universities found that 11 of the 43 universities (a large part of which are &quot;985&quot; universities and &quot;211&quot; universities) with MTI have not yet opened translation technology courses, accounting for 25%. If the scope of the survey is extended to the secondary and tertiary institutions, the situation may be even worse(Zhu, 106).<br /> <br /> In this regard, the education of Chinese mainland is a little bit backward. There are several reasons for this phenomenon. To begin with, the perception of the educators and education system are rather outdated. The existing education system pay much attention to the translation and interpreting ability of students. This is a common pattern in many middle schools, high schools and even colleges and universities. As an English major student, the writer has the personal experience. During the university period. The most courses still focus on the cultivation of the basic skills of students. Although there are translation and interpreting classes every week, the normal model is that at first teachers will teach some translation theories or techniques, and then there will be some exercises for students to practice. Students are almost inaccessible to computing courses. This may resulted from the short of appropriate funds for education. China is a nation with a great number of population, and its population growth rate is also fast. As a result, the pressure on education has been relatively high. The commonly used index to measure whether a country's financial education funds are sufficient or not is the proportion of financial education funds in Gross Domestic Product(GDP). In China, this proportion has been at a low level for a long time. Although the education funds have been increasing with the continuous development of China's economy after the Reform and Opening up, yet the fact is that “There are too many monks and too little gruel.”---the funds allocated to each school are still far from enough. Take Hunan province as an example. In the year of 2000, China's financial education funds accounted for 2.87% of GDP, which failed to reach the target of 4% of GDP in 2000 as proposed in the outline of China's education reform and development. In 2003, the GDP of Hunan Province was 463.4 billion yuan, and the national financial expenditure on education was 11.179 billion yuan, accounting for 2.44% of GDP, an increase of 0.01 percentage points over the previous year. However, in 2004, the proportion of national financial education expenditure in GDP decreased to 2.34%, which is still far from the target of 4%.(Wu, 14-15).<br /> <br /> Besides the deficiency of educational funds, the allocation of it is also a cause. Usually, colleges and universities tend to use the fund to ameliorate the living condition and the construction of infrastructures, and then stuents’ scholarship and subsideies are indispensible. What is more, the salaries of teachers and all the staffs are also a big expenditure. Besides these, many colleges and universities attaches great importance to the scientific research items so that more money will be involved in these projects. Opposely, the development of the liberal arts may be less highlighted. In response to this problem, the writer deems that government and universities should both make some changes. As for government, they should carry out a policy that encourage the cultivation of computer skills; when it comes to the colleges and universities, they are supposed to enlarge the investment in the multimedia intelligent classrooms, and more techers who are sufficient in the operation of CAT should be enrolled. So far, Peking University has open a major named CAT, which is aimed to cultivate the professional talents to meet the needs of market.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Will machine translation replace human translation or not? Toward this question, the answer is an absolute “No”. As far as I am concerned, both the human tranlation and machine translation have their pros and cons. Human are able to comprehend the complex emotions in the texts and handle it with flexible expressions. In this aspect, machine can’t reach the human standard just like examples of “《江雪》”and “意思”mentioned above. Besides, mankind are familiar with the differences between various of countries so as to minimize the rate of committing a blunder, while the machine doesn’t have a brain like human’s. Their work is to translate the materials according to the superficial meanings. However, machine owns a huge volume (much more larger than human brain)which can store numerous materials and its working speed is hundreds of times of human’s(Pang, 165). In the contemporary era, translators should first of all polish their translation skills and improve their ability to flexibly use various translation strategies and skills(Yao, 201-202). The old saying goes that “It takes a good blacksmith to make steel.” By the time, people are still the main force in the translation industry and machine translation stays in an auxiliary position. Human should not rely on machine to do all the works. The translators should improve their competitiveness through sordid multi-lingual knowledge, translation practice as well as stronger learning capacity and so on and so forth. At the same time, translators are also supposed to adopt an embracing attitude to acquire the comouter-aided translation skills. After all, with the further advancement of science and technology, the trend is inevitable. Actually, human translation and machine translation are highly compatible, which can greatly improve the translation efficiency and reduce people’s workload. Thus, the combination of the two methods is highly appreciated and the new type of CAT is bound to become the tide of the future.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Chen Yi,Fan Jiaolian. 陈谊,范姣莲.(2018). 计算机辅助翻译——新世纪翻译的趋势[Computer-Aided Translation-the Trend of Translation in the New Era] 中国现代教育装备[China mordern educational equipment] 30-32.<br /> <br /> Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao. 董务刚,薛家宝.(1996). 评许渊冲诗《江雪》[Appreciation of Xu Yuanchong's Translation &quot;Fishing in Snow&quot;] 盐城师专学报[Journal of Yancheng Normal School] 56.<br /> <br /> 计算机翻译会取代人工翻译吗？[Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not?] (2020) 环球采风[Globe Collections] 17.<br /> <br /> Liang Jie. 梁洁.(2020). 人工智能对翻译行业的影响[The Influence of Artificial Intelligence on Translation Industry] 家庭科技[Family Science and Technology] 17-18.<br /> <br /> Lv Lisong,Mu Lei. 吕立松,穆雷.(2007) 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[Technique of Translation-Aided Translation and Translation Education] 外语界[The Field of Foreign Language].<br /> <br /> Pang Yingyu. 庞盈羽. (2019) 谈机器翻译与人工翻译的关系—从机器翻译与计算机辅助翻译的发展角度[Analysis of the Relationship Between Machine Translation and Human Translation--From the Perspective of the Development of Machine Translation and Computer-Aided Translation]. 科学大众·科学教育[Scientific Masses·Scientific Education] 164-165.<br /> <br /> Global Encyclopedia. 全球百科. https://vibaike.com/<br /> <br /> Wu Sheng. 吴晟.(2016) 湖南省省属普通高校财政拨款体制研究[]. 湖南师范大学[Hunnu Normal University] .<br /> <br /> Yaoli. 姚莉. 机器翻译时代，(2020) 译者应该坚持技能与技术的融合[Translators Should Keep the Compatibility Between Skills and Technique]. 科技经济与管理科学,, 28(29).<br /> <br /> 祝朝伟. 机器翻译要取代作为人的译者了吗？—兼谈翻译人才培养中科技与人文的关系[J]. 外国语文(双月刊), 2018(5).<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation 袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi==<br /> <br /> '''浅析汉语公示语的英译'''<br /> <br /> 英语笔译 袁天翼<br /> <br /> 摘 要：在这个经济全球化、政治多极化、文化全球化、科技现代化、信息共享化的时代，全球经济纵深发展，人类命运共同体日趋形成，人与人、国家与国家间的联系日益密切，这时，汉语公示语的英译问题便被提上了议程。尽管中国汉语公示语的英译翻译员越来越多，但是汉语公示语的英译问题层出不穷。本文简析了汉语公示语定义，例举了生活中常见的一些汉语公示语的英译典型问题，并针对此给出了一些翻译方法与策略，并进行了未来展望。<br /> <br /> 关键词：汉英翻译；公示语；翻译策略<br /> <br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> Yuan Tianyi <br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': In this economic globalization, political polarization, cultural globalization, technological modernization and informative sharing age, the global economy is deeply developing, and the human community with a shared future is coming into shape day by day. The relations among people and among countries are increasing day by day. At this time, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation become the topic of us. Though the number of Chinese-English public sign translators in China grows daily, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation emerge endlessly. This passage offers a brief analysis of the definition of Chinese-English public sign, points out some typical problems in Chinese-English public sign translation we see in daily life, analyzes some methods and strategies of Chinese-English public sign translation, and gives some outlooks on the future of Chinese-English public sign translation. <br /> <br /> '''Key Words''': Chinese-English translation; public sign; translation strategies<br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> '''I. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> The public sign is a specially applied literary form that was formed in modern times, which has a long history. It is used in public places and seen by the masses thus realizing unique communicative purposes. The public sign has become a crucial link in the communication between China and other countries in the international community. In the meantime, there are increasingly more experts and scholars paying attention to the translation of Chinese public signs into English. (Reiss, 2004). <br /> <br /> As an important tool for international communication, Chinese-English public sign translation plays an extremely important role in foreign friends’ understanding of Chinese culture（Wang Huili, 2019）. Its applied range is so wide that nearly covers every aspect of our daily life, including: Introductions of tourism trips, propaganda languages, warning languages, road signs, shop signs and advertising boards. It is mostly used on public infrastructure: Subway, airport, taxi, pier, tourist spot, park, street, community, shop, supermarket, restaurant, bank, hotel, cinema, hospital and etc. It uses simple words or sentences, or pictures only, or combines words and pictures to pass useful information to the masses, which not only serves Chinese people, but also is shown to the foreigners, which can help foreigners in China study, work and live. <br /> <br /> '''II. The Current Situation of Chinese-English Public Sign'''<br /> <br /> Public signs are an art of convincing others through effective verbal means, which are also components of language activities. They, in essence, belong to a special kind of communication. However, it is not a kind of face-to-face communication that takes place in a specific period of time, and none of the participants will appear as individuals. The object is for all the people with social behaviors in the place, regardless of gender, age, class or education level. Public signs belong to “one-way communication”, and its binding force or influence will not be as big as direct communication, but it is also used to act with words and deeds, and affects the behavior of the audience with a clear purpose. <br /> <br /> Public signs are everywhere, so what are their functions? Zhou Shuxia (Zhou Shuxia, 2017) thinks that, their functions can be divided into showing, warning, profiting, encouraging and eulogizing such five functions. <br /> <br /> Firstly, the public sign that has showing function offers all-round information about service, order, or informing service. Such as “Car Rental” and “Children and Senior Citizens Free”.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the public sign that has warning function comes up with restrictive or obligatory demands to typical people, which is often used through order, ban, information or persuasion tones. Such as: “Stand in Line” , and “Thieves Beware”. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the public sign that has profiting function promotes consumption, thus realizing enterprises’ economic profits. Such as: “Daily Special”, “Daily Service”. <br /> <br /> Fourthly, the public sign that has encouraging function calls for or encourages people to take actions for certain goals or tasks. Such as: “One Family, One Child”, and “Working together, we can make a world of difference”. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, the public sign that has eulogizing function gives wishes and chants to certain events or people to reach the goals of propaganda or education. Such as: “One World, One Dream”. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (Eugene Nida , 2004) said, Chinese-English translation of public signs embraces the conversion of two different languages and two different cultures, which is not only to achieve the language equivalence, cultural equivalence, but also to enhance the possibility of understanding and the reading of Chinese-English translation of public signs.<br /> <br /> Public signs are the translation with strong humanistic color (Wu Haoxi , 2019). <br /> <br /> However, there are many problems in Chinese-English public sign translation.<br /> <br /> In 2003, Clive W. J. Granger, a Nobel Economics Prize Winner talked of the settings and problems of public signs in Beijing when he was interviewed by a program of Beijing TV Station. He said: “Foreigners will feel a little bit nervous when they come to China, because they can not understand public signs in China. ” Clive’s comment extremely shows current problems in Chinese-English public sign translation (Lv Hefa, 2005). <br /> <br /> On June 20th, 2017, a national standard conference of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service was held in Beijing. The Vice Minister of the Education Ministry and Director of the National Language Commission stressed in the meeting: “The language and character industry of China is expanding from ‘striving to promote and normally use the national common language, scientifically protecting every nation’s language and character’ to ‘managing social foreign language use and improving foreign language service quality’. ” The national standard of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service is the standard of English translation and writing quality in public service fields, which stipulates the English translation principles, methods and requirements of transportation, tourism, culture, entertainment, physical exercise, education, medical health, postal service, telecommunication, catering, accommodation, commerce and finance these thirteen service fields. <br /> <br /> To sum up, there are still many major problems in China’s public sign translation, common and ubiquitous, which make foreign experts comment like that and the government use national force to normalize translation standards. Whether the translation of public signs in scenic spots into English is harmonious and unified has a great influence on cross-cultural communication (Pinkham John, 2000). <br /> <br /> '''III. The Causes of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> '''3. 1 The Basic Linguistic Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> To be a proficient Chinese-English public sign translator, one must, fundamentally, grasp basic linguistic rules of English and Chinese, otherwise he or she must make stupid mistakes, and some even primary learners will not make. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.1<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3684466622,1422277554&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.1 is a public sign put on a glass wall in a mall, the Chinese reads“全年无休(QUAN NIAN WU XIU)”, and it tries to use English to express that “This business runs the whole year”, so the precise translation should be “NO REST DAY ALL YEAR”. But there, we can see it was translated as“365DAY SA TEAR”, which does not belong to the grammatical law of English. So this is a big mistake. Only one who understands Chinese can understand. But for ordinary foreigners, they can not. So, when translating Chinese-English public sign, the translator must be clear about the target language, and know the basic grammatical venation, then begin to translate, instead of randomly putting some letters together and finishing. Otherwise, the translator will make a big mistake like this picture.<br /> <br /> A public sign in Haichang Ocean Park of Chengdu City, Sichuan Province reads &quot;Jellyfish Museum, the 2th floor&quot;. More specifically, it is a floor direction sign. Here, the correct English for the second floor should be “2nd”, not “2th”. Apparently that the translator has poor knowledge of English vocabulary, which led he or she to make such a ridiculous mistake. Actually, in English language, if there is a number contains “11”, “12”or “13”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “11th”, “12th” or “13th” respectively; And if there is a number contains“1”, “2”or “3”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “1st”, “2nd” or “3rd” respectively. For example, “101st”, “111th”, “201st”, “211th” and etc. <br /> <br /> No.3 is a warning sign of a tourist spot, reads &quot;The rockery danger, pleases no climb&quot;, whose Chinese meaning is “There stands a rockery, it is dangerous to climb, every one is forbidden from climbing it. ” The Chinese meaning is alright. But, when it was translated into English, a big mistake occurred: “The rockery danger Pleases no climb.”<br /> <br /> First, there should be “climbing” after “no”, not “climb”, this is just English grammar knowledge that can be learned in primary school; And the “Please” is followed by a “s”, why does the translator use third person singular at the top of a imperative sentence? Second, if the translator wants to tell the tourists that the rockery is dangerous and mustn’t be climbed, he or she should write: “The rockery is dangerous. Please don’t climb” or “Dangerous rockery. No climbing” or just “No climbing”. Unless the foreigners who see this sign have supreme understanding ability, they will not easily make sense of it. <br /> <br /> 3. 2 The Tendency Towards Chinglish and Mechanical Translation<br /> <br /> Knowing a little about English, then begin to translate public sign. This is ridiculous, which is definitely going to cause obvious mistakes. Especially when translating, there is a high probability that the translator will make Chinglish errors, or tend to seek for mechanical translation, which are the most common public sign translation problems in mainland China. With regard to the tendency towards Chinglish, it only proves that the translator’s basic skills of English are not so proficient, and he or she does not fit for translation work. For the tendency towards mechanical translation, on the one hand, it demonstrates that the translator is lazy, who is not willing to think about how to translate. On the other hand, it reveals his or her lack of basic English language knowledge. In fact, these two both can be easily avoided, only if the translator pays a little more attention to it or is earnest and dedicated to their work. All those mistakes should not have been made. <br /> <br /> No.4, this is a sign that is hung in an Internet celebrity milk tea shop: Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province. It reads &quot;out of the cup area&quot;. It originally means that the customers should queue here to get their milk tea after finishing paying. The translator should have easily translated “出杯区（CHU BEI QU）”into “FETCH AREA”, but it was translated as “OUT OF THE CUP AREA”, what a joke! Purely it was translated word-for-word. The translator did not understand its true meaning. Probably it was translated by a machine. As an Internet celebrity milk tea shop runner, when dealing with such kind of cultural issues, he or she should be extremely careful, earnest and cautious, instead of casually simply copying the contents given by a machine or hiring a third-rate translator and asking him or her to randomly translate. Large scale milk tea shops must shoulder their required obligations, and undertake necessary responsibilities and duties on public sign translation. Imagine that a foreigner, who can not understand it, stand there and think: What? Standing here is standing outside the cup? Maybe something interesting would happen. Let me try!<br /> All those will bring big and standing jokes. <br /> <br /> No.5 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province. It reads&quot; tourists get off area&quot;. Its Chinese meaning is: This is the place that tourists get off from a bus. But, it was translated as “Tourists get off area”, which fully shows the ignorance and lack of English language knowledge of the translators. People may can not help doubting whether it is copied from the translation given by a machine. Famous tourist spots like this, especially this kind of 5A tourist spot, can not even shoulder the cultural obligations, let alone developing in the long run. They should make big mistakes in such a little public sign translation! Do they only want to serve Chinese well while ignoring foreigners?<br /> <br /> Similarly, No.6 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province, and it reads &quot;up the mountain&quot;. The Chinese meaning is “This is the passage that leads tourists to climb the mountain”. The translation should have been a very easy and fun job, but when the sign is showed to tourists, a big big joke was born: “Up the mountain”. We can say “uphill way” or “uphill passage”, but, the translator obviously did not realize it. What’s more, when “up” is used as a verb, it is completely another meaning. It is also the symbol of such irresponsible spot management. <br /> <br /> No.7, it is a napkin given by an Internet celebrity milk tea shop (Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province ) for free after buying its milk tea. It reads &quot;more China, more fashion&quot;. At first glance, everything seems okay. But more carefully, we can find the mistake. The Chinese meaning is “If there are more elements with Chinese characteristics, it will be more fashionable.” But when translating, maybe with the aid of machine, or lack of a solid English knowledge foundation, it becomes “More China, more fashion”. If the customer is a Chinese, it does not matter, for he or she can understand it, and just shows a smile. But if foreigners see, they will be pretty shocked by the sight: What the hell is this? They will think that this shop lacks money to hire a good translator, and the managers are stupid. Furthermore, the Chinese national image will be badly affected. In fact, this sentence can be translated as “The more sinicization there is, the more fashion there will be” or “With greater Chinese characteristics come more fashion”. Easier? It can be “More sinicization breeds more fashion”. Translated like these, won’t it be much more correct and intelligible?<br /> <br /> '''3. 3 The Misunderstanding of the Public Sign Translators'''<br /> <br /> It is the little knowledge of English of the translators that makes them can not even spell a basic word correctly; Or due to carelessness, they make mistakes on public sign translation, thus causing mistakes on the meaning of the sign. All these are significant reasons why there are so many mistakes in Chinese-English public signs. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.8.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.8<br /> [https://www.sinaimg.cn/edu/cr/2015/0316/3124267229.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.8. The Chinese meaning of it is “The door or passage that leads you to the outside”, in short, “EXIT”. But the public sign was translated as“EXPORT”, so, what is “EXPORT”? In a word, it means trade among different countries. The commercial goods pass through the customs, being transported from one country to another country. Distinctly, the maker was careless, who has mixed the meaning of “出口（Chu Kou）”in Chinese, thus resulting in an obvious translation error. As for public sign translation, translators must weigh every word, and think over and over and over again, not just search online, and grab all the words you “discover”, which is a highly irresponsible behavior, an extremely irresponsible behavior to the society and the country . <br /> <br /> [[File:No.9.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.9<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4069547043,45136776&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.9 is from a hospital department. Its Chinese meaning is: Here is neurology emergency department. It uses a special logogram in Chinese. But, the maker was misled, so, he or she translated it as “God Medical”. If a person has a little common sense, he or she will be made to laugh wildly. It is completely the “Understanding of a sentence simply by a word”! That should be translated as “ Department of Emergency Neurology”. Such a casual translation will make Christians think that they can see God for real. Whether can he see death here or a way to heaven with a passionate God serving you? To some extent, this is disrespect for Christians, which can even cause disputes. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.10.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.10<br /> [https://ss0.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4055489075,1169617432&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.10 is photographed in a company building. Here, the Chinese means: this is the place where you can get boiled water. However, the translator of this public <br /> sign made a huge mistake, because he or she disintegrated the three Chinese words one by one, and thus translating them one by one, which can not be understood as a whole, let alone enable foreigners to understand the meaning of this public sign, and as a result, foreigners may not receive the service that they deserve. What’s worse, many people, including intelligent Chinese, when seeing this disqualified translation, will definitely be amused, and feel funny: What is this guy’s literate level?<br /> <br /> As a matter of fact, this public sign can be translated as “Boiled Water Room”. “开水”means “boiled water” in English. Certainly, the translator treated the “开”as a verb “open”, which is absolutely wrong. <br /> <br /> Further, this is a single room, not two or more, so we must use “room”, which is the plural form, instead of the singular form “rooms”. <br /> <br /> 3. 4 The Falsification and Loss of Information<br /> <br /> Originally, the managers want to use signs to warn people, but due to mistranslation, the information is tampered and missed, resulting in an opposite consequence, and producing big jokes. <br /> <br /> No.11 is a public warning sign in Liuxiang Barbecue Restaurant. It reads &quot; carefully hot&quot;. Is it a true warning? In the foreigners’ opinion, it is not. People who speak Chinese can realize that this sign was designed to warn customers not to be burned by the hot oven. However, the English translation is far from what it originally means. The correct translation can be “Careful! Hot!” or “Be Careful of the Hot Oven!” But according to the translation on the sign, it means “Carefully burn yourself”. Luckily, this is a small scale restaurant, if it were a large one, its reputation would be badly affected. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.12.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.12<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3765137851,1011242048&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.12 is a public sign in a large shopping center. As we all know, modern shopping centers now always use smooth and shiny tile floor as the ground, which makes the shopping centers look beautiful and attractive. However, smooth though it is, one big safety problem then comes into shape: The ground is too smooth to make shoppers slide and fall. Later, the managers made public signs like No.12 to warn people not to fall. The Chinese warning is okay, Chinese shoppers can understand, but when foreigners see this, he or she will burst out laughing: What? You order me to slide on the floor with care? What on earth do you mean? I have even seen an Internet celebrity girl posting an video clip that tells us a story that satirizes this mistranslation: The girl and her father slide joyfully on the ground in a shopping center while murmuring “Carefully slide! Carefully slide!” As a matter of fact, The correct Chinese-English translation should be “Caution! Slippery!” or “Beware of Wet Floor” or “Caution! Wet Floor”. Each one of the three is okay. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.13.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.13<br /> [https://ss2.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=461657809,3986868053&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.13 is a public sign that is put on the ceiling of a restaurant’s stair. Here, the translator wanted to pass such information by Chinese and English: Watch <br /> your head, do not hit the low ceiling of the stair. Be careful. Though the Chinese information is okay, the English, however, can not by understood by others, especially foreigners. <br /> <br /> Here, the makers wanted to warn the danger of the low ceiling, not to ask people to purposely hit the ceiling. So we can correct it as: “Watch Your Head”, or “Be Careful”. Both are okay. <br /> <br /> Here, the translator made a mistranslation, which reversed the original meaning when translating, thus producing a huge laughingstock. First, “碰”is not “meet”, but “hit”, according to this specific environment. It does not mean “meet someone”. Second, “小心碰头” means not to hit the ceiling, not to “meet carefully”. <br /> <br /> Throughout so many examples, every one can see that the mistakes of public sign translation are ubiquitous and common in daily life, which you can even randomly pick up one from any store you meet. Pervasive errors like these in public signs will negatively affect China’s reform and opening-up and the integration into international community, which will not only make foreigners misunderstand the meaning, but also seriously damage China’s national image. Therefore, the study of the public sign translation is extremely urgent and imperative. At present, translators must start from basic demand of Chinese-English public sign translation, endeavor to learn English well, cultivate a good sense of utilizing English and a great mindset of English utilization, proactively take part in English translation practice, and be highly alert and form a sense of “Using English language in a proper, correct, suitable and decent way”. Only then will the situation of Chinese-English public sign translation turn better. <br /> <br /> IV. Public Sign Translation Methods<br /> <br /> There is a saying goes: “Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards. ” So is the Chinese-English public sign translation. Zhang Yan (Zhang Yan, 2015) maintains in her paper that, the public sign translation methods can be summarized as four kinds. <br /> <br /> '''4. 1 Amplification'''<br /> <br /> Many new words that are with Chinese characteristics, especially combined with numbers, need using amplification to introduce to foreign readers. For example, in the past, “五讲四美三热爱(Wu Jiang Si Mei San Re Ai）”was translated as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves”. Many foreigners said that they could not understand it. Later, it was revised as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves” with the notation “ stress on decorum, manners, hygiene, discipline and morals; beauty of the mind, language, behavior and the environment; love of the motherland, socialism and the Communist Party”. Hence, foreigners can easily understand its connotation. <br /> <br /> '''4. 2 Ellipsis'''<br /> <br /> To make sure that the translation is concise and intelligible, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators must properly delete unnecessary words according to English expressing habits to achieve overall generalization. Such as: “Food Paradise”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 3 Re-translation'''<br /> <br /> Due to cultural differences, many folk adages with Chinese characteristics will not be understood by readers once simply read literally. So translators can moderately reorganize those sentences that can not be translated or understood. Such as: “Drinking and Driving Costs Your Life”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 4 Backward Translation'''<br /> <br /> There are two cases: Translating the cultural expressions that are borrowed from translation back into their original forms in the target language; Translating the expressions with obvious cultural characteristics into the idiomatic expressions in the target language. Such as: “Venus Florist”. <br /> The English public sign has its own cultural and pragmatic meanings. When doing the Chinese-English public sign translation, translators should consider about the cultural differences and avoid any form of ambiguity, misunderstanding or mistranslation, and offer high quality information service, thus making public sign translation advance with the times. <br /> <br /> '''V. Public Sign Translation Strategies'''<br /> <br /> He Xueyun (He Xueyun, 2006) holds in her thesis that, theoretically, semantic translation and communicative translation differ much. Semantic translation strives to keep the language specialty and unique express method of the original work, in order to express the original work’s thinking process; However, communicative translation’s key point lies in spreading information and enabling people to think, feel and act, giving play to the function of information that language conveys and the consequences it causes. Public sign translation must focus on results, and put readers first, only by this can we improve the current situation of public sign translation, thus achieving the purposes of public sign translation. <br /> <br /> Before beginning to do anything, we all need a world view and methodology to guide us to behave well. Likewise, when doing Chinese-English public sign translation, we also need guiding ideology to direct us. Here, I will show you four Chinese-English public sign translation strategies, which act as guiding ideology, which are definitely going to be a powerful weapon for you. Just remember them and practice them, you will gain a lot. <br /> <br /> '''5.1 No Grammatical, Semantic and Logical Error'''<br /> <br /> The most basic prerequisite of public sign translation is that there is no language error: No grammatical error, no vocabulary spelling error, no language context error, no Chinglish or machine-aided translation error. <br /> <br /> “This is office area, tourists mustn’t enter” can be translated as “Staff Only”, not “OFFICE AREA PLEASE DON’T COMING”, or you will make a grammatical and redundant error. “Be careful, don’t slip into water” can be translated as “Caution! Deep Water!” instead of “TAKE CARE! FALL INTO WATER CAREFULLY!” Otherwise, people will can not help laughing. <br /> <br /> One translator was not able to translate “The grass is so beautiful, are you sure you wan to walk on it?” into English public sign, so here comes <br /> “Fangcaoqiqi riding the Heren”. What a laughingstock! This is a combination between Chinese and English, without any grammar structure. Not to translate it will be a much better choice. We can concisely translate it as “Don’t Walk on the Beautiful Grass!”<br /> <br /> '''5. 2 Concise and Intelligible Translation'''<br /> <br /> One prominent character of public sign is conciseness. It asks people to ensure the translation is crystal clear and precise, without any compound or obscure sentence. Only by achieving this can the signs become popularized, instead of making people think over and over and over again to discover their cryptic meaning. <br /> <br /> The public sign translation must be concise and intelligible, which means that you not only need to precisely convey what the maker means to people, but also must be concise. People can understand it immediately without comprehension deviation or ambiguity. <br /> <br /> '''5. 3 Understanding of Cultural Background Differences'''<br /> <br /> When translating, every translator must thoroughly understand the culture of the targeted language. Translators must comprehensively understand each specific use of the targeted language under different cultural backgrounds. If not doing so, it may cause severe disputes, and even cause irresistible outcomes. Here are several examples. <br /> <br /> “Dragon” is a legendary animal in traditional Chinese culture. Chinese people often view themselves as “dragon”, and even say that they are “Descendants of the Dragon”. Thus, “Dragon” means holy and sacred thing in Chinese culture. But in English speaking countries, the meaning of “dragon” is not so. In these countries, “dragon” means something evil like Satan, sometimes it is even used to describe thugs, scoundrels or other bad behaviorists. Therefore, invariably coping the icon of “dragon” and using it in other cultures is a definite mistake. In a word, a public sign language translator must totally comprehend the cultural background differences. <br /> <br /> '''5. 4 Obedience to Certain Norms and Standards'''<br /> <br /> As long as someone is translating, he or she must obey certain rules, norms and standards. He mustn’t translate according to his will. This is a truth. <br /> For example, according to China’s first set of standards on how to regulate the use of foreign languages in China, which was jointly issued by the State Standards Commission and the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine on November 20, 2017 and officially implemented on December 1, 2017, some of the standards have been specified in detail. <br /> <br /> Names of tourist spots: Names of mountains, rivers and lakes should be written in Chinese pinyin. Translations of names of temples should vary according to different situations, so are the towers’ names. In line with external service needs, English explanations can be added. <br /> <br /> '''VI. The Future of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> China is a major powerful country, and is the country with the second highest Gross Domestic Product in the world, which is why China should keep close economic and cultural relationships with other countries. In order to integrate China with international community in a better way, there must be high quality public sign translation. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation must improve the China’s influence power in international community. High quality public sign translation represents that China is rich in translators and intellects, and shows that China can fulfill obligations and shoulder responsibilities as a major country. Achieving this means China not only takes responsibilities for Chinese people, but also for all human beings. Good quality public sign translation is definitely going to significantly synergize the course of reform and opening-up. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation is obliged to facilitate foreigners to travel in China, boost domestic consumption demand, form a new growth point for economy, promote the rise of Gross Domestic Product, and accelerate the comprehensive, coordinated and sustainable development. High quality public sign translation is also an integral part of the New Development Philosophy: Innovation, coordination, green, open and share. High quality public sign translation corresponds to the New Normal of Chinese economy. At present, the economy of China has been changing from developing at a high speed to develop at high quality, and is at the stage of changing economic development mode, transforming driving forces of economic development and optimizing the economic structure, so high quality public sign translation is badly needed. Thus, considering the big change of Chinese economy, achieving high quality public sign translation is an urgent affair. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation has the duty to embody a city’s humanism spirit, cultural speciality and charm, which is the inevitable requirement of core socialist values and system. It also promotes the spreading of Chinese culture, and improves the influence power of Chinese culture. High quality public sign translation also levels up Chinese people and overseas Chinese’s sense of identity and belonging. What’s more, it can narrow the gap between Chinese and foreigners, and acquire more recognition from them towards China. Domestically, high quality public sign translation can strengthen national cohesion; Externally, it will strengthen China’s soft power, and increase China’s international speaking right while creating national radiation power. <br /> It is an important measure to improve China’s public service and governance capability by establishing an evaluation mechanism and promoting the standardization of English translation. It is of great benefit to further improve China’s service level of opening to the outside world, demonstrate its cultural soft power and enhance its international image (Guo Jinghong, 2019). <br /> <br /> In short, looking forward to the future of Chinese-English public sign translation from a strategic perspective, translators must remain true to their original aspiration and keep their mission firmly in mind, which is: To be devoted to the future of socialism with Chinese characteristics, to be dedicated to the landscape of translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and to be committed to the sustainable development of Chinese-English public sign translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics. <br /> <br /> We must treat Chinese-English public sign translation with the point that advances with the times (Tian Guomin, 2019). The English translation of public signs of tourist attractions belongs to the category of cross-cultural communication, and the translator should have certain cross-cultural knowledge and awareness, so that the English translation can be more understood and accepted by the audience and truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication (Yang Hongyu, 2019). The communicative translation theory aims for the target readers (Gutt, 1991). Translation of public signs is a very important task in China with the increasing connection to the outside world (Newmark, 2001). Since reform and opening-up, China has been integrating into the international community day by day. To fully achieve this, as regards of Chinese-English public sign translation, we still have a long way to go. There is no time for us to delay the work of strengthening, proceeding, and improving public sign translation. The rising level of quality of Chinese-English public sign translation will improve both city image and urbanization level. He Xueyun contends in her article that, many people take it for granted that if one knows a foreign language, he then can translate. As a matter of fact, basic skills of public sign translation not only includes foreign language level, but also the knowledge of foreign cultures. <br /> <br /> '''VII. Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> So, how to facilitate the overall development of Chinese-English public sign translation？Firstly, we need to keep pace with the times. Language is constantly changing, so are many words and idioms, and so are public signs. In order to accurately convey information to the audience, it is essential to integrate the latest, most reliable and most accepted language into public signs. Secondly, it is necessary to fully understand the idiomatic usage of public signs, because public signs are mainly aimed at English speakers, so it is necessary to strengthen the accumulation of words, phrases and idioms, which is also the basis of translation. Thirdly, the translators of Chinese-English public signs should use accurate words and phrases in combination with specific environment and objects, and should not fail to convey the meaning or deviate from the original meaning, which otherwise will result in misunderstanding. Of course, only achieving the above is not enough. In order to do a good job in the translation of Chinese-English public signs, we need to keep improving our translation attitude and spirit of study, and constantly improve and summarize and innovate on the basis of the original, so as to make the translation of Chinese-English public signs more perfect and recognized by the international audience. It is very important for the academic community and people from all walks of life to analyze the problems in the application of public signs and put forward corresponding improvement countermeasures (Liu Xiaoping, 2019). <br /> <br /> A Chinese-English public sign translator must fully realize and shoulder the responsibilities that translators must carry, form a sense of community of a shared future, fully acknowledge the current situation of Chinese-English public sign translation, completely learn lessons from the predecessors who have made mistakes in Chinese-English public sign translation, totally implement the four public sign translation strategies I mentioned before, to make Chinese-English public sign translation serve the construction of a moderately prosperous society in all respect, the construction of modern powerful socialist country, the construction of building China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and the realization of the great Chinese dream, that is: the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> [1]Eugene Nida &amp; Charles Taber.（2004） [The Theory and Practice of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [2]Gutt &amp; Ernst, Agust. （1991）[Translation and Relevance: Cognition and Context] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> [3]Newmark, Peter. （2001）[Textbook of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [4]Pinkham, John.（2000） [The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br /> <br /> [5]Reiss. （2004）[Translation Criticism: the Potentials and Limitations] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [6]国家标准委.（2017） 公共服务领域英文译写规范<br /> <br /> [7]郭京红.（2019）公示语英译中的错误观点与评价方式 海外英语(23)154-155. <br /> <br /> [8]贺学耘. （2006）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略外语与外语教学,(03)57-59. <br /> <br /> [9]刘小平. （2019）公示语翻译中存在的问题及对策. 凯里学院学报, (04)72-74.<br /> <br /> [10]吕和发. （2005）公示语汉英翻译研究——以2012年奥运会主办城市伦敦为例 北京:中国翻译,(06)38. <br /> <br /> [11]田国民. （2019）谈汉语公示语的英译英语教师(22)110-113. <br /> <br /> [12]王回力. （2019）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略 延边教育学院学报(05)31-33. <br /> <br /> [13]吴浩熙, 李海红.（2019） 功能对等理论下的公示语翻译及策略 海外英语(20)59-61. <br /> <br /> [14]杨洪玉等.（2019） 旅游景点公共标识语的英文翻译 北京工业职业技术学院学报(04)122-126. <br /> <br /> [15]张焱. （2015）汉英翻译过程中的难译现象处理 北京:中国社会科学出版社(16)44-46<br /> <br /> [16]周树霞. （2017）浅析公示语的汉英翻译 校园英语(42)239-239.<br /> <br /> == A Study of Translation of Movie Titles in the Light of Venuti's Theory 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan==</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5&diff=109429 2020-12-10T03:34:41Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602 */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第五部分(Part 5)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Thoughts'''=<br /> ==A Study on Creative Treason of Literature Translation - 李玉 Li Yu==<br /> ==On the Analysis of Three Kinds of Beauty in ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence-林敏 Lin Min 202020080616==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;林敏 Lin Min &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation, aiming to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language in a translation. Xu Yuanchong introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties” principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book, he said that the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem. This thesis is going to use such two theories to compare and analyze the two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond in our nation --Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version with some typical and representative examples, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.This thesis is divided into five parts: the first part roughly describes the purpose, method and significant of the study; the second part introduces the general idea and two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond; The third part introduces two translation theories functional equivalence and three beauty principle; the fourth part, some typical examples are selected and two theories are used to compare study the two versions. The fifth part summarizes the whole thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Functional Equivalence, Three Kinds of Beauty<br /> <br /> === 题目===<br /> 功能对等理论指导下《荷塘月色》英译本“三美”的传达<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 功能对等论是翻译理论中最重要的理论之一。功能对等论的目的是实现源语和目标语之间的功能对等。许渊冲在《毛泽东诗词四十二首》序言中提出的译诗的“三美”原则，即音美，意美和形美。本篇文章将利用这两个基本原则，通过一些有代表性的例子对译本进行比较学习，学习研究两篇文章是否符合功能对等。本篇论文共分为五部分，第一部分介绍了本研究的目的、意义和方法；第二部分介绍了《荷塘月色》的大意和两个英译本；第三部分对两个翻译原则：功能对等论和“三美”原则做了简要地介绍；第四部分选取了有代表性的例子，运用了两个理论对两译本进行了对比学习；第五部分对全文进行了总结。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 功能对等论，三美原则<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> With the advent of globalization as well as the development of Chinese economy, more and more Chinese literary works have been introduced abroad. Prose is one of the important part of China’s literature.However there is still not enough attention to the introduction of Chinese prose, especially Chinese modern prose. <br /> <br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''，the well-known lyric prose, written by the famous author Zhu Ziqing, has made a huge influence on the development of Chinese prose. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer's depressing mood. For this prose is a typical example of Chinese modern prose, many translators have given their translations of it, such as Zhu Chunshen, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang, Li Ming and Wang Jiaosheng. A large number of scholars have analyzed its different versions making great contribution to the prose translating. <br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation. Functional equivalence theory introduced by Nida, refers to the fact that the translation does not take rigid correspondence between words and structures as the standard, but aims to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language. The theory emphasizes that“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。<br /> <br /> Here, this paper selects This thesis selects two of the most famous English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen's version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, to compare and study, based on Xu Yuanchong's “Three Beauty” principle under the guidance of functional equivalence. This thesis will compare and analyze the two English versions, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> === 2. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' and Its English Versions ===<br /> Before comparing and analyzing the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' , we need learn some necessary information about the author who wrote it and the relatively background. At present, the two famous English versions are Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version .<br /> <br /> ====2.1 ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is the classical of lyric prose written by Zhu Ziqing in Tsinghua University, Beijing on July 1927，which depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer’s depressing mood. It was published in the Novel Monthly, one of the new literary journals which enjoys the reputation of “the first journal in the China’s literary world” in the 1920s.（Han,2018 ）Since it was published, the article has received both high praise and fierce criticism. From this perspective, it has witnessed the history of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> In this prose, the author is sleepless and sits in his yard to enjoy the cool in the evening. Suddenly, it occurred to his mind that the lotus pond where he passes every day and the pond must be different at night with the moonlight. So, the author wandered lonely on a cinder footpath around the lotus pond, he feels that he is a “free man”. As he sees the pond cover with trim lotus leaves and white lotus flowers, hearing the sounds of the cicadas and the frogs, Zhu thinks that “this animation was theirs alone, I had no part in it（Yang ,1990 ）.”<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Two English Versions ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is one of Zhu Ziqing’s masterpieces and was selected into Chinese textbook. Most scholars say that the prose is “文质相称，形神俱美” which has attracted an amount of scholars and students.（Chen ,2018）The prose has been introduced to foreign countries in different languages, especially in English since the May 4th Movement. The notable translations include Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, Li Ming’s version and Wang Jiaosheng’s version. This thesis choices Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version. Both Zhu ’s version and Yang’s version are faithful to the original meaning and concise to the sentence structure and close to the original style. But Zhu prefer to employ literal translation and Yang uses the free translation, like the words “热闹” ,“冷静”, “群居”and “独处”, Zhu translated these as “a serene and peaceful life”,“a busy and active one”, “being in solitude” and “in company”, in contrast Yang’s translation is “excitement and stillness”.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Basis of Theory ===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Functional Equivalence Theory ====<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Three Kinds of Beauty =====<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===4. On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence ===<br /> Zhu Ziqing used a large number of rhetorical devices and reduplicated words to describe the beauty of the lotus pond under the moonlight at night, to express his gloomy and upset mood, which brings great difficulty to translation, in his famous prose--''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. This part is aimed at using the functional equivalence theory and Xu Yuanchong’s theory of “Three Beauties” to analyze wheatear the two English versions of such prose achieving the degree of function equivalance.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 ====<br /> Words are the basic meaning of sentences. G •Leech divided “meaning” into two categories: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(Leech,1987) The conceptual meaning is the meaning that we can find in dictionary, and the associative meaning is the actually meaning of the word in the special context. It is a truly universal acknowledge that the meaning of the sentence is not simple addition of word meaning. Thus, the translator should find the conceptual meaning and the associative meaning of the original, especially the associative meaning. Here are some typical examples:<br /> <br /> Example 1: “这几天心里颇不宁静。”（Zhu Ziqing , 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu ’s version: “I have felt quite upset recently.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang ’s version: “The last few days have found me very restless.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> This sentence is the first sentence in the first paragraph. Here “不宁静” refers to “quite uncomfortable”, which can be translated as “upset, restless, untranquil, disquieting and so on”. However, considering Zhu Ziqing’s patriotic feeling and his responsibility for his wife and kid, he cannot devote his whole life to the great revolution. Therefore “不宁静” in the context means the author is anxiety, because he want to change his condition. Zhu Chunshen translated it as“upset”which means“unhappy or disappointed because of something unpleasant that has happened”in the ''OED'', which emphasized the unhappy mood. And Yang Xianyi employed it as “restless”, which means “unable to stay still or happy where you are, because you are bored or need a change ” in the ''OED'', which stressed on one needing a change. It is clear that the word “restless” is more exactly than the word “quiet” in this sentence.<br /> <br /> However,“宁静”has an end rhyme“ing”and neither“upset”in Zhu’s translation nor“restless”in Yang’s version opted the words with the same end rhyme for they both focused on the meaning. And such sentence in original text is a 9 characters short sentence with no subject, Yang translated it into 9 words,used the“the last few day”as the subject, while Zhu’s version only has 6 words and selected “I” as the subject. Therefore, Yang’s version is expressive to the original in this sentence and it retains the beauties of form and sense in this sentence at the same time. In short, the two versions are good translation, but the Yang’s version is much better from this point. <br /> <br /> Example 2“这是一条幽僻的路；白天也少人走，夜晚更加寂寞。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: It is peaceful and secluded here, a place not frequented by pedestrians even in the daytime; now at night, it looks more solitary......”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “It is off the beaten track and few pass this way even by day, so at night it is still more quiet.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> The word “幽僻” means “安静和人迹罕至” here. Zhu rendered the word “幽僻” into “peaceful and secluded”, emphasized that there is silent and private. Yang employed it into “off the beaten track” which means no one knows here and quiet. From this perspective, both translations are very similar in understanding the writer’s meaning.<br /> <br /> However, the word “幽僻” is an adjective word with two meanings: quiet and not disturbed by other people. Zhu’ s version “peaceful and secluded” ,are two adjective words and has two similar meanings, which keep the form and sense of the original sentence. In conclusion，according to the “Three Beauties” principle, Zhu’s translation is much better than Yang’s for it retains the form of the original.<br /> <br /> Example 3: “这路上阴森森的，有些怕人。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “The foliage, which, in a moon-less night, would loom somewhat frighteningly dark.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “ On nights when there is no moon the track is almost terrifyingly dark.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> In this sentence, Zhu Ziqing uses “怕人” to describe the atmosphere of the air on the road and his feeling of walking on this path at such a night. “怕人” referred to “令人害怕的” in Chinese, it is an adjective to present his feeling. “Frightening ” means “making you feel afraid”, and “terrifying” means “to make somebody extremely frightened”in the ''OED'' , which can be regarded as synonyms. Both use the adverb to translate the adjective “怕人”. But in Zhu’s translation, “the foliage” is “frighteningly dark” and in Yang’s version, “the track” is “terrifyingly dark”. Both translators have their own understanding of the original content, but the both translations are faithful to the word “怕人”. We could say the two translations achieve the beauty in sense. However, in “Three Beauties” principle, we should consider the beauty in form and sound. As for sound ,the last sound of “怕人” is [en] in Chinese, but both “frightening” and “terrifying” has the same end sound of [en]. As for “frightening” and “terrifying”, the last sound of these are [iŋ] which could be regarded as the similar pronunciation with [en] .So, the two translations achieved beauty in sound from this aspect. In all the both versions are great from this perspective.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 ====<br /> ====4.3 ====<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> ==Lexical Gap between English and Chinese and its translation strategies 孟莹 Meng Ying==<br /> <br /> ==On Form and Spirit in Translation 文偲荇 Wen Sixing==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> translation methods，form，sprit<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译方法，翻译的形与神<br /> <br /> ===The form of translation===<br /> <br /> ===The sprit of translation===<br /> <br /> ===Discussion===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories——Taking &quot;2017 APEC Speech&quot; as sample 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing==<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Strategies'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Study on the Translation Strategies, Translation Methods and Translation Techniques in Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao==<br /> <br /> ==Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” to “Visibility” 胡百辉 Hu Baihui==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Business Contracts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 胡瑾 Hu Jin==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization in China and the increasing frequency of modern commercial activities, commercial contracts are particularly vital in order to ensure the smooth progress of commercial activities. In a business contract, it is required to ensure that the expression of any text in the contract is accurate as far as possible, and the same is true when translating it. Contracts provide vital basis for the smooth development of business and the protection of rights. Accurate and vivid translation of contracts has an important impetus to the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations and the resolution of disputes. Therefore, it is of practical significance to study the translation of business contracts. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory, equivalence is first realized in meaning and then in form. Dynamic equivalence is used to break the static equivalence and maximize the meaning of the translation. This thesis gives a preliminary introduction to the translation of business contracts, studies the application of functional equivalence theory in contract translation, and puts forward some major translation skills and methods, which will be of some guiding significance to the future translation of business contracts, thus avoiding unnecessary disputes between the two parties.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> business contract; Functional Equivalence Theory; contract translation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中国全球化进程不断加快，现代商务活动日益频繁，为了确保商务活动的顺利进行，商务合同的签订显得尤为重要。在商务合同中，要求尽量确保合同中的每一个文字都表达准确，在对其进行翻译时也是如此。合同是确保业务开展顺利和进行权利保障的重要依托，对合同进行准确生动的翻译对业务的开展和权利、义务的保障以及出现争议时的解决等有着重要的推动力。因此，研究商务合同的翻译有一定的现实意义。根据奈达的功能对等理论，对等首先在意义上实现，然后在形式上实现，利用动态对等，打破静态对等，使译文意义最大化。此课题初步介绍了商务合同的翻译，研究了功能对等理论在合同翻译中的应用，提出了一些主要的翻译技巧和方法，对今后商务合同的翻译具有一定的指导作用，从而避免合同双方出现不必要的纠纷。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 商务合同；功能对等理论；合同翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since China promoted the Silk Road Economic Belt, China's economic exchanges with other countries in the world have been increasing day by day. China's exports volume is also increasing, and goods are exported to other countries in the world. In 2013, China overtook the United States as the world's largest trading nation. In this context, in order to ensure the smooth progress of transactions and reduce trade friction and disputes, commercial contracts, which have legal effect, have attracted more and more attention. Contract translation belongs to the category of legal translation. Accurate translation of contracts plays an important role in the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations, and the resolution of disputes. However, commercial disputes in China's foreign economic and trade business are very common, and many disputes are caused by various problems in contract translation. Therefore, they should be guided by scientific translation theories.<br /> This paper mainly includes 3 chapters. The first chapter is the introduction of business English contracts, including the definition of business contract, the categories of business contract, and the linguistic features of English business contract.<br /> The second chapter introduces the theoretical framework of functional equivalence translation, including Nida's main principles and viewpoints of functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> The third chapter is the main part of the article, including the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 General Introduction of Business Contract===<br /> <br /> This chapter first introduces the definition of business contract and the categories of business contract, and then analyzes the linguistic features of English business contract from lexical, syntactic and textual levels respectively. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> As an important link in foreign trade activities, business contracts have always been valued by people. Article 2 of The PRC Contract Law clearly stipulates that Commercial contract refers to the agreement clauses that are formally concluded according to law, notarized and must be abided by jointly in order to determine their respective rights and obligations during certain commercial cooperation between the parties concerned. It can be seen from this that a commercial contract is the result of the consensus reached by the parties and is a civil legal act. A legally established contract shall take effect from the date of its establishment and shall be legally binding. This provides a legal guarantee for effectively avoiding trade frictions. However, special attention should be paid to the fact that China's Economic Law on Foreign Contracts stipulates that commercial contracts can take many forms, such as formal contracts, letters of intent, memorandum, agreements, commissioned purchase orders, etc. But no matter what form it takes, it should be signed in writing. The oral agreement cannot be submitted to the court as evidence after the dispute occurs.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Categories and Structure of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> Based on different standards, business contracts can be divided into many categories. According to the contract maker, they can be divided into sales contract (made by the seller) and purchase contract (made by the buyer); according to the subject matter, they can be divided into technology transfer contracts, processing contracts, foreign labor contracts, and agency agreements, etc; according to the details of the contract, they can be divided into sales contract, sales confirmation letter, purchase contract and purchase confirmation letter; according to the price terms used in the contract, they can be divided into CIF contract, FOB contract and goods arrival contract, etc.<br /> Although there are many types of commercial contracts, the structure of commercial contracts is generally relatively fixed, generally including three parts: preface, text and contract end. The first part is the preface, which generally includes the name of the contract, the parties to the contract, the date of signing and the place of signing. The second part is the main body of the contract, which mainly stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties to the agreement, the specific conditions of the traded goods, such as commodity name, quantity, total value, delivery date and validity period, port of shipment and destination, insurance and confidentiality clauses, payment clauses,etc. The third part is the end, which mainly includes the signatures of all parties to the agreement, the language of the contract, the number of copies of the contract and the explanation of the validity of the contract.<br /> <br /> ====1.3 A Contrastive Analysis of Stylistic Features of Chinese and English Business Contracts====<br /> <br /> English business contract is a solemn style with the highest degree of formality among all styles of English. A comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English business contract in terms of vocabulary, syntax and discourse will be made in this chapter.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Lexical Features of Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> As the most basic semantic constituent unit, vocabulary plays the most basic and important role in the whole contract text. When reading any text, the characteristics of words can often reflect the characteristics of the whole text. Therefore, it is necessary to study the characteristics of vocabulary so as to lay a foundation for the study of the whole text.<br /> <br /> First of all, the use of archaism is the most prominent feature in international business contract English. The extensive use of archaic words in business contracts and legal styles fully reflects their solemn and serious style, which is related to the social function of English style of business contracts and the particularity of international business. The archaism most commonly used in business contract English are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中)，therein-after(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于).<br /> <br /> In contrast, some classical Chinese words are often used in Chinese business contract terms, such as“兹、若”. This is to reflect the conciseness and clarity of the Chinese contract text. However, strictly speaking, Chinese business contract terms are more straightforward, the classical Chinese vocabulary is less frequently used, and the stylistic features are not as obvious as English business contracts.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the use of synonyms is another feature of English business contracts. Two or more synonyms are often used together in English business contracts. This is to make the terms of the contract more precise and accurate, and to avoid ambiguities and omissions as much as possible, for example, by and between, sole and exclusive, make and enter into, etc. <br /> <br /> However, we must note that synonyms are not commonly used in Chinese business contracts. This is mainly because of the differences in expression habits between Chinese and English and the differences in legal and cultural traditions between countries.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, as a contractual document with legal effect, legal terms are also used in the contract. In formal English business contracts, drafters often use “convene” instead of “hold or assemble”; “dispatch” instead of “spread out or handout”; “terminate” instead of “stop”. Similarly, in Chinese business contracts, interpreters use“承诺”to indicate “commitment”;“撤销”to indicate“cancel”instead of “取消”;“裁决” to mean “decision” instead of “决定”. Finally, the contract contains many professional knowledge and terminology.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.2 Syntax Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> Besides vocabulary, the syntax of business contracts also has their own characteristics, such as common clauses, declarative sentences, passive voice, modal verbs, etc. <br /> <br /> The most obvious feature in business contracts is the use of subordinate clauses. They are in obvious positions to explain, restrict and supplement the meaning of the main sentence. The positions of these clauses are relatively flexible. For example, attributive clause can be placed together with the central word or separated from the central word. A noun can be modified by multiple attributive clauses, and an attributive clause can also modify multiple nouns. The adverbial clause of time can be placed either at the beginning of the sentence or at the middle and end of the sentence.<br /> <br /> In contrast, the positions of attributive clauses and adverbial clauses in Chinese are relatively fixed. The adverbial clause of time is usually next to the modified verb because there is no temporal change in Chinese verbs. Declarative sentences are clear in meaning, division of powers and responsibilities, objective and fair in stating facts, and conform to the requirements of business contract terms. Therefore, they are frequently used in Chinese and English business contracts, but interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences are seldom used.<br /> <br /> Passive sentences are also quite common in business contracts. The passive voice is often used when there is no need to clearly indicate the sender of the behavior and the emphasis is placed on the object of the behavior.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.3 Textual Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> The textual features of Chinese and English business contracts are mainly reflected in textual cohesion and textual structure.<br /> <br /> In business contracts, whether Chinese or English, contextual cohesion is realized by adding conjunctions or repetitions of words, which indicates the logical relationship between sentences and reflects the rigour and solemnity of business contract language.<br /> <br /> The discourse structure of Chinese and English business contracts is basically the same, with highly stylized features.<br /> <br /> This kind of consistency is not only to obtain formal uniformity, but also often mainly due to the requirements of meaning, so that readers have the impression that the contents expressed by clauses with the same sentence pattern are equivalent in the legal effect of the contract.①<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 General Study of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This chapter introduces Nida's functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida first proposed the“dynamic equivalence”theory, then further developed the theory, emphasizing the equivalence of two aspects, namely“formal equivalence”and“dynamic equivalence”.“Formal equivalence”emphasizes the form and content of the information itself and believes that the translation should be close to the original structure. “Dynamic equivalence”refers to“reproducing source language information from semantics to style with the closest (original) natural equivalent in the recipient language”.② Tan Zaixi（谭载喜） pointed out, in this definition, there are three key points: 1. Natural, the translation cannot have a translation cavity. 2. Closeness, referring to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of nature. 3. Equivalence, which is the core.<br /> <br /> After the proposal of dynamic equivalence, many disputes have arisen. It is considered as free translation or live translation. In order to change people's misunderstanding of it, Nida pointed out:“Everything in the text is meaningful, including speech forms, so forms cannot be sacrificed easily.”④ Therefore, he replaced“dynamic equivalence”with “functional equivalence”. There is no essential difference between the two, but the latter highlights the concept of“function”.<br /> <br /> On the question of which level equivalence should be reflected, Nida pointed out that in addition to content and form equivalence, style equivalence should also be considered.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida divided functional equivalence into“maximum functional equivalence”and“minimum functional equivalence”since absolute equivalence is impossible to achieve. The so-called“maximum functional equivalence”means that the target readers can understand the original text in a way consistent with the original readers and further appreciate the original text while“minimum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand how the original readers understand and appreciate the original through their understanding of the target text. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Researches on Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Abroad, Beekman(1972: 32) pointed out:“Nida's functional equivalence theory makes theorists and translators believe that a good translation must be able to convey the meaning and dynamics of the original text at the same time.”⑤ <br /> <br /> Wilss(2001: 51) stressed:“Nida's functional equivalence theory can be applied to translation practice because it can achieve effective translation.”⑥ Venuti said:<br /> Functional equivalence theory also eases the debate between translators on“domestication” and “foreignization” from the perspective of language and culture.⑦<br /> <br /> At home, Jin Di(金堤) put forward“equivalence theory”on the basis of“functional equivalence theory”, and applied it to the translation of Ulysses, which illustrates the feasibility of“functional equivalence” theory in practical translation. Tan Zaixi made a comprehensive and systematic summary of the formation process of Nida's translation theory and its profound connotation. In addition, in the CNKI database, retrieval using“functional equivalence theory” as the key word shows that there are 2444 related articles in various core journals and magazines.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Applicability of Functional Equivalence Theory to E-C Translation of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> At present, there are no authoritative translation principles and standards for commercial contract translation, but the three principles of contract translation put forward by Ma Huijuan(马会娟) are highly recognized: First, the words used are accurate and the translation is complete. The translator shall not add, delete or change any information contained in the contract at will. The language of the translation shall be accurate, complete and natural. Second, the organization is clear and the format is equivalent. The translation should correspond to the original text format as a whole and reproduce the structural features of the source language as much as possible. Third, the translation should be in line with the stylistic characteristics of the contract.<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory emphasizes content equivalence, form equivalence and style equivalence. These three requirements are consistent with the three principles above put forward by Ma Huijuan respectively. Both of them limit the translation standards from the aspects of content, form and style. Therefore, the functional equivalence theory can be fully applied to the translation practice of business contracts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Business Contract Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This part focuses on the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. Combining with actual translation cases, this chapter analyzes the common problems in contract translation and puts forward corresponding solutions. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Equivalence at the Lexical Level====<br /> <br /> Vocabulary is the basic component of sentences and chapters. In the specific translation process, if vocabulary translation is not handled well, sentence and chapter translation will be impossible.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Equivalence of Technical Terms—Literal Translation and Free Translation=====<br /> <br /> The contents of business contracts involve all trades and professions, and there are many subject matters, including many professional knowledge and terminology, which is a big obstacle for many translators who do not know the professional knowledge of the industry. Therefore, before translation, translators should understand the relevant industries involved in the contract and master the necessary knowledge in the industry so as to avoid the layman's words and semantic errors in the translation, which will affect the accuracy and formality of the contract and cannot achieve functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> Example1:The balance 80% ( Eighty percent ) of the contract value shall be paid against irrevocable L/C at 360 days sight to be accepted by both parties. <br /> 译文：合同金额的80%（百分之八十）以不可撤销信用证的方式在交单的360 天予以支付。<br /> <br /> Many words in the contract appear in the form of letter abbreviations. As shown in this example,“L/C”is the abbreviation of letter of credit, which is translated literally into“信用证”. This is a well-established translation method in the industry, which can reflect both the equivalence of meaning and the professionalism of language expression.<br /> <br /> Example2:“The seller shall present the following documents required for negotiation or collection to the banks.”<br /> 译文:“卖方应向银行提交议付或托收所需的下列文件。”<br /> <br /> In this sentence,“negotiation”and“collection”are both technical terms of the contract, they are translated into“议付”and“托收” respectively, instead of“谈判”and“收取”. The expressions not only conform to the professional expression of the economic and trade industry, but also accurately reflect the meaning of the original text and achieve the meaning and style equivalence emphasized by the functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> Example3:“UNIT PRICES: FOB Xingang, Tianjing USD 22 150.00 per unit (US Dollars twenty two thousand, one hundred and fifty only)。”<br /> 译文:“单价: FOB天津新港, 每辆22150.00美元（贰万贰仟壹佰伍拾美元）。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“FOB”is an abbreviation of “Free on board”. It can be translated into “FOB” by free translation or by shifting translation. This is mainly because the readers of business contracts themselves are professionals in the industry. They usually exchange price terms in the form of English letters and abbreviations in their daily work. Therefore, when translating such price terms, their source language expressions can be retained.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Equivalence of Archaism—Omission, Addition and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Archaisms are rarely used in modern English, but they are still common in business contracts. They can not only reflect the formal rigour of business contracts, but also highlight the conciseness and clarity of language. The archaisms most commonly used in English business contract are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中), hereinafter(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于), etc.<br /> <br /> Example1:“The parties hereto shall, first of all, settle any dispute arising from or in connection with the contract through amicable negotiation.” <br /> 译文:“合同双方首先应该通过友好协商，解决因合同而发生的或与合同相关的争议。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“hereto”means“本协议的、本合同的”. It can be translated with omission. The contract subject relationship is clear, literal translation will only lead to redundant repetition of the translation, so there is no need to translate it.<br /> <br /> Example2: Now, therefore, in consideration of the recitals set forth above and the mutual covenants, promises, and agreements contained herein, and other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged, the Parties do hereby agree as follows: <br /> 译文：因此，考虑到上述陈述和本协议中包含的共同契约、承诺和协议，以及其他良好和有价值的对价，双方特此达成如下协议，特此确认其接收和充分性。<br /> <br /> In this example, herein usually means“此中，于此”. But such translation here will confuse readers. Therefore, we can adopt addition and translate it into“此协议中”. Although this expression is not as concise as“于此”, accuracy is the first requirement in contract translation.<br /> <br /> Example3: After arrival of goods at port of destination, the buyer shall apply to China Commodity Inspection Bureau (hereinafter referred to as CCIB) for a further inspection as to the specifications and quantity/weight of the goods.<br /> 译文：货到目的港后，买方将申请中国商品检验局(以下简称商检局)对货物的规格和数量重量进行检验。<br /> <br /> In this case, the original meaning of“hereinafter”is“以下，在下文中”. Its original meaning is directly inserted into the sentence, which not only accurately expresses the original meaning, but also makes the translated language natural and smooth, meeting the requirements of functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Equivalence of Formal Words—Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> “Functional Equivalence”emphasizes the transmission of reading experience, requiring the translator to transmit not only language functions but also legal functions, so as to enable the target readers to feel the reading experience of the original readers. <br /> <br /> Example1: The agreement does not operate as an acceptance of any conflicting terms and conditions and shall prevail over any conflicting provision of any purchase order or any other instrument of Customer. <br /> 译文：本协议不接受任何与本协议产生冲突的任何条款。若在乙方订单或任何文件中出现与本协议相冲突的条款，应均以本协议为准。<br /> <br /> Example2:“Time of shipment: within 15 days after receipt of the advance payment and the L/C of balance value to be accepted by the × Bank.” <br /> 译文:“装运日期：收到预付款且剩余货款的信用证被××银行承兑后的15天内装运。”<br /> <br /> In the first example, although the basic meaning of“胜过”is also expressed, it is usually translated into“以....为准” or “效力高于”in legal texts. In the second example, the common meaning of“accept”is “接受”, but in legal translation it is usually translated as “承兑”. Formal words are usually translated according to conventions, so the difficulty in translation lies not in the choice of translation strategies, but in the grasp of semantics and the reproduction of style.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.4 Equivalence of Juxtaposition—Contracted Translation=====<br /> <br /> English business contracts often use two or more synonyms to ensure the uniqueness of words meaning. The functional equivalence theory emphasizes the equivalence of meaning and form, but in the actual translation process, the absolute equivalence between the two, that is, the “maximum functional equivalence”proposed by Nida, is impossible to realize.<br /> <br /> Example1:“The agreement is made and entered into on April 16, 2007 by and between Party A and Party B.”<br /> 译文:“此合同由甲乙双方于2007年4月16日达成。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“made and entered into”and“by and between”are juxtaposed by two pairs of synonyms. When translating, these words only need translate once, which is called contracted translation. <br /> <br /> Example2: This agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the subject matter hereof and supersedes all prior agreements, understanding, warranties, representations, negotiations and discussion, whether oral or written, of the parties except as specifically set forth herein.<br /> 译文：此合同是双方就合同主体所达成的全部协议，将取代双方过往所有口头或书面的协议、理解、声明、保证、谈判和讨论，在此明确阐明的除外。<br /> <br /> In this example, several synonyms are juxtaposed to make the terms of the contract include all relevant matters as much as possible so as to make the writing strict and clear. Here, we can adopt literal translation strategy, keeping the total number of words listed in the original text, and looking for the corresponding Chinese words to achieve the double equivalence of content and form. <br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Equivalence at the Syntactic Level====<br /> <br /> Cliches are commonly used in official document and usually have a fixed translation method. Passive sentences and subordinate clauses have long sentence patterns and complicated logical relations, which tests the translator's translation ability and logical expression ability. <br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Conventional Phrases—Imitation Translation=====<br /> <br /> There are many cliches in business contracts, which are common at the beginning and end of contracts.<br /> <br /> Example1:“In consideration of the mutual covenants contained in this agreement, the parties agree as follows:”<br /> 译文:“考虑到本协议中的共同承诺，协议双方约定如下:”<br /> <br /> Example2:This Agreement may be executed in two or more counterparts, each of which shall be deemed an original and all of which together shall constitute one instrument. <br /> 译文：本协议可签署两个或两个以上的副本，每一副本构成本协议的一份原件，所有副本构成一份法律文件。<br /> <br /> Although the original expression of each text is not the same, the basic meaning is the same. A relatively fixed translation method has been formed, so the translators should know the common expressions in advance, or look for the parallel text to imitate the translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Equivalence of Passive Sentence=====<br /> <br /> Passive voice is a typical language structure in English business contracts. It can effectively reflect the objectivity and fairness of contracts. However, unlike English, passive voice is seldom used in Chinese. Therefore, in translation, we usually use various translation strategies to convert passive voice into active voice. The most common translation strategy is conversion, that is, the object of the original text is converted into the subject, and the subject is converted into the object. <br /> <br /> Example1: This Contract is made by and between the Buyer and the Seller whereby the Buyer agree to buy and the Seller agrees to sell the commodity in attached Annex according to the terms and condition stipulated below: <br /> 译文：买卖双方同意按下述条款购买出售附件中的商品并签订本合同： <br /> <br /> Example2: Agent shall be entitled to nominate mandate other third parties to act upon behalf of Agent in generating business to the Parties, as Agent’s sole discretion. <br /> 译文：代理人有权自行指定、授权其他第三方代表代理人为缔约方带来业务。<br /> <br /> From the first example, “by and between” is used as adverbial in the sentence. The object“the Buyer and the Seller” is the originator of this sentence, which is transformed into the subject of Chinese, and the recipient of the action“this contract”is transformed into the object of Chinese, thus the passive sentence of English is transformed into the active sentence of Chinese. In addition, some passive sentences in business contracts can also be translated into active sentences without changing the subject of the original sentence, as shown in the second example.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Equivalence of Long Sentence—Combination, Division and Reconstruction=====<br /> <br /> Long sentences must contain many clauses and modifiers, and their writing ideas are quite different from those of Chinese. Therefore, how to split the sentences into several parts, how to extract the core meaning of complex logical relations and how to reorganize Chinese are the three major difficulties.<br /> <br /> Example1: Agent’s undertaking and obligation is to search, locate and refer (lead) potential and prospective clients/customers to Principal who are seriously interested, ready, willing and able to apply for the Product. <br /> 译文：代理人的责任和义务是为委托人寻找、定位和推荐（引导）潜在的、真正对本产品感兴趣、准备好且愿意申请的客户。<br /> <br /> This is a restrictive attributive clause. We often adopt a combination method, translating the subordinate clause into“...的” and putting it before the modifier in the form of adjectives. This is mainly due to the structural differences between English and Chinese. The attributive elements in Chinese are not as flexible as the attributive clauses in English. <br /> <br /> Example2: The parties may not assign or transfer this Agreement or any of its rights and obligations under this Agreement without the prior written consent of the other party, which shall not be unreasonably withheld. <br /> 译文：未经另一方事先书面同意，缔约方不得出让或转让本协议或本协议项下的各项权利和义务，此要求不得被无理拒绝。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a non-restrictive attributive clause. Since this clause and the antecedent are not closely related and generally play an explanatory role, we often use division method in E-C translation. That is to say, the two should be separated and naturally combined by repeating antecedents.<br /> <br /> Example3: Should Principal be reasonably sure that Agent violated this rule, or should any client/customer present proof of such violation, Agent will not be entitled to its omission for the particular client or group of clients and Principal may terminate this Agreement with immediate effect at its own discretion. <br /> 译文：如果委托人有理由确定代理人违反了此项规定，或如果有客户提供了其违反此项规定的证据，代理人将无权享这一客户或这一组客户的佣金，委托人可自行终止本协议，即刻生效。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a adverbial clause. The structure of“should+subject+verb”belongs to the unreal conditional sentence. But there is no such usage in Chinese. Therefore, we can reconstruct the original text according to the logical structure of the original sentence and adjust the word order appropriately to make it natural and more in line with the Chinese expression habits. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Equivalence at Textual Level====<br /> <br /> The text consists of sentences, so the following focuses on the cohesion and format of the text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Text Cohesion=====<br /> <br /> Text cohesion is realized through the use of conjunctions and lexical repetition, reflecting the rigour and solemnity of business contract language.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> Thereafter, this Agreement shall be renewed automatically for successive additional one-year terms under the same terms and conditions unless either party chooses not to continue the relationship and provides written notice 30 days prior to the natural expiration of the existing one-year term. <br /> 译文：此后，本协议应以同样的条款自动延期一年，除非任何一方选择解除合作关系，并在一年合同期满前30天提交书面通知。<br /> <br /> Here, explicit connectives,“thereafter, and, unless”are clearly translated, which is conducive to textual cohesion and indicates the logical relationship between sentences. Therefore, we can translate them into “此后、和/并、除非”, which not only realizes the formal equivalence between the translation and the original, but also achieves the semantic equivalence.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Text Format=====<br /> <br /> As one kind of legal documents, commercial contracts are highly normative and have strict writing format. Therefore, attention should be paid to the corresponding format in translation.<br /> <br /> Contract No: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Date: Aug. ××,2013 <br /> <br /> The Buyer: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Representative: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> The seller: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××<br /> <br /> Representative: ××××××<br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> 译文：合同编号：×××××× <br /> <br /> 日期：2013年8月×号 <br /> <br /> 买方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：×××××× <br /> <br /> 卖方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：××××××<br /> <br /> Here, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the contract text, and keep the format of the translation and the original text in alignment during translation. Firstly, capital words with the first letter should be emphasized in terms consistent with Chinese expression habits. Secondly, the parts marked in bold or italics in the contract shall still be marked in bold or italics in the translation.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> To sum up, according to the requirements of functional equivalence theory on translation quality, commercial contract translation should meet the following standards:<br /> <br /> In terms of content, first, the translation language should be natural and fluent and conform to Chinese expression habits. Second, pay attention to the professionalism of the language expression in the translation, avoid using colloquial expressions, and achieve the meaning equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> In terms of format, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the commercial contract text and try our best to achieve the formal equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> In terms of language style, the translation should retain the original language style as much as possible. The business contract language is professional and solemn, so the translation should reproduce the strict and formal legal style of the original text on the premise of ensuring accurate content and natural language.<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes and summarizes specific contract terms and puts forward countermeasures. Although the translation strategies given in this paper have certain universality, the research text is slightly narrower than that of the whole commercial contract text research. Due to the space limitation, the cases provided are limited. Therefore, the scope of the research text should be broadened and analyzed from a broader research perspective in future research.<br /> <br /> ===Notes===<br /> <br /> ① 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998: 310-312.<br /> <br /> ② Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986: 113-120.<br /> <br /> ③ 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2004: 23-27.<br /> <br /> ④ Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993: 119-130. <br /> <br /> ⑤ Beekman, J. &amp; C, John. Translating the word of God[M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974: 191-221.<br /> <br /> ⑥ Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001: 72-86.<br /> <br /> ⑦ Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995: 76-89.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> [1] Beekman, J. &amp; John C. Translating the word of God [M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974. <br /> <br /> [2] Catford, J. C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965. <br /> <br /> [3] Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> [4] Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986.<br /> <br /> [5] Nida, E. A., and R Taber, Charles. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. New York: E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1969.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995.<br /> <br /> [7] Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [8] Yallop, C. The construction of equivalence[A]. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2001.<br /> <br /> [9] 顿官刚. 经贸英语词汇的特点及翻译[J]. 山东外语教学, 2002, (2).<br /> <br /> [10] 廖瑛. 实用公关英语[M]. 上海: 对外经济贸易大学出版社, 2005.<br /> <br /> [11] 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998.<br /> <br /> [12] 苗锡璞. 功能对等理论指导下的商务英语翻译[J]. 内蒙古财经学院学报, 2011, (1).<br /> <br /> [13] 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> [14] 汪洋. 浅析商务合同的词汇与句法翻译技巧[J]. 科技文汇, 2009, (10).<br /> <br /> [15] 金堤. 等效翻译探索[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998.<br /> <br /> [16] 马会娟. 论商务文本翻译标准多元化[J]. 中国翻译, 2005, (3).<br /> <br /> ==The translator's invisibility 张毓婕 Zhang Yujie==<br /> <br /> ==Study of Domestication and foreignization in Cross-cultural Translation 顾东方 Gu Dongfang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's economic globalization, international cultural exchanges are expanding, and translation as a communication tool is also crucial. As a form of cross-cultural and cross-linguistic communication, translation is a kind of communication and interaction between two cultures with very different social backgrounds and cultural traditions. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, the application and selection of translation strategies should not only reflect the translator's style, but also directly affect the audience of the translated work among the target language readers. In 1995, Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization , in The Invisibility of Translators. domestication and foreignization are both opposed and unified, i.e. there is no such thing as absolute domestication or absolute foreignization. This paper will discuss the selection and application of domestication and foreignization in cross-cultural translation, based on the two translation strategies themselves and actual translation cases, so that translators can use these two translation strategies more flexibly in translation to better convey the meaning of the original texts and make the translations reach more readers, and thus promote the communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication and foreignization; cross-cutural; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在经济全球化的今天，国际间文化交流也在不断扩大，而翻译作为一种交流工具也显得至关重要。作为一种跨文化、跨语言交际的形式，翻译是一种社会背景与文化传统很不相同的两种文化间的交流与交往。因此，在跨文化翻译中，翻译策略的运用与选择不仅仅要体现出译者的风格，也会直接影响译作在目的语读者中的受众程度。美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出了归化与异化两种翻译策略。归化与异化，既对立又统一，也即绝对的归化或者绝对的异化都是不存在的。本文将从归化与异化这两种翻译策略的本身出发，并结合实际翻译案例，来探讨归化与异化在跨文化翻译当中的选择与运用，使得译者能够在翻译中更灵活地使用这两种翻译策略，更好地传达出原作的意蕴，使译作受众于更多的读者，以此促进不同文化之间的交流。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化与异化；跨文化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1. Definitions of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Domestication is to localize the original language and focuses on the target language or readers by conveying the original text in the way target readers are familiar with. In order to close the readers of target texts.Domesticated translation requires the translator to speak like a native author, and the translation must become authentic to the native language if the original author is to speak directly to the readers. It helps the reader to better understand the translation and enhances the readability and enjoyment of the translation.<br /> Foreignization is that the translator tries not to disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader can get closer to the author&quot;. In translation, it means to accommodate the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorb foreign expressions, require the translator to approach the author, and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the original content. The purpose of the foreignization strategy is to consider about the differences in national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationalities and linguistic styles, and to preserve the exoticism of the translated text for the readers.<br /> <br /> ===2.The relationship between literal translation and free translation ,and domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Historically, foreignization and domestication can be seen as extensions of, but not identical to, literal and free translation. The terms &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot; are English translation version. Literal translation is a kind of method or text that keeps the original content and the form of the original text. Free translation means that it keeps only the content of the original text, not the form of the original text. Literal translation appeared during the May 4th Movement, emphasizing the need for faithfulness to the original text so that the translation can be &quot;expressive&quot; and &quot;elegant&quot;. Literal translation does not mean translating word for word in mechanical way. Since English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate them word for word. Literal translation is to fully and accurately clarify the meaning of the original work, without any distortion or random addition or deletion of the original ideas to maintain the original style. Sometimes even the original mood or emotion, such as anger or embarrassment, sarcasm or irony, joy or happiness, should not be ignored. Fu Si Nian and Zheng Zhenduo both advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, literal translation is the overriding rule. The work of Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren, The Collected Works of Extra-territorial Novels, is regarded as the representative of literal translation. The free translation, on the other hand, starts from the meaning and requires only the main idea of the original text to be expressed without excessive attention to detail, but a natural flow of the translation. In translation, if we cannot directly adopt the structure and expression of the original, we must change the sentence structure and expression to convey the meaning of the original according to the form and characteristics of the expression. Since there are many differences between the original language and the translated language in word order, grammar, changing forms and rhetoric, we can only use appropriate ways to convey the meaning of the original and reproduce the effect of the original. Mr. Jing-Shen Zhao once said, &quot;A smooth and fluent version is better than one that focuses only on fidelity to the original&quot;. Obviously, Mr. Zhao was in favor of foreignization, and so did Mr Yan Fu. Foreignization has been used in many works of Yan Fu, for example, the Evolution and Ethics is a typical example . In literal translation, faithful to the original form should be placed first, followed by faithful to the original content, again the fluency and popularity of translated language; while in free translation, faithful to the original content should be placed first, translation language fluency and popularity of the second, but free translation is not limited to the form of the original. Some scholars often discuss literal translation, free translation and domestication and foreignization together, which is understandable, but it is necessary to make a distinction. Based on the level of language and culture,domestication and foreignization focus more on the use of language from the perspective of cultural differences and are a kind of translation strategy, while literal and free translation is a translation technique, which is only at the level of language. There may be only one main translation strategy for a text or a work, but each strategy may use both literal and free translation methods, and each method serves the general direction of the translation strategy. The choice of the main translation strategy depends on the purpose of the translation, if it is to maximize the understanding of foreign cultures or cross-cultural comparative study, then the main focus is on foreignization; if it is to understand the information or story development through reading, then the domestication may be the best choice. Taking the translation of the famous work Dream of the Red Chamber as an example, there are two versions by two masters, Yang Xianyi and Hawkes, the former adopts foreignization to deal with the cultural factors in the language, that is, to keep the source culture as much as possible in the translation, while Hawkes adopts domestication in order to avoid the conflict between two different cultures, Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. National and international research on the development of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> <br /> ===3.1.The history of the development of domestication and foreignization abroad.===<br /> The German translator Schleiermacher, in his work, On the Different Methods of Translation, elaborated the need for translations to bring the reader as close as possible to the original author, and for the first time introduced the concepts of domestication and foreignization.<br /> At the same time, in the British academic circles of the time, domestication was the main translation strategy, but Francis Newman in England, when discussing the transl ation work on Homer, advocated that translators should consciously translate in the ancient language to emphasize the heterogeneity of the work.<br /> In the 1960s A.D., Nida proposed the theory of domestication for the first time in many structuralist theoretical works, and since then the climax of the debate on domestication and foreignization rose on the stage in western translation field . In Nida's view, domesticated translation does not need to stick to the form of the original text, but only needs to express the content with the closest and most natural equivalent in the translated text to achieve equivalence.<br /> The French theorist Antoinette Bellman deplored the tendency of eliminating foreignization in translation through the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot;. He said: &quot;The proper theoretical goal of the translation action is to accept heterogeneity as it is.&quot; This view seems to have an impact on Venuti's strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot; .<br /> In his book The Invisibility of the Translator, Italian scholar Venuti discusses the &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator by combining the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization for the first time. He strongly advocates foreignization and questions domestication, arguing that domestication is essentially a means of cultural colonization by Western colonizers. At the same time, he also suggests that the purpose of translation is not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express linguistic and cultural differences.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Domestic development history on domestication and foreignization===<br /> The earliest translations of Buddhist scriptures have included the debate between assimilation and dissimilation. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the translator Zhiqian pioneered the translation style of using free translation instead of transliteration, which had far-reaching significance and influence in history.<br /> At the end of the 19th century, several other great translators emerged in Chinese history, and Yan Fu was one of them. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, foreign powers invaded extensively and the Chinese nation faced an existential crisis, under such a background, Yan Fu believed that translation must be carefully chosen based on the social and historical reality of the country into which it is translated. In the translation, the translator should take the literary tradition of the nation and the specific historical and cultural purpose as the main purpose, combining the cultural and linguistic background of the readers. The translator should not focus on how to be &quot;faithful to the original&quot;, but how to adapt to the social and cultural choices of the time.<br /> With the rise of the May 4th New Culture Movement, many translators tried to learn from foreign literature in order to transform literature and society.Lu Xun's most famous dictum relating to translation was &quot;I'd rather be faithful than smooth&quot;, and advocated &quot;preserving the foreign flavor as much as possible&quot; and &quot;the need for exoticism&quot;. <br /> After the founding of New China, China's translation industry entered the third high point, and a large number of Western and Soviet works were introduced, which was connected with the spiritual needs of people at that time. After the reform and opening up, with the influx of Western translation ideas, &quot;foreignization&quot; has emerged. Many scholars have put forward the idea that &quot;Foreignization is primary while domestication is supplementary&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===4.domestication and foreignization of cultural exchange translation===<br /> <br /> ===4.1the relationship between culture and language===<br /> In a broad sense, culture refers to the material and spiritual wealth created and accumulated by human beings in the course of social development; in a narrower sense, it refers to the ideology of society and the system of organizational constructs that corresponds to it. Culture has the following four basic characteristics 1) culture is owned and shared by all members of a society; 2) culture is acquired rather than inherited; 3) culture is biologically based; and 4) culture is based on a symbolic system. The relationship between language and culture is between the part and the whole; language is a subsystem of culture, and language cannot exist apart from culture; it embodies all the beliefs and emotions of a cultural group. Language and culture interact and influence each other and are inseparable. Based on the close relationship between language and culture, more consideration should be given to cultural factors in translation research, which means that translation research should be carried out in a more macro context. Translators should be aware of enough cultural differences when dealing with the cultural differences between the original language and the target language. Due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese, many English and Chinese phrases, although literally having the same or similar meanings, are inherently different. Therefore, a word-for-word translation without considering cultural factors can lead to ambiguity.<br /> <br /> ===4.2 Translatability and untranslatability of cultures===<br /> On the one hand, the similarity of human experience worldwide contributes to the translatability of cultures. In this regard, Nida has said that &quot;all human beings eat, work, sleep and procreate, and they produce objects such as furniture, tools and vehicles. They also organize themselves into families, clans, internal and external groups, nations and inter-national organizations. They have a conscious similarity in their views of the universe, values, religion and supernatural forces. In fact, the different groups of people in the world have much more in common with each other than they do with each other.&quot; It is the similarity of the cultures of different peoples that allows people of different cultures to understand each other and makes translation possible. Nida thus states, &quot;Linguists and anthropologists have discovered that what binds human beings together far outweighs what alienates them, and this is the basis for generating communication.&quot; Many expressions that are unique to one culture can be found almost identically in a culture and become the best evidence of cultural translatability.<br /> On the other hand, each people has a culture that is distinct from the others, which hinders mutual understanding with the others and may even cause cultural shock. Due to different cultural inheritances, the languages of different nationalities have their own symbol systems and lexical, syntactical and grammatical characteristics, which often make them untranslatable. For example, the Chinese phrase &quot;客上天然居，居然天客&quot; is one of the examples of untranslatable culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.3 Factors influencing cultural translation strategies===<br /> <br /> ===4.3.1.Motives and objectives of translation===<br /> <br /> Different motivations and purposes for translation lead to different translation principles and methods<br /> <br /> ===4.3.2.Text type===<br /> <br /> Different texts influence the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord, translation can be divided into instrumental translation, which refers to the means of transferring information from the source language to the target language, and documentary translation, which refers to the means of transferring information about communication activities from the source language to the target language. This type of translation emphasizes the transmission and conveyance of information and mainly includes non-literary writing, including advertising, media writing, scientific writing, propaganda and announcements, etc. With this method of translation, which is guided by the culture of the target language, the information that needs to be conveyed can be better expressed and accessed. The other type of text is documentary translation. This type of translation refers to the presentation of real communicative activities and information to the target language readers. The term &quot;documentary translation&quot; is appropriate for translating (language-)-specific expressions, where translation of language and content are equally important. eter Newmark distinguishes between communicative and semantic translation of such texts, emphasizing the &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot; of the message. &quot; in order to achieve the same effect on the readers of the original language as on those of the target language. Although this type of translation is a subjective process, the translator will attach great importance to the effect of the translation on the reader's mind. By reorganizing and rearranging the order of sentences, the translator will eliminate obscurities and ambiguities in order to achieve &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot;. Most non-literary writing, informative articles and books, as well as textbooks, bulletins, standardized writing, and novels are suitable for this type of communicative translation; because it emphasizes the need to have the same effect on both the original and target language readers, it often uses expressions that are customary and easily understood in the language in which they are written. Thus, communicative translation is equivalent to naturalized translation, where the translator's preference for idiomatic expressions is produced or determined by the translator's preference for the target language. Semantic translation attempts to get as close as possible to the exact meaning of the original text in terms of wording. Semantic translation focuses on the expression of the exact meaning of the content in order to preserve as accurate a style of the original text as possible. This type of translation is an objective process during which the translator focuses only on whether the translation is precise and retains the flavor of the original text. In this type of translation, the translator tries to preserve the semantic and syntactic structure of the original text, as well as the tone of the original text, etc. semantic translation applies to autobiographies, private correspondence, personal emotional texts and quotations. A semantic translation is equivalent to an alien translation in an attempt to achieve the preservation of the flavour of the original, due to the translator's original language preference.<br /> <br /> ===4.3.3Acceptance by readers===<br /> In the past, traditional translation theories placed one-sided emphasis on extra-author-centred and text-centred research, neglecting the involvement of translators and target language readers. Modern reception aesthetics considers the reader not as an unimportant and unnecessary perspective, but as a historical, active and creative factor in the relationship between author, text and reader. This is why different people have different interpretations of the same text of Hamlet. Naida was influenced by the acceptance of the aesthetic sub. His theory and practice of translation are very much focused on the readers' reflection. He pointed out that &quot;Judging the validity of a translation does not stop at the comparison of word meanings, grammar and rhetoric; what is important is the extent to which the recipient is able to understand and appreciate the translation correctly.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===4.4the cultural school of translation===<br /> In 1990, the representatives of the cultural school of translation, Bassnett and Lefevere, in their co-edited book Translation, History and Culture, formally proposed the slogan of &quot;Cultural Turn of Translation&quot;, which also marked the official emergence of the cultural school of translation. In the following years, they published several monographs, individually or together, discussing about the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. In the following years, they published several monographs, either individually or jointly, to discuss the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. Unlike the literary or linguistic schools of translation in the past, the cultural school is a school with a strong &quot;revolutionary&quot; element in translation theory, and some people even consider their views to be &quot;subversive&quot; to the previous translation theories. This is mainly because they especially emphasize the status of culture in translation and the importance of translation to the spread of culture and the promotion of social and cultural progress. Other translators, such as Lambert and Robyns, argue that translation is more accurately regarded as a communication activity between two cultures than as a bilingual conversion activity. Therefore, they believe that translation activity is a cultural conversion. In recent years, Chinese scholars have done some research and reflection on the essence of translation. In the researches of many scholars, under the current globalization environment ,the importance of translation to cultural exchange and communication is getting more and more attention from people. For example, Lv Jun proposes that &quot;translation is a kind of cross-cultural information exchange activities, and its essence is dissemination. To a certain extent, the viewpoint of Chinese scholars and the Western cultural schools can be said to echo each other. Language is not only a carrier of information, but also a carrier of culture. Therefore, in essence, translation as a kind of inter-linguistic communication, it is not only the conversion of language information , but also the transplantation of cultural information. Therefore, in essence, translation is not only a language information conversion, but also a cultural communication activity.<br /> <br /> ===5. discussion domestication and foreignization from translation examples===<br /> <br /> ===5.1 Application of domestication in English-Chinese Translation===<br /> Chinese famous writer Mo Yan has won the Nobel Prize for Literature for a series of works including Fatigue of Life and Death (2006) and Frog (2009) and American sinologist Ge Haowen should also be credited , who was called “the only midwife of Mo Yan’s works”.Ge's translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out reflects his consistent principle: &quot;The author is writing for the Chinese, while I am translating for foreigners,translating is a process of rewriting”. Ge Haowen did a lot of rewriting and compilation based on respecting the original work, and in the translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out, the domesticated translation reflects his relentless pursuit of &quot;accuracy&quot;, &quot;readability&quot; and &quot;acceptability&quot;. <br /> <br /> 例一： 常言道‘螃蟹过河随大流’，‘识时务者为俊杰’，不要顽固不化，不要充当挡路的石头，不要充硬汉子。<br /> <br /> Join the commune and stop working for yourself, end your quest for independence.Stop being headstrong,and an obstructionist.<br /> <br /> “螃蟹过河随大流” is a two-part allegorical saying in Chinese folks . It means &quot;following the majority of people to speak or act&quot;. A post-slip is a short, witty phrase that can be used as a philosophical and wisdom-boosting phrase. A man who knows the times is a hero&quot; is an idiom derived from a historical allusion, meaning &quot;only those who can recognize the trend of the times can become heroes and heroines&quot;. Ge Haowen domesticated these two slang expressions: first, because they have the same meaning as the one that follows: &quot;Don't be stubborn ...... don't be a tough guy anymore&quot;, which is used to kindly advise people who are unable to see the current affairs of the day, but are still stubbornly stubborn. The deletion of these two daily phrases does not affect the main content of the narrative and the expression of ideas in the context. Secondly, there is the concern that the translation may not produce the desired effect of depth, image, and humor as the source language. And then there is the fact that the target language readers are relatively unfamiliar with Chinese slang, so it is better to delete it directly than to translate it to increase the readers' reading burden and affect their understanding and grasp of the whole text. Ge Haowen's domesticated translation method reflects his holistic view of discourse as a unit<br /> <br /> 例二：但一个二十多岁就当了县级领导干部的人，和农村姑娘结婚的可能性几乎是零，无论她貌如西施还是色比婵娟。<br /> <br /> There was no chance that a leading country-level cadre in his twenties would ever actually marry a peasant girl , no matter how pretty or fetching she might be.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaojun ,Xishi, Diao Chan and Yang Yuhuan were the main characters with unique beauty at that time in historical illusions ,named as “Four Beauties in ancient times”.In the original work, Mo Yan chose only two historical figures, &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, to contrast and emphasize the beauty of rural girls. In the process of translation, Ge did not translate &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, nor did he make any commentary, but took into account the target audience's alienation from the historical allusion to the Four Beauties. Therefore, he adopt a domesticated translation method to make a simplification, breaking the constraints of the original language and enhancing the readability of the translation, without deviating from the original meaning.<br /> In the above example, when dealing with unfamiliar allusions or common sayings and proverbs, Ge Haowen boldly rewrote and deleted them, translating the work from the reader's point of view, so that the target readers will be pleased with his translation.<br /> 5.2 The Application of Foreignization in English-Chinese Translation<br /> The nature of foreignization is such that it deals with elements of the original language that are culturally distinctive, and the result of the translation is to bring in new forms of expression that are different from the mother tongue and the cultural connotations attached to them. Language is an open system with a strong capacity for absorption and inclusion. With the deepening of communication among countries and peoples, various languages have been enriched to different degrees, and variant translation plays a more important role in this process. In Chinese, the terms &quot;internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot; are used to refer to the &quot;Internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot;. &quot;Time is money&quot;, &quot;ivory tower&quot;, &quot;washroom&quot;.... (crocodile tears), &quot;black humor&quot; , and &quot;qi gong&quot; ), &quot;taijiquan&quot; , &quot;kong fu&quot; , &quot;typhon” These words did not originally exist in the Chinese and English language systems. However, translators make a large number of words with exoticism in the way of foreignization more popular and acceptable among the massive culture . Therefore, foreignization is not only beneficial to introduce local history and culture to foreign countries, but also gives local readers the opportunity to understand foreign customs and realize the purpose of cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> 例一.打破铁饭碗<br /> <br /> Break the”iron rice bowl”<br /> <br /> &quot;Iron rice bowl&quot; is a Chinese idiom, in Chinese we compare &quot;rice bowl&quot; to an occupation, while &quot;iron rice bowl&quot; refers to a stable job, no doubt, it is difficult to convert such words with obvious Chinese characteristics into the target language through the method of &quot;domestication&quot;, but foreignization not only retains the imagery of the source language, but also introduces the unique culture of China to Western readers.<br /> 例二.下海<br /> <br /> A.to jump into the sea of business<br /> <br /> B.To turn professional<br /> <br /> In the early days of reform and opening up, the word “jumping into the sea of business” was popular, mainly meaning the trend of doing business.For this new phenomenon ,translators adopt different methods. Text A used foreignization and direct translation while the later domestication. In comparison, the former was more expressive and vivid, conveying the meaning of source language in a proper way.<br /> Domestication and foreignization is more apparent in the literary translation. Here I will take the translation of Dream of the Red Chamber as an example and compare the translations of Mr. and Mrs. Yang Xianyi ,and Mr. Hawkes. The translation of Dream of the Red Chamber by Yang Xianyi and his wife is a typical representative of foreignization, which is highly praised by domestic readers, but some scholars have conducted a survey and found that it is far inferior to the British sinologist David Hawks in terms of the number of borrowed readers, citations and reprinted editions. Why the &quot;cold shoulder&quot;? Let's find out by comparing and analyzing some examples of the two translations.<br /> <br /> 例一.刘姥姥道: “这倒不然。谋事在人，成事在天。咱们谋到了，靠菩萨的保佑，有些机会，也未可知。”<br /> <br /> A.“ Don’t be so sure,” said Granny Liu. “Man proposes, Heaven disposes. Work out a plan,trust to Buddha,and something may come of it for all you know.”<br /> <br /> B.“ I wouldn’t say that.”said Grannie Liu.”Man proposes, God disposes.It is up to us to think of something. We must leave it to the good Lord to decide whether He’ll help us or not. Who knows, he might give us the opportunity we are looking for.”<br /> <br /> Dream of the Red Chamber is a literary work full of Buddhist and Taoist thoughts. Yang Xianyi and Hawks have different approaches to the phrase“谋事在人，成事在天”， which also reflects different religious thoughts. In Yang's translation, &quot;God&quot; is replaced by &quot;Heavenly Father,&quot; which is in line with the Chinese religious belief that Heavenly Father in control of everything, while retaining the religious flavor of the source culture. However, Hawks gave priority to the religious background and acceptance of the English readers, so he adopted the English proverb directly without any modification, thus transforming the Buddhism and Taoism in the East to Christianity in the West, in accordance with western religious belief and thinking ways.<br /> The two translations have their own merits. The choice of translation strategies is based on different objectives. Mainly depending on the foreignization stategy, Mr. and Mrs. Yang tried to spread Chinese literature classics and convey Chinese traditional culture originally.However, they didn't get the desired results.One of the main reasons is that Mr. and Mrs. Yang regard faithfulness as the first priority and overemphasize the foreign culture of the translated works, neglecting to consider the reception environment and the recognition of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===6.Conclusion===<br /> With the continuous expansion of international cultural exchanges, the human cultural gap is gradually narrowing, language as an important carrier of culture has also been affected by the same, an appropriate increase in the use of &quot;foreign&quot; translation,can not only inject the new elements into domestic culture, but also promote the spread of local culture, achieve cross-cultural exchange and accelerate the process of &quot;cultural globalization&quot;. It should be pointed out foreignization is not at the expense of forgetting one's own culture, on the contrary, it is based on the familiarity with other cultures, and then carry out painstaking, creative translation work. To give more attention to &quot;alienation&quot; translation is not to deny, reject the domesticated translation method, because domestication and foreignization play an irreplaceable rol in the target language and culture.Therefore, the two translations will always co-exist and complement each other. Flexible use of foreignization and domestication is the real way of addressing the cultural conflicts.<br /> <br /> ===7.Reference===<br /> 1. 王瑛. &quot;跨文化翻译中的归化和异化.&quot; 内蒙古财经学院学报(综合版) 03(2007):83-87.<br /> <br /> 2. 周永堃. &quot;归化异化在跨文化翻译中的选择与运用——以《红楼梦》和《生死疲劳》为例.&quot; 邵阳学院学报(社会科学版) 18.01(2019):103-108.<br /> <br /> 3.王红卫. &quot;跨文化交际翻译方法:归化和异化策略.&quot; 西南民族学院学报(哲学社会科学版) 9(2002):250-253.<br /> <br /> 4.熊兵. &quot;文化交流翻译的归化与异化.&quot; 中国科技翻译 16.003(2003):5-9.<br /> <br /> 5.刘苹. &quot;中国翻译史上的归化和异化.&quot; 滨州学院学报 24.001(2008):74-75.<br />  <br /> <br /> ==The Translation Strategies of Chinese Political Discourse under the Standard of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; 高明珠 Gao Mingzhu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With the development of globalization, the political communication among countries is more and more frequent, and the translation of political terms has gradually become one of the heated topics in the translation field. Political discourse translation is challenging, because not only does it concern the relationship between countries, national status, political attitude and other important issues, but also it is developmental. Political neologisms will keep emerging, and some political terms will contain new connotations with the advancement of the times. In addition to the above characteristics, Chinese political discourse has many affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases, metaphors.In 2008, Yang Mingxing and other scholars put forward the &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; based on Eugene Nida's &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; theory for the translation of Chinese political discourse, which pointed out that the translation of political discourse should follow the three principles of &quot;political&quot;, &quot;dynamic&quot; and &quot;balanced&quot;. On the basis of some related papers, this chapter will sum up the specific strategies such as supplement, omission, keeping or converting analogical body, adding explanation and narration for translating Chinese political discourse with characteristics of having lots of affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases and metaphors following the guidance of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> political equivalence Chinese political discourse translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着全球化的发展，各国间的政治交流愈加频繁，政治话语的翻译也逐渐成为翻译界讨论热点之一。政治话语的翻译是具有挑战性的，不仅是因为它关系到国与国之间的关系、国家地位、政治态度等重要问题，而且因为政治词汇是发展性的，政治词汇中会不断有新的词汇涌进，且某些政治词汇会随着时代的发展而增加新的内涵。而中国政治话语除了具有以上特点，它还有多词缀、缩写、四字短语[1]，多用隐喻等修辞手法的特点。2008年，杨明星等学者针对中国政治话语的翻译，基于尤金·奈达的“功能对等”理论提出了“政治等效”翻译标准，该标准指出政治话语的翻译要遵循“政治性”、“动态性”、“平衡性”三大原则。本文基于相关文献，总结出在该标准下，对中国政治话语在具有多词缀、缩写、四字短语及多采用隐喻这几个特点下的翻译可采用的具体的翻译策略，如增补法、省略法[1]、喻体保留法（完全保留、部分保留）、喻体转换法、喻底补充法、喻义直叙法[2]等。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 政治等效 中国政治话语 翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction of Background===<br /> <br /> Political discourse is mainly embodied in different types of communication carriers and discourse behaviors that elaborate a country's foreign policies, governance mechanisms or political ideas, including oral expression and written expression. Oral expressions includes leaders' speeches, the contents conveyed by various government agencies' press conferences, and written expressions includes diplomatic documents, white papers, legal provisions, treaties, agreements and communiques issued by relevant state agencies. With the improvement of China's comprehensive national strength and the continuous expansion of its global influence, the study of the translation standards, principles, strategies of Chinese political discourse has become an important topic in the field of translation. A study has shown that domestic political discourse translation studies started in 2000 and entered a stage of rapid development with the convening of the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012. The current research hot spots of political discourse translation include the translation of Xi Jinping's speeches and works, the application of various translation laws and interpretive theories, the principle of political equivalence and the theory of ecological translation(Chu Xingjun 2020,36).<br /> <br /> ===2. The Significance of Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> This chapter holds that the significance of political discourse translation mainly involves two aspects----politics and linguistics. Firstly, in terms of politics, translating political discourse is to facilitate the political communication between countries, show the country's political attitude, theory and policy to the outside world. Political discourse translation plays a significant role in promoting the relationship between the countries, taking one’s stand, safeguarding one’s national interests and shaping one’s national image and so on. Secondly, in terms of linguistics, political terms are developmental. With the advance of the times and the rapid development of the world, new political terms will constantly emerge, which is also the process of language expansion. The study of the translation of new words is not only the bounden duty of translators, but also of great significance to the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Difficulties in Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> The difficulties are mainly reflected in three aspects. Firstly, the translator should correctly understand the political connotation of the source language and translate it as the target language faithfully. Secondly, different expression ways between two languages. There are rare equivalent words in both languages, so when translating the source language as the target language, the expression habits of the target language users should be taken as account, so as to facilitate the target language users to accurately understand the original meaning. Especially, Chinese political discourse often present metaphor rhetoric which may not be easy for foreigners to understand, thus when translating such words, methods that we can adopt not only include literal translation, transliteration plus explanation, but also sometimes it would be better to translate those words on the basis of the target language’s culture to make the translation more vivid and help readers understand the meaning accurately. In a word, be more flexible in adopting methods according to different cases; Finally, the same political term may have different meanings in different contexts, or it may require translators to adopt different translation methods in different contexts. In addition, the connotation of some political terms will develop with the advance of The times. Therefore, translators should keep up with current events and deal with them flexibly in translation.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Connotations of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal and connotation of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard<br /> <br /> In 2008, US Department of Defense mistranslated the term &quot;韬光养晦&quot; to propaganda &quot;China threat theory&quot;. Therefore, based on Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, a scholar, Yang Mingxing, proposed the translation concept of &quot;political equivalence&quot; for the first time from the perspective of international relations and diplomatic analysis (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). The connotation of this concept mainly involves three aspects: firstly, the translator needs to truthfully convey the political thought of the source language as well as the speaker; secondly, when translating, the translator should choose the target language according to the expression ways that the target language users get used to, so that the information and political thoughts brought by the target text to the target language users are equivalent to those brought by the source text to the source language users; Thirdly, in different contexts and historical backgrounds, the connotations of political discourse will be different. Translators' translation should keep pace with the times and be determined in accordance with the situation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). In 2012, Yang Mingxing and other scholars further proposed three prominent principles or characteristics of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; translation standard: political, balanced and dynamic (Yang Mingxing, Yan Da 2012, 35). Among them, political nature, namely accurately grasping the political connotation of the source language, is the most prominent characteristic, which is determined by the strong political color of the political terms themselves. Balance means to strike a balance among source language, target language, speaker and audience without focusing on either side, and strive to make the effect produced by the translation in the foreign readers be similar or equivalent to that produced by the original text in local readers. Dynamic means that the equivalent process mentioned above is a dynamic equivalent process. Because political terms’ connotation changes with the advance of the times and varies from different contexts, translators need to keep pace with the times, follow up the connotation development of political terms, and translate flexibly according to different situations. In 2018, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed a compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + aesthetic representation&quot; on the basis of the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; (Yang Mingxing, Qi Jingjing 2018,15). This standard was put forward in the context of the appearance of ancient poetry in political discourse. Besides meeting the requirements of &quot;political equivalence&quot; mentioned above, this standard asks to take the literary beauty of ancient poetry and prose, such as rhythm, form, artistic conception, etc as account. In January 2020, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed another compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + image representation&quot; based on the frequently used the rhetoric device metaphor in political discourse(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2018,41). The purpose of realizing &quot;image reproduction&quot; and &quot;aesthetic reproduction&quot; is basically similar, both of which are to reproduce the aesthetic experience of the original text. In October 2020, Yang Mingxing and some other scholars made a review of several major diplomatic event in the Sino-British diplomatic history and put forward that the realization of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard should not only rely on the translator's ability, but also have some connections with the national policy of translation, translation system and equal speaking rights between two countries, among which equal speaking right is the key to realize &quot;political equivalence&quot;(Yang Mingxing 2020,05).<br /> <br /> (2)The differences between “political equivalence” and “functional equivalence” put forward by Nida<br /> <br /> Firstly, the &quot;equivalence&quot; emphasized by Nida does not pay enough attention to the political color of the original text in translation, ignoring the particularity of diplomatic or political discourse, and that whether the original text and translation are quite consistent in political standpoint and political connotation. Secondly, although functional equivalence pays attention to the information equivalence between the original text and the translated text, it does not pay enough attention to the real intention of the speaker of the original text, because the literal meaning of the original text cannot be equal with the political standpoint and ideological connotation of the speaker. Thirdly, the &quot;dynamic&quot; concept Nida proposed in “functional equivalence” theory ignores the dynamic changes in context and connotation of original text and translation, that is, for diplomatic or political discourse, the meaning of the original text is contemporary and does not remain unchanged. It changes constantly with the speaker's context, political tendency and historical background at that time. On the other hand, the target language is also dynamic, because the meaning and usage of the target language are constantly changing, the translator must keep track of the latest development of the target language and the domestic political and cultural background of the target audience (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> In a word, the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; is an important theory aiming at the translation of foreign affairs, diplomacy and political discourse, and provides theoretical guidance and normative requirements for the translation of political terms.<br /> <br /> ===5. Requirements of “Political Equivalence” for Translators ===<br /> <br /> First of all, pay attention to being close to both the source language and the target language, and grasp the relationship between the speaker or writer and the audience or reader. The translation should not only accurately convey the context meaning of the source language and the speaker's real intention, but also take the language habits and the way of thinking of the target language users into consideration, so as to achieve a mutual &quot;identity&quot; between the speaker or writer and the audience or reader. The translation of political discourse should not only correctly understand and express China's policy thoughts, but also fully consider the national emotions, language habits and identity psychology of the receiving country. If the translation only focuses on one side, it will be difficult to achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; and even cause political events (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;political equivalence&quot; must be dynamic. This kind of dynamic is not only related to the accurate understanding of the original text, but also involves the proper selection and use of the target language. It must always be in line with the context and political background of the speaker or writer as well as the audience or reader, which is the key to the realization of &quot;political equivalence&quot;. To translate political discourse or terms only by looking up the dictionary without considering the context is bound to make the translation be quite different from the original in meaning (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Thirdly, translation strategies should be flexible and diversified, and language forms should be constantly adjusted. To achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; in political terms translation, the translation strategies cannot be single, rigid, and the translation either cannot be confined to the primitive form of the original text, the original and even the extended concepts or connotations of the words in it. Translators should make the necessary adjustment and bold choices in supplement and omission to the language form of the original text in accordance with the context and the real thoughts of the speaker or writer and the background of the political relationships between the two countries. Idioms, allusions, myths and fables are the quintessence of a nation's language with its own characteristics, and they are the difficulties and key points in political terms translation. There are great differences between English and Chinese rhetorical devices, so it is necessary to strictly distinguish their differences in cultural connotation and political orientation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Fourthly, we should be familiar with the differences between English and Chinese customs, cultures, national feelings and ideologies. In the era of globalization, translation is not only the transformation of language symbols, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication behavior. The translation of political discourse is closely related to the cultural background of language. Due to the differences between China and West in way of thinking and language environment, corresponding words in English and Chinese have different national emotion and political connotation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Fifthly, master the background knowledge of China's foreign policy and international relations to ensure political correctness in the translation of political terms. Many countries have such sensitive issues as appellation, ethnicity, religion, sovereignty and territory. These are the &quot;minefields&quot; of political translation. When translating, one must handle it carefully and respect the language and cultural habits of the other party, otherwise it will easily lead to &quot;translation storm&quot; and affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> lastly, the grammatical phenomena and rules peculiar to English cannot be ignored. In English, there are many grammatical rules different from Chinese, such as tense, voice, subjunctive mood, singular and plural, case, article, etc. These language forms seem to have little effect, but if used improperly, they will often affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> ===6. Translation Straties under The Standard of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of the standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot;, the following translation strategies are provided for reference on the characteristics of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> (1) Characteristics of Chinese political discourse<br /> <br /> Affixes are often seen in Chinese political discourse such as “化” in &quot;现代化&quot; and &quot;城镇化&quot;, so are abbreviations like &quot;‘十四五’规划&quot;, &quot;四个自信&quot;, etc., and four-character phrases such as &quot;和平共处&quot;, &quot;和而不同&quot;, etc. Besides, metaphor is also used frequently in Chinese political discourse such as &quot;‘老虎’、‘苍蝇’一起打&quot;, among which &quot;老虎(tiger)&quot; and &quot;苍蝇(flies)&quot; refer to officials accused of bribery and corruption. So, how do we translate these words that have Chinese language characteristics but need us to take their political implications as consideration? Pointing at these characteristics, some scholars have proposed specific translation strategies based on the &quot;political equivalence&quot;standard.<br /> <br /> (2) The strategies of supplement and omission for affixes, four-character phrases and abbreviations(Wu Jing 2014, 30)<br /> <br /> ① supplement<br /> <br /> The supplement strategy is to add words appropriately in the translation so as to convey the meaning of the original text accurately. In the foreign translation of Chinese political terms, this strategy is mainly applicable to two situations. Firstly, the abbreviation, which is a refined utterance of many political words for the convenience of memory. When the target language users don’t have relevant knowledge or language background about those abbreviations, supplementary explanation plays its role. Secondly, four-character phrases. Four-character phrases are typical examples of Chinese expressions. In order to conform to the expression habits of the target language, these condensed words should be supplemented and explained so that the audience can understand the meaning of the original text correctly.<br /> <br /> The strategy of supplement can be applied to the following situations: firstly, supplement relevant knowledge background. For example, “‘十四五’规划”is translated by China Daily as “the 14th Five-Year Plan(2021-25) for economic and social development”. In the translation, “十四”is translated as “the 14th” and“五” is translated as “Five-Year”, which adds category words to those numbers and time horizon as well as the nature of the plan to the content; Secondly, supplement detailed content to abbreviations. For example,“四个自信”is translated as “confidence in the path, theory, system and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics.”<br /> <br /> ②Omission<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belong to two kinds of language families, having great differences from vocabulary to the sentence structure, expression ways, etc. There are very little equivalent words in the two languages, so in order to make the translation smoother and be more in line with the expression ways of the target language, translator can use the strategy----omission, namely omitting those expressions without practical significance but hindering translation work, on the basis of being loyal to the original text.<br /> <br /> The strategy of omission is often used in the process of translation from Chinese to English, and the translation of Chinese political terms is no exception. For emphasizing, Chinese political leaders often use parallel sentences or repeated words, so we can omit those repeated words in the translation. For example, “治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字仍然在扩大。”can be translated as “Governance, trust, development and peace deficits continue to grow.” In addition, there are situations where multiple sentences express the same meaning, in which omission is also available. For example, “改善人民生活，增进人民福祉。”can be translated as “improve people’s livelihood”.<br /> <br /> (3) Translation strategies for metaphor<br /> <br /> Metaphor refers to the use of known figurative concepts to explain abstract concepts in diplomatic discourse. The translation standard and strategies of metaphor are determined by their inherent special attributes, which are not only the key factors to select their translation strategies, but also the important yardstick to test whether those strategies are applicable(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41). Metaphor is an objective phenomenon that has existed in political discourse for a long time. Its special attributes are reflected in political discourse, such as high political sensitivity, high cultural load and strong national characteristics. In view of the strong political sensitivity of diplomatic discourse, plain and direct words in political discourse is often empty of words, which is difficult to produce obvious communicative effect in foreign relations. In most cases, metaphorical discourse can be used to imply and disseminate a country's diplomatic ideas, attitudes and positions to achieve better communication effects (Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41).<br /> <br /> Through reading relevant papers, this chapter finds that the translation strategies proposed by scholars for metaphorical rhetoric in political discourse are mainly as follows(Long Xinyuan, Li Qiuxia 2020, 27):<br /> <br /> ① Literal translation of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> Although English and Chinese belong to different language families, and the cultural background and geographical area on which they live are also different, language is created by human beings, and human emotions always have something in common. At the same time, human beings live in the same world, especially in an increasingly integrated world like today, where the communication between human beings and the collision between cultures are inevitable. As a result, we are becoming more tolerant and understanding of different cultures and languages. When translating metaphorical words with cultural characteristics, we can render the metaphorical words in literal translation under the condition that the audience can understand them correctly, which is easier to arouse emotional resonance and cultural identity.<br /> <br /> For example, “新时代的长征路” is translated as &quot;Long March of the new era&quot;. The original text compares China's development path in the new era to the new Long March. In Chinese history, the Long March was a bloody road trodden by the communist party of China to save the country and the people. On the one hand, the literal translation of &quot;The Long March&quot; retains the historical allusions used in the original text, so that the audience can understand its meaning only by a simple association. On the other hand, it is more conducive to show the national spirit of China.<br /> <br /> ② Substitution of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> After all, differences are greater than similarities between different languages, so sometimes adopting literal translation in the text using metaphor does not make the audience clear, but may mislead. However, different metaphorical entities are often used to express the same abstract concept between Chinese and English. At this time, in order to make the audience better understand and accept the original metaphor, translator can replace the original metaphorical entities with those referring to same thing in the target language, which can also improve the external communication effect of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> For example, foreign ministry spokesman Hua Chunying once said:”The US wants to make China a scapegoat(对于美国的花式‘甩锅’，我们不想接也不能接。).”“甩锅”is an internet buzzword in China used to vividly express the meaning of shifting the blame onto someone else. And “scapegoat” originates from an allusion in the Bible which has the same meaning with the Chinese word “甩锅”(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41), so translator made a conversion between the two words. In this way, English readers can better understand the political connotation of the original sentence. However, if adopting literal translation, English readers won’t understand.<br /> <br /> ③literal translation+explanation<br /> <br /> In some other cases, either literally translating those metaphorical entities or using corresponding ones to substitute them cannot eliminate the language barrier caused by cultural differences, then translator can adopt the strategy of “literal translation+explanation”, which is to literally translate the metaphor entity and then add explanation to it. In this way, the translation not only keeps the cultural characteristics of the source language while making English readers be clear with the meaning of them, but also contributes to the spread of Chinese culture to the outside world.<br /> <br /> For an instance, “不能腐的笼子越扎越牢”is translated as “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption has been strengthened”. The Chinese words “笼子”refers to the strict management institutions against corruption set up by Chinese government. Comparing the institution to the cage makes the action of fighting against corruption become more vivid. However, for English readers, it is hard to understand the original political connotation according to a simple word “cage”, so translator needs to add some explanations like “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption.” As a result, the meaning is clear and vivid.<br /> <br /> ④abandoning the figurative body and translate its connotation directly<br /> <br /> Metaphor, as a figure of speech, is highly culture-loaded, while political discourse is a kind of words with high political sensitivity. These characteristics make the translation of Chinese political discourse more difficult, and it is inevitable that translators may meet the situation where they cannot easily balance and take all these characteristics into consideration. At this time, the translator should choose to abandon the figurative body and keep the metaphorical meaning, after all, it is the first important thing to convey the correct political implication.<br /> <br /> For example, “保障‘米袋子’、‘菜篮子’安全”is translated as “ensure the security of grain supply and non-staple food supply”,among which the Chinese words “米袋子(rice bag)”and“菜篮子(vegetable basket)”refer to major grain supply and non-staple food supply respectively. Because rice is the staple food in most ares of China while vegetable is the complementary food, such a metaphor is very vivid and down to earth. However, it's hard for foreigners to understand the meaning of &quot;rice bag&quot; or &quot;vegetable basket&quot; without a similar living environment, so we have to discard the original figurative body and translate its meaning directly.<br /> <br /> ===7. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the summary of the above-mentioned translation strategies pointing at different situations in translating Chinese political discourse, we can see that every strategy follows the three principles under the standard of &quot;political equivalence” ---- political, balance and dynamic. Every translation strategy takes the correct transition of the political implications of the original text as the first rule, namely being political; and then keeps the cultural or linguistic characteristics of the original text as much as possible, namely keeping balance; additionally, adopting appropriate translation strategies according to different contexts or situations, namely being dynamic. The translation of political discourse has its particularity and is of great importance, so it is necessary to be careful when choosing translation strategies. Translators should not only have high linguistic literacy and fair political standpoint, but also keep up with current events, correctly and fully understand the political meaning of the original text, and make specific analysis according to different contexts and occasions to adopt the most appropriate translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===8. References===<br /> <br /> [1]楚行军. 中国政治话语翻译研究二十年(2000—2019)[Studies on the Translation of Chinese Political Discourse over the past 20 years(2000-2019)]——基于中国知网的分析[J]. 焦作师范高等专科学校学报,2020,36(03):24-27+40.<br /> <br /> [2]吴静. 基于“政治等效”的中国政治新词翻译策略解析[An analysis of translation strategies of Chinese new political terms on the basis of &quot;political equivalence&quot;][J]. 兰州文理学院学报(社会科学版),2014,30(01):95-98.<br /> <br /> [3]龙新元,李秋霞. “政治等效+认知趋同”：认知翻译观视阈下的政治文本翻译研究[&quot;Political Equivalence + Cognitive Convergence&quot; : A Study of political Text translation from the perspective of cognitive Translation][J]. 天津外国语大学学报,2020,27(05):104-120+161.<br /> <br /> [4]杨明星. 论外交语言翻译的“政治等效”——以邓小平外交理念“韬光养晦”的译法为例[The application of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; in diplomatic Language Translation -- Taking Deng Xiaoping's diplomatic idea &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2008,(05):90-94.<br /> <br /> [5]杨明星,闫达. “政治等效”理论框架下外交语言的翻译策略——以“不折腾”的译法为例[Translation strategies of diplomatic language under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;-- Taking the translation of &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2012,35(03):73-77.<br /> <br /> [6]杨明星,齐静静. 外交修辞的复合性翻译标准:“政治等效+审美再现”——以国家领导人外交演讲古诗文为例[The composite translation standard of diplomatic rhetoric: &quot;Political equivalence + aesthetic reproduction&quot; -- taking the ancient poems and essays in diplomatic speeches of national leaders as an example][J]. 中国外语,2018,15(06):89-96+109.<br /> <br /> [7]杨明星,赵玉倩. “政治等效+”框架下中国特色外交隐喻翻译策略研究[A research on translation strategies of metaphors in diplomatic discorses with Chinese characteristics under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence plus&quot;][J]. 中国翻译,2020,41(01):151-159+190.<br /> <br /> [8]杨明星,张琰. 中英外交翻译中“政治等效”与话语平等辩证关系分析——从马戛尔尼使华到共建“一带一路”(1792-2019)[Dialectical relationship between &quot;political equivalence&quot; and discourse equality in diplomatic translation between China and Britain -- from macartney's mission period to &quot;One Belt And One Road&quot; period(1792-2019)][J]. 上海翻译,2020,(05):24-29+94.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Appreciation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> == Study of Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden'' from the Stylistic Perspective 袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi 202020080664==<br /> &lt;center&gt;袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'' is a classic literary work of Henry David Thoreau, which has become a classic work in the Treasure house of American literature. The Chinese translator Xu Chi first translated it into China, and since then ''Walden'' has been retranslated and republished for many times. In China, the version of ''Walden'' translated by Xu Chi is the most widely spread and influential one, and has been highly regarded as a classic translation. There hve been a lot of studies on ''Walden'' both at home and abroad, such as studies on the ecology of the book, studies on birth background and living conditions of the author Henry David Thoreau, and systematic studies on Chinese translation version of ''Walden'' under different theoretical frameworks. However, there are few studies on Chinese translations of ''Walden'' from stylistic perspective. This paper will focus on the lexical, syntactic and rhetorical features of Xu Chi’s translation and analyze their stylistic effects. It is hoped that this study will be of certain value to the translation studies of ''Walden'' and the literary translation criticism from the stylistic perspective.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'', Chinese Translation of ''Walden'' by Xu Chi , Stylistics<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从文体学角度看《瓦尔登湖》徐迟译本<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》是亨利·大卫·梭罗的经典文学作品，已经成为美国文学宝库中的经典之作。中国译者徐迟首先将其译入国内，此后《瓦尔登湖》多次被重译再版。在中国，徐迟翻译的《瓦尔登湖》汉译本流传最广、影响最大，而且一直被推崇为“译文经典”。对于《瓦尔登湖》的研究，在国内和国外有很多，例如对散文涉及生态的研究，对于作者亨利·戴维·梭罗出生背景和生活状况的研究，以及不同的理论框架下对于《瓦尔登湖》中文翻译版本的系统研究。但是从文体学角度研究《瓦尔登湖》中译本的不多。本文着重探讨徐迟译本在词汇、句法、修辞层面上的特征，分析其文体效果。希望本研究对《瓦尔登湖》的翻译研究及从文体学视角开展文学翻译批评具有一定的参考价值。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》、徐迟中译本、文体学<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau and ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a collection of essays written by American writer Henry David Thoreau. Henry David Thoreau was born in 1817 and died in 1862. He was a famous writer, philosopher, representative of Transcendentalism, abolitionist of slavery and naturalist in the United States. He was deeply influenced by Emerson. He advocated returning to original mind and being close to nature. Thoreau created more than 20 first-class prose collections in his whole life. His essays are concise and powerful, simple and natural, full of thought, which hava unique style in American proses in the 19th century. In 1845, he lived in seclusion by Walden lake, two miles away from Concord. He cultivated and ate by himself and experienced a simple and close to nature life. Thoreau loved, appreciated and immersed in nature. He understood the world through nature and regarded the world as a whole for people to appreciate and enjoy. He advocated simple life, so he abandoned all material enjoyment and pursued spiritual enrichment. With a keen thinking of a philosopher and rigorous spirit of science, Thoreau put himself into the embrace of nature and explored everything around him.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a record of Thoreau’s life when he lived alone by Walden lake. ''Walden'' is composed of 18 essays, which record Thoreau's hands-on life by walden lake for two months from 1845 to 1847. This book advocates simple life, appeals readers to return to nature, and expresses Thoreau's love for nature. The simple way of life in the book reflects Thoreau’s view of nature.This book has certain philosophical significance as well as artistic and aesthetic value.<br /> ''Walden'' is a Transcendentalist classic and is recognized as the most popular non-fiction work in American literature. After more than 100 years of circulation, the book has become a classic in American literature. So far, it has been published in more than 150 editions and translated into more than 40 languages. <br /> Thoreau’s own practice in Walden lake and his works have a consistent proposition, that is, returning to nature. In his works, he constantly pointed out that most of modern people are trapped by family, work and various material needs, thus lost their spiritual pursuit and lived a materialistic life. Thoreau persisted in the pursuit of spiritual happiness and rejected material comforts. This is why Thoreau lived a simple life by Walden lake, enjoying a life of leisure while his neighbors pursued a life of wealth and material comforts, enslaved by their own desires.<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Xu Chi and His Translation of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi=====<br /> Xu Chi is famous for his poems, essays and reportage. He was once awarded by Mao Zedong's inscription of “poetry expresses ambition”, and he was known as &quot;Contemporary Chinese Goethe&quot; and &quot;Father of Reportage&quot;.<br /> Another little-known identity of this famous Chinese writer is being as a translator. He not only wrote poems, essays, reportages, novels and reviews, but also translated and introduced a large number of foreign literary works, with a total of 10 million words in his life.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden''=====<br /> In 1949, Xu translated Walden into Chinese called &quot;华尔腾&quot;, which failed to elicit widespread attention because at that time, people all over China were immersedin the joy of gaining cmancipation from feudalism and imperialism, so that ''Walden'',promoting tranquility and transcendentalism, was ignored.<br /> In 1982, Xu Chi retranslated it and titled it &quot;瓦尔登湖&quot;, which was so popular that it was republished for many times since then. Xu's version of ''Walden'' chosen in this study is its second edition, published in 1982, to which Xu Chi added a preface to present information about Thoreau and comments on ''Walden''. To some extent, readers are able to have a glimpse of Xu's own emotions and thoughts in his translation of ''Walden''. <br /> Xu Chi usually selected and translated works that were close to his own nature and could move him, because only in this way, he could have more resonance with the writers and their works, and reproduced the style of the original author. For Xu Chi, he expressed his own feelings and thoughts through translating these writers'works to a certain extent (Yao Junwei, 2005:146). Only when his soul was in harmony with Thoreau's, did Xu Chi love this book so much and rised to translating this book. It was in the summer of 1949 that Xu Chi began to translate Thoreau's ''Walden''. Because Xu Chi was extremely fond of this book, he spent lots of efforts in translating this famous work. In the first stage of translation, he tried to understand the meaning of the original work, hoping to be able to deeply understand the original work. He confessed that it was a very profound book which is full of translation challenges. He was very busy during the day, so he sometimes couldn't read it.Because this book was too difficult to understand, it seemed that this book was suddenly not so interseting and attractive to him, and it seemed that it was of no benefit to translate it. However, he found that his mood gradually became peaceful after dusk. When he read this book at this time, he suddenly felt the book quite interesting. What he saw was the chapters that could’t be seen in the daytime. The language was amazing, the words were shining, and his heart was touched. When the ningt became quiet, the book became not so obscure. Under the recitation, he could not help but be fascinated by it (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).<br /> His most successful translation is ''Walden'', which he translated first in 1949, then again in 1982 and in 1996. The masterpiece of David Thoreau, a famous American transcendentalist writer, still shines brightly in the vast Chinese translated literature. In recent ten years, there have been more than 20 new translations of ''Walden'', but Xu Chi's translation is still regarded as the best translation and is the first choice for many presses to publish as Chinese translations of ''Walden'' in recent years. Although there are many Chinese translations of ''Walden'', most of them take Xu Chi's translation as a reference (Wang Zhao 2009, 147), which indicates the authority of Xu Chi's translation.<br /> <br /> ====Style and Styllistics====<br /> =====Style=====<br /> Originated from the Latin or Greek word &quot;stile&quot; or &quot;stilus&quot;, &quot;style&quot; originally refers to a sharp instrument made of metal or bone, used as a writing tool, and later symbolizes a way of writing. At first, it was mainly used in writing. As time goes by, its application has been broadened into areas like music, dance, painting, fashion, behavior,literature, architecture and so on. As it has been mentioned in the introduction part, the research object ''Walden'' is a piece of literary work, consequently, this thesis will mainly study literary style.<br /> Since ancient times, style has always been the object of people's study. Aristotle, Cicero, Demetrius, and Quintilian all used style as an appropriate decoration for thought. This view prevailed throughout the Renaissance, when devices of style could be classified. An essayist or orator needs to construct his or her point of view by means of exemplary sentences and prescribed kinds of &quot;figures&quot; that conform to his or her mode of discourse.<br /> For a long time, the definition of style has remained varied, and different scholars have given different definitions of it. It is unnecessary and impractical here to list them all. Some definitions will be given below to help us understand what style is.<br /> One of the most successful attempts to define style in a comprehensive way is Leech and Short’s (1981). Although claiming that “unsuccessful attempts to attach a precise meaning” to the term “style” have often resulted in an impoverishment of the subject , they offer a list of the items forming the basis of their own concept of style, which can be summarized as follows:<br /> (a) Style is a way in which language is used; therefore it consists in choices made from the repertoire of the language; <br /> (b) A style is defined in terms of a domain of language use (e.g. what choices are made by a particular author, in a particular genre, or in a particular text);<br /> (c) Literary stylistics is typically concerned with explaining the relation between style and literary or aesthetic function;<br /> (d) Stylistic choice is limited to those aspects of linguistic choice which concern alternative ways of rendering the same subject matter.<br /> Nida Eugene (1982, 12) defines that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”So in translation of literary works, the author’s style should be represented through the translator’s style, and the translator’s style should depend on the style of the author. Many translators are good at representing different writers’styles and yet has its own unique translation style.<br /> The broad view of style includes the elements of linguistic style and non-linguistic style. Among them, the elements of language style mainly include the means of language style, such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structure and rhetorical devices, and the elements of non-language style include the author's emotion factor, the author's imagination factor and the author's intelligence factor. The narrow sense of style only involves the author's means of language style and rhetorical style (Lv Jun &amp; Hou Xiangqun 2001, 320).<br /> In conclude, translation (especially literary translation) as an across-culture process dose not only focus on the content of source text but also the style which is about how the writers write. Therefore, it is essential for a translator to know how to figure out the style of source text and reproduce it with target language.<br /> <br /> =====Styllistics=====<br /> Stylistics is a comprehensive frontier discipline that studies the characteristics, essence and laws of text forms, and is in the ascendant between linguistics, literature and art, aesthetics, psychology and other disciplines.<br /> It is difficult to determine when stylistics became a field of academic study. It can be argued, however, that it was not until the late 1950s that stylistics began to make significant and measurable progress. This is a young frontier discipline that is growing over time. Stylistics has developed into a well-targeted and technically effective interdisciplinary field of study, which is expected to provide useful insights for literary criticism and literature teaching. It has also been influencing translation criticism. Modern stylistics provides an important theoretical basis for translation studies. As far as the development of the subject of translation is concerned, stylistics has been recognized for its value and function. <br /> Modern stylistics uses the tools of formal linguistic analysis coupled with the methods of literary criticism; its goal is to try to isolate characteristic uses and functions of language and rhetoric rather than advance normative or prescriptive rules and patterns.<br /> <br /> =====Language Style and Stylistic Features of ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a masterpiece of prose style. It is concise, eloquent and profound in thought. Just as he pursues the simplest life, his language style of ''Walden'' can be summarized into four points: concise writing, accurate description, incisive argument, and pithy argumentation and causal narration. <br /> ''Walden'' is also a book aimed directly at the reader. Anyone who read this book feels that they are listening to and sharing Thoreau's ideals. This book is not easy for readers to understand, especially those who read it for the first time. Correspondingly, the prominent stylistic characteristics of ''Walden'' are manifested in four aspects: exquisite scenic description, complex syntax, various rhetorical devices and rich quotations．<br /> So it is helpful for the translator to understand the original text and reproduce the stylistic equivalence in the translation. Therefore, the translator should fully understand his stylistic characteristics, which is the premise of reproducing his style in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===Stylistic Features of ''Walden''===<br /> ====Lexical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Degree of Formality=====<br /> There are a lot of obsolete and old words in ''Walden''and the use of these words makes the book more flavor, solemn and elegant. However, the use of these words will also bring great trouble to the translation at the same time. It is difficult for the translators to grasp these words, so they can not use literal translation but use creative way to make readers feel what the author wants to express in this book.<br /> In ''Walden'', Thoreau uses concise words to demonstrate his own ideas, natural scenery and cultural customs of Walden Lake. Unlike official documents, regulations, or academic creations, general style of ''Walden'' suggests that Thoreau’s choice of words is less formal. This section aims to analyze the degree of formality of nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the Xu Chi’s translation. In terms of nouns, Xu Chi tends to choose words with literary charm and formal style, which are not suitable for the informal style of the original text.<br /> Example 1：<br /> …；where the washing is not put out, nor the fire, nor the mistress, and perhaps you are sometimes requested to move from off the trap—door; when the cook would descend into the cellar, and learn whether the ground is solid or hollow beneath you without stamping．(Thoreau 2012, 277—278)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：在那罩，洗瀣物不比晒在外面，炉火不熄，女主人也不会生气，也许有时要你移动一下，让厨子从地板门里走下地窖去，而你不用蹬脚就可以知道你的脚下是虚是实。 (徐迟 2009, 270)<br /> The passage describes part of Thoreau’s dream of a bigger house for more people. The original text provides a natural and causal description of the scenes and activities in Thoreau's dream house. There are five commas and a period in this 47-word sentence with employment of concrete nouns，the structure of the original is loose and casual. As can be seen from the above, &quot;washing&quot; in Xu's translation is loosely understood as “洗涤物” which means the process of eliminating unnecessary ingredients through detergent, which is formal in Chinese. Xu Chi reproduced the content of‘'the washing’’but he ignored the degree of formality in choosing word, thus falling to deliver the casualness reflected by the original text．<br /> Because ''Walden'' is full of depictions of landscape, adjectives are indispensable in Thoreau's creation of various images and pictures, as well as his insightful comments. Let us look at a example of it.<br /> Example 2：<br /> Often the poor man is not so cold and hungry as he is dirty and ragged and gross．(Thoreau 2012, 85)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：往往是那个穷人，邋遢、褴褛又粗野，但并没有途堡查选。(徐迟 2009, 83)<br /> The first adjective “poor” is used as an antecedent modifier and the other five adjectives are used as predicates. With the six adjectives being short and plain, the original text is generally of informal style. Xu transfered “cold and hungry” into a four-character noun phrase“冻馁之忧”which means “sufferings from cold and hunger.” However, this phrase is somewhat old-fashioned and is too formal to keep in line with the original style．Besides，it appears uncoordinated with three adjectives“邋遢、褴褛又粗野”being placed before the noun phrase“冻馁之忧”. So, it is not appropriate to reflect the original style.<br /> Verbs are also frequently employed in ''Walden'' to depict the fighting between animals or other activities. The degree of formality marked by verbs is the target of the study here. <br /> Example 3：<br /> I took up the chip on which the three I have particularly described were struggling, carried it into my house，and placed it under a tumbler on my window-sill，in order to see the issue．(Thoreau 2012, 262-263)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation：<br /> 我特别描写的三个战士在同一张木片上搏斗，我把这张木片拿进我的家里，放在我的窗槛上。罩在一个大杯子下面，以便考察结局。(徐迟 2009, 256)<br /> As we can see from the examples, these verbs are short and common in our everyday speech. They come mainly from Anglo-Saxon English and have informal stylistic characteristics. Therefore, the style of the original text is informal and should be preserved in Chinese translation. In this sentence, Thoreau prepared to wait and see with interest how the battle between the ants would go on after a series of arrangements. Xu Chi translated the word “see” into “考察”which sounds serious and formal, because “考察”means carefully checking certain items or situations, and is often used in formal situations, such as “考察人” or “考察情况”. So, Xu's version deviates from the original natural and informal flavor.<br /> <br /> =====Expressive Meaning=====<br /> Roman Jakobson, building on Karl Bühler (1934), coined the term expressive or emotive for one of the functions of language. He describes it as the function focused on the ADDRESSER [speaker], aims a direct expression of the speaker's attitude toward what he is speaking about (Jakobson 1960, 354) and gives interjections as the prime example of this function.<br /> It is worthy of our attention that differences between words in terms of expressive meaning are not simply equal to a matter of whether an expression of a certain attitude or evaluation is reproduced or not. The same attitude or evaluation may be expressed to widely varying degrees of forcefulness.<br /> Example 4：It is said that a flood-tide, with a westerly wind，and ice in the Neva, would sweep St. Petersburg from the face of the earth. (Thoreau 2012, 22)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：据说，涅瓦河要是涨了水，刮了西风，流来的冰块可以把圣彼得堡一下子大地的表面上冲掉的。 (徐迟 2009, 21)<br /> According to the Oxford Advanced English-Chinese Dictionary, &quot;sweeping&quot; is the act of sudden movement (of weather, fire, etc.), forcing a movement in an area or in a particular direction. In the original context, the combination of “flood tides, westerly winds, and ice” was destructive and therefore clearly detrimental to St.Petersburg. So the word &quot;sweep&quot; here reflects the speaker's negative attitude toward the possible outcome. Obviously, the word “冲掉” in Xu Chi’s translation is a neutral term and does not reflect the speaker’s attitude or feelings towards the potential disaster caused by flood tide, westerly winds and snow. Xu ignored the author’s emotional attitude, thus ignoring the influence that these forces may cause, and did not produce systematic equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====Syntactic Features of ''Walden''====<br /> Raffel (1994) points out that &quot;the syntax of prose shows the style of the author, and the reproduction of the original style is the key to prose translation which stresses not only what message says, but also how the message is said.&quot; So, the syntactic features of ''Walden'' should never be ignored.<br /> In the original text, short sentences in English have neat structure and harmonious rhythm. Xu Chi did not change the original structure in translation, but adopted literal translation. The so-called literal translation is to retain the content and language expression habits of the original text as well as the form and style of the original text under the condition that the target language allows. Since Both Chinese and English are discourse systems and they have something in common, literal translation is a good way to deal with them.<br /> Example 5:<br /> It is no dream of mine， To ornament a line; I cannot come nearer to God and Heaven, than I live to Walden even． I am its stony shore, and the breeze that passes o’er; In the hollow of my hand Are its water and its sand, and its deepest resort Lies high in my thought. (Thoreau 2012, 137) <br /> Xu Chi’s Translation:<br /> 这不是我的梦，用于装饰一行诗;我不能更接近上帝和天堂甚于我之生活在瓦尔登。我是它的圆石岸，飘拂而过的风;在我掌握的一握，是它的水，它的沙，而它的最深邃僻隐处,高高躺在我的思想中。 (Xu Chi 2012, 151)<br /> The translation of this paragraph has a neat structure, neat antithesis, and pays attention to the regularity and rhythm of the literal. The original is composed of ten verses and the translation retains the original format, which can increase the depth and appeal of the translation, thus producing artistic effect and aesthetic value.<br /> <br /> ====Rhetorical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Metaphor=====<br /> Metaphor means to &quot;shift a word from its original meaning to another word that is generally not interchangeable but similar, and to emphasize its identity, that is, the two are similar but not a simile&quot;.<br /> Example 6: <br /> Public opinion is a weak tyrant compared with our own private opinion. (Thoreau, 7)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation: 和我们的自知之明相比较，公众舆论这暴戾的君主也显得微弱无力。(徐迟，6）<br /> The ontology and metaphor in this sentence are &quot;public opinion&quot; and &quot;weak tyrant.&quot; There must be something similar between them. The following statement gives the reason: &quot;Compared to our own private opinions&quot;, which is quite clear. People are used to focusing on themselves in front of others, so public opinion is only slightly weak. The subtle use of metaphor shows Thoreau's wisdom and thorough understanding of human nature. Xu Chi dealt with this metaphor perfectly.<br /> =====Pun=====<br /> Puns are deliberately declared polysemous words or homonyms created with double meaning in a certain language environment, with implicit, humorous and profound effects. Newmark (2001, 217) points out that &quot;pun translation is unimportant but fascinating&quot;. The use of puns in Walden is remarkable.<br /> The basic function of pun in ''Walden'' is to express logical relations. Because puns can express two levels of meaning in a word, phrase, or sentence, they are often used as a link between the text before and after it. A key problem that haunts the reader when reading ''Walden'' is the lack of connection between the two passages. A clear logical relationship is a prerequisite for expressing other special effects, such as rhetorical and aesthetic effects. Therefore, the improper translation of puns will seriously affect logical coherence and other rhetorical devices.<br /> Example 7：<br /> If the name was not derived from that of some English locality - Saffron Walden, for instance, one might suppose that it was called originally Walled-in Pond. (Thoreau 2012, 209)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation: 如果这个湖名不是由当地一个叫萨福隆•瓦尔登的英国人的名字化出来的话，——那么，我想瓦尔登湖原来的名字可能是围而得湖。(徐迟 2009, 172)<br /> This classic example of puns has been discussed many times. Thoreau suggested that &quot;Walden&quot; might come from “Walled-in”. &quot;Walled-in Pond&quot;, as ahomophonic pun, serves as the logic link of the whole paragraph. Xu wisely translates it as “围而得”, retaining not only the similar pronunciation but also the importance of meaning. “围而得” maintains the logical relation of the whole paragraph.It is eye-catching and stimulates readers to think more about Thoreau's intentions to use this word.<br /> <br /> =====Personification=====<br /> Personification refers to &quot;the practice of representing a person, quality, or characteristic as a human being in art and literature.&quot; People subconsciously tend to reflect non-human things with their lives in order to express their feelings and thoughts. In view of the characteristics of human behavior, literary works can vividly express the feelings of the author, and make readers feel that the description of the object is more vivid and appropriate, which makes the article more vivid.<br /> Example 8：<br /> This further experience also I gained：I said to myself,1 will not plant beans and corn with so much industry another summer，but such seeds, if the seed is not lost, as sincerity, truth, simplicity, faith, innocence, and the like, and see if they will not grow in this soil，even with less toil and manurance，and sustain me, for surely it has not been exhausted for these crops. (Thoreau 2012, 186-187)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation:<br /> 我还获得了下面的更丰富的经验：我对我自己说，下一个夏天，我不要花那么大的劳力来种豆子和玉米了，我将种这样<br /> 这样一些种子像诚实、真理、纯朴、信心、天真等等，如果这些种子并没有失落，看看它们能否在这片土地上生长，能否以较少劳力和肥料；来维持我的生活，因为，地力一定还没消耗到不能种这些东西。 (徐迟 2009, 182)<br /> Thoreau here is sharing his experience in growing beans and his plans next summer with readers. As we know, words like “sincerity,truth，simplicity, faith and innocence” usually refer to qualities of human. But here, these words are adopted to describe the characteristics of seeds and humanize these seeds，constructing a vivid personification. Xu Chi reproduce the rhetorical feature of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The language of ''Walden'' is rich in vocabulary, complex and diverse sentence structure, the author's writing is flexible and fluent, and the use of various rhetoric makes the translation work more difficult. <br /> To sum up, Xu Chi’s translation appears more formal than the original text and some words of his translation can not reflect the expressive meaning of the original one. It is found that Xu Chi tended to use words with typical features of his time which seem out of date at present. But due to the time he lived in, we believe that Xu Chi’s version satisfied the need or linguistic expectation of the target readers of his time which has its significance. We also find that sentences in Xu's translation follow the syntax of English language. Xu Chi kept the structure beauty of the original work properly, respected the original work and kept the structure orderly, directly conveying Thoreau's thoughts and feelings. And Xu Chi indeed do well in reflecting rhetorical features of the original text, which is refered by many translators later. In general, Xu Chi's translation is close to the original text in style and language characteristics and is a classic translation of ''Walden''.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ==A Comparison Beteewn the Translation Systems Proposed by Tan Zai and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation. 王美玲 Wang Meiling==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;王美玲 Wang Meiling&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> The Renaissance is the fourth peak in the history of Western translation and a great development in the history of Western literature. During the 16th century and the period following the Renaissance in Europe, translation reached an unprecedented climax in the fields of thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion. At that time, the German translation of the Bible by the Martin Luther is the most well-known one in the whole translation circle, and its influence is unique and long-standing in Germany as well as in the whole Europe continent. Since the Reform and Opening-up, China has gradually stepped into the center of the world arena, and its literary works bearing the quintessence of Chinese culture has become a crucial bridge connecting the rest of the world with China. Despite the rise of machine translation, it can never replace the overwhelming role of human translation in the literary translation. Luther’s translation thoughts have exerted an important influence on the development of Western translation theories, so what sparks can be drawn between his translation principles and Chinese modern culture and literary works? This paper makes a brief comment on the main translation activities of renaissance, then compares the translation thoughts of Luther and Lu Xun, and applies Luther’s detailed translation rules to the actual translation practice,finally analyzes the influence of Luther’s translation thoughts and principles on modern translation practice and their significance for reference.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Renaissance; Luther; literary works; translation principles; influence;<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴运动是西方翻译史的第四次高潮，也是西方文学史上的一次大发展。文艺复兴在欧洲普遍开展的16世纪以及随后一个时期，翻译活动达到了前所未有的高峰，深入思想、政治、哲学、文学宗教等各个领域。在整个翻译界，德国马丁·路德的《圣经》德译本是该时期最负盛名的译本，其影响不论是在德国乃至整个欧洲都是独一无二且源远流长的。改革开放以来，中国日益走进世界舞台中央，承载着中华文化精髓的文学作品成为了重要桥梁。纵然机器翻译兴起，但绝不能替代人工翻译在文学翻译领域的绝对性地位。路德的翻译思想对西方翻译理论的发展产生了重要影响，那么其翻译思想和理论原则与中国当代文化及文学作品又能擦出什么样的火花呢？本文将通过对文艺复兴时期的主要翻译活动进行简评，再对比路德与鲁迅的翻译思想，接着将路德的翻译细则运用到实际的翻译实践中，分析路德的翻译思想及理论原则对于当代翻译实践的影响以及借鉴意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴；路德；文学作品；翻译原则；影响；<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> The Protestant Reformation Movement in Germany in the 16th century ushered in a new era of translation and dissemination of Bible.Under the protection of Protestantism, Martin Luther devoted himself to the German translation of the Bible. By the time of 1544 Luther’s death, 430 versions of his Bible translation had been published. In order to make common people more directly understand the meaning of the Bible, Martin Luther translated it in national language. He insisted on his translation thought and fought against the church power and his opponents. He made unremitting efforts in the great project of the Bible translation, which promoted the unification of German language and created a graceful literary language.His translation thoughts are still of great significance to the current translation theory and practice.&quot;First of all, from a historical point of view, translation has two main functions in promoting the birth and development of national culture and the transformation of national culture into world culture: one is to promote cultural exchange; the other is to disseminate ideas.&quot;<br /> <br /> Since the beginning of reform and opening-up, China has gradually stepped onto the world arena. China persists in its cultural development geared to the needs of the world and actively promotes cultural development to the world. Literary works bear the essence of Chinese culture, whose export is an crucial way to spread Chinese culture to the world. Over the years, despite the rise of machine translation, which has a certain practical role, it can not replace the overwhelming role of manual translation in literary translation. So what significance does Luther’s translation thought and theory born in the reform era have in guiding modern translation theory and practice, especially in the field of literary translation?<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Brief comments on translation thoughts in the period of Renaissance===<br /> <br /> '''1.1 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.2 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.3 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.4 '''<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Comparison of translation thoughts between Luther and Lu Xun===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 ===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 ===<br /> <br /> ==Study on Interpreter's Memory and Translation Memory in Interpreting 康浩宇 Kang Haoyu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br /> <br /> '''1.1 Background'''<br /> <br /> Memory plays an important role in interpreting and it is a kind of interpreting competence. The information processing in interpreting is complicated. When the information is input, interpreter first recognize and keep the information, which will then be analyzed, encoded, stored and retrieved. And the interpreter finally decode the information into target language(Wang Jianhua, 2019).Because of the fast input of information and limited time for pausing, great memory is required for interpreters. Whether a good or poor memory has a direct effect on the quality of interpreting. <br /> With the development of science and technology, machine translation and computer aided translation, which is also called CAT, was invented as two effective and efficient ways for translation. In CAT, there is a concept called translation memory. Different from human beings’ memory, translation memory is more likely a database. Nowadays, translation memory of CAT has been put into wide use in translation. And in recent years, translation memory has also been applied as a tool in interpreting. As the technology is not yet mature, there are still some limitation and weakness.<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Significance of the Study'''<br /> <br /> There are some studies on the memory of interpreters. But most of them focus on its practical aspects such as how to improve interpreters’ memory or how to make the best of memory in interpreting, instead of substantial facts. The nature of memory and mechanism of memory is also worthy to be studied, so readers can have better understanding and cognition of what is memory and how it works. Therefore, readers can better address our problems in memory of interpreting. The study will fully analyze memory from the aspect of psychology and science. And then it will study on memory of interpreting in details including systems, mechanism, coding and theories. <br /> Translation memory is quite a novel topic as it belongs to a sort of science and technology. As the world stepped into information era, digital era and even Artificial Intelligence era, translation memory has been used more widely than ever before. It really facilitates the translators as it both saves a lot of time and greatly improved the translation efficiency. However, there are few studies on the translation memory application in interpreting field. Actually, in many situations, interpreters also uses this kind of technology to help their interpreting. They study will research on the fact of translation memory in interpreting.<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Structure of the Study'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be developed in five chapters. <br /> Chapter 1, the introduction part, is initiated by introducing the background, research problems, and significance of the study.<br /> Chapter 2 is functioned to define and categorize the memory.<br /> Chapter 3 will present the memory mechanism and related theories in interpreting.<br /> Chapter 4 will mainly focus on the translation memory technology at present and its application in interpreting.<br /> The concluding chapter generalizes the content of the study and put forward the limitations.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Study on Memory===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 The definition of the Memory'''<br /> <br /> Memory has different definitions in different fields. Generally speaking, human memory is a reflection of what the brain has experienced. From the perspective of psychology, memory is the recognition, maintenance, reappearance of experienced things by the human brain, and it is the basis of advanced psychological activities such as thinking and imagination. It is the retention and extraction of past experience by human brain. It is a psychological process in which individual experience is accumulated and preserved in the mind. All things that have been perceived can be kept in people's minds, and can be reproduced when necessary. This refers to the process in which the human brain encodes, stores and extracts meaningful information input from the outside world(Peng Danlin，1991). From the perspective of neurology, human memory is closely related to the changes of chemical composition in hippocampus and brain. All memory that exists in the brain depends on various nerve cells of the brain, which are called neurons. According to information processing theory, memory process is the process of encoding, storing and extracting input information. Only coded information can be remembered. Coding is the process of processing and transforming the input information, and coding is the key stage of the whole memory process.<br /> <br /> '''2.2. Memory Systems'''<br /> <br /> Based on the structure, memory can be categorized into three systems. There are sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. The later two systems are also often referred as STM and LTM. The three memory systems are different from each other but closely related.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1 Sensory Memory'''<br /> <br /> As the shortest memory system, sensory memory is the first channel for human brain to get the information. It has some capacity. According the research in Cognitive Psychology(Wang Su, Wang Ansheng, 1992), People’s visual sensory capacity is more than 9 chunk while their auditory sensory memory capacity has less capacity, which is about chunk. chunk here are memory units, and the size of chunk varies with people's knowledge and experience. A chunk can be a word, a number, a phrase, a sentence, a word list, etc. Sensory memory works as temporary storage for sensory information. It depends on the physical nature of external stimulus to code the information and it is the real copy and transcription of the external stimulus. Most sensory memory can stay for one to two seconds and then disappear. Only with more attention and focus can the sensory memory be processed and then become short term memory(Bao Gang, 2005). People’s visual sensory memory can just keep for less than one second while their auditory sensory memory can keep for 4 seconds. It is inevitable that information will lose with the disappearance of sensory memory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2 Short Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Short term memory is the second memory system. Short term memory is based on the neuron network in hippocampus. It keeps the information that has been selected in the hippocampus of human brain. In some cases, part of information will move from the short memory in hippocampus to long term memory in cerebral cortex. In psychology, short term memory can keep for about one minute with the capacity of about 7 chunks. That means that people can memorize seven unrelated numbers or phonemes for about one minute with their short term memory. However, the capacity of short term memory is not decided by the amount of stimulus but by the modes of chunk and coding. Chunks can effectively expand the capacity of short-term memory. When processing information, people can use the knowledge and experience stored in long-term memory to combine several single stimuli into larger information units, which can effectively expand and increase short-term memory span and improve memory efficiency. Moreover, the coding of short-term memory is mainly auditory coding, and there are also visual coding and semantic coding. Instead of chunk and information unit, people can also use retelling to transfer short term memory to long term memory. Retelling refers to the psychological operation process of repeating the materials just memorized by language to consolidate memory. In the case of retelling, the learning materials kept in short-term memory will transfer to long-term memory. The content of short-term memory can be transformed into long-term memory by retelling. <br /> <br /> There is a special type of short term memory, working memory. The concept working memory was first proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. It is used to describe the process of a person temporarily memorizing the fact and thoughts when addressing problems or working(Baddeley, 2006). In spite of limited resources and storage time, working memory is still different from short term memory in temporary storage of information(Hitch, 2012). Compared with short term memory which store information passively, the working memory process is more dynamic. Generally speaking, there are three differences. First, working memory emphasizes storing and processing information at the same time, while short-term memory only focuses on information storage. Secondly, working memory is a multi-factor system, while short-term memory is a single system. Third, working memory is more important than short-term memory for many advanced brain functions and even almost all human cognitive work(Wang Jianhua, 2019). The disappear of short term memory is often due to the interruption.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3 Long Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Different from short term memory, long term memory is stored in human’s cerebral cortex where there is more room for storage. Long term memory is very important in keeping information for long time. It can keep information for more than one minute and even for a whole life. Its capacity is unlimited. All the information kept by long term memory has been selected and filtered.According to Tulving, long term memory is stored mainly as two types(Tulving, 1974). They are episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory is about one’s experience of some specific situations. Semantic memory refers to knowledge such as words, concepts, rules and other abstract things.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Memory Mechanism'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, the process of memory includes three key steps. They are memorizing, keeping and recalling. In interpreting, memorizing is related to interpreters’ listening and understanding to what the speaker says, keeping is related to the storage of original information and recalling refers to the output of interpreting.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 Memorizing'''<br /> <br /> Memorizing refers to the process of distinguishing and recognizing the characteristics of things and leaving a certain impression in the mind. Some things can be remembered after one perception, while most of the contents need to be perceived repeatedly, so that the new information can be connected with the existing knowledge structure. As the first step in the memory process, memorization has a very important influence on the memory effect. Therefore, understanding and mastering the rules of memorization will help improve memory(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997).<br /> <br /> According to whether memorization has a purpose or not, memorization can be divided into unconscious memorization and conscious memorization(Ma Zhengyu, 2013).<br /> Unconscious memorization refers to memorization that happens naturally without a predetermined purpose and without a certain effort of will. When they are perceived, there is no intention to memorize them, but these contents can reappear in people’s mind in the future naturally. And this is unconscious memorization. The content of unconscious memorization is an important part of experience, and it has great effect on people’s psychological activities and behaviors. Inadvertent experience can do as much help as existing experiences when people consciously face certain situations and deal with certain problems. In daily life, the environment, contact and work will influence people unconsciously in psychology and behavior. Generally speaking, there are two characteristics of unconscious memorization. First, the stimulation acts on people's sensory organs which is of great significance and attracts people's attention. For example, people will never forget new and different things; Second, it is in people's needs, interests and content so that it can produce deeper emotional experience. Unconsciousness plays a positive role in people's acquisition of knowledge and experience.<br /> <br /> Conscious memorization refers to memorizing with a predetermined purpose, which requires a certain amount of will and effort in the process of memorizing. The process of conscious memorization is controlled by the purpose of memorization. The purpose of memorization determines that memorizing process is an active coding process for memorizing content. This coding includes &quot;what to remember&quot; and &quot;how to remember&quot;. &quot;What to memorize&quot; determines the direction and content of memorization, and &quot;how to memorize&quot; is the method to better memorize the content. All people's knowledge and experience are acquired through conscious memorization and unconscious memorization. However, in terms of memorizing effect, conscious memorizing is better than unconscious memorizing(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 Keeping'''<br /> <br /> Keeping refers to the process of remaining and consolidating the memorized materials in brain. It is the process of information storage. Keeping is the middle step which is between memorizing and recalling and it is closely related the quality and effect of recalling.<br /> <br /> The effect of keeping is related to whether the materials to be memorized are vivid or not. When brains memorize verbal materials, if the materials are vivid, they can leave a deep impression on people, while the materials with empty contents are easy to be forgotten quickly. Many psychological experiments have also proved the important role of the &quot;image&quot; in the memory of human brain. The memory effect of image materials is generally better than that of words materials, and similarly, the effect of visual memory is generally better than that of auditory memory. This suggests that if interpreters make full use of the image carrier of the source language in interpreting memory, it is possible to improve their information storage of the source language(Bao Gang, 2005).<br /> <br /> Keeping is a dynamic process during which the amount and nature of the stored information could be changed. In the aspect of amount change, the amount of stored information will decrease with time. In other words, this is forgetting. Forgetting is a very natural phenomenon that experienced by every person. Although forgetting is a complex psychological phenomenon, its occurrence and development have certain rules. Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, was the first to do this research. He used meaningless syllables as experimental materials and himself as experimental object. After memorizing the materials, he relearned them at regular intervals, and drew the forgetting curve with the time and times saved by heavy school as the index. Forgetting curve reflects the relationship between forgetting variables and time variables. This curve shows the rule of forgetting: the process of forgetting is unbalanced, and the amount of forgetting is relatively large in the initial period after memorization, and then gradually decreases. That is, the speed of forgetting is fast at first and then slow. After Ebbinghaus, many people have studied the forgetting process and confirmed that Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve is basically correct(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997). <br /> <br /> Keeping is the process of consolidating what have been memorized in people's minds, and it is also the process of storing information. It is not a static and solidified process, but a process of reconstruction.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 Recalling'''<br /> <br /> The final step of memory is recalling. It is the process of retrieving the information that has been stored in people’s brain. <br /> Recalling is the reappearance process of past experiences in the mind under the action of certain inducement. Memories can be divided into two categories: intentional memories and unintentional memories. Intentional recalling is the recalling of past experience under the action of intended purpose. Unintentional memories are memories that happen naturally without a predetermined purpose. Memories can be divided into direct recalling and indirect recalling according to whether there are intermediary factors involved in the recalling process. Direct recalling is the recollection of old experiences directly aroused by current things. Indirect recalling is a kind of recalling with the help of intermediary factors. In terms of difficulty, indirect recalling is more difficult than direct recalling.<br /> <br /> '''2.4 Primacy Effect and Recency effect'''<br /> <br /> Primacy effect and recency effect are two famous phenomena related to people’s memory. And both of them play a very important role in interpreting.<br /> <br /> '''2.4.1 Primacy Effect'''<br /> <br /> The concept “primacy effect” was first proposed by A. S. Lochins, an American psychologist. It refers to the fact that the first impression has a huge effect. Although the first impression may not always be right, but it is most vivid and solid. In primacy effect, information input plays a key role. Experimental psychology research shows that the order of external information input is important in determining the cognitive effect. The first input information plays the most important role, and the last input information also plays a great role. This feature of brain processing information is the internal cause of the primacy effect. When different information is combined, people always tend to attach importance to the former information. Even if people pay attention to the following information, they will think that the following information is non-essential and accidental. More importantly, even if the following information is inconsistent with the former information, people will succumb to the former information.<br /> <br /> '''2.4.2 Recency Effect'''<br /> <br /> Recency effect, also put forward by American psychologist Lochins, refers to the phenomenon that when people memorize a series of things, the memory effect of the last part is better than that of the middle part. The reason is that the previous information is gradually blurred in memory, while the recent information clearer in short-term memory. Recency effect is contrary to the primacy effect, and recency effect emphasizes that the last received information has the greatest effect. In people's perception, when the information obtained before and after is different, if there is irrelevant work in the middle to separate them, then the latter information plays a greater role in forming the total impression.<br /> <br /> Obviously, the primacy effect and recency effect are different, or even opposite. The primacy effect emphasizes the information received initially, while recency effect pays more attention to the information that comes into contact later. However, the primary effect and recency effect exist in our society and play their respective functions. Through a large number of experiments, it is found that the primacy effect and recency effect depend on people themselves. Generally speaking, people with relatively simple cognitive structure are prone to produce the primacy effect, while those with complex cognitive structure are prone to produce recency effect.<br /> <br /> Although the primacy effect and recency effect are different form each other, both of the effects are extremely beneficial to the memory of interpreters, and they can be used in different interpreting situations(Wang Jianhua, 2019).<br /> <br /> == The Subtile Translation of Movie from the Perspective of Multimodal Discourse Analysis 王轩 Wang Xuan==<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> Mankind has entered the era of multimedia, so the language as a mono-modal form has been unable to fully express the meaning of communication. Thus we need some other modals to enhance, in order to fully express the meaning and reach the aim of communication, such as sound, visual image, color and so on. Thus the term Multimodality aroused linguist’s interest and attention. <br /> <br /> They conducted a lot of research and exploration in Multimodal Discourse Analysis. Multimodal Discourse Analysis is based on Halliday’s systemic functional linguistics as the foundation, Professor Zhang Delu points out that the Multimodal Discourse is a phenomenon which means use auditory, visual, tactile and other sensory and communicate through language, image, sound, movement and other symbolic resources. <br /> <br /> Martin points out that Multimodal Discourse Analysis is composed of five levels, they are: (1) cultural level (2) context level (3) significance level (4) form level (5) media level. By discussing the combination between the subtitle translation of “Benjamin Button” and Multimodal, the thesis is to analyze that how does the Multimodal Discourse Analysis affect the subtitle translation of movies. <br /> <br /> The thesis is based on the Multimodal Discourse Analysis theory as the foundation, aims to analyze the following three areas under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis: 1. The embodiment of Multimodality in the film “Benjamin Button”, then aims to analyze how does the subtitle and Multimodality combining to constructed the whole meaning under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis.2. The second goal is to discuss the relationship between the movie’s subtitles and other modals, and the relationship between different modals. 3. By discussing the analysis of the movie subtitle expression function in the process of overall significance, this thesis attempts to put forward some suggestions on the movie subtitle translation. <br /> Keywords: Multimodal Discourse Analysis；Audio-visual Product；Subtitle Translation<br /> <br /> === Chapter One Multimodal Discourse Analysis Theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 1.1 The Emergence And Development Of Multimodality '''<br /> <br /> At present, experts and scholars have entered the stage of multimodal discourse analysis. This is not an accidental phenomenon, but inevitable, because they think that discourse or discourse is a unit of meaning, but the expression of meaning is not only through a single language, on the contrary, it can be constructed by many other symbol systems besides language. <br /> <br /> Therefore, it is not comprehensive and specific to analyze discourse or discourse from the linguistic level, so multimodal discourse analysis comes into being. Multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in foreign countries, and has been widely studied and explored. However, it is still in its infancy in China, and has attracted much attention in recent years. <br /> <br /> In the early 1950s, American linguist Harris put forward the theory of discourse analysis for the first time. Since then, discourse analysts all over the world have been working hard to analyze and study, and have put forward many theories and methods of discourse analysis, and analyzed them through a large number of examples. <br /> <br /> However, almost all the theories and methods of discourse analysis focus on language and ignore other forms of meaning expression, such as image, music, color and so on. Therefore, the research on discourse analysis at that time was not comprehensive and had great limitations. In the 1990s, multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in western countries, which overcomes the limitations of discourse analysis to a certain extent. Therefore, once multimodal discourse analysis was proposed, it immediately attracted the attention of linguists and once became a hot topic. Especially in recent years, linguists at home and abroad have carried out extensive research and Exploration on multimodal discourse analysis. <br /> <br /> In foreign countries, R. Barthes is the first French scholar to systematically analyze multimodality. As a famous semiotician, R. Barthes adopts the semiotic perspective to study multimodality. Therefore, multimodal discourse has been analyzed with semiotics from the very beginning. Multimodal discourse analysis breaks through the shackles of traditional single language information, and integrates more research in other fields, such as psychology, cognitive science and sociology. R. Barthes discussed the interaction and relationship between image and language in the expression of meaning. Based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed a relatively perfect grammatical framework for the analysis of visual images, thus providing theoretical basis and analytical methods for multimodal discourse analysis. They believe that multimodality is a major feature of various discourses in modern society. In the digital age, these different modes play the same role in meaning reproduction. In addition, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed an image analysis framework based on three pure functions in image reading, namely reproduction, interaction and composition.. In a word, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen's multimodal communication theory mainly focuses on the symbolic resources and their use. <br /> <br /> In China, there are also in-depth and extensive research on multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Li Zhanzi analyzes multimodal discourse from the perspective of social semiotics, while Hu Zhuanglin, a professor of Peking University, studies multimodal semiotics in theory and practice, and proposes multimodal language teaching and research in social semiotics. Zhu Yongsheng has made an in-depth study on multimodality and summarized the theoretical basis and research methods of multimodal discourse analysis. Zhang Delu made a preliminary exploration on the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Zhang Delu pointed out that multimodal discourse refers to the use of hearing, vision, touch and other senses, through language, images, sounds, movements and other means and symbol resources for communication. This phenomenon is very common, which is mainly reflected in the following aspects. For example, in order to better understand poetry, people find that it can be attached with pictures, that is, it is attractive People's interest has reached the purpose of helping people understand. In addition, people can often add some auxiliary gestures or actions, and use different tone and tone when speaking, which is also a form of multimodality. However, multimodal discourse analysis has not been paid enough attention. Only in the study of modern linguistics, some linguists have paid attention to multimodality and started to study it from the perspective of non-verbal features and linguistic features. However, it is only studied as an auxiliary expression system of language, but not as a mode of meaning expression. Although multimedia discourse analysis came into being, it was not until recent years that scholars gradually realized the importance of multimedia discourse analysis. It can be seen that multimodality has attracted a large number of linguists in China and achieved fruitful results.<br /> <br /> ''' 1.2 The Theoretical Framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis '''<br /> <br /> Linguists have found that systemic functional linguistics can be used as the basic theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. The five levels are: (1) cultural level, including ideology as the main form of culture and genre as the potential choice of discourse mode. (2) The context level includes the context configuration composed of discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. (3) The meaning level includes discourse meaning and conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning. (4) At the formal level, there are different formal systems to realize meaning, including lexical grammar system of language, visual ideographic form and visual grammar system, auditory ideographic form and auditory grammar system, tactile ideographic form and tactile grammar system, etc., as well as the relationship between the grammar of various modes. (5) Media level is the material form of discourse in the material world, including linguistic and non-verbal. Systemic functional linguistics provides a relatively ready-made theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis. On this basis, Professor Zhang Delu proposed a comprehensive theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis: (1) cultural level, (2) context level, (3) content level, (4) expression level<br /> <br /> ''' 1.3 The Forms and Relations of Multimodal Discourse '''<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse forms include: language, picture sense, sound sense and feeling. The typical multimodal discourse mode is a kind of modal discourse, which can not fully express its meaning, or can not express its full meaning. It needs to be supplemented by another one. The relationship between these modes is called &quot;complementary relationship&quot;, while the other is called non complementary relationship. <br /> <br /> Complementary relationship can be divided into strengthening relationship and non strengthening relationship. Reinforcement relationship means that one mode is the main form of communication, while another or more forms strengthen it. For example, when expressing meaning, if language is the main form of communication, then other body movements such as gestures will strengthen the language. On the contrary, language may also be a reinforcement to other ways of communication. Strengthening relationship includes three kinds of relations: prominent, primary and secondary, and expanding. Non reinforcement refers to the relationship between two modes which are indispensable and complementary to each other. For example, in the process of watching a movie, the visual and auditory modes are combined with each other. There are also three forms of non strengthening relations: coordination, union and intersection. In the coordination relationship, different modes construct the whole meaning together, and the lack of any mode will be incomplete. Play the video at the same time, for example. The two modes of image and sound are both necessary and difficult to understand without one communication. In this case, the relationship between image and sound is harmonious. The joint relationship refers to the combination of different types of media in the same mode to express the meaning. For example, in the typical multimodal discourse form of film, the sound matched with the scene animation and the voice of interpretation are combined to reflect the meaning of auditory construction. The last one is the phenomenon of cross embodiment of meaning. For example, teachers do experiments while they are in the experimental class. At this time, the text is still unimodal. However, if you are talking with your friends about whether the weather is snowing, the size and shape of snow, and so on, the scene of snow, including the process and mode of snow, will directly participate in the overall meaning you want to express. At this time, your discourse has a strong situational dependence. A large part of the meaning of your speech is reflected by the situation, although the scene does not actively participate in it In your verbal communication. Therefore, context dependent discourse communication is multimodal.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Two Film subtitle translation theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 2.1 Film Works and Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> With the advent of the multimedia digital era, foreign film and television works continue to flow into China, so subtitle translation is becoming more and more important. More and more people use subtitles to obtain foreign related information, understand foreign cultures and even learn foreign languages. Subtitling affects people's cognition of things, and subtitle translation has become a professional auxiliary form to facilitate the audience to understand multimedia works. Gottlieb defines subtitle translation as &quot;a kind of written, additional and synchronous translation type for instantaneous and multi symbolic texts&quot;. (Gottlieb, 1997:309) in China, film and television translation started relatively late, and large-scale film and television translation began after the 1980s. <br /> <br /> Although the number of mass media translation has greatly increased, subtitle translation has not attracted enough attention of the academic community, and the research results on subtitle translation are few. In recent years, subtitle translation, as a field of translation, has attracted more and more attention from experts and scholars all over the world. Subtitles have two major functions: first, to deepen the audience's impression of some film content; second, to assist the lack of listening. There are two kinds of subtitles: the first is intralingual subtitle, the second is interlingual subtitle. Intralingual subtitle translation does not need to translate one language into another, but only converts the discourse into text. &quot;Interlingual subtitle refers to the translation of the source language into the target language and superimposed on the bottom of the screen while retaining the original sound of the film and television, which is commonly referred to as subtitle translation.&quot; (Li Yunxing, 2001:38)<br /> <br /> ''' 2.2 The Characteristics Of Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> Film subtitles are an important part of the film, and together with the visual image to construct the meaning, film subtitles can help the audience to understand the characteristics of the characters in the film, to master the character's character and to be familiar with the plot of the film. Film subtitle translation has the following characteristics: <br /> <br /> Firstly, colloquialism. Subtitle translation in movies is mainly the translation of dialogues between the characters in the film. Therefore, subtitle translation should be as colloquial as possible and conform to the expression characteristics of the characters. On the premise of ensuring the coherence and smoothness of the context, the subtitle translation should be as close to life as possible so as to achieve natural and realistic effect. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the characters in the film have their own unique personalities, which are often reflected by different language styles. Therefore, the second feature of film subtitle translation is to conform to the characters' personalities. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, emotional, emotional help the audience better understand the plot, so the film subtitle translation should reflect the true feelings, the translation should be able to put oneself in the position and into the role, to achieve the artistic effect of sincere.<br /> <br /> Fourthly, oral form is a typical feature of film subtitle translation, which is also the most obvious difference between film subtitle translation and literature translation. The basic task of translation is to provide a blueprint for dubbing. Therefore, the translation of subtitles should be consistent with the mouth shape of the characters as much as possible, and the accuracy and vividness of the translation should be guaranteed. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, popularization means popularization. Popularization means that the translation can be understood by the audience on the premise of smoothness, so as to achieve the purpose of clear understanding and appreciation of both refined and popular tastes. The ultimate goal of popularization is to serve the audience and make the translation a bridge for effective communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3 Strategies Of Film Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.1 Pay Attention To The Artistry Of Language '''<br /> <br /> It is said that film is the seventh art after literature, music, dance, drama, painting and sculpture. As a young art, the only one who knows his birthday, film appeared as a popular art from the very beginning. Film is an art form with unique means of expression, and the artistry of its language is the basic element of film. Although Goethe once said: art should never be the same as reality, and it is impossible to embody art. But it turns out that film is not only a popular art, and it is the most popular art, which is called a kind of popular culture. From the point of view of the film itself, most of the films are for people to watch, and the audience of the film comes from different social strata, so their education level is also different. Therefore, the language in the subtitle of film translation must be in line with the audience's acceptance ability and actual level, so as to make the translation understood by the audience, more clearly, and achieve both refined and popular tastes. However, the vulgarization and popularization of the target language does not mean the vulgarization and generalization of the language. The language of film is rich in expressive force, and the language of subtitle translation must be accurate, natural and vivid. Therefore, in the film subtitle translation, we should not only retain the language characteristics of the source language and absorb the characteristics of foreign language expression, but also abide by the language tradition of our own culture, and use words with cultural color of the target language to translate the original text, so as to truly achieve the purpose of translation.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.2 Literal Translation And Free Translation Should Be Audience-Centered '''<br /> <br /> The characteristics of film subtitle translation, i.e. instantaneity and popularity, determine its translation strategies. Subtitle translation must refer to the picture and sound of the film and television. Usually, the subtitle appears in front of the audience together with the original picture, so that the audience can not only enjoy the picture, but also have time to read the subtitle. This is the duality of subtitle translation. When the audience accepts the sound, picture and subtitle information of the original text, they are integrated, complementary and contradictory. Therefore, subtitle translation must consider that subtitle is not an independent mode, it includes the creation process and the reception process. In a word, both literal translation and free translation should focus on the audience. Literal translation can absorb new foreign factors and information, and can reflect foreign culture and sentiment. Free translation is easier to be accepted by the target language audience. Film subtitle translation must take into account the audience's language level and education, and take the audience of the target language as the center and adopt correct translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.3 Processing Of Cultural Information '''<br /> <br /> As an intermediary of cultural exchange, the translator's main purpose is to promote the exchange of different cultures and reduce the cultural gap. Because the film subtitle in the process of translation is subject to many restrictions, for example, there are a large number of words with strong cultural color and some special language forms, and there are many gaps in the culture of different languages and nations and can not be replaced, so it increases the difficulty of film translation. For example, when translating puns, word games and proverbs, translators usually have to give up, which is actually a treason to the original film. <br /> <br /> There are three strategies to deal with cultural information in Subtitle Translation: first, the principle of cultural compensation. The principle of cultural compensation aims to preserve and introduce the cultural characteristics of foreign countries, so that the audience can understand the films of different languages and cultures. Second, adopt the principle of cultural transplantation. This principle can make subtitles more vivid, authentic and vivid. Translators need to discard the cultural characteristics of the source language and abide by the native language, so that subtitles can be easily understood and accepted by the target language audience. When neither of the two strategies is desirable, we can only use the third strategy, namely the principle of cultural coordination, which inevitably leads to the loss of cultural information in the source language and the target language. When dealing with the cultural information in subtitle translation, translators should pay attention to the combination of these three strategies with the film picture, and give full play to the illustrative and explanatory nature of the pictures, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Three Subtitle Translation Of &quot;Rejuvenation&quot; From The Perspective Of Multimodal Discourse Analysis ===<br /> <br /> ''' 3.1 A Brief Introduction of 'Benjamind Button' '''<br /> <br /> 'Benjamin Button', directed by the famous director David Finch is adapted from Fitzgerald's novel of the same name; the film tells the story of a strange Benjamin Barton who violates the laws of nature and is born in the image of an ancient and rare old man. As time goes by, he even lives more and more young. It is a story about the reversal of life.<br /> <br /> The following part will analyze the characteristics of subtitles and the translation strategies that should be adopted in the expression of the film from the cultural level, context level, content level and expression level of the multimodal theoretical framework.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2 Multimodal Translation in Movie Subtiles '''<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.1 On Cultural Level '''<br /> <br /> Under the influence of thinking patterns and habits, people have gradually formed a specific form of expression in which language can understand each other in communication. Therefore, it is particularly important whether the cultural factors in films are properly translated. Zhang Delu believes that &quot;the cultural level is the key level to make communication possible&quot;. In some cases, the source language and the target language can not be translated literally. Therefore, in the process of translating movie subtitles, we should not only keep the original features, that is, faithfulness, but also take into account the habitual language awareness of the target audience, that is, free translation strategies should be adopted to make the translation smooth and consistent Cultural characteristics of the target language.<br /> <br /> The English title of the film is ‘The Curious Case of Benjamin Button’, and a version is ‘本杰明·巴顿奇事’, but the translation of ‘返老还童’ has a larger audience. First of all, there is an English name in the title of Benjamin Button, which makes people feel the obscurity of the literal translation of foreign words. In Chinese, four character idioms or five or seven character quatrains or metrical poems are more catchy and easy to be accepted; Secondly, the title of &quot;rejuvenate&quot; is very suitable for the protagonist's inverted and retrograde life trajectory. In a word, it is very brilliant; Finally, the idiom ‘返老还童’ comes from ancient legends, which expresses people's desire for immortality and rejuvenation. Although it is a legend, modern people also want to be young and energetic, so the title of ‘返老还童’ can attract more audiences.<br /> In this film, there are many translation notes added to the translation, which will explain the cross-cultural ambiguity clearly. Although there are many translations, it is the best way to make the audience accept accurate information.<br /> <br /> When Daisy, the heroine, is old, she lies on the hospital bed and introduces the name of the Watchmaker: “they had the best clock maker in all of the south to build that glorious clock. His name was Mr. gateau Mr. Cake.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “还请来整个南方最好的钟表匠建了那座雄伟的大钟。那人叫盖图先生……蛋糕先生” (盖图/Gateau 在法语中是蛋糕之意)<br /> <br /> There is such a narration at the foundation laying ceremony of clocks and clocks: “Papa said there were people everywhere. Even Teddy · Roosevelt came.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “爸爸说，那天人山人海。连泰迪·罗斯福也来了( 西奥多·罗斯福，昵称泰迪美国第26 任总统)”<br /> <br /> In the above two examples, the comments added to the translation itself are in brackets. In the former example, &quot;Mr. cake&quot; suddenly appears. In the latter example, how President Roosevelt called &quot;Teddy Roosevelt&quot; will make the target language audience very puzzled. Although the use of annotations makes translation numerous, it is the best way for the audience to quickly obtain accurate information. The audience knows that gateau means &quot;cake&quot; in French, and Roosevelt has a nickname of &quot;Teddy&quot;.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.2 On Context Level '''<br /> <br /> In a specific context, communication is constrained by contextual factors (Zhang Delu, 2009). The context level elaborated by Zhang Delu includes discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. In order to express meaning or transmit information, subtitle and context jointly promote the development of film plot. Subtitle translation should be subject to context. In order to make subtitle translation not appear fault phenomenon, the film plot will advance naturally, and subtitle translation should also play a role of connecting the preceding and the following. In this way, in the process of translation, the translator should consider the contextual factors and pay attention to the smoothness and coherence of the translation within the sentence itself and between the sentences in the text.<br /> <br /> When describing Queenie's fertility problem, Queenie sees Benjamin's heart full of love. Her husband, Mr. Weathers, said: I know you ain't got all the parts it takes to make one of your own, but this ain't your to keep. At first it was certainly hard to understand the meaning of this sentence, but as the plot developed, Queenie prayed to the pastor for a son. After her pregnancy, she announced happily: “I had a miracle happen. The Lord saw fit to answer my prayer.” <br /> <br /> Little Daisy explained here: “ ‘I had a miracle happen’ means pregnancy.” （她有孩子了） In this way, the words said by Mr. Weathers was interpreted as: “我知道你没法有自己的孩子，可你也不能抚养这个。” Using free translation strategy, it is clear and faithful to the meaning of the source language, which makes the target language audience quickly know that Queenie likes children's characteristics and cares for Benjamin, an ugly ‘monster’.<br /> <br /> When Benjamin and Daisy are reunited in New York, Benjamin said: “I thought I'd come here and sweet you off your feet or something.” The phrase &quot;sweep you off your feet&quot; means &quot;to make you fall suddenly and deeply in love with you&quot;（让你倾倒）. Benjamin and Daisy were separated from each other for many years at that time. Daisy, who was living in the dance circle, was popular and desirable there. Benjamin went to New York to find daisy after burying his father. He was in a mixed mood. In fact, he wanted to find a friend to express his melancholy. Therefore, Benjamin did not go to find Daisy to &quot;fall in love&quot; with her but &quot;I thought I'd give you a big surprise when I came suddenly&quot;(我本以为我突然过来找你会给你一个大惊喜), which is very brilliant. This sentence is more suitable for the protagonist's situation by using free translation strategy.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.3 On Content Level '''<br /> <br /> The content level of Zhang Delu's expression includes discourse meaning level and form level. Discourse meaning is the conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning conveyed in language expression. In the film, subtitle is the narrator's narration and dialogue content. Film discourse requires the translator to accurately express the subtitle meaning to the audience. In the process of subtitle translation, some gas words, names and address terms can be omitted, which still does not affect the expression of discourse meaning.<br /> <br /> “Well, I know I don't have much to show for myself.”（我知道自己没有什么才能。） The omission of &quot;well&quot; does not affect the translation, but is more concise and can be understood more quickly.<br /> <br /> “You know, you may've got a few more years out of it, but you choose to do something so special and unique that there were only a short window of time you could do it.” Daisy was in the dance business, but she had an accident later. Some expressions here such as “a few more years out of it” ( 跳几年舞), “something so special and unique”( 事业太与众不同), “a short window of time” （几年黄金时间) have been dealt more concrete, so the whole sentence is translated as: “也许，你能多跳几年舞，可你的事业太与众不同了，只有几年的黄金时间可以发展。” <br /> <br /> As for its form, the formal features of different modes are interrelated and reflect the discourse meaning together (Zhang Fulu, 2009). The film system includes animation, pictures, music, language and other auditory and visual modes. Therefore, subtitles, together with listening and visual modes, work together to promote the expression of film meaning.<br /> <br /> For example, Benjamin and Daisy finally met and got together. They whispered in the yellow-glowed room:<br /> Daisy: “Will you still love me when my skin grows old and saggy?” ( 我要是成了黄脸婆你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> Benjamin: “Will you still love me when I have acne? When I wet the bed? When I'm afraid of what's under the stairs?” ( 等我老到脸上长满青春痘，老到尿床，老到连楼梯下有什么都怕，你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> The pictures, music and language all revealed the happy and loving life of the two people. In general, the film is based on the narration of a diary. In the film, the dialogue between the present and the narration in the diary is carried out alternately. In addition, the old pictures, the statement of time and the voice change of the narrator are used to make the past and the present change clearly and naturally, and they are applied in the formal level.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.4 On Expression Level '''<br /> <br /> Zhang Fulu believes that the expression level can be divided into language media and non-verbal media. In the language media level, he thinks that the main forms of meaning communication are sound symbols and writing symbols. For films, subtitles and subtitle translation belong to writing symbols. In the process of translating subtitles, translators should fully consider the media characteristics such as voice size, intonation strength, tone, font size and layout, which play a very important role in the expression of films. The subtitles of the film are at the bottom of the screen. Except for the notes, the translation takes up a little bit more space, and most of the subtitles in the source language and the target language occupy one line, which ensures that the audience has enough time to read the information. Non verbal media include communicators' body and nonverbal means (mainly tools and environment). Nowadays, with the progress of science and technology, movies can be played in cinemas, networks and various electronic media, and the media for appreciation is rich.<br /> <br /> Throughout the film, the dying old Daisy's tone is slow and strenuous on the bed. With the development of the story, light or heavy, a TV beside the bed broadcast the change of Hurricane weather activity, and the weather change also reflects Daisy's condition at that time.<br /> Finally, Daisy hugged Benjamin, a baby in her arms, and watched him invert the end of her life. The dying Daisy dictated in a low voice and intermittent tone: &quot;he looked at me and Iknow that he knew who I was.&quot;. (他看着我，那一刻，我知道他认出来了) The sound of the hurricane alarm suddenly sounded, sharp and obvious, and the picture of the staff of the hospital of traditional Chinese medicine was flustered, symbolizing that Benjamin's reversal clock was also washed away, and Daisy finally passed away. The sound, picture and words of the whole film are closely linked. It tells the story of eternal love, though limited in time, which is extremely shocking and thought-provoking.<br /> <br /> The translator of the film tries his best to translate various modes such as discourse, picture, sound and music. The translation strategy is mainly free translation, and the subtitle processing is simple and appropriate, so that the audience can have a good understanding of the limited time in the film, only the eternal knowledge of love. Taking the film subtitle of &quot;rejuvenation&quot; as an example, this paper analyzes the characteristics of subtitle translation from the aspects of culture, context, content and expression, hoping to better understand multimodal discourse analysis and free translation strategies in film subtitle translation.<br /> <br /> ='''Machine Translation'''=<br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory - A Case Study of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈永相 Chen Yongxiang&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine (hereinafter referred to as TCM), the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, boasts the favorable curative effect and a good reputation across the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative” and national economy, TCM has been playing an increasingly significant role in international trade, attracting more attention of foreign medical experts and consumers. As the essential attachment of a medicine, medicine instructions belong to the genre of practical writing, characterized by the unique language structure and stylistic features, guiding doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicines, such as usage and dosage, actions and indications, contraindication, etc. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. Due to the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, however, plenty of problems appear on the C-E translation of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> According to Adaptation Theory proposed by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. Translation is a cross-cultural communication activity, which involves language usage and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so on between source language and target language, and to adapt with different contexts, mentalities, cultures, etc. so as to achieve the ideal goal, from which the Adaptation Theory can be applied exactly into the study of translation. This paper will apply Adaptation Theory, therefore, as the theoretical framework, to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. Employing the core concepts and investigating aspects of Adaptation Theory, the author tries to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine instruction translation, Adaptation Theory, Yulin Pharmaceutical Company <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 中药是我国医药文化的瑰宝，有着良好的疗效和口碑。随着“一带一路倡议”的稳步推进和中国经济的平稳发展，中药药品在国际贸易中所占比重日益增加，得到了国外许多医疗专家和消费者的关注。药品说明书作为药品的重要附件，是一种实用文体，有其自身的语言结构和文体特点，能够指导医生与患者了解和熟悉药品作用、用法用量、适应症和禁忌等。而中医药品说明书英译作为中医英译的一个重要组成部分，其英译质量决定了药品能否被医生和患者正确理解和使用，以及中医药产品的国际贸易繁荣。然而，由于英语和汉语之间存在着不可避免的语言和文化差异，中医药品说明书英译依然存在着较大问题。<br /> <br /> 比利时语用学家维索尔伦提出的语言顺应论认为，语言的使用是一个不断作出选择和顺应的动态过程。翻译作为一项跨文化交际活动，需要在源语与目的语之间，就用词、翻译策略等方面进行选择，对不同语境、心理、文化等层面作出顺应。可见顺应论适用于翻译研究。因此本文以顺应论作为理论依据，通过对广西玉林制药公司中医药品说明书英译进行分析研究，运用顺应论的核心概念和研究视角，进一步探讨如何更好地翻译中医药品说明书。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 中医药品说明书翻译，顺应论，玉林制药公司<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''1.Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''1.1 Research Background of the Study'''====<br /> <br /> As the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, TCM has been through a profound history in China. Since “The Belt and Road Initiative” proposed for the first time, as an indispensable part in medical industry, TCM has tapped the potential of development opportunity to boost its reform so as to better make inroads into the international market. Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a renowned TCM pharmacy enterprise mainly engaged in R&amp;D, production and sales of Chinese medicines, one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties. In 2015, Consun Pharmaceutical Group Lt. has successfully brought partial share of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, which, in return, brought opportunities for the IPO and industrialization of the company. As the essential attachment of TCM medicine, the instructions guide doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicine correctly, which closely relates to consumer safety and are of great significance. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. The high quality translation versions of TCM instructions will accelerate TCM to enter into the international market, to occupy more competitive market share, and to better popularize the excellent TCM culture. <br /> <br /> ===='''1.2 Significance and Purpose of the Study'''==== <br /> <br /> It is noticed that studies and researches on TCM at home and abroad have boomed since the ancient Silk Road period. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from experts. Because of the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, a lot of problems appear on the translation of TCM instructions. And against such a backdrop, there are still no settled rules or translation standards to be applied and favored in the translation of TCM instructions, hence it’s quite essential to touch upon the area of C-E translation of TCM instructions in a more comprehensive and systematic way so as to find out more effective methods and strategies for the instruction translation. Adaptation Theory is proposed by Jef Verschueren, he thinks that language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation is a type of language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so forth between source language and target language. A good translation version of TCM instructions can appropriately guide both doctors and patients to understand the pharmacological functions, usage and dosage, actions and indications and contraindications of medicines. Therefore, the quality of instruction translation has a direct impact on whether TCM can be favored and obtained a good reputation among overseas medical industry and consumers. This paper studies the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, trying to take the Company as a case study to further discuss how to translate TCM instructions in a better way. <br /> <br /> ==='''2.Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 Features of TCM Instructions'''====<br /> <br /> Being the essential attachment of a medicine, the instruction contains important information that explains what the medicine is, how to take it and the effects after taking it, guiding doctors and patients to understand and use medicines properly. It closely relates to consumers’ safety. Thus, TCM instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. However, the information covered in most TCM instructions is drug name, ingredients, actions and indications, usage and dosage, while adverse effects, precautions, pharmacological effects, drug interaction, contraindications etc. are quite simple, even without any description of these items, failing to meet the requirement of international standards. <br /> <br /> Besides, due to the profound history of TCM developed in China, most of the unique TCM languages derived from the abstract philosophical concepts of ancient times remain being used until now, say, classical style and semi-classical style, which are accepted and favored by the TCM community, causing difficulties in translating them into English. And hence four-character structure, vagueness and ambiguity of the language, and no equivalence between Chinese and English are the main features of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> The four-character structure is concise but comprehensive in meaning, implying the extensive and abstract medical concepts of TCM. The tradition of using it to describe the symptoms and ways of treatment in TCM hasn’t been changed over time but continued to be applied and advocated in modern society. The TCM instructions are difficult to understand and translate, for the peculiar traits of TCM language, as well as the technical terms coming, directly or indirectly, from the abstract medical concepts of TCM, characterized by the unique treatment method as a whole in human body, and seeking to find answers and balance principles in nature to explain the causes and treatments of diseases, which is usually not the literal one but beyond cognition. In addition, there are gaps and non-equivalence between TCM and Western Medicine. Most TCM instruction translations apply technical terms from Latin in terms of ingredients, but adopt simple words and phrases for describing actions and indications, since the TCM language with Chinese characteristics finds no match in English. Ordinary people, as well as translators, who do not have the professional knowledge may have great difficulty in understanding and translating them. <br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Studies of TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine wasn’t legal once in the United States until 1975, as many scholars and experts were skeptical about its medical theory and way of treatment. Since the establishment of China, the government has been devoting great efforts to the recognition and popularization of TCM across the world. And from then on, a lot of studies and researches based on the translation of TCM have been published at home and abroad. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from the experts. In view of the special wording and the abstract theory of TCM, the translation of TCM instructions is of great difficulty and complexity. <br /> <br /> Currently, the translation of TCM instructions on the market, to a large extent, lacks readability and translation standards. Against such a backdrop, some scholars have striven to make some breakthroughs yet. Nigel Wiseman (2000) systematically elaborates the concept of “oriented by the source” in his dissertation, Translation of Chinese Medicine Terms: A Source Oriented Approach, in terms of the translation of TCM language, believing that the translation of TCM, as well as the instructions, should respect the original style and keep it in the target text as much as possible. In 2002, Translation of TCM Directions (《中医药说明书的英译》) written by Ouyang Lifeng (2002) put forward some practical methods for the translation of TCM instructions. He advocates “naturalization” and “readjustment”, namely, adaptation strategy, should be applied in translation, and if necessary, some additions and deletions are acceptable on the basis of faithfulness to the original text. Guided by Professor Ouyang, his student, Xiaoqiong, applies Peter Newmark’s Communicative Approach in her master’s thesis, On the Translation of TCM Booklets of Direction-The Communicative Approach (2008) to study the features of TCM instructions, suggesting that different approaches should be adopted regarding to different parts of the instructions. On translation Strategies of Chinese Medicine Instruction from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches written by Luo Haiyan (2009) conducts a relatively profound research under the guidance of Functionalist Approach in terms of each part of TCM instructions. She finds out the translation of TCM instructions is not very identical and comprehensible. Cao Qing’s thesis, A Study on Translation of Chinese Pharmaceutical Instruction (2011) states the common problems of translation instructions and advises three translation methods, namely literal translation, conversion and free translation under the Skopos Theory. There are still other scholars aiming at one aspect or another to further study the translation of TCM instructions, all of which exert a significant impact for references in translating TCM instructions. From the perspectives of Zhang Mengjing (1995), Ning Zhishou and Liu Cuiwei (1997), and Fu Wei (2006), the current TCM instruction translation lacks faithfulness, readability and incompatibility with conventional norms, suggesting that more attention should be paid in this field. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn from the above literature that studies on TCM instruction translation can be conducted from a wide scope. For the great distinction between western and Chinese culture, and the abstract medical principles of TCM, much has to be done to make the translation of TCM instructions more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> ==='''3.Adaptation Theory Applied in Traditional Chinese Medicine Instruction Translation of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company'''===<br /> <br /> From what has been mentioned above, as the important attachment of TCM, the instructions provide the correct and detailed medical information to doctors and consumers, guiding them to take medicine scientifically and properly, and hence the medicine instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. As one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a famous brand in the whole country, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties, and the buyout also boosts the process of IPO and reform. Through observation of the C-E translation instructions of TCM for foreigners and export, hence there are some certain instructive significance for the translation of TCM instructions. Because of the special characteristics of TCM instructions and the limited information included in the instructions of the company, this part tries to analyze the C-E translation instructions from the perspective of Adaptation Theory, mainly employing the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Contextual Correlates of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> As introduced earlier, according to Verschueren, the ingredients of contextual correlates of adaptability largely include the physical world, social world, and mental world. However, the author will mainly concentrates on the adaptation to the mental world and social world due to the limited materials collected. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.1 Adaptation to the Mental World'''=====<br /> <br /> Regarding the mental world, it involves the personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations, intentions and so on of both sides of language users. In the translation process, translators should take target readers’ mind into account, not just concentrating on personal mental world or literally translating the original text from one language to another language without any adaptation. <br /> <br /> Basically, consumers of drugs tend to rely on more renowned brands when facing a bunch of medicines displayed on the shelves. The key to attract their attention not only counts on the high quality of TCM, but also on the instructions with rigorous standards, concise specification and overall comprehensibility, delivering a sense of authority and credibility. <br /> <br /> To begin with, the name of drugs is the most direct information delivered to the consumers. Thus, a good name of the TCM can catch the eyes of buyers in the very beginning. “正骨水” is the most famous and important product of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, however, the translation of its name in the instruction simply applies transliteration and Chinese Pinyin, namely, “Zheng Gu Shui” , which fails to adapt with the mental world of target readers. Apparently, Pinyin isn’t the way of expression that they are familiar with. Translators should consider their mental expectation and make adaptation with their familiar ways of expression. In that point, “Bone-setting Liquor” would be a better name for the medicine. “Bone-setting” means the medicine is effective for the symptoms of bone problems, and “liquor” implies the ingredients involved alcohol and other irritating ingredients so that consumers can be aware of the precautions and avoid using it on fragile mucous membranes and anabrotic wounds. Also, the same type of medicine can apply the same way of translation, such as, “金装正骨水” can be translated to “Golden Bone-setting Liquor”, and “极品正骨水” is rendered as “Superb Bone-setting Liquor”. Such a name conveys the correct medical information to consumers and better adapt to their thinking patterns. <br /> <br /> Another example is “睡安胶囊”, the translation version is “Shui’an Jiaonang” . Obviously, it will confuse foreigners since they don’t recognize Chinese Pinyin in their cognitive levels. Translators should at least use “capsule” to indicate the medicine is some type of capsules effective for the sleeping problems. A well-recognized name will arouse attention and interest among consumers, attracting them to purchase the medicine. In order to adapt with their mental expectation and intention, as Ouyang (2002) advocates, naturalization or domesticating translation can be applied in translation. “Sleep Mate” or “Insomnia Killer” can better attract their attention and adapt with their beliefs and cognitive levels. In English, “mate” is a common word, which will be more acceptable and natural in such combination, and “killer” combined with “insomnia” implies the meaning of solving the insomnia problems, which is also more suitable and adaptable with their emotions and motivations. <br /> <br /> A good name of the medicine can not only imply the function of the medicine, conveying the essential information to customers, but also can draw their attention and arouse their desires to purchase the medicine. Meeting the demand and preference with the mental world of target people is also one of the requirements of medicine instructions. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, if transliteration or simply adopting Chinese Pinyin to translate the names of medicines will confuse customers and cause misunderstanding, adaptation is required, and not just words, but also translation strategies should be taken consideration when making adaptation. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.2 Adaptation to the Social World'''=====<br /> <br /> Verschueren (2000:91) states that there is no principled limit to the range of social factors that linguistic choices are inter-adaptable with. Basically, social settings and culture play a significant role in the process of translation. What distinguishes TCM from Western Medicine mainly lies on the cultural differences. Language is the carrier of culture, and the cultural differences can be embodied in different languages, and then shown and reflected in society. Instruction translation, as the cross-cultural communication activity, is influenced largely by cultural differences in different social worlds. Followings are the very typical translation examples to illustrate the point:<br /> <br /> Example 1(感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> Source Text (ST): 用于感冒或流感发热，头痛鼻塞, 伤风咳嗽，咽痛，肢痛<br /> <br /> Target Text (TT): Used for the treatment of cold, flu and fever, headache and nasal congestion, wind damage cough, angina and melalgia<br /> <br /> Revised Text (RT): Used for cold, flu, fever, headache, snuffle, cough, sore throat and pain in muscles<br /> <br /> Traditionally, “伤风” in Chinese means getting cold because of the invasion of “风” into the human body. “风” is actually one of the six exogenous pathogenic factors according to the medical theory of TCM, which cannot be explained from the perspective of Western Medicine. In western society, people have no concept that the natural phenomenon, say, “风” or “火”, will cause diseases in the human body. So the revised text deletes this term with TCM characteristics to avoid ambiguity and makes it more natural and understandable in English. In addition, most common patients who seek to buy medicines in pharmacies might not have the specific knowledge of medical field due to different social settings and backgrounds, thus, “angina” and “melalgia” might be beyond recognition and acceptance. Western world highlights the importance of brevity and conciseness in their society, and they place emphasis on simplification and efficiency, seldom using the very technical terms in their lives. Such social settings and cultural differences must be considered so as to make adaptation when translating. Besides, “nasal congestion” is the word-for-word translation and may cause misunderstanding among foreigners. So the revised text adopts “snuffle” and “sore throat” to indicate the meaning of “鼻塞” and “咽痛”, applying these simple words to make adaptation with cultural differences in different social worlds, and renders “melalgia” into “pain in muscles” to better deliver the meaning of “肢痛”. <br /> <br /> Example 2 (治咳枇杷露)<br /> <br /> ST: 治疗儿童伤风呃逆，咳嗽痰盛<br /> <br /> TT: Used for children’s wind-damage hiccup, cough and exuberant phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Used for cold, hiccup, cough and sputum in children<br /> <br /> Similarly, example 2 also translates “ 伤风” into “ wind damage”, which is not appropriate in such description. As mentioned above, additions and deletions, if necessary, can be applied to make adaptation in translation. So the revised text deletes “wind damage” and “exuberant phlegm”, adopting noun coordination and making it more readable and adaptable to the social world of target readers. <br /> <br /> Literal translation of instructions is not always the first option in the C-E translation of instructions. For translators, the first thing they should consider is to be faithful to the original meaning of the text, not the text itself. They need to make adaptation to the target readers’ social world, for instance, social status, social settings, social background, cultural differences, etc., striving to make the translation concise and easy to understand in their society. Amid such different social worlds, translators must bear in mind to render localization of different cultures to make adaptation without causing ambiguity and misunderstanding while successfully keeping and delivering the implied meanings as much as possible.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:26, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 Structural Objects of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translationn'''====<br /> <br /> According to Verschueren, linguistic choice-making takes place at all levels of structure that shows variability of any kind (2000:15). As indicated in Part two, for the reason of limited information covered in the TCM instructions, the materials collected from the company would be more meaningful if concentrating on the lexical level of the actions and indications of the instructions, which exactly features the typical four-character structure and language traits of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.1 Adaptation to the Lexical Level'''=====<br /> <br /> Differences in lexical level between TCM and Western Medicine largely reflect on terminologies and descriptions of diseases. The four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning. Currently, most translation versions of instructions are literally word-for-word translation and transliteration, failing to deliver the correct meanings implied in those TCM terminologies and words and lacking readability and authenticity. Here are some typical translation examples of the actions and indications of the medicines in Yulin Pharmaceutical Company:<br /> <br /> Example 3(蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 小便频数<br /> <br /> TT: Frequent urination<br /> <br /> Example 4 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 祛风除湿 <br /> <br /> TT: Dispel wind and eliminated dampness<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve rheumatic pain<br /> <br /> Example 5 (珍黄丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 消肿止痛<br /> <br /> TT: Ease a swelling and relieve pain<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve swelling pain<br /> <br /> Chinese four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning, and most of them are the causal relationship. &quot;祛风除湿&quot; is a typical example. “风湿” is a disease caused by the invasion of “风” into the human body, if &quot;风邪&quot; cannot be removed from the body soon, &quot;湿&quot; will appear and gather together near the joints, causing diseases and pains in joints according to the medical theory of TCM. So, &quot;祛风&quot; is actually the result of &quot;除湿&quot;, and vice versa. And the example of “消肿止痛”, it is usually can be explained that pain is caused by swelling as the result of illness or injury. Once the swelling disappears, so does the pain. According to the example 3, &quot;小便频数&quot; is translated into “Frequent urination”, using the structure of &quot;adjective+noun&quot; in English, which is concise in form and easy to understand. So the revised text of example 4 and 5 can also adopt such structure and translate into &quot;Relieve rheumatic pain&quot; and &quot;Relieve swelling pain&quot;, not only implying the causal relationship between the lines, concise and simple, but also avoiding translating repetitive meaning. <br /> <br /> Example 6 (感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> ST: 止咳化痰<br /> <br /> TT: Suppress cough and transform phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve cough and sputum<br /> <br /> Example 7 (乌军治胆片)<br /> <br /> ST: 疏肝解郁 <br /> <br /> TT: To course the liver and resolve depression<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve Qi stagnation in liver<br /> <br /> From the above two examples, &quot;止咳化痰&quot; is translated into &quot;Suppress cough and transform phlegm&quot;, and &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is “To course the liver and resolve depression”. It is noticed that simply employing the literal meaning of words to translate TCM instructions doesn’t work, especially in such medical context. Translators cannot ignore the relationship between the words and the context then make translation of words in isolation. &quot;化痰' means the symptom of sputum would be relieved and cured soon after taking the medicine, and hence here, the key words are &quot;咳&quot; and &quot;痰&quot;, not the verbs. So the translation of &quot;Relieve cough and sputum&quot; would be more comprehensible and readable. And the example of &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is actually another one that can be evidenced the casual relationship in TCM language. &quot;疏&quot; and &quot;解&quot; deliver the same meaning in such context, and &quot;肝郁&quot; is not the meaning of &quot;depression of liver&quot; but the irregular circulation and stagnation of the abstract &quot;Qi&quot; in liver from the perspective of TCM. So translating into &quot;Relieve Qi stagnation in liver&quot; retains the original meaning of Chinese and makes it more acceptable. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.2 Summary'''=====<br /> <br /> Despite of the characteristics of four-character structure in TCM language, the phenomenon of repetitive meaning implied between the lines is quite common. For translators, they should fully understand what meanings indicated between those words and phrases prior to translating them into another language. According to Adaptation Theory, language has the properties of variability, negotiability and adaptability. Facing abundant choices of words in English, translators should choose the most appropriate words and expressions after negotiation to make adaptation to the lexical level, the structure, the context, etc. preferred in English.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, translators should make linguistic choices not just at the lexical level, but also the syntactic level, textual level, rhetorical level etc. literally all levels of linguistic structures. Due to the limited information contained in TCM instructions of the company, this part mainly develops from the adaptation of lexical level, finding out that most translations apply literal translation with abusive usage of words, failing to deliver the correct meaning implied in TCM language and lacking readability and authenticity.<br /> <br /> With the great progresses of TCM over years, Yin(阴) and Yang(阳), Wuxing(五行) and Qi(气), these basic concepts in TCM have been accepted and recognized among foreigners. It can be adopted directly when translating the TCM instructions. With regard to the verbs in TCM language, literal translation sometimes might arouse skepticism and confusion of target readers and fail to deliver the correct meaning and the effectiveness of medicines. Translators should adapt the wording preference in target language and try to naturalize the translation but avoid abusive usage of words. Thus translators in this field should be equipped with excellent bilingual ability, sufficient background knowledge of TCM and Western Medicine, and the understanding of linguistics.<br /> <br /> ===='''3.3 Dynamics of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> As stated above, translation is a process of dynamic adaptation and involves the process of structural reconstruction and meaning regeneration. According to Verschueren (2000:157) “...strategies are always involved in any type of communication.” It means not just linguistic choices, but also translation strategies are dynamic because of different time, context and structure of both sides of language usage and each of them varies in line with relative factors when language users make choices. <br /> <br /> The dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation can be embodied from different words, phrases and translation strategies, even different languages applied in the medicine instructions. As for the part of ingredients, the instructions of the company employ Latin to indicate each TCM, for instance: Radix Notoginseng (三七), Herba Artemisiae Scopariae (茵陈), Fructus Lycii (枸杞), Poria (茯苓), Radix Codonopsis (党参), Rhizoma Dioscoreae (山药). It is usually the part where doctors and experts who have the specific knowledge of this field would be interested in, and using Latin to translate the TCM is the international standard of naming medicines, hence it is a way of adaptation. While next to the part of actions and indications, it resorts to different words and phrases in English to describe the indications of each medicine. English is apparently a better option for its universality and compatibility that common people can easily understand what the medicine is, and how to take it. Such adaptation to each part of the instruction in language shows the dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation. Following are some examples to show the dynamics of adaptability in translation: <br /> <br /> Example 8 (正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To remove obstruction from collateralls and channels and relieve muscular contracture<br /> <br /> Example 9 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To relax and activate tendons<br /> <br /> As for the translation of “舒筋活络”, example 8 and example 9 employ different words to deliver the meaning. The former is detailed and elaborated, delivering the original meaning implied in the lines while the latter is relatively simple, only using “tendons” to express the meaning of “筋络”. Besides the different specifications of “正骨水” and “金装正骨水”, the ingredients of these two medicines also show a wide difference, contributing to the different words and methods adopted in the same description of indications. From the above examples, it can be noticed, to some extent, that translators go through negotiation and then make dynamic adaptation with regard to different medicines. <br /> <br /> Example 10 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 旺盛局部血液循环, 增强细胞活力<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen partial blood circulation and improve vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 11 (筋骨王)<br /> <br /> ST: 改善局部血液循环，增强细胞活力。<br /> <br /> TT: To accelerate local blood circulation, increase vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 10 and example 11 are actually delivering the same meaning, but they change the words and phrases to adapt with two different medicines. With the variability and adaptability of language, the meaning of “增强” can be expressed by “improve” and “increase”, and translators employs “partial” and “local” to express the meaning of “局部”. As for the similar actions and indications, the translations of which vary in different medicines, demonstrating that translation is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. <br /> <br /> Example 12 (睡安胶囊)<br /> <br /> ST: 清心除烦<br /> <br /> TT: To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation<br /> <br /> Example 13 (蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 壮阳益肾<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney<br /> <br /> Example 12 and example 13 apply free translation to deliver the meaning of actions and indications of these two medicines. “清心除烦” is rendered into “To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation”, and “To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney” is more like the paraphrase of “壮阳益肾”. Both the translations are much easier to understand and adapt to consumers’ mind in a better way. Unlike the others, the above translations avoid literal translation, which will be too demanding and abstract for both sides of translators and target people, and they resort to free translation to convey the correct pharmacological actions, simplifying the instructions and making adaptation with the translation strategies to better resolve the cultural differences. <br /> <br /> Translating a TCM instruction can never be a mechanical activity of making translation from one language to another; rather, it entails dynamic adaptation to the differences between source language and target language. According to the Adaptation Theory, language use is a dynamic process of linguistic choice-making, which should adapt to contextual correlates and structural objects of language. As a type of more complex language use related to different languages, C-E translation of TCM instructions is a dynamic process of adaptation to different contexts and linguistic structures. However, the dynamic linguistic choices require language users to go through negotiation with themselves when facing abundant choices to eventually choose the most appropriate forms and strategies in accordance with different contexts and linguistic structures so as to fulfill the communicative intention. In other words, translators should avoid abusive usage of variability and adaptability of language, being faithful to the original meaning of texts to meet the standard of translation as much as possible.<br /> <br /> ==='''4.Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Being a significant carrier of TCM information, the instruction is a bridge that links the excellent TCM theories and effectiveness to the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative”, TCM will be learned and used across the world at a much larger scale. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, this paper employs the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, mainly concentrating on the adaptation to the mental world, social world, and the adaptation to the lexical level to study the C-E translation of the TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn that the C-E translation of TCM instructions of the Company is not that satisfactory after research. It doesn’t deal with the cultural differences between TCM and Western Medicine properly. Literal translation and abusive usage of words frequently appear in the C-E translation of instructions, failing to deliver the correct meaning and lacking readability and credibility, having a bad impact on the brand image. While at same time, there are some places worthy to be praised from the perspective of Adaptation Theory. It shows the dynamics of adaptability in the C-E translation of TCM instructions, which can be demonstrated through the various words, phrases, strategies applied in the process of translation. Still, much work has to be done to improve the quality of translation and make it more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, as a way of language use, translation involves the continuous making of linguistic choices. Not only words, language forms and structures, but also strategies should be taken into consideration when translating. Translators should adapt with the differences between English and Chinese, and meanwhile, pay attention to the features of TCM instructions, avoiding some obvious mistakes to achieve the ultimate goal of keeping the original meaning of TCM while delivering the accurate and rigorous medical information to foreigners. So the author advocates that adaptation is required during the process of translation, combined with transliteration and literal translation for some simple and basic concepts in TCM that have been well-recognized by foreigners, free translation and domesticating translation should be adopted with regard to the cultural differences in translation, if necessary, additions and deletions are also appreciated on the basis of being faithful to the original meaning of texts. <br /> <br /> Unfortunately, due to the limited materials collected and the incompetence of the author, the analysis of this paper only applies the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability of Adaptation Theory, failing to study in a more comprehensive way. In addition, this paper only conducts the research in studying the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, failing to reach at a larger scale. Last but not least, there are still some drawbacks and imperfections in Adaptation Theory, which the author fails to touch upon for lacking of knowledge and experience. Still, the author is willing to take all comment and advice.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1] As Homby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [Z]. The Commercial Press, Oxford University, extended eighth edition, 2014. <br /> <br /> [2] Bhatia, V. K. Analyzing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings [M]. London: Longman, 1993. <br /> <br /> [3] Carl James. Error in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [4] Fischbach, Henry. Translation and Medicine [M]. American Translators Association Scholarly Monograph Series, 1998. <br /> <br /> [5] Nigel Wiseman. Translation of Chinese medicine terms: A source oriented approach [D].University of Exeter, 2000. <br /> <br /> [6] Verschueren J. Pragmatic as a Theory of Linguistic Adaptation [R]. International Pragmatic Association, 1987. <br /> <br /> [7] Verschueren, J. Understanding Pragmatics [M]. London: Edward Arnold Ltd., 1999;Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000. <br /> <br /> [8] 曹情. 中文药品说明书的翻译[D]. 湖南：南华大学, 2011. <br /> <br /> [9] 傅微. 语篇视点理论在中药说明书翻译中的运用[D]. 广西：广西大学外国语学院,2006. <br /> <br /> [10] 罗海燕. 功能主义翻译理论关照下的中药说明书的翻译[D]. 江苏：南京中医药大学, 2009. <br /> <br /> [11] 李照国. 中医基本名词术语英译国际标准化研究[M]. 上海科学技术出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> [12] 马邦新. 英文药品说明书的翻译[J]. 中国科技翻译, 1998(3): 16-18. <br /> <br /> [13] 宁之寿, 刘翠微. 也谈药品说明书的翻译[J]. 上海科技翻译, 1997(2): 31-33. <br /> <br /> [14] 欧阳利锋. 中医药说明书的英译[J]. 中国科技翻译, 2002, 15(2): 17-20. <br /> <br /> [15] 宋志平. 翻译:选择与顺应——语用顺应论视角下的翻译研究[J]. 中国翻译,2004(2): 21-25. <br /> <br /> [16] 肖琼. 中医药说明书的翻译[D]. 广东：广东外语外贸大学, 2008.<br /> <br /> [17] 袁斌业. 语言顺应论对翻译的启示[J]. 四川外国语学院院报, 2009(9), 111-113. <br /> <br /> [18] 张梦井. 药品说明书的英译问题[J]. 中国科技翻译, 1995(2): 6-9. <br /> <br /> [19] 周书梅. 顺应论视角下的翻译研究[J]. 山东省农业管理干部学院学报, 2013, 30(5): 138-140. <br /> <br /> --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Science and technology constitute a primary productive force. In the contemporary era, with the continuous development of science and technology, artificial intelligence has shown more and more mighty strength, and machine translation has also been derived in the field of translation. In this regard, many people are beginning to worry that machine translation will one day replace human translation. When it comes to me, science and technology is people-oriented, and the continuous development of it aims at servimg mankind in a better standard. Therefore, it is not realistic to separate science and technology from humanities. The appropriate way to solve this dilemma is to integrate the two to achieve the perfectly qualitative change of &quot;1 + 1 &gt; 2&quot;. This paper will first analyze the cons and pros of human translation and machine translation, and then explore the development of computer-aided translation based on the combination of the two types above and the progress should be made in different sectors among our society.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Human Translation, Machine Translation, CAT, Compatibility<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 机器翻译会取代人工翻译吗？<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 科技是第一生产力。在当代，随着科学技术的不断发展，人工智能展现出越来越强大的实力，在翻译领域也相应地衍生出了机器翻译。对此许多人都开始担心机器翻译终有一天会取代人工翻译。在笔者看来，科技以人为本，科学技术的不断发展是为了更好的为人类服务。因而将科技与人文割裂开来的观点是并不现实的，最好的解决办法应是将二者结合起来，实现1+1＞2的完美质变。本文将分析人工翻译与机器翻译各自的优势和劣势，进而探讨二者相结合的后的计算机辅助翻译的发展和社会各个层面应该做出的改进。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 人工翻译，机器翻译，计算机辅助翻译，融合<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> In these years, artificial intelligence has experienced a skipping development and more and more advanced technologies have been applied in our daily life. For example, many factories have introduced some robots to replace the repetitive works done by ordinary workers before. In addition, some restaurants have adopted robots to send the dishes to guests, etc. More and more cases in our life demonstrate the gigantic strength of science and technology. Panicked by this reality, a constantly growing number of people are worrying that they will lose their job one day when the artificial intelligence are more practical than them. This anxiety is also quite common in translation industry. In this field , human translation and machine translation are the main two kinds of translation method. The former merely rely on the single person to do tranlation, while the latter is based on the vast corpus and developed technique. Since this enormous contrast, some people put forward a question that “Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation?” The answer is absolutely “no”. Actually, these two approaches are not incompatible. Instead, they both have their own advantages and disadvantages and through analysis,we can find that they can remedy their shortbacks by learning the valuable aspects from the other so as to form a “perfect pitch”. In other words,they are complementary to each other. <br /> <br /> Based on these viewpoints, first of all , the pros and cons of human translation and machine translation will be displayed one by one and then the new type of translation---computer-aided translation will be analyzed in detail. At last,confronted with the constantly changing world there are somes personal suggestions for those who work in the translation industry or those who are preparing to march into this field as well as government, colleges and universities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Pros and Cons of Human Translation and Machine Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Human Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 The Advantages =====<br /> <br /> As the traditional main force of translation, mankind own some irreplaceable edges. <br /> <br /> Firstly, they master a sordid foundation about the translation work, including extensive vocabularies, complex grammars, the construction of sentences and so on and so forth. Therefore, it’s hardly for them to make such mistakes.<br /> <br /> Secondly, due to the advanced education they have received, a great number of them has an encyclopedic knowledge about many fileds. Furthmore, during the years of learning foreign languages, they have acquired not only the language knowledge but also the histories and cultures of these countries so that they are able to handle with the problems of cultural differences in translation very well.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, people have an capacity of rich emotion and thoughtful mind. When facing with some obscure translation materials, at the beginning they will make a transformation about it and then translate it with their understanding yet maintaining the main idea of the original texts. <br /> <br /> What is more, people are able to summarize the experiences and lessons in the process of translation and then form their own theory. Until now, there have existed a bunch of translation theories to guide the subsequent translators. Such as “faithfulness”(translation should convey the content of the original faithfully and accurately), “expressiveness”(smooth and fluent translation) and “elegance”(the translation should be exquisite) by Yanfu, &quot;functional equivalence&quot; by Eugene Nida, skopos theory by Hans Vermeer, etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Disadvantages=====<br /> <br /> However, the volume of brain is limited and it is impossible for mankind to memorize all the things in the world. Sometimes, they may forget what they have translated and in result cause a repetition of the same work they have done before.<br /> <br /> It is showed from some data that the output of human translation is 2000 words per person in eight hours(Chen, 30). Actually that speed is a little bit slow especially when there are strenuous tasks waiting for them. Besides, editors have to check and revise their translations which is quite time-wasting.<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, most translators work for governments, institutions, companies or some rich indivuduals. And right now in the translation market ,the standard price are several hundred Yuan per thousand characters. And the wage of intepreting is even more expensive. As a result, ordinary people won’t bother to hire a private translator. Under some circumstances, human translation can’t give a hand to the needed immediately. For instance, when Chinese people are travelling in the foreign countries, they can’t understand the words of those foreigners. At that time, an opportune and cheap translation tool is more desirable.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Machine Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Superiorities=====<br /> <br /> In the condition mentioned above, machine translation can meet tourists' needs perfectly. There are many translation applications in the app store, just like Baidu Translation, Google Translation, Youdao Translation, Hujiang Translation and so on. All of them are free to use and able to translate the language you input in just 1 second. And these applications have covered dozens of foreign languages so as to be the optimizing choice for many people. <br /> <br /> Besides the adoptation in daily life, machine translation has also been utilized in some important conferences. &quot;Translation headset&quot; is one of the most popular translation tools. It is usually combined with a smartphone application to translate the foreign language it heard to users. &quot;After decades of research, we have created an algorithmic framework to recognize language patterns in the same way as the human brain (neural network),&quot; said Andrew Ochoa, CEO of Waverly labs. By combining it with speech recognition technology, we have greatly improved the accuracy of translation. &quot; Therefore, Wearable translation machines made by companies like Waverly labs are really popular at conferences(Huan, 17).<br /> <br /> With the development of science and technology as well as the artificial intelligence, the system of machine translation has been polished step by step. Nowadays, it has built a huge corpus which contains tens of millions of storations, and translation with high accuracy can be available in some non-literary texts. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 The Inferiorities=====<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, a lot of noticeable defects still remain in machine translation. When it comes to the literary genres just like proses, poems and ancient essays, machine translation is not familiar with the language habits of these genres so as to incline to a failure in comprehending the latent meaning of the words thus nor it can work out an outstanding translation. In most cases it will adopt the method of literal translation, which is a confusing version, which can not express the idea of source language and the images in it can be missed. Take the following poem for example:<br /> <br /> 江雪<br /> <br /> 唐 柳宗元<br /> <br /> 千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br /> <br /> 孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。<br /> <br /> '''Version of Baidu Translation'''<br /> <br /> River Snow<br /> <br /> Birds flying away,<br /> <br /> The trail of thousands of people;<br /> <br /> A lone boat with a straw hat,<br /> <br /> Fishing alone in cold river snow.<br /> <br /> '''Version of Xu Yuanchong'''<br /> <br /> Fishing in snow<br /> <br /> From hill to hill no bird in flight,<br /> <br /> From path to path no man in sight;<br /> <br /> A lonely fisherman afloat<br /> <br /> Is fishing snow in lonely boat.<br /> <br /> Between these two versions, we can easily identify which one is better. In Xu’s translation, he translates “鸟飞绝” &amp;“人踪灭”into “no bird in flight” and “no man in sight”, which get rid of the form of the original text, not only expressing the deep meaning, but also conforming to the English expression habit. In addition, due to the repetition of two sentences in the same pattern, readers can feel a strong sense of monotony. And The most splendid point is the rhyme of first two sentences and last two sentences, which makes the whole poem cathy and add the musical beauty of the translation (Dong &amp; Xue, 56). On the contrast, the first version by machine is inferior in that it fails to express the artistic conception of the poem. People can’t feel the beauty descriped in the poem. What’s worse, some readers may puzzle about its imcomplete images and incoherent sentences!<br /> <br /> Nor is this all, machines can’t grasp the rich emotions of mankind. Thus they incline to misundersand of tone and deep meaning of the words(Liang, 18). Nay, China has a broad and profound civilization and there are numerous of polysemous words in Chinese.Just like “意思”and “方便”.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> <br /> When Zhang San send money to his leader, an interesting dialogue occurs between them. Please explain the different meanings of “意思”in the following sentences.<br /> <br /> 领导(leader)：“你这是什么意思？”(Why do you send me money?)<br /> <br /> 张三(Zhang San)：“没什么意思，意思意思。”(No special purpose, just a small gift.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这就不够意思了。” (Why don’t you tell me your true purpose?)<br /> <br /> 张三：“小意思，小意思。”(Not a big deal.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这人真有意思。” (It’s so interesting of you.)<br /> <br /> 张三：“其实也没有别的意思。”(I don’t have other special intentions on you.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“那我就不好意思了。”(Well, since that, I will accept your money.)<br /> <br /> Apparently, it may even be difficult for some people to get the deep meaning behind this dialogue let alone the senseless machine. Machine translation derived from science and technology are always under the control of human beings, they are always working under the manipulation of humanbeings. Mankind possess an intelligible brain and they can cteate new things according to their needs and imaginations. While machine can not achieve the rich creativity as human brain.<br /> <br /> From all the analysis above, it can be easily seen that human translation and machine translation are strongly complementary. Thus, the best way is to combine them together to learn from the other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies.<br /> <br /> ====3. Computer-Aided Translation====<br /> <br /> To meet the constantly-increasing demand of the market, a new type of translation method named Computer-aided translation (CAT) emerges at the right moment. It is the combination of the two translation methods mentioned above and can help translators complete the translation work with high quality, efficiency and ease. Different from the previous machine translation software, it does not rely on the automatic translation of the computer, but accomplishes the whole translation process with the participation of human beings. Besides, its translation speed can be twice of the human translation, with the quality being the same standard or better. CAT makes a change from the arduous human translation to an automatic process, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Preponderance of This Method====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Translation Memory=====<br /> <br /> Translation memory system, the main tool of computer-aided translation, is a &quot;language database storing the original text and its translation&quot;. During the time when people are working out a translation, CAT are also constructing a translation memory corpus in the backstage. The corpus can automatically store all the translated content. What contributes to our great convenience is that the translation memory system will automatically search the contents in the translation memory database in the later translation. The system will automatically output the translation results if the contents are the same as the sentences and language fragments in the memory corpus; and if the structures or vocabularies of the materials are similar to the sentences in the translation memory database, it will also show corresponding translation references and suggestions. In a word, translation memory system can benifit translators to utilize the contents of previous translation effectively and avoid repeated work, thus greatly improving the speed and quality of translation and saving translation time. According to the statistics, the application of translation memory system can increase the average productivity by 30%, and reduce the translation cost by 15-30%(Chen, 31).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Terminology Database=====<br /> <br /> When stepping into the translation industry and becoming a professional translator. It is inevitable that people will be confronted with materials from various fields, just like iatrology, law and science. All of these industries have a great number of terminologies. While human’s brain are limited that they can’t remember all the terms. Under this condition, a ready-made terminology database can be extremely helpful.<br /> <br /> Terminology management system provides a shortcut for translators to automatically search for terms appearing in the translation materials by displaying terms in the interface window of translation memory database or using hotkeys to search the entries in terminology database. Some programs have other hotkey combinations that enable translators to add new terms to the terminology database at the same time during translation. Some more advanced systems allow translators to check interactively or in batch if the correct source / target word combination is used within and between translation memory fragments of a given project. There is also an independent term management system, which can provide workflow functions, visual taxonomy, and be used as a term Checker (similar to a spelling checker to mark terms that are not used correctly), and can also support other types of multilingual term categories, such as pictures, videos or sounds(Quanqiubaike).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Revise and Automatic Alignment=====<br /> <br /> After translators finish their task on CAT system, it will scan the translation and figure out the numbers of mistakes including spelling, punctuation and so on. This proofeading can make one’s translation more accurate. In addition, the aligner can divide the source text and the target text into multiple fragments and make sure the right match of them so as to build a translation memory database or other reference resources. Many aligners also enable translators to manually realign mismatched fragments (Quanqiubaike).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Current Situation====<br /> <br /> Right now, due to the tremendous market demand, CAT steps into the golden era of development. There are several popular CAT softwares such as Trados、Déjà V、TransStar、IBM Translation Manager、WordFisher、Wordfast，OmegaT, among which the most famous is the first one. Theses softwares have experienced a long period of development and are relatively mature. They make the translation progress much more convenient than before. However, CAT is not yet a consummate system right now. It has a few drawbacks to be solved. To begin with, CAT is insufficient in the construction of the corpus. Right now, most domestic CAT softwares only restore hundreds of thousands of entries in the database, which is far from enough to meet the needs of translators. In a result, many people gradually emerge the idea that CAT is not workable. People still have to rely on themselves to search the complicated documents and their work are not able to decrease as they want. Nor is this all, sometimes it can be hard for people to extract the terms they need becauese of the failure of identification and although some easy mistakes can be found out, it may be difficult for the system to check out the sophisticated errors, thus people have to spend more time to tackle with the problems in person. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Prospect====<br /> <br /> Despite of the insufficiency of CAT right now, the defects can’t obscure the virtues. CAT has greatly emancipated the productivity of translation industry. Not only that, it has played an important role in reducing translation time, cutting down labor costs, standardizing translation documents, maintaining terminology consistency and ensuring translation quality, etc. In the near future, it is bound to become the main trend of translation development with its wide application all over the world and the functional improvement of various translation software(Chen, 32). And the problems mentioned above can be effectively polished with the advancement of science and technology.<br /> <br /> ===4. Suggestions===<br /> <br /> Facing with the unstoppable trend of artificial intelligence and CAT, should mankind repulse it or accept it? Apparently, the second attitude is more reasonable. For one thing, we can’t hinder the inexorable trend. For another thing, this is a good opportunity for people to utilize the tool to improve themselves.<br /> <br /> So, first and foremost, people should set up an open attitude, accepting CAT with an embracing mentality. It is no need to be afraid that machine will surpass human. Instead mankind is always the master of science and technology. Putting oneself on a pedestal is not a good way to make progress. And holding fast to one’s established ideas will eventually be sifted out by the era. In Qing Dynasty(1636-1912), the emperor and even the whole country praised the nation as the great kingdom. Since ancient time, China was abundant in natural resources and they were self-sufficient and self-contained. Thus the government constantly puesued a policy of “cutting off the country from the outside world”. At that time, the Western countries were going on an unprececedentedly industrial revolution. Through the renovation, the westerners immensely improved their productive forces and their countries got a rapid development. When the trend were heard by the Chinese emperor, they disdained to learn from the technology and regarded it as a diabolic trick. In this way, the gap between the East and the West was larger and larger. It was not until the breaking of the Opium War that Chinese people realized they have lagged behind a lot. Once a country was backward, it would be insulted by anyone else. After that, the Qing government was constantly forced to sign treaties of humiliating the country and forfeiting its sovereignty. The citizens were plunged into dire suffering. Under this circumstance, social conflicts intensified. Finally, the revolution of 1911 broke out and overthrew the Qing Dynasty. A feudal dynasty of more than 200 years fell down. Since the principle that lagging behind leaves one vulnerable to attacks is even applicable to a country, let alone the ordinary people. There is an old saying that “He who goes with the tide prospers, and he who goes against it dies”. The power of science and technology should never be looked down upon. The original purpose of this is to benifit the mankind rather than overthrow us. It is a powerful tool to help us scale new heights. If tranlators refuse to acquire the new skill, they will one day be weeded out by the industry.<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of market, the quality of translation talents should be improved accordingly. The span for talent training of translation majors in China is relatively short that it has only been 10 years since the establishment of Bachelor of Translation and Interpreting(BTI) and Master of Translation and Interpreting(MTI) in Colleges and universities across the country. The current situation of translation technology education in the cultivation of translation professionals is not optimistic either. First of all, compared with foreign universities and domestic universities in Hongkong, Macao and Taiwan, there is still a long way to open translation technology courses in domestic universities. According to the research by Lv Lisong and Mu Lei(37), universities in Hong Kong and Taiwan of China work closely with translation companies to provide translation technology teaching for students. However, Manchester, London University, Ottawa University of Canada and other foreign universities have established a developed system in terms of machine translation, terminology management, translation technology training curriculum, personnel training mode and translation testing, and formed an effective model. On the contrary, many domestic colleges and universities still do not pay enough attention to translation technology education, which leads to the failure of translation technology education courses in some colleges and universities. A survey of 12 universities in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Chongqing, Liaoning, Jilin, Henan, Hebei, Hubei, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Sichuan and other provinces and universities found that 11 of the 43 universities (a large part of which are &quot;985&quot; universities and &quot;211&quot; universities) with MTI have not yet opened translation technology courses, accounting for 25%. If the scope of the survey is extended to the secondary and tertiary institutions, the situation may be even worse(Zhu, 106).<br /> <br /> In this regard, the education of Chinese mainland is a little bit backward. There are several reasons for this phenomenon. To begin with, the perception of the educators and education system are rather outdated. The existing education system pay much attention to the translation and interpreting ability of students. This is a common pattern in many middle schools, high schools and even colleges and universities. As an English major student, the writer has the personal experience. During the university period. The most courses still focus on the cultivation of the basic skills of students. Although there are translation and interpreting classes every week, the normal model is that at first teachers will teach some translation theories or techniques, and then there will be some exercises for students to practice. Students are almost inaccessible to computing courses. This may resulted from the short of appropriate funds for education. China is a nation with a great number of population, and its population growth rate is also fast. As a result, the pressure on education has been relatively high. The commonly used index to measure whether a country's financial education funds are sufficient or not is the proportion of financial education funds in Gross Domestic Product(GDP). In China, this proportion has been at a low level for a long time. Although the education funds have been increasing with the continuous development of China's economy after the Reform and Opening up, yet the fact is that “There are too many monks and too little gruel.”---the funds allocated to each school are still far from enough. Take Hunan province as an example. In the year of 2000, China's financial education funds accounted for 2.87% of GDP, which failed to reach the target of 4% of GDP in 2000 as proposed in the outline of China's education reform and development. In 2003, the GDP of Hunan Province was 463.4 billion yuan, and the national financial expenditure on education was 11.179 billion yuan, accounting for 2.44% of GDP, an increase of 0.01 percentage points over the previous year. However, in 2004, the proportion of national financial education expenditure in GDP decreased to 2.34%, which is still far from the target of 4%.(Wu, 14-15).<br /> <br /> Besides the deficiency of educational funds, the allocation of it is also a cause. Usually, colleges and universities tend to use the fund to ameliorate the living condition and the construction of infrastructures, and then stuents’ scholarship and subsideies are indispensible. What is more, the salaries of teachers and all the staffs are also a big expenditure. Besides these, many colleges and universities attaches great importance to the scientific research items so that more money will be involved in these projects. Opposely, the development of the liberal arts may be less highlighted. In response to this problem, the writer deems that government and universities should both make some changes. As for government, they should carry out a policy that encourage the cultivation of computer skills; when it comes to the colleges and universities, they are supposed to enlarge the investment in the multimedia intelligent classrooms, and more techers who are sufficient in the operation of CAT should be enrolled. So far, Peking University has open a major named CAT, which is aimed to cultivate the professional talents to meet the needs of market.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Will machine translation replace human translation or not? Toward this question, the answer is an absolute “No”. As far as I am concerned, both the human tranlation and machine translation have their pros and cons. Human are able to comprehend the complex emotions in the texts and handle it with flexible expressions. In this aspect, machine can’t reach the human standard just like examples of “《江雪》”and “意思”mentioned above. Besides, mankind are familiar with the differences between various of countries so as to minimize the rate of committing a blunder, while the machine doesn’t have a brain like human’s. Their work is to translate the materials according to the superficial meanings. However, machine owns a huge volume (much more larger than human brain)which can store numerous materials and its working speed is hundreds of times of human’s(Pang, 165). In the contemporary era, translators should first of all polish their translation skills and improve their ability to flexibly use various translation strategies and skills(Yao, 201-202). The old saying goes that “It takes a good blacksmith to make steel.” By the time, people are still the main force in the translation industry and machine translation stays in an auxiliary position. Human should not rely on machine to do all the works. The translators should improve their competitiveness through sordid multi-lingual knowledge, translation practice as well as stronger learning capacity and so on and so forth. At the same time, translators are also supposed to adopt an embracing attitude to acquire the comouter-aided translation skills. After all, with the further advancement of science and technology, the trend is inevitable. Actually, human translation and machine translation are highly compatible, which can greatly improve the translation efficiency and reduce people’s workload. Thus, the combination of the two methods is highly appreciated and the new type of CAT is bound to become the tide of the future.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Chen Yi,Fan Jiaolian. 陈谊,范姣莲.(2018). 计算机辅助翻译——新世纪翻译的趋势[Computer-Aided Translation-the Trend of Translation in the New Era] 中国现代教育装备[China mordern educational equipment] 30-32.<br /> <br /> Dong Wugang,Xue Jiabao. 董务刚,薛家宝.(1996). 评许渊冲诗《江雪》[Appreciation of Xu Yuanchong's Translation &quot;Fishing in Snow&quot;] 盐城师专学报[Journal of Yancheng Normal School] 56.<br /> <br /> 计算机翻译会取代人工翻译吗？[Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not?] (2020) 环球采风[Globe Collections] 17.<br /> <br /> Liang Jie. 梁洁.(2020). 人工智能对翻译行业的影响[The Influence of Artificial Intelligence on Translation Industry] 家庭科技[Family Science and Technology] 17-18.<br /> <br /> Lv Lisong,Mu Lei. 吕立松,穆雷.(2007) 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[Technique of Translation-Aided Translation and Translation Education] 外语界[The Field of Foreign Language].<br /> <br /> Pang Yingyu. 庞盈羽. (2019) 谈机器翻译与人工翻译的关系—从机器翻译与计算机辅助翻译的发展角度[Analysis of the Relationship Between Machine Translation and Human Translation--From the Perspective of the Development of Machine Translation and Computer-Aided Translation]. 科学大众·科学教育[Scientific Masses·Scientific Education] 164-165.<br /> <br /> Global Encyclopedia. 全球百科. https://vibaike.com/<br /> <br /> Wu Sheng. 吴晟.(2016) 湖南省省属普通高校财政拨款体制研究[]. 湖南师范大学[Hunnu Normal University] .<br /> <br /> 姚莉. 机器翻译时代，译者应该坚持技能与技术的融合[J]. 科技经济与管理科学, 2020, 28(29).<br /> <br /> 祝朝伟. 机器翻译要取代作为人的译者了吗？—兼谈翻译人才培养中科技与人文的关系[J]. 外国语文(双月刊), 2018(5).<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation 袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi==<br /> <br /> '''浅析汉语公示语的英译'''<br /> <br /> 英语笔译 袁天翼<br /> <br /> 摘 要：在这个经济全球化、政治多极化、文化全球化、科技现代化、信息共享化的时代，全球经济纵深发展，人类命运共同体日趋形成，人与人、国家与国家间的联系日益密切，这时，汉语公示语的英译问题便被提上了议程。尽管中国汉语公示语的英译翻译员越来越多，但是汉语公示语的英译问题层出不穷。本文简析了汉语公示语定义，例举了生活中常见的一些汉语公示语的英译典型问题，并针对此给出了一些翻译方法与策略，并进行了未来展望。<br /> <br /> 关键词：汉英翻译；公示语；翻译策略<br /> <br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> Yuan Tianyi <br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': In this economic globalization, political polarization, cultural globalization, technological modernization and informative sharing age, the global economy is deeply developing, and the human community with a shared future is coming into shape day by day. The relations among people and among countries are increasing day by day. At this time, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation become the topic of us. Though the number of Chinese-English public sign translators in China grows daily, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation emerge endlessly. This passage offers a brief analysis of the definition of Chinese-English public sign, points out some typical problems in Chinese-English public sign translation we see in daily life, analyzes some methods and strategies of Chinese-English public sign translation, and gives some outlooks on the future of Chinese-English public sign translation. <br /> <br /> '''Key Words''': Chinese-English translation; public sign; translation strategies<br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> '''I. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> The public sign is a specially applied literary form that was formed in modern times, which has a long history. It is used in public places and seen by the masses thus realizing unique communicative purposes. The public sign has become a crucial link in the communication between China and other countries in the international community. In the meantime, there are increasingly more experts and scholars paying attention to the translation of Chinese public signs into English. (Reiss, 2004). <br /> <br /> As an important tool for international communication, Chinese-English public sign translation plays an extremely important role in foreign friends’ understanding of Chinese culture（Wang Huili, 2019）. Its applied range is so wide that nearly covers every aspect of our daily life, including: Introductions of tourism trips, propaganda languages, warning languages, road signs, shop signs and advertising boards. It is mostly used on public infrastructure: Subway, airport, taxi, pier, tourist spot, park, street, community, shop, supermarket, restaurant, bank, hotel, cinema, hospital and etc. It uses simple words or sentences, or pictures only, or combines words and pictures to pass useful information to the masses, which not only serves Chinese people, but also is shown to the foreigners, which can help foreigners in China study, work and live. <br /> <br /> '''II. The Current Situation of Chinese-English Public Sign'''<br /> <br /> Public signs are an art of convincing others through effective verbal means, which are also components of language activities. They, in essence, belong to a special kind of communication. However, it is not a kind of face-to-face communication that takes place in a specific period of time, and none of the participants will appear as individuals. The object is for all the people with social behaviors in the place, regardless of gender, age, class or education level. Public signs belong to “one-way communication”, and its binding force or influence will not be as big as direct communication, but it is also used to act with words and deeds, and affects the behavior of the audience with a clear purpose. <br /> <br /> Public signs are everywhere, so what are their functions? Zhou Shuxia (Zhou Shuxia, 2017) thinks that, their functions can be divided into showing, warning, profiting, encouraging and eulogizing such five functions. <br /> <br /> Firstly, the public sign that has showing function offers all-round information about service, order, or informing service. Such as “Car Rental” and “Children and Senior Citizens Free”.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the public sign that has warning function comes up with restrictive or obligatory demands to typical people, which is often used through order, ban, information or persuasion tones. Such as: “Stand in Line” , and “Thieves Beware”. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the public sign that has profiting function promotes consumption, thus realizing enterprises’ economic profits. Such as: “Daily Special”, “Daily Service”. <br /> <br /> Fourthly, the public sign that has encouraging function calls for or encourages people to take actions for certain goals or tasks. Such as: “One Family, One Child”, and “Working together, we can make a world of difference”. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, the public sign that has eulogizing function gives wishes and chants to certain events or people to reach the goals of propaganda or education. Such as: “One World, One Dream”. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (Eugene Nida , 2004) said, Chinese-English translation of public signs embraces the conversion of two different languages and two different cultures, which is not only to achieve the language equivalence, cultural equivalence, but also to enhance the possibility of understanding and the reading of Chinese-English translation of public signs.<br /> <br /> Public signs are the translation with strong humanistic color (Wu Haoxi , 2019). <br /> <br /> However, there are many problems in Chinese-English public sign translation.<br /> <br /> In 2003, Clive W. J. Granger, a Nobel Economics Prize Winner talked of the settings and problems of public signs in Beijing when he was interviewed by a program of Beijing TV Station. He said: “Foreigners will feel a little bit nervous when they come to China, because they can not understand public signs in China. ” Clive’s comment extremely shows current problems in Chinese-English public sign translation (Lv Hefa, 2005). <br /> <br /> On June 20th, 2017, a national standard conference of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service was held in Beijing. The Vice Minister of the Education Ministry and Director of the National Language Commission stressed in the meeting: “The language and character industry of China is expanding from ‘striving to promote and normally use the national common language, scientifically protecting every nation’s language and character’ to ‘managing social foreign language use and improving foreign language service quality’. ” The national standard of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service is the standard of English translation and writing quality in public service fields, which stipulates the English translation principles, methods and requirements of transportation, tourism, culture, entertainment, physical exercise, education, medical health, postal service, telecommunication, catering, accommodation, commerce and finance these thirteen service fields. <br /> <br /> To sum up, there are still many major problems in China’s public sign translation, common and ubiquitous, which make foreign experts comment like that and the government use national force to normalize translation standards. Whether the translation of public signs in scenic spots into English is harmonious and unified has a great influence on cross-cultural communication (Pinkham John, 2000). <br /> <br /> '''III. The Causes of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> '''3. 1 The Basic Linguistic Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> To be a proficient Chinese-English public sign translator, one must, fundamentally, grasp basic linguistic rules of English and Chinese, otherwise he or she must make stupid mistakes, and some even primary learners will not make. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.1<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3684466622,1422277554&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.1 is a public sign put on a glass wall in a mall, the Chinese reads“全年无休(QUAN NIAN WU XIU)”, and it tries to use English to express that “This business runs the whole year”, so the precise translation should be “NO REST DAY ALL YEAR”. But there, we can see it was translated as“365DAY SA TEAR”, which does not belong to the grammatical law of English. So this is a big mistake. Only one who understands Chinese can understand. But for ordinary foreigners, they can not. So, when translating Chinese-English public sign, the translator must be clear about the target language, and know the basic grammatical venation, then begin to translate, instead of randomly putting some letters together and finishing. Otherwise, the translator will make a big mistake like this picture.<br /> <br /> A public sign in Haichang Ocean Park of Chengdu City, Sichuan Province reads &quot;Jellyfish Museum, the 2th floor&quot;. More specifically, it is a floor direction sign. Here, the correct English for the second floor should be “2nd”, not “2th”. Apparently that the translator has poor knowledge of English vocabulary, which led he or she to make such a ridiculous mistake. Actually, in English language, if there is a number contains “11”, “12”or “13”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “11th”, “12th” or “13th” respectively; And if there is a number contains“1”, “2”or “3”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “1st”, “2nd” or “3rd” respectively. For example, “101st”, “111th”, “201st”, “211th” and etc. <br /> <br /> No.3 is a warning sign of a tourist spot, reads &quot;The rockery danger, pleases no climb&quot;, whose Chinese meaning is “There stands a rockery, it is dangerous to climb, every one is forbidden from climbing it. ” The Chinese meaning is alright. But, when it was translated into English, a big mistake occurred: “The rockery danger Pleases no climb.”<br /> <br /> First, there should be “climbing” after “no”, not “climb”, this is just English grammar knowledge that can be learned in primary school; And the “Please” is followed by a “s”, why does the translator use third person singular at the top of a imperative sentence? Second, if the translator wants to tell the tourists that the rockery is dangerous and mustn’t be climbed, he or she should write: “The rockery is dangerous. Please don’t climb” or “Dangerous rockery. No climbing” or just “No climbing”. Unless the foreigners who see this sign have supreme understanding ability, they will not easily make sense of it. <br /> <br /> 3. 2 The Tendency Towards Chinglish and Mechanical Translation<br /> <br /> Knowing a little about English, then begin to translate public sign. This is ridiculous, which is definitely going to cause obvious mistakes. Especially when translating, there is a high probability that the translator will make Chinglish errors, or tend to seek for mechanical translation, which are the most common public sign translation problems in mainland China. With regard to the tendency towards Chinglish, it only proves that the translator’s basic skills of English are not so proficient, and he or she does not fit for translation work. For the tendency towards mechanical translation, on the one hand, it demonstrates that the translator is lazy, who is not willing to think about how to translate. On the other hand, it reveals his or her lack of basic English language knowledge. In fact, these two both can be easily avoided, only if the translator pays a little more attention to it or is earnest and dedicated to their work. All those mistakes should not have been made. <br /> <br /> No.4, this is a sign that is hung in an Internet celebrity milk tea shop: Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province. It reads &quot;out of the cup area&quot;. It originally means that the customers should queue here to get their milk tea after finishing paying. The translator should have easily translated “出杯区（CHU BEI QU）”into “FETCH AREA”, but it was translated as “OUT OF THE CUP AREA”, what a joke! Purely it was translated word-for-word. The translator did not understand its true meaning. Probably it was translated by a machine. As an Internet celebrity milk tea shop runner, when dealing with such kind of cultural issues, he or she should be extremely careful, earnest and cautious, instead of casually simply copying the contents given by a machine or hiring a third-rate translator and asking him or her to randomly translate. Large scale milk tea shops must shoulder their required obligations, and undertake necessary responsibilities and duties on public sign translation. Imagine that a foreigner, who can not understand it, stand there and think: What? Standing here is standing outside the cup? Maybe something interesting would happen. Let me try!<br /> All those will bring big and standing jokes. <br /> <br /> No.5 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province. It reads&quot; tourists get off area&quot;. Its Chinese meaning is: This is the place that tourists get off from a bus. But, it was translated as “Tourists get off area”, which fully shows the ignorance and lack of English language knowledge of the translators. People may can not help doubting whether it is copied from the translation given by a machine. Famous tourist spots like this, especially this kind of 5A tourist spot, can not even shoulder the cultural obligations, let alone developing in the long run. They should make big mistakes in such a little public sign translation! Do they only want to serve Chinese well while ignoring foreigners?<br /> <br /> Similarly, No.6 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province, and it reads &quot;up the mountain&quot;. The Chinese meaning is “This is the passage that leads tourists to climb the mountain”. The translation should have been a very easy and fun job, but when the sign is showed to tourists, a big big joke was born: “Up the mountain”. We can say “uphill way” or “uphill passage”, but, the translator obviously did not realize it. What’s more, when “up” is used as a verb, it is completely another meaning. It is also the symbol of such irresponsible spot management. <br /> <br /> No.7, it is a napkin given by an Internet celebrity milk tea shop (Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province ) for free after buying its milk tea. It reads &quot;more China, more fashion&quot;. At first glance, everything seems okay. But more carefully, we can find the mistake. The Chinese meaning is “If there are more elements with Chinese characteristics, it will be more fashionable.” But when translating, maybe with the aid of machine, or lack of a solid English knowledge foundation, it becomes “More China, more fashion”. If the customer is a Chinese, it does not matter, for he or she can understand it, and just shows a smile. But if foreigners see, they will be pretty shocked by the sight: What the hell is this? They will think that this shop lacks money to hire a good translator, and the managers are stupid. Furthermore, the Chinese national image will be badly affected. In fact, this sentence can be translated as “The more sinicization there is, the more fashion there will be” or “With greater Chinese characteristics come more fashion”. Easier? It can be “More sinicization breeds more fashion”. Translated like these, won’t it be much more correct and intelligible?<br /> <br /> '''3. 3 The Misunderstanding of the Public Sign Translators'''<br /> <br /> It is the little knowledge of English of the translators that makes them can not even spell a basic word correctly; Or due to carelessness, they make mistakes on public sign translation, thus causing mistakes on the meaning of the sign. All these are significant reasons why there are so many mistakes in Chinese-English public signs. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.8.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.8<br /> [https://www.sinaimg.cn/edu/cr/2015/0316/3124267229.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.8. The Chinese meaning of it is “The door or passage that leads you to the outside”, in short, “EXIT”. But the public sign was translated as“EXPORT”, so, what is “EXPORT”? In a word, it means trade among different countries. The commercial goods pass through the customs, being transported from one country to another country. Distinctly, the maker was careless, who has mixed the meaning of “出口（Chu Kou）”in Chinese, thus resulting in an obvious translation error. As for public sign translation, translators must weigh every word, and think over and over and over again, not just search online, and grab all the words you “discover”, which is a highly irresponsible behavior, an extremely irresponsible behavior to the society and the country . <br /> <br /> [[File:No.9.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.9<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4069547043,45136776&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.9 is from a hospital department. Its Chinese meaning is: Here is neurology emergency department. It uses a special logogram in Chinese. But, the maker was misled, so, he or she translated it as “God Medical”. If a person has a little common sense, he or she will be made to laugh wildly. It is completely the “Understanding of a sentence simply by a word”! That should be translated as “ Department of Emergency Neurology”. Such a casual translation will make Christians think that they can see God for real. Whether can he see death here or a way to heaven with a passionate God serving you? To some extent, this is disrespect for Christians, which can even cause disputes. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.10.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.10<br /> [https://ss0.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4055489075,1169617432&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.10 is photographed in a company building. Here, the Chinese means: this is the place where you can get boiled water. However, the translator of this public <br /> sign made a huge mistake, because he or she disintegrated the three Chinese words one by one, and thus translating them one by one, which can not be understood as a whole, let alone enable foreigners to understand the meaning of this public sign, and as a result, foreigners may not receive the service that they deserve. What’s worse, many people, including intelligent Chinese, when seeing this disqualified translation, will definitely be amused, and feel funny: What is this guy’s literate level?<br /> <br /> As a matter of fact, this public sign can be translated as “Boiled Water Room”. “开水”means “boiled water” in English. Certainly, the translator treated the “开”as a verb “open”, which is absolutely wrong. <br /> <br /> Further, this is a single room, not two or more, so we must use “room”, which is the plural form, instead of the singular form “rooms”. <br /> <br /> 3. 4 The Falsification and Loss of Information<br /> <br /> Originally, the managers want to use signs to warn people, but due to mistranslation, the information is tampered and missed, resulting in an opposite consequence, and producing big jokes. <br /> <br /> No.11 is a public warning sign in Liuxiang Barbecue Restaurant. It reads &quot; carefully hot&quot;. Is it a true warning? In the foreigners’ opinion, it is not. People who speak Chinese can realize that this sign was designed to warn customers not to be burned by the hot oven. However, the English translation is far from what it originally means. The correct translation can be “Careful! Hot!” or “Be Careful of the Hot Oven!” But according to the translation on the sign, it means “Carefully burn yourself”. Luckily, this is a small scale restaurant, if it were a large one, its reputation would be badly affected. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.12.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.12<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3765137851,1011242048&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.12 is a public sign in a large shopping center. As we all know, modern shopping centers now always use smooth and shiny tile floor as the ground, which makes the shopping centers look beautiful and attractive. However, smooth though it is, one big safety problem then comes into shape: The ground is too smooth to make shoppers slide and fall. Later, the managers made public signs like No.12 to warn people not to fall. The Chinese warning is okay, Chinese shoppers can understand, but when foreigners see this, he or she will burst out laughing: What? You order me to slide on the floor with care? What on earth do you mean? I have even seen an Internet celebrity girl posting an video clip that tells us a story that satirizes this mistranslation: The girl and her father slide joyfully on the ground in a shopping center while murmuring “Carefully slide! Carefully slide!” As a matter of fact, The correct Chinese-English translation should be “Caution! Slippery!” or “Beware of Wet Floor” or “Caution! Wet Floor”. Each one of the three is okay. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.13.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.13<br /> [https://ss2.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=461657809,3986868053&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.13 is a public sign that is put on the ceiling of a restaurant’s stair. Here, the translator wanted to pass such information by Chinese and English: Watch <br /> your head, do not hit the low ceiling of the stair. Be careful. Though the Chinese information is okay, the English, however, can not by understood by others, especially foreigners. <br /> <br /> Here, the makers wanted to warn the danger of the low ceiling, not to ask people to purposely hit the ceiling. So we can correct it as: “Watch Your Head”, or “Be Careful”. Both are okay. <br /> <br /> Here, the translator made a mistranslation, which reversed the original meaning when translating, thus producing a huge laughingstock. First, “碰”is not “meet”, but “hit”, according to this specific environment. It does not mean “meet someone”. Second, “小心碰头” means not to hit the ceiling, not to “meet carefully”. <br /> <br /> Throughout so many examples, every one can see that the mistakes of public sign translation are ubiquitous and common in daily life, which you can even randomly pick up one from any store you meet. Pervasive errors like these in public signs will negatively affect China’s reform and opening-up and the integration into international community, which will not only make foreigners misunderstand the meaning, but also seriously damage China’s national image. Therefore, the study of the public sign translation is extremely urgent and imperative. At present, translators must start from basic demand of Chinese-English public sign translation, endeavor to learn English well, cultivate a good sense of utilizing English and a great mindset of English utilization, proactively take part in English translation practice, and be highly alert and form a sense of “Using English language in a proper, correct, suitable and decent way”. Only then will the situation of Chinese-English public sign translation turn better. <br /> <br /> IV. Public Sign Translation Methods<br /> <br /> There is a saying goes: “Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards. ” So is the Chinese-English public sign translation. Zhang Yan (Zhang Yan, 2015) maintains in her paper that, the public sign translation methods can be summarized as four kinds. <br /> <br /> '''4. 1 Amplification'''<br /> <br /> Many new words that are with Chinese characteristics, especially combined with numbers, need using amplification to introduce to foreign readers. For example, in the past, “五讲四美三热爱(Wu Jiang Si Mei San Re Ai）”was translated as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves”. Many foreigners said that they could not understand it. Later, it was revised as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves” with the notation “ stress on decorum, manners, hygiene, discipline and morals; beauty of the mind, language, behavior and the environment; love of the motherland, socialism and the Communist Party”. Hence, foreigners can easily understand its connotation. <br /> <br /> '''4. 2 Ellipsis'''<br /> <br /> To make sure that the translation is concise and intelligible, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators must properly delete unnecessary words according to English expressing habits to achieve overall generalization. Such as: “Food Paradise”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 3 Re-translation'''<br /> <br /> Due to cultural differences, many folk adages with Chinese characteristics will not be understood by readers once simply read literally. So translators can moderately reorganize those sentences that can not be translated or understood. Such as: “Drinking and Driving Costs Your Life”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 4 Backward Translation'''<br /> <br /> There are two cases: Translating the cultural expressions that are borrowed from translation back into their original forms in the target language; Translating the expressions with obvious cultural characteristics into the idiomatic expressions in the target language. Such as: “Venus Florist”. <br /> The English public sign has its own cultural and pragmatic meanings. When doing the Chinese-English public sign translation, translators should consider about the cultural differences and avoid any form of ambiguity, misunderstanding or mistranslation, and offer high quality information service, thus making public sign translation advance with the times. <br /> <br /> '''V. Public Sign Translation Strategies'''<br /> <br /> He Xueyun (He Xueyun, 2006) holds in her thesis that, theoretically, semantic translation and communicative translation differ much. Semantic translation strives to keep the language specialty and unique express method of the original work, in order to express the original work’s thinking process; However, communicative translation’s key point lies in spreading information and enabling people to think, feel and act, giving play to the function of information that language conveys and the consequences it causes. Public sign translation must focus on results, and put readers first, only by this can we improve the current situation of public sign translation, thus achieving the purposes of public sign translation. <br /> <br /> Before beginning to do anything, we all need a world view and methodology to guide us to behave well. Likewise, when doing Chinese-English public sign translation, we also need guiding ideology to direct us. Here, I will show you four Chinese-English public sign translation strategies, which act as guiding ideology, which are definitely going to be a powerful weapon for you. Just remember them and practice them, you will gain a lot. <br /> <br /> '''5.1 No Grammatical, Semantic and Logical Error'''<br /> <br /> The most basic prerequisite of public sign translation is that there is no language error: No grammatical error, no vocabulary spelling error, no language context error, no Chinglish or machine-aided translation error. <br /> <br /> “This is office area, tourists mustn’t enter” can be translated as “Staff Only”, not “OFFICE AREA PLEASE DON’T COMING”, or you will make a grammatical and redundant error. “Be careful, don’t slip into water” can be translated as “Caution! Deep Water!” instead of “TAKE CARE! FALL INTO WATER CAREFULLY!” Otherwise, people will can not help laughing. <br /> <br /> One translator was not able to translate “The grass is so beautiful, are you sure you wan to walk on it?” into English public sign, so here comes <br /> “Fangcaoqiqi riding the Heren”. What a laughingstock! This is a combination between Chinese and English, without any grammar structure. Not to translate it will be a much better choice. We can concisely translate it as “Don’t Walk on the Beautiful Grass!”<br /> <br /> '''5. 2 Concise and Intelligible Translation'''<br /> <br /> One prominent character of public sign is conciseness. It asks people to ensure the translation is crystal clear and precise, without any compound or obscure sentence. Only by achieving this can the signs become popularized, instead of making people think over and over and over again to discover their cryptic meaning. <br /> <br /> The public sign translation must be concise and intelligible, which means that you not only need to precisely convey what the maker means to people, but also must be concise. People can understand it immediately without comprehension deviation or ambiguity. <br /> <br /> '''5. 3 Understanding of Cultural Background Differences'''<br /> <br /> When translating, every translator must thoroughly understand the culture of the targeted language. Translators must comprehensively understand each specific use of the targeted language under different cultural backgrounds. If not doing so, it may cause severe disputes, and even cause irresistible outcomes. Here are several examples. <br /> <br /> “Dragon” is a legendary animal in traditional Chinese culture. Chinese people often view themselves as “dragon”, and even say that they are “Descendants of the Dragon”. Thus, “Dragon” means holy and sacred thing in Chinese culture. But in English speaking countries, the meaning of “dragon” is not so. In these countries, “dragon” means something evil like Satan, sometimes it is even used to describe thugs, scoundrels or other bad behaviorists. Therefore, invariably coping the icon of “dragon” and using it in other cultures is a definite mistake. In a word, a public sign language translator must totally comprehend the cultural background differences. <br /> <br /> '''5. 4 Obedience to Certain Norms and Standards'''<br /> <br /> As long as someone is translating, he or she must obey certain rules, norms and standards. He mustn’t translate according to his will. This is a truth. <br /> For example, according to China’s first set of standards on how to regulate the use of foreign languages in China, which was jointly issued by the State Standards Commission and the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine on November 20, 2017 and officially implemented on December 1, 2017, some of the standards have been specified in detail. <br /> <br /> Names of tourist spots: Names of mountains, rivers and lakes should be written in Chinese pinyin. Translations of names of temples should vary according to different situations, so are the towers’ names. In line with external service needs, English explanations can be added. <br /> <br /> '''VI. The Future of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> China is a major powerful country, and is the country with the second highest Gross Domestic Product in the world, which is why China should keep close economic and cultural relationships with other countries. In order to integrate China with international community in a better way, there must be high quality public sign translation. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation must improve the China’s influence power in international community. High quality public sign translation represents that China is rich in translators and intellects, and shows that China can fulfill obligations and shoulder responsibilities as a major country. Achieving this means China not only takes responsibilities for Chinese people, but also for all human beings. Good quality public sign translation is definitely going to significantly synergize the course of reform and opening-up. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation is obliged to facilitate foreigners to travel in China, boost domestic consumption demand, form a new growth point for economy, promote the rise of Gross Domestic Product, and accelerate the comprehensive, coordinated and sustainable development. High quality public sign translation is also an integral part of the New Development Philosophy: Innovation, coordination, green, open and share. High quality public sign translation corresponds to the New Normal of Chinese economy. At present, the economy of China has been changing from developing at a high speed to develop at high quality, and is at the stage of changing economic development mode, transforming driving forces of economic development and optimizing the economic structure, so high quality public sign translation is badly needed. Thus, considering the big change of Chinese economy, achieving high quality public sign translation is an urgent affair. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation has the duty to embody a city’s humanism spirit, cultural speciality and charm, which is the inevitable requirement of core socialist values and system. It also promotes the spreading of Chinese culture, and improves the influence power of Chinese culture. High quality public sign translation also levels up Chinese people and overseas Chinese’s sense of identity and belonging. What’s more, it can narrow the gap between Chinese and foreigners, and acquire more recognition from them towards China. Domestically, high quality public sign translation can strengthen national cohesion; Externally, it will strengthen China’s soft power, and increase China’s international speaking right while creating national radiation power. <br /> It is an important measure to improve China’s public service and governance capability by establishing an evaluation mechanism and promoting the standardization of English translation. It is of great benefit to further improve China’s service level of opening to the outside world, demonstrate its cultural soft power and enhance its international image (Guo Jinghong, 2019). <br /> <br /> In short, looking forward to the future of Chinese-English public sign translation from a strategic perspective, translators must remain true to their original aspiration and keep their mission firmly in mind, which is: To be devoted to the future of socialism with Chinese characteristics, to be dedicated to the landscape of translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and to be committed to the sustainable development of Chinese-English public sign translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics. <br /> <br /> We must treat Chinese-English public sign translation with the point that advances with the times (Tian Guomin, 2019). The English translation of public signs of tourist attractions belongs to the category of cross-cultural communication, and the translator should have certain cross-cultural knowledge and awareness, so that the English translation can be more understood and accepted by the audience and truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication (Yang Hongyu, 2019). The communicative translation theory aims for the target readers (Gutt, 1991). Translation of public signs is a very important task in China with the increasing connection to the outside world (Newmark, 2001). Since reform and opening-up, China has been integrating into the international community day by day. To fully achieve this, as regards of Chinese-English public sign translation, we still have a long way to go. There is no time for us to delay the work of strengthening, proceeding, and improving public sign translation. The rising level of quality of Chinese-English public sign translation will improve both city image and urbanization level. He Xueyun contends in her article that, many people take it for granted that if one knows a foreign language, he then can translate. As a matter of fact, basic skills of public sign translation not only includes foreign language level, but also the knowledge of foreign cultures. <br /> <br /> '''VII. Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> So, how to facilitate the overall development of Chinese-English public sign translation？Firstly, we need to keep pace with the times. Language is constantly changing, so are many words and idioms, and so are public signs. In order to accurately convey information to the audience, it is essential to integrate the latest, most reliable and most accepted language into public signs. Secondly, it is necessary to fully understand the idiomatic usage of public signs, because public signs are mainly aimed at English speakers, so it is necessary to strengthen the accumulation of words, phrases and idioms, which is also the basis of translation. Thirdly, the translators of Chinese-English public signs should use accurate words and phrases in combination with specific environment and objects, and should not fail to convey the meaning or deviate from the original meaning, which otherwise will result in misunderstanding. Of course, only achieving the above is not enough. In order to do a good job in the translation of Chinese-English public signs, we need to keep improving our translation attitude and spirit of study, and constantly improve and summarize and innovate on the basis of the original, so as to make the translation of Chinese-English public signs more perfect and recognized by the international audience. It is very important for the academic community and people from all walks of life to analyze the problems in the application of public signs and put forward corresponding improvement countermeasures (Liu Xiaoping, 2019). <br /> <br /> A Chinese-English public sign translator must fully realize and shoulder the responsibilities that translators must carry, form a sense of community of a shared future, fully acknowledge the current situation of Chinese-English public sign translation, completely learn lessons from the predecessors who have made mistakes in Chinese-English public sign translation, totally implement the four public sign translation strategies I mentioned before, to make Chinese-English public sign translation serve the construction of a moderately prosperous society in all respect, the construction of modern powerful socialist country, the construction of building China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and the realization of the great Chinese dream, that is: the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> [1]Eugene Nida &amp; Charles Taber.（2004） [The Theory and Practice of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [2]Gutt &amp; Ernst, Agust. （1991）[Translation and Relevance: Cognition and Context] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> [3]Newmark, Peter. （2001）[Textbook of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [4]Pinkham, John.（2000） [The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br /> <br /> [5]Reiss. （2004）[Translation Criticism: the Potentials and Limitations] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [6]国家标准委.（2017） 公共服务领域英文译写规范<br /> <br /> [7]郭京红.（2019）公示语英译中的错误观点与评价方式 海外英语(23)154-155. <br /> <br /> [8]贺学耘. （2006）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略外语与外语教学,(03)57-59. <br /> <br /> [9]刘小平. （2019）公示语翻译中存在的问题及对策. 凯里学院学报, (04)72-74.<br /> <br /> [10]吕和发. （2005）公示语汉英翻译研究——以2012年奥运会主办城市伦敦为例 北京:中国翻译,(06)38. <br /> <br /> [11]田国民. （2019）谈汉语公示语的英译英语教师(22)110-113. <br /> <br /> [12]王回力. （2019）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略 延边教育学院学报(05)31-33. <br /> <br /> [13]吴浩熙, 李海红.（2019） 功能对等理论下的公示语翻译及策略 海外英语(20)59-61. <br /> <br /> [14]杨洪玉等.（2019） 旅游景点公共标识语的英文翻译 北京工业职业技术学院学报(04)122-126. <br /> <br /> [15]张焱. （2015）汉英翻译过程中的难译现象处理 北京:中国社会科学出版社(16)44-46<br /> <br /> [16]周树霞. （2017）浅析公示语的汉英翻译 校园英语(42)239-239.<br /> <br /> == A Study of Translation of Movie Titles in the Light of Venuti's Theory 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan==</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5&diff=109402 2020-12-10T02:38:18Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第五部分(Part 5)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Thoughts'''=<br /> ==A Study on Creative Treason of Literature Translation - 李玉 Li Yu==<br /> ==On the Analysis of Three Kinds of Beauty in ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence-林敏 Lin Min 202020080616==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;林敏 Lin Min &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation, aiming to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language in a translation. Xu Yuanchong introduced his translation standard of poetry translation--the “Three Beauties” principle in his book ''Forty Two Poems of Mao Zedong''. In the preface of this book, he said that the translated poetry should try to convey the beauty in sense, sound and form of the original poem. This thesis is going to use such two theories to compare and analyze the two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond in our nation --Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version with some typical and representative examples, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.This thesis is divided into five parts: the first part roughly describes the purpose, method and significant of the study; the second part introduces the general idea and two English versions of Moonlight over the Lotus Pond; The third part introduces two translation theories functional equivalence and three beauty principle; the fourth part, some typical examples are selected and two theories are used to compare study the two versions. The fifth part summarizes the whole thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Functional Equivalence, Three Kinds of Beauty<br /> <br /> === 题目===<br /> 功能对等理论指导下《荷塘月色》英译本“三美”的传达<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 功能对等论是翻译理论中最重要的理论之一。功能对等论的目的是实现源语和目标语之间的功能对等。许渊冲在《毛泽东诗词四十二首》序言中提出的译诗的“三美”原则，即音美，意美和形美。本篇文章将利用这两个基本原则，通过一些有代表性的例子对译本进行比较学习，学习研究两篇文章是否符合功能对等。本篇论文共分为五部分，第一部分介绍了本研究的目的、意义和方法；第二部分介绍了《荷塘月色》的大意和两个英译本；第三部分对两个翻译原则：功能对等论和“三美”原则做了简要地介绍；第四部分选取了有代表性的例子，运用了两个理论对两译本进行了对比学习；第五部分对全文进行了总结。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 功能对等论，三美原则<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> With the advent of globalization as well as the development of Chinese economy, more and more Chinese literary works have been introduced abroad. Prose is one of the important part of China’s literature.However there is still not enough attention to the introduction of Chinese prose, especially Chinese modern prose. <br /> <br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''，the well-known lyric prose, written by the famous author Zhu Ziqing, has made a huge influence on the development of Chinese prose. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer's depressing mood. For this prose is a typical example of Chinese modern prose, many translators have given their translations of it, such as Zhu Chunshen, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang, Li Ming and Wang Jiaosheng. A large number of scholars have analyzed its different versions making great contribution to the prose translating. <br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is one of the most important theories in the field of translation. Functional equivalence theory introduced by Nida, refers to the fact that the translation does not take rigid correspondence between words and structures as the standard, but aims to achieve the equivalence of functions between the source language and the target language. The theory emphasizes that“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。<br /> <br /> Here, this paper selects This thesis selects two of the most famous English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' in our nation --Zhu Chunshen's version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, to compare and study, based on Xu Yuanchong's “Three Beauty” principle under the guidance of functional equivalence. This thesis will compare and analyze the two English versions, thus finding the merits of the two versions, so as to learn whether the two translations achieve the functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> === 2. ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' and Its English Versions ===<br /> Before comparing and analyzing the two English versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' , we need learn some necessary information about the author who wrote it and the relatively background. At present, the two famous English versions are Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version .<br /> <br /> ====2.1 ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is the classical of lyric prose written by Zhu Ziqing in Tsinghua University, Beijing on July 1927，which depicts a beautiful scene of the lotus pond in Tsinghua University and expresses the writer’s depressing mood. It was published in the Novel Monthly, one of the new literary journals which enjoys the reputation of “the first journal in the China’s literary world” in the 1920s.（Han,2018 ）Since it was published, the article has received both high praise and fierce criticism. From this perspective, it has witnessed the history of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> In this prose, the author is sleepless and sits in his yard to enjoy the cool in the evening. Suddenly, it occurred to his mind that the lotus pond where he passes every day and the pond must be different at night with the moonlight. So, the author wandered lonely on a cinder footpath around the lotus pond, he feels that he is a “free man”. As he sees the pond cover with trim lotus leaves and white lotus flowers, hearing the sounds of the cicadas and the frogs, Zhu thinks that “this animation was theirs alone, I had no part in it（Yang ,1990 ）.”<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Two English Versions ====<br /> ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' is one of Zhu Ziqing’s masterpieces and was selected into Chinese textbook. Most scholars say that the prose is “文质相称，形神俱美” which has attracted an amount of scholars and students.（Chen ,2018）The prose has been introduced to foreign countries in different languages, especially in English since the May 4th Movement. The notable translations include Zhu Chunshen’s version, Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version, Li Ming’s version and Wang Jiaosheng’s version. This thesis choices Zhu Chunshen’s version as well as Yang Xiangyi and Gladys Yang’s version. Both Zhu ’s version and Yang’s version are faithful to the original meaning and concise to the sentence structure and close to the original style. But Zhu prefer to employ literal translation and Yang uses the free translation, like the words “热闹” ,“冷静”, “群居”and “独处”, Zhu translated these as “a serene and peaceful life”,“a busy and active one”, “being in solitude” and “in company”, in contrast Yang’s translation is “excitement and stillness”.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Basis of Theory ===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Functional Equivalence Theory ====<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Three Kinds of Beauty =====<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===4. On the Analysis of Two English Versions of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'' Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence ===<br /> Zhu Ziqing used a large number of rhetorical devices and reduplicated words to describe the beauty of the lotus pond under the moonlight at night, to express his gloomy and upset mood, which brings great difficulty to translation, in his famous prose--''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond''. This part is aimed at using the functional equivalence theory and Xu Yuanchong’s theory of “Three Beauties” to analyze wheatear the two English versions of such prose achieving the degree of function equivalance.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 ====<br /> Words are the basic meaning of sentences. G •Leech divided “meaning” into two categories: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(Leech,1987) The conceptual meaning is the meaning that we can find in dictionary, and the associative meaning is the actually meaning of the word in the special context. It is a truly universal acknowledge that the meaning of the sentence is not simple addition of word meaning. Thus, the translator should find the conceptual meaning and the associative meaning of the original, especially the associative meaning. Here are some typical examples:<br /> <br /> Example 1: “这几天心里颇不宁静。”（Zhu Ziqing , 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu ’s version: “I have felt quite upset recently.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang ’s version: “The last few days have found me very restless.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> This sentence is the first sentence in the first paragraph. Here “不宁静” refers to “quite uncomfortable”, which can be translated as “upset, restless, untranquil, disquieting and so on”. However, considering Zhu Ziqing’s patriotic feeling and his responsibility for his wife and kid, he cannot devote his whole life to the great revolution. Therefore “不宁静” in the context means the author is anxiety, because he want to change his condition. Zhu Chunshen translated it as“upset”which means“unhappy or disappointed because of something unpleasant that has happened”in the ''OED'', which emphasized the unhappy mood. And Yang Xianyi employed it as “restless”, which means “unable to stay still or happy where you are, because you are bored or need a change ” in the ''OED'', which stressed on one needing a change. It is clear that the word “restless” is more exactly than the word “quiet” in this sentence.<br /> <br /> However,“宁静”has an end rhyme“ing”and neither“upset”in Zhu’s translation nor“restless”in Yang’s version opted the words with the same end rhyme for they both focused on the meaning. And such sentence in original text is a 9 characters short sentence with no subject, Yang translated it into 9 words,used the“the last few day”as the subject, while Zhu’s version only has 6 words and selected “I” as the subject. Therefore, Yang’s version is expressive to the original in this sentence and it retains the beauties of form and sense in this sentence at the same time. In short, the two versions are good translation, but the Yang’s version is much better from this point. <br /> <br /> Example 2“这是一条幽僻的路；白天也少人走，夜晚更加寂寞。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: It is peaceful and secluded here, a place not frequented by pedestrians even in the daytime; now at night, it looks more solitary......”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “It is off the beaten track and few pass this way even by day, so at night it is still more quiet.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> The word “幽僻” means “安静和人迹罕至” here. Zhu rendered the word “幽僻” into “peaceful and secluded”, emphasized that there is silent and private. Yang employed it into “off the beaten track” which means no one knows here and quiet. From this perspective, both translations are very similar in understanding the writer’s meaning.<br /> <br /> However, the word “幽僻” is an adjective word with two meanings: quiet and not disturbed by other people. Zhu’ s version “peaceful and secluded” ,are two adjective words and has two similar meanings, which keep the form and sense of the original sentence. In conclusion，according to the “Three Beauties” principle, Zhu’s translation is much better than Yang’s for it retains the form of the original.<br /> <br /> Example 3: “这路上阴森森的，有些怕人。”(Zhu Ziqing, 1927)<br /> <br /> Zhu’s version: “The foliage, which, in a moon-less night, would loom somewhat frighteningly dark.”(Zhu Chunshen, 1992)<br /> <br /> Yang’s version: “ On nights when there is no moon the track is almost terrifyingly dark.”(Yang Xiangyi, Gladys Yang, 1990) <br /> <br /> In this sentence, Zhu Ziqing uses “怕人” to describe the atmosphere of the air on the road and his feeling of walking on this path at such a night. “怕人” referred to “令人害怕的” in Chinese, it is an adjective to present his feeling. “Frightening ” means “making you feel afraid”, and “terrifying” means “to make somebody extremely frightened”in the ''OED'' , which can be regarded as synonyms. Both use the adverb to translate the adjective “怕人”. But in Zhu’s translation, “the foliage” is “frighteningly dark” and in Yang’s version, “the track” is “terrifyingly dark”. Both translators have their own understanding of the original content, but the both translations are faithful to the word “怕人”. We could say the two translations achieve the beauty in sense. However, in “Three Beauties” principle, we should consider the beauty in form and sound. As for sound ,the last sound of “怕人” is [en] in Chinese, but both “frightening” and “terrifying” has the same end sound of [en]. As for “frightening” and “terrifying”, the last sound of these are [iŋ] which could be regarded as the similar pronunciation with [en] .So, the two translations achieved beauty in sound from this aspect. In all the both versions are great from this perspective.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 ====<br /> ====4.3 ====<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> ==Lexical Gap between English and Chinese and its translation strategies 孟莹 Meng Ying==<br /> <br /> ==On Form and Spirit in Translation 文偲荇 Wen Sixing==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> translation methods，form，sprit<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译方法，翻译的形与神<br /> <br /> ===The form of translation===<br /> <br /> ===The sprit of translation===<br /> <br /> ===Discussion===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories——Taking &quot;2017 APEC Speech&quot; as sample 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing==<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Strategies'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Study on the Translation Strategies, Translation Methods and Translation Techniques in Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao==<br /> <br /> ==Translator’s Subjectivity from Translator’s “Invisibility” to “Visibility” 胡百辉 Hu Baihui==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Business Contracts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 胡瑾 Hu Jin==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization in China and the increasing frequency of modern commercial activities, commercial contracts are particularly vital in order to ensure the smooth progress of commercial activities. In a business contract, it is required to ensure that the expression of any text in the contract is accurate as far as possible, and the same is true when translating it. Contracts provide vital basis for the smooth development of business and the protection of rights. Accurate and vivid translation of contracts has an important impetus to the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations and the resolution of disputes. Therefore, it is of practical significance to study the translation of business contracts. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory, equivalence is first realized in meaning and then in form. Dynamic equivalence is used to break the static equivalence and maximize the meaning of the translation. This thesis gives a preliminary introduction to the translation of business contracts, studies the application of functional equivalence theory in contract translation, and puts forward some major translation skills and methods, which will be of some guiding significance to the future translation of business contracts, thus avoiding unnecessary disputes between the two parties.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> business contract; Functional Equivalence Theory; contract translation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中国全球化进程不断加快，现代商务活动日益频繁，为了确保商务活动的顺利进行，商务合同的签订显得尤为重要。在商务合同中，要求尽量确保合同中的每一个文字都表达准确，在对其进行翻译时也是如此。合同是确保业务开展顺利和进行权利保障的重要依托，对合同进行准确生动的翻译对业务的开展和权利、义务的保障以及出现争议时的解决等有着重要的推动力。因此，研究商务合同的翻译有一定的现实意义。根据奈达的功能对等理论，对等首先在意义上实现，然后在形式上实现，利用动态对等，打破静态对等，使译文意义最大化。此课题初步介绍了商务合同的翻译，研究了功能对等理论在合同翻译中的应用，提出了一些主要的翻译技巧和方法，对今后商务合同的翻译具有一定的指导作用，从而避免合同双方出现不必要的纠纷。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 商务合同；功能对等理论；合同翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since China promoted the Silk Road Economic Belt, China's economic exchanges with other countries in the world have been increasing day by day. China's exports volume is also increasing, and goods are exported to other countries in the world. In 2013, China overtook the United States as the world's largest trading nation. In this context, in order to ensure the smooth progress of transactions and reduce trade friction and disputes, commercial contracts, which have legal effect, have attracted more and more attention. Contract translation belongs to the category of legal translation. Accurate translation of contracts plays an important role in the development of business, the protection of rights and obligations, and the resolution of disputes. However, commercial disputes in China's foreign economic and trade business are very common, and many disputes are caused by various problems in contract translation. Therefore, they should be guided by scientific translation theories.<br /> This paper mainly includes 3 chapters. The first chapter is the introduction of business English contracts, including the definition of business contract, the categories of business contract, and the linguistic features of English business contract.<br /> The second chapter introduces the theoretical framework of functional equivalence translation, including Nida's main principles and viewpoints of functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> The third chapter is the main part of the article, including the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter1 General Introduction of Business Contract===<br /> <br /> This chapter first introduces the definition of business contract and the categories of business contract, and then analyzes the linguistic features of English business contract from lexical, syntactic and textual levels respectively. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> As an important link in foreign trade activities, business contracts have always been valued by people. Article 2 of The PRC Contract Law clearly stipulates that Commercial contract refers to the agreement clauses that are formally concluded according to law, notarized and must be abided by jointly in order to determine their respective rights and obligations during certain commercial cooperation between the parties concerned. It can be seen from this that a commercial contract is the result of the consensus reached by the parties and is a civil legal act. A legally established contract shall take effect from the date of its establishment and shall be legally binding. This provides a legal guarantee for effectively avoiding trade frictions. However, special attention should be paid to the fact that China's Economic Law on Foreign Contracts stipulates that commercial contracts can take many forms, such as formal contracts, letters of intent, memorandum, agreements, commissioned purchase orders, etc. But no matter what form it takes, it should be signed in writing. The oral agreement cannot be submitted to the court as evidence after the dispute occurs.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Categories and Structure of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> Based on different standards, business contracts can be divided into many categories. According to the contract maker, they can be divided into sales contract (made by the seller) and purchase contract (made by the buyer); according to the subject matter, they can be divided into technology transfer contracts, processing contracts, foreign labor contracts, and agency agreements, etc; according to the details of the contract, they can be divided into sales contract, sales confirmation letter, purchase contract and purchase confirmation letter; according to the price terms used in the contract, they can be divided into CIF contract, FOB contract and goods arrival contract, etc.<br /> Although there are many types of commercial contracts, the structure of commercial contracts is generally relatively fixed, generally including three parts: preface, text and contract end. The first part is the preface, which generally includes the name of the contract, the parties to the contract, the date of signing and the place of signing. The second part is the main body of the contract, which mainly stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties to the agreement, the specific conditions of the traded goods, such as commodity name, quantity, total value, delivery date and validity period, port of shipment and destination, insurance and confidentiality clauses, payment clauses,etc. The third part is the end, which mainly includes the signatures of all parties to the agreement, the language of the contract, the number of copies of the contract and the explanation of the validity of the contract.<br /> <br /> ====1.3 A Contrastive Analysis of Stylistic Features of Chinese and English Business Contracts====<br /> <br /> English business contract is a solemn style with the highest degree of formality among all styles of English. A comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English business contract in terms of vocabulary, syntax and discourse will be made in this chapter.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Lexical Features of Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> As the most basic semantic constituent unit, vocabulary plays the most basic and important role in the whole contract text. When reading any text, the characteristics of words can often reflect the characteristics of the whole text. Therefore, it is necessary to study the characteristics of vocabulary so as to lay a foundation for the study of the whole text.<br /> <br /> First of all, the use of archaism is the most prominent feature in international business contract English. The extensive use of archaic words in business contracts and legal styles fully reflects their solemn and serious style, which is related to the social function of English style of business contracts and the particularity of international business. The archaism most commonly used in business contract English are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中)，therein-after(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于).<br /> <br /> In contrast, some classical Chinese words are often used in Chinese business contract terms, such as“兹、若”. This is to reflect the conciseness and clarity of the Chinese contract text. However, strictly speaking, Chinese business contract terms are more straightforward, the classical Chinese vocabulary is less frequently used, and the stylistic features are not as obvious as English business contracts.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the use of synonyms is another feature of English business contracts. Two or more synonyms are often used together in English business contracts. This is to make the terms of the contract more precise and accurate, and to avoid ambiguities and omissions as much as possible, for example, by and between, sole and exclusive, make and enter into, etc. <br /> <br /> However, we must note that synonyms are not commonly used in Chinese business contracts. This is mainly because of the differences in expression habits between Chinese and English and the differences in legal and cultural traditions between countries.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, as a contractual document with legal effect, legal terms are also used in the contract. In formal English business contracts, drafters often use “convene” instead of “hold or assemble”; “dispatch” instead of “spread out or handout”; “terminate” instead of “stop”. Similarly, in Chinese business contracts, interpreters use“承诺”to indicate “commitment”;“撤销”to indicate“cancel”instead of “取消”;“裁决” to mean “decision” instead of “决定”. Finally, the contract contains many professional knowledge and terminology.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.2 Syntax Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> Besides vocabulary, the syntax of business contracts also has their own characteristics, such as common clauses, declarative sentences, passive voice, modal verbs, etc. <br /> <br /> The most obvious feature in business contracts is the use of subordinate clauses. They are in obvious positions to explain, restrict and supplement the meaning of the main sentence. The positions of these clauses are relatively flexible. For example, attributive clause can be placed together with the central word or separated from the central word. A noun can be modified by multiple attributive clauses, and an attributive clause can also modify multiple nouns. The adverbial clause of time can be placed either at the beginning of the sentence or at the middle and end of the sentence.<br /> <br /> In contrast, the positions of attributive clauses and adverbial clauses in Chinese are relatively fixed. The adverbial clause of time is usually next to the modified verb because there is no temporal change in Chinese verbs. Declarative sentences are clear in meaning, division of powers and responsibilities, objective and fair in stating facts, and conform to the requirements of business contract terms. Therefore, they are frequently used in Chinese and English business contracts, but interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences are seldom used.<br /> <br /> Passive sentences are also quite common in business contracts. The passive voice is often used when there is no need to clearly indicate the sender of the behavior and the emphasis is placed on the object of the behavior.<br /> <br /> =====1.3.3 Textual Features of English Business Contracts=====<br /> <br /> The textual features of Chinese and English business contracts are mainly reflected in textual cohesion and textual structure.<br /> <br /> In business contracts, whether Chinese or English, contextual cohesion is realized by adding conjunctions or repetitions of words, which indicates the logical relationship between sentences and reflects the rigour and solemnity of business contract language.<br /> <br /> The discourse structure of Chinese and English business contracts is basically the same, with highly stylized features.<br /> <br /> This kind of consistency is not only to obtain formal uniformity, but also often mainly due to the requirements of meaning, so that readers have the impression that the contents expressed by clauses with the same sentence pattern are equivalent in the legal effect of the contract.①<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 General Study of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This chapter introduces Nida's functional equivalence translation theory and the feasibility of applying functional equivalence principle to business contract translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida first proposed the“dynamic equivalence”theory, then further developed the theory, emphasizing the equivalence of two aspects, namely“formal equivalence”and“dynamic equivalence”.“Formal equivalence”emphasizes the form and content of the information itself and believes that the translation should be close to the original structure. “Dynamic equivalence”refers to“reproducing source language information from semantics to style with the closest (original) natural equivalent in the recipient language”.② Tan Zaixi（谭载喜） pointed out, in this definition, there are three key points: 1. Natural, the translation cannot have a translation cavity. 2. Closeness, referring to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of nature. 3. Equivalence, which is the core.<br /> <br /> After the proposal of dynamic equivalence, many disputes have arisen. It is considered as free translation or live translation. In order to change people's misunderstanding of it, Nida pointed out:“Everything in the text is meaningful, including speech forms, so forms cannot be sacrificed easily.”④ Therefore, he replaced“dynamic equivalence”with “functional equivalence”. There is no essential difference between the two, but the latter highlights the concept of“function”.<br /> <br /> On the question of which level equivalence should be reflected, Nida pointed out that in addition to content and form equivalence, style equivalence should also be considered.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida divided functional equivalence into“maximum functional equivalence”and“minimum functional equivalence”since absolute equivalence is impossible to achieve. The so-called“maximum functional equivalence”means that the target readers can understand the original text in a way consistent with the original readers and further appreciate the original text while“minimum functional equivalence” means that the target readers can understand how the original readers understand and appreciate the original through their understanding of the target text. <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Researches on Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Abroad, Beekman(1972: 32) pointed out:“Nida's functional equivalence theory makes theorists and translators believe that a good translation must be able to convey the meaning and dynamics of the original text at the same time.”⑤ <br /> <br /> Wilss(2001: 51) stressed:“Nida's functional equivalence theory can be applied to translation practice because it can achieve effective translation.”⑥ Venuti said:<br /> Functional equivalence theory also eases the debate between translators on“domestication” and “foreignization” from the perspective of language and culture.⑦<br /> <br /> At home, Jin Di(金堤) put forward“equivalence theory”on the basis of“functional equivalence theory”, and applied it to the translation of Ulysses, which illustrates the feasibility of“functional equivalence” theory in practical translation. Tan Zaixi made a comprehensive and systematic summary of the formation process of Nida's translation theory and its profound connotation. In addition, in the CNKI database, retrieval using“functional equivalence theory” as the key word shows that there are 2444 related articles in various core journals and magazines.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Applicability of Functional Equivalence Theory to E-C Translation of Business Contract====<br /> <br /> At present, there are no authoritative translation principles and standards for commercial contract translation, but the three principles of contract translation put forward by Ma Huijuan(马会娟) are highly recognized: First, the words used are accurate and the translation is complete. The translator shall not add, delete or change any information contained in the contract at will. The language of the translation shall be accurate, complete and natural. Second, the organization is clear and the format is equivalent. The translation should correspond to the original text format as a whole and reproduce the structural features of the source language as much as possible. Third, the translation should be in line with the stylistic characteristics of the contract.<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory emphasizes content equivalence, form equivalence and style equivalence. These three requirements are consistent with the three principles above put forward by Ma Huijuan respectively. Both of them limit the translation standards from the aspects of content, form and style. Therefore, the functional equivalence theory can be fully applied to the translation practice of business contracts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Business Contract Translation Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> This part focuses on the translation techniques to be adopted in translating English contracts under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. Combining with actual translation cases, this chapter analyzes the common problems in contract translation and puts forward corresponding solutions. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Equivalence at the Lexical Level====<br /> <br /> Vocabulary is the basic component of sentences and chapters. In the specific translation process, if vocabulary translation is not handled well, sentence and chapter translation will be impossible.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Equivalence of Technical Terms—Literal Translation and Free Translation=====<br /> <br /> The contents of business contracts involve all trades and professions, and there are many subject matters, including many professional knowledge and terminology, which is a big obstacle for many translators who do not know the professional knowledge of the industry. Therefore, before translation, translators should understand the relevant industries involved in the contract and master the necessary knowledge in the industry so as to avoid the layman's words and semantic errors in the translation, which will affect the accuracy and formality of the contract and cannot achieve functional equivalence.<br /> <br /> Example1:The balance 80% ( Eighty percent ) of the contract value shall be paid against irrevocable L/C at 360 days sight to be accepted by both parties. <br /> 译文：合同金额的80%（百分之八十）以不可撤销信用证的方式在交单的360 天予以支付。<br /> <br /> Many words in the contract appear in the form of letter abbreviations. As shown in this example,“L/C”is the abbreviation of letter of credit, which is translated literally into“信用证”. This is a well-established translation method in the industry, which can reflect both the equivalence of meaning and the professionalism of language expression.<br /> <br /> Example2:“The seller shall present the following documents required for negotiation or collection to the banks.”<br /> 译文:“卖方应向银行提交议付或托收所需的下列文件。”<br /> <br /> In this sentence,“negotiation”and“collection”are both technical terms of the contract, they are translated into“议付”and“托收” respectively, instead of“谈判”and“收取”. The expressions not only conform to the professional expression of the economic and trade industry, but also accurately reflect the meaning of the original text and achieve the meaning and style equivalence emphasized by the functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> Example3:“UNIT PRICES: FOB Xingang, Tianjing USD 22 150.00 per unit (US Dollars twenty two thousand, one hundred and fifty only)。”<br /> 译文:“单价: FOB天津新港, 每辆22150.00美元（贰万贰仟壹佰伍拾美元）。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“FOB”is an abbreviation of “Free on board”. It can be translated into “FOB” by free translation or by shifting translation. This is mainly because the readers of business contracts themselves are professionals in the industry. They usually exchange price terms in the form of English letters and abbreviations in their daily work. Therefore, when translating such price terms, their source language expressions can be retained.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Equivalence of Archaism—Omission, Addition and Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> Archaisms are rarely used in modern English, but they are still common in business contracts. They can not only reflect the formal rigour of business contracts, but also highlight the conciseness and clarity of language. The archaisms most commonly used in English business contract are compound adverbs, such as herewith(与此一道), therein(在其中), hereinafter(在下文中), thereof(其), thereto(附随), whereas(鉴于), etc.<br /> <br /> Example1:“The parties hereto shall, first of all, settle any dispute arising from or in connection with the contract through amicable negotiation.” <br /> 译文:“合同双方首先应该通过友好协商，解决因合同而发生的或与合同相关的争议。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“hereto”means“本协议的、本合同的”. It can be translated with omission. The contract subject relationship is clear, literal translation will only lead to redundant repetition of the translation, so there is no need to translate it.<br /> <br /> Example2: Now, therefore, in consideration of the recitals set forth above and the mutual covenants, promises, and agreements contained herein, and other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged, the Parties do hereby agree as follows: <br /> 译文：因此，考虑到上述陈述和本协议中包含的共同契约、承诺和协议，以及其他良好和有价值的对价，双方特此达成如下协议，特此确认其接收和充分性。<br /> <br /> In this example, herein usually means“此中，于此”. But such translation here will confuse readers. Therefore, we can adopt addition and translate it into“此协议中”. Although this expression is not as concise as“于此”, accuracy is the first requirement in contract translation.<br /> <br /> Example3: After arrival of goods at port of destination, the buyer shall apply to China Commodity Inspection Bureau (hereinafter referred to as CCIB) for a further inspection as to the specifications and quantity/weight of the goods.<br /> 译文：货到目的港后，买方将申请中国商品检验局(以下简称商检局)对货物的规格和数量重量进行检验。<br /> <br /> In this case, the original meaning of“hereinafter”is“以下，在下文中”. Its original meaning is directly inserted into the sentence, which not only accurately expresses the original meaning, but also makes the translated language natural and smooth, meeting the requirements of functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Equivalence of Formal Words—Literal Translation=====<br /> <br /> “Functional Equivalence”emphasizes the transmission of reading experience, requiring the translator to transmit not only language functions but also legal functions, so as to enable the target readers to feel the reading experience of the original readers. <br /> <br /> Example1: The agreement does not operate as an acceptance of any conflicting terms and conditions and shall prevail over any conflicting provision of any purchase order or any other instrument of Customer. <br /> 译文：本协议不接受任何与本协议产生冲突的任何条款。若在乙方订单或任何文件中出现与本协议相冲突的条款，应均以本协议为准。<br /> <br /> Example2:“Time of shipment: within 15 days after receipt of the advance payment and the L/C of balance value to be accepted by the × Bank.” <br /> 译文:“装运日期：收到预付款且剩余货款的信用证被××银行承兑后的15天内装运。”<br /> <br /> In the first example, although the basic meaning of“胜过”is also expressed, it is usually translated into“以....为准” or “效力高于”in legal texts. In the second example, the common meaning of“accept”is “接受”, but in legal translation it is usually translated as “承兑”. Formal words are usually translated according to conventions, so the difficulty in translation lies not in the choice of translation strategies, but in the grasp of semantics and the reproduction of style.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.4 Equivalence of Juxtaposition—Contracted Translation=====<br /> <br /> English business contracts often use two or more synonyms to ensure the uniqueness of words meaning. The functional equivalence theory emphasizes the equivalence of meaning and form, but in the actual translation process, the absolute equivalence between the two, that is, the “maximum functional equivalence”proposed by Nida, is impossible to realize.<br /> <br /> Example1:“The agreement is made and entered into on April 16, 2007 by and between Party A and Party B.”<br /> 译文:“此合同由甲乙双方于2007年4月16日达成。”<br /> <br /> In this example,“made and entered into”and“by and between”are juxtaposed by two pairs of synonyms. When translating, these words only need translate once, which is called contracted translation. <br /> <br /> Example2: This agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the subject matter hereof and supersedes all prior agreements, understanding, warranties, representations, negotiations and discussion, whether oral or written, of the parties except as specifically set forth herein.<br /> 译文：此合同是双方就合同主体所达成的全部协议，将取代双方过往所有口头或书面的协议、理解、声明、保证、谈判和讨论，在此明确阐明的除外。<br /> <br /> In this example, several synonyms are juxtaposed to make the terms of the contract include all relevant matters as much as possible so as to make the writing strict and clear. Here, we can adopt literal translation strategy, keeping the total number of words listed in the original text, and looking for the corresponding Chinese words to achieve the double equivalence of content and form. <br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Equivalence at the Syntactic Level====<br /> <br /> Cliches are commonly used in official document and usually have a fixed translation method. Passive sentences and subordinate clauses have long sentence patterns and complicated logical relations, which tests the translator's translation ability and logical expression ability. <br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Conventional Phrases—Imitation Translation=====<br /> <br /> There are many cliches in business contracts, which are common at the beginning and end of contracts.<br /> <br /> Example1:“In consideration of the mutual covenants contained in this agreement, the parties agree as follows:”<br /> 译文:“考虑到本协议中的共同承诺，协议双方约定如下:”<br /> <br /> Example2:This Agreement may be executed in two or more counterparts, each of which shall be deemed an original and all of which together shall constitute one instrument. <br /> 译文：本协议可签署两个或两个以上的副本，每一副本构成本协议的一份原件，所有副本构成一份法律文件。<br /> <br /> Although the original expression of each text is not the same, the basic meaning is the same. A relatively fixed translation method has been formed, so the translators should know the common expressions in advance, or look for the parallel text to imitate the translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Equivalence of Passive Sentence=====<br /> <br /> Passive voice is a typical language structure in English business contracts. It can effectively reflect the objectivity and fairness of contracts. However, unlike English, passive voice is seldom used in Chinese. Therefore, in translation, we usually use various translation strategies to convert passive voice into active voice. The most common translation strategy is conversion, that is, the object of the original text is converted into the subject, and the subject is converted into the object. <br /> <br /> Example1: This Contract is made by and between the Buyer and the Seller whereby the Buyer agree to buy and the Seller agrees to sell the commodity in attached Annex according to the terms and condition stipulated below: <br /> 译文：买卖双方同意按下述条款购买出售附件中的商品并签订本合同： <br /> <br /> Example2: Agent shall be entitled to nominate mandate other third parties to act upon behalf of Agent in generating business to the Parties, as Agent’s sole discretion. <br /> 译文：代理人有权自行指定、授权其他第三方代表代理人为缔约方带来业务。<br /> <br /> From the first example, “by and between” is used as adverbial in the sentence. The object“the Buyer and the Seller” is the originator of this sentence, which is transformed into the subject of Chinese, and the recipient of the action“this contract”is transformed into the object of Chinese, thus the passive sentence of English is transformed into the active sentence of Chinese. In addition, some passive sentences in business contracts can also be translated into active sentences without changing the subject of the original sentence, as shown in the second example.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Equivalence of Long Sentence—Combination, Division and Reconstruction=====<br /> <br /> Long sentences must contain many clauses and modifiers, and their writing ideas are quite different from those of Chinese. Therefore, how to split the sentences into several parts, how to extract the core meaning of complex logical relations and how to reorganize Chinese are the three major difficulties.<br /> <br /> Example1: Agent’s undertaking and obligation is to search, locate and refer (lead) potential and prospective clients/customers to Principal who are seriously interested, ready, willing and able to apply for the Product. <br /> 译文：代理人的责任和义务是为委托人寻找、定位和推荐（引导）潜在的、真正对本产品感兴趣、准备好且愿意申请的客户。<br /> <br /> This is a restrictive attributive clause. We often adopt a combination method, translating the subordinate clause into“...的” and putting it before the modifier in the form of adjectives. This is mainly due to the structural differences between English and Chinese. The attributive elements in Chinese are not as flexible as the attributive clauses in English. <br /> <br /> Example2: The parties may not assign or transfer this Agreement or any of its rights and obligations under this Agreement without the prior written consent of the other party, which shall not be unreasonably withheld. <br /> 译文：未经另一方事先书面同意，缔约方不得出让或转让本协议或本协议项下的各项权利和义务，此要求不得被无理拒绝。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a non-restrictive attributive clause. Since this clause and the antecedent are not closely related and generally play an explanatory role, we often use division method in E-C translation. That is to say, the two should be separated and naturally combined by repeating antecedents.<br /> <br /> Example3: Should Principal be reasonably sure that Agent violated this rule, or should any client/customer present proof of such violation, Agent will not be entitled to its omission for the particular client or group of clients and Principal may terminate this Agreement with immediate effect at its own discretion. <br /> 译文：如果委托人有理由确定代理人违反了此项规定，或如果有客户提供了其违反此项规定的证据，代理人将无权享这一客户或这一组客户的佣金，委托人可自行终止本协议，即刻生效。<br /> <br /> This sentence is a adverbial clause. The structure of“should+subject+verb”belongs to the unreal conditional sentence. But there is no such usage in Chinese. Therefore, we can reconstruct the original text according to the logical structure of the original sentence and adjust the word order appropriately to make it natural and more in line with the Chinese expression habits. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Equivalence at Textual Level====<br /> <br /> The text consists of sentences, so the following focuses on the cohesion and format of the text.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.1 Text Cohesion=====<br /> <br /> Text cohesion is realized through the use of conjunctions and lexical repetition, reflecting the rigour and solemnity of business contract language.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> Thereafter, this Agreement shall be renewed automatically for successive additional one-year terms under the same terms and conditions unless either party chooses not to continue the relationship and provides written notice 30 days prior to the natural expiration of the existing one-year term. <br /> 译文：此后，本协议应以同样的条款自动延期一年，除非任何一方选择解除合作关系，并在一年合同期满前30天提交书面通知。<br /> <br /> Here, explicit connectives,“thereafter, and, unless”are clearly translated, which is conducive to textual cohesion and indicates the logical relationship between sentences. Therefore, we can translate them into “此后、和/并、除非”, which not only realizes the formal equivalence between the translation and the original, but also achieves the semantic equivalence.<br /> <br /> =====3.3.2 Text Format=====<br /> <br /> As one kind of legal documents, commercial contracts are highly normative and have strict writing format. Therefore, attention should be paid to the corresponding format in translation.<br /> <br /> Contract No: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Date: Aug. ××,2013 <br /> <br /> The Buyer: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Representative: ×××××× <br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> The seller: ××××××( hereinafter referred to as ×××) <br /> <br /> Legal Address: ×××××<br /> <br /> Representative: ××××××<br /> <br /> Tel/Fax: ×××××× <br /> <br /> 译文：合同编号：×××××× <br /> <br /> 日期：2013年8月×号 <br /> <br /> 买方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：×××××× <br /> <br /> 卖方：××××××（以下简称××××） <br /> <br /> 注册地址：×××××× <br /> <br /> 代表人：×××××× <br /> <br /> 电话/传真：××××××<br /> <br /> Here, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the contract text, and keep the format of the translation and the original text in alignment during translation. Firstly, capital words with the first letter should be emphasized in terms consistent with Chinese expression habits. Secondly, the parts marked in bold or italics in the contract shall still be marked in bold or italics in the translation.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> To sum up, according to the requirements of functional equivalence theory on translation quality, commercial contract translation should meet the following standards:<br /> <br /> In terms of content, first, the translation language should be natural and fluent and conform to Chinese expression habits. Second, pay attention to the professionalism of the language expression in the translation, avoid using colloquial expressions, and achieve the meaning equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> In terms of format, we should pay attention to the linear characteristics of the commercial contract text and try our best to achieve the formal equivalence emphasized by functional equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> In terms of language style, the translation should retain the original language style as much as possible. The business contract language is professional and solemn, so the translation should reproduce the strict and formal legal style of the original text on the premise of ensuring accurate content and natural language.<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes and summarizes specific contract terms and puts forward countermeasures. Although the translation strategies given in this paper have certain universality, the research text is slightly narrower than that of the whole commercial contract text research. Due to the space limitation, the cases provided are limited. Therefore, the scope of the research text should be broadened and analyzed from a broader research perspective in future research.<br /> <br /> ===Notes===<br /> <br /> ① 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998: 310-312.<br /> <br /> ② Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986: 113-120.<br /> <br /> ③ 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2004: 23-27.<br /> <br /> ④ Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993: 119-130. <br /> <br /> ⑤ Beekman, J. &amp; C, John. Translating the word of God[M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974: 191-221.<br /> <br /> ⑥ Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001: 72-86.<br /> <br /> ⑦ Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995: 76-89.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> [1] Beekman, J. &amp; John C. Translating the word of God [M]. Michigan: Zondvervan Publishing House, 1974. <br /> <br /> [2] Catford, J. C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965. <br /> <br /> [3] Nida, E. A. Language, Culture and Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> [4] Nida, E. A., and J. D., Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. New York: Thom as Nelson Inc, 1986.<br /> <br /> [5] Nida, E. A., and R Taber, Charles. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. New York: E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1969.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invincibility: A History of Translation[M]. London: Routledge, 1995.<br /> <br /> [7] Wilss, W. The science of translation: Problems and methods[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [8] Yallop, C. The construction of equivalence[A]. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2001.<br /> <br /> [9] 顿官刚. 经贸英语词汇的特点及翻译[J]. 山东外语教学, 2002, (2).<br /> <br /> [10] 廖瑛. 实用公关英语[M]. 上海: 对外经济贸易大学出版社, 2005.<br /> <br /> [11] 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998.<br /> <br /> [12] 苗锡璞. 功能对等理论指导下的商务英语翻译[J]. 内蒙古财经学院学报, 2011, (1).<br /> <br /> [13] 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> [14] 汪洋. 浅析商务合同的词汇与句法翻译技巧[J]. 科技文汇, 2009, (10).<br /> <br /> [15] 金堤. 等效翻译探索[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1998.<br /> <br /> [16] 马会娟. 论商务文本翻译标准多元化[J]. 中国翻译, 2005, (3).<br /> <br /> ==The translator's invisibility 张毓婕 Zhang Yujie==<br /> <br /> ==Study of Domestication and foreignization in Cross-cultural Translation 顾东方 Gu Dongfang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's economic globalization, international cultural exchanges are expanding, and translation as a communication tool is also crucial. As a form of cross-cultural and cross-linguistic communication, translation is a kind of communication and interaction between two cultures with very different social backgrounds and cultural traditions. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, the application and selection of translation strategies should not only reflect the translator's style, but also directly affect the audience of the translated work among the target language readers. In 1995, Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization , in The Invisibility of Translators. domestication and foreignization are both opposed and unified, i.e. there is no such thing as absolute domestication or absolute foreignization. This paper will discuss the selection and application of domestication and foreignization in cross-cultural translation, based on the two translation strategies themselves and actual translation cases, so that translators can use these two translation strategies more flexibly in translation to better convey the meaning of the original texts and make the translations reach more readers, and thus promote the communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> domestication and foreignization; cross-cutural; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 在经济全球化的今天，国际间文化交流也在不断扩大，而翻译作为一种交流工具也显得至关重要。作为一种跨文化、跨语言交际的形式，翻译是一种社会背景与文化传统很不相同的两种文化间的交流与交往。因此，在跨文化翻译中，翻译策略的运用与选择不仅仅要体现出译者的风格，也会直接影响译作在目的语读者中的受众程度。美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出了归化与异化两种翻译策略。归化与异化，既对立又统一，也即绝对的归化或者绝对的异化都是不存在的。本文将从归化与异化这两种翻译策略的本身出发，并结合实际翻译案例，来探讨归化与异化在跨文化翻译当中的选择与运用，使得译者能够在翻译中更灵活地使用这两种翻译策略，更好地传达出原作的意蕴，使译作受众于更多的读者，以此促进不同文化之间的交流。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 归化与异化；跨文化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1. Definitions of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Domestication is to localize the original language and focuses on the target language or readers by conveying the original text in the way target readers are familiar with. In order to close the readers of target texts.Domesticated translation requires the translator to speak like a native author, and the translation must become authentic to the native language if the original author is to speak directly to the readers. It helps the reader to better understand the translation and enhances the readability and enjoyment of the translation.<br /> Foreignization is that the translator tries not to disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader can get closer to the author&quot;. In translation, it means to accommodate the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorb foreign expressions, require the translator to approach the author, and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the original content. The purpose of the foreignization strategy is to consider about the differences in national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationalities and linguistic styles, and to preserve the exoticism of the translated text for the readers.<br /> <br /> ===2.The relationship between literal translation and free translation ,and domestication and foreignization.===<br /> Historically, foreignization and domestication can be seen as extensions of, but not identical to, literal and free translation. The terms &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot; are English translation version. Literal translation is a kind of method or text that keeps the original content and the form of the original text. Free translation means that it keeps only the content of the original text, not the form of the original text. Literal translation appeared during the May 4th Movement, emphasizing the need for faithfulness to the original text so that the translation can be &quot;expressive&quot; and &quot;elegant&quot;. Literal translation does not mean translating word for word in mechanical way. Since English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate them word for word. Literal translation is to fully and accurately clarify the meaning of the original work, without any distortion or random addition or deletion of the original ideas to maintain the original style. Sometimes even the original mood or emotion, such as anger or embarrassment, sarcasm or irony, joy or happiness, should not be ignored. Fu Si Nian and Zheng Zhenduo both advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, literal translation is the overriding rule. The work of Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren, The Collected Works of Extra-territorial Novels, is regarded as the representative of literal translation. The free translation, on the other hand, starts from the meaning and requires only the main idea of the original text to be expressed without excessive attention to detail, but a natural flow of the translation. In translation, if we cannot directly adopt the structure and expression of the original, we must change the sentence structure and expression to convey the meaning of the original according to the form and characteristics of the expression. Since there are many differences between the original language and the translated language in word order, grammar, changing forms and rhetoric, we can only use appropriate ways to convey the meaning of the original and reproduce the effect of the original. Mr. Jing-Shen Zhao once said, &quot;A smooth and fluent version is better than one that focuses only on fidelity to the original&quot;. Obviously, Mr. Zhao was in favor of foreignization, and so did Mr Yan Fu. Foreignization has been used in many works of Yan Fu, for example, the Evolution and Ethics is a typical example . In literal translation, faithful to the original form should be placed first, followed by faithful to the original content, again the fluency and popularity of translated language; while in free translation, faithful to the original content should be placed first, translation language fluency and popularity of the second, but free translation is not limited to the form of the original. Some scholars often discuss literal translation, free translation and domestication and foreignization together, which is understandable, but it is necessary to make a distinction. Based on the level of language and culture,domestication and foreignization focus more on the use of language from the perspective of cultural differences and are a kind of translation strategy, while literal and free translation is a translation technique, which is only at the level of language. There may be only one main translation strategy for a text or a work, but each strategy may use both literal and free translation methods, and each method serves the general direction of the translation strategy. The choice of the main translation strategy depends on the purpose of the translation, if it is to maximize the understanding of foreign cultures or cross-cultural comparative study, then the main focus is on foreignization; if it is to understand the information or story development through reading, then the domestication may be the best choice. Taking the translation of the famous work Dream of the Red Chamber as an example, there are two versions by two masters, Yang Xianyi and Hawkes, the former adopts foreignization to deal with the cultural factors in the language, that is, to keep the source culture as much as possible in the translation, while Hawkes adopts domestication in order to avoid the conflict between two different cultures, Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. National and international research on the development of domestication and foreignization.===<br /> <br /> ===3.1.The history of the development of domestication and foreignization abroad.===<br /> The German translator Schleiermacher, in his work, On the Different Methods of Translation, elaborated the need for translations to bring the reader as close as possible to the original author, and for the first time introduced the concepts of domestication and foreignization.<br /> At the same time, in the British academic circles of the time, domestication was the main translation strategy, but Francis Newman in England, when discussing the transl ation work on Homer, advocated that translators should consciously translate in the ancient language to emphasize the heterogeneity of the work.<br /> In the 1960s A.D., Nida proposed the theory of domestication for the first time in many structuralist theoretical works, and since then the climax of the debate on domestication and foreignization rose on the stage in western translation field . In Nida's view, domesticated translation does not need to stick to the form of the original text, but only needs to express the content with the closest and most natural equivalent in the translated text to achieve equivalence.<br /> The French theorist Antoinette Bellman deplored the tendency of eliminating foreignization in translation through the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot;. He said: &quot;The proper theoretical goal of the translation action is to accept heterogeneity as it is.&quot; This view seems to have an impact on Venuti's strategy of &quot;foreignization&quot; .<br /> In his book The Invisibility of the Translator, Italian scholar Venuti discusses the &quot;invisibility&quot; of the translator by combining the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization for the first time. He strongly advocates foreignization and questions domestication, arguing that domestication is essentially a means of cultural colonization by Western colonizers. At the same time, he also suggests that the purpose of translation is not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express linguistic and cultural differences.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Domestic development history on domestication and foreignization===<br /> The earliest translations of Buddhist scriptures have included the debate between assimilation and dissimilation. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the translator Zhiqian pioneered the translation style of using free translation instead of transliteration, which had far-reaching significance and influence in history.<br /> At the end of the 19th century, several other great translators emerged in Chinese history, and Yan Fu was one of them. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, foreign powers invaded extensively and the Chinese nation faced an existential crisis, under such a background, Yan Fu believed that translation must be carefully chosen based on the social and historical reality of the country into which it is translated. In the translation, the translator should take the literary tradition of the nation and the specific historical and cultural purpose as the main purpose, combining the cultural and linguistic background of the readers. The translator should not focus on how to be &quot;faithful to the original&quot;, but how to adapt to the social and cultural choices of the time.<br /> With the rise of the May 4th New Culture Movement, many translators tried to learn from foreign literature in order to transform literature and society.Lu Xun's most famous dictum relating to translation was &quot;I'd rather be faithful than smooth&quot;, and advocated &quot;preserving the foreign flavor as much as possible&quot; and &quot;the need for exoticism&quot;. <br /> After the founding of New China, China's translation industry entered the third high point, and a large number of Western and Soviet works were introduced, which was connected with the spiritual needs of people at that time. After the reform and opening up, with the influx of Western translation ideas, &quot;foreignization&quot; has emerged. Many scholars have put forward the idea that &quot;Foreignization is primary while domestication is supplementary&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===4.domestication and foreignization of cultural exchange translation===<br /> <br /> ===4.1the relationship between culture and language===<br /> In a broad sense, culture refers to the material and spiritual wealth created and accumulated by human beings in the course of social development; in a narrower sense, it refers to the ideology of society and the system of organizational constructs that corresponds to it. Culture has the following four basic characteristics 1) culture is owned and shared by all members of a society; 2) culture is acquired rather than inherited; 3) culture is biologically based; and 4) culture is based on a symbolic system. The relationship between language and culture is between the part and the whole; language is a subsystem of culture, and language cannot exist apart from culture; it embodies all the beliefs and emotions of a cultural group. Language and culture interact and influence each other and are inseparable. Based on the close relationship between language and culture, more consideration should be given to cultural factors in translation research, which means that translation research should be carried out in a more macro context. Translators should be aware of enough cultural differences when dealing with the cultural differences between the original language and the target language. Due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese, many English and Chinese phrases, although literally having the same or similar meanings, are inherently different. Therefore, a word-for-word translation without considering cultural factors can lead to ambiguity.<br /> <br /> ===4.2 Translatability and untranslatability of cultures===<br /> On the one hand, the similarity of human experience worldwide contributes to the translatability of cultures. In this regard, Nida has said that &quot;all human beings eat, work, sleep and procreate, and they produce objects such as furniture, tools and vehicles. They also organize themselves into families, clans, internal and external groups, nations and inter-national organizations. They have a conscious similarity in their views of the universe, values, religion and supernatural forces. In fact, the different groups of people in the world have much more in common with each other than they do with each other.&quot; It is the similarity of the cultures of different peoples that allows people of different cultures to understand each other and makes translation possible. Nida thus states, &quot;Linguists and anthropologists have discovered that what binds human beings together far outweighs what alienates them, and this is the basis for generating communication.&quot; Many expressions that are unique to one culture can be found almost identically in a culture and become the best evidence of cultural translatability.<br /> On the other hand, each people has a culture that is distinct from the others, which hinders mutual understanding with the others and may even cause cultural shock. Due to different cultural inheritances, the languages of different nationalities have their own symbol systems and lexical, syntactical and grammatical characteristics, which often make them untranslatable. For example, the Chinese phrase &quot;客上天然居，居然天客&quot; is one of the examples of untranslatable culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.3 Factors influencing cultural translation strategies===<br /> <br /> ===4.3.1.Motives and objectives of translation===<br /> <br /> Different motivations and purposes for translation lead to different translation principles and methods<br /> <br /> ===4.3.2.Text type===<br /> <br /> Different texts influence the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord, translation can be divided into instrumental translation, which refers to the means of transferring information from the source language to the target language, and documentary translation, which refers to the means of transferring information about communication activities from the source language to the target language. This type of translation emphasizes the transmission and conveyance of information and mainly includes non-literary writing, including advertising, media writing, scientific writing, propaganda and announcements, etc. With this method of translation, which is guided by the culture of the target language, the information that needs to be conveyed can be better expressed and accessed. The other type of text is documentary translation. This type of translation refers to the presentation of real communicative activities and information to the target language readers. The term &quot;documentary translation&quot; is appropriate for translating (language-)-specific expressions, where translation of language and content are equally important. eter Newmark distinguishes between communicative and semantic translation of such texts, emphasizing the &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot; of the message. &quot; in order to achieve the same effect on the readers of the original language as on those of the target language. Although this type of translation is a subjective process, the translator will attach great importance to the effect of the translation on the reader's mind. By reorganizing and rearranging the order of sentences, the translator will eliminate obscurities and ambiguities in order to achieve &quot;strength&quot; and &quot;clarity&quot;. Most non-literary writing, informative articles and books, as well as textbooks, bulletins, standardized writing, and novels are suitable for this type of communicative translation; because it emphasizes the need to have the same effect on both the original and target language readers, it often uses expressions that are customary and easily understood in the language in which they are written. Thus, communicative translation is equivalent to naturalized translation, where the translator's preference for idiomatic expressions is produced or determined by the translator's preference for the target language. Semantic translation attempts to get as close as possible to the exact meaning of the original text in terms of wording. Semantic translation focuses on the expression of the exact meaning of the content in order to preserve as accurate a style of the original text as possible. This type of translation is an objective process during which the translator focuses only on whether the translation is precise and retains the flavor of the original text. In this type of translation, the translator tries to preserve the semantic and syntactic structure of the original text, as well as the tone of the original text, etc. semantic translation applies to autobiographies, private correspondence, personal emotional texts and quotations. A semantic translation is equivalent to an alien translation in an attempt to achieve the preservation of the flavour of the original, due to the translator's original language preference.<br /> <br /> ===4.3.3Acceptance by readers===<br /> In the past, traditional translation theories placed one-sided emphasis on extra-author-centred and text-centred research, neglecting the involvement of translators and target language readers. Modern reception aesthetics considers the reader not as an unimportant and unnecessary perspective, but as a historical, active and creative factor in the relationship between author, text and reader. This is why different people have different interpretations of the same text of Hamlet. Naida was influenced by the acceptance of the aesthetic sub. His theory and practice of translation are very much focused on the readers' reflection. He pointed out that &quot;Judging the validity of a translation does not stop at the comparison of word meanings, grammar and rhetoric; what is important is the extent to which the recipient is able to understand and appreciate the translation correctly.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===4.4the cultural school of translation===<br /> In 1990, the representatives of the cultural school of translation, Bassnett and Lefevere, in their co-edited book Translation, History and Culture, formally proposed the slogan of &quot;Cultural Turn of Translation&quot;, which also marked the official emergence of the cultural school of translation. In the following years, they published several monographs, individually or together, discussing about the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. In the following years, they published several monographs, either individually or jointly, to discuss the relationship between translation and literature, ideology, rights and culture. Unlike the literary or linguistic schools of translation in the past, the cultural school is a school with a strong &quot;revolutionary&quot; element in translation theory, and some people even consider their views to be &quot;subversive&quot; to the previous translation theories. This is mainly because they especially emphasize the status of culture in translation and the importance of translation to the spread of culture and the promotion of social and cultural progress. Other translators, such as Lambert and Robyns, argue that translation is more accurately regarded as a communication activity between two cultures than as a bilingual conversion activity. Therefore, they believe that translation activity is a cultural conversion. In recent years, Chinese scholars have done some research and reflection on the essence of translation. In the researches of many scholars, under the current globalization environment ,the importance of translation to cultural exchange and communication is getting more and more attention from people. For example, Lv Jun proposes that &quot;translation is a kind of cross-cultural information exchange activities, and its essence is dissemination. To a certain extent, the viewpoint of Chinese scholars and the Western cultural schools can be said to echo each other. Language is not only a carrier of information, but also a carrier of culture. Therefore, in essence, translation as a kind of inter-linguistic communication, it is not only the conversion of language information , but also the transplantation of cultural information. Therefore, in essence, translation is not only a language information conversion, but also a cultural communication activity.<br /> <br /> ===5. discussion domestication and foreignization from translation examples===<br /> <br /> ===5.1 Application of domestication in English-Chinese Translation===<br /> Chinese famous writer Mo Yan has won the Nobel Prize for Literature for a series of works including Fatigue of Life and Death (2006) and Frog (2009) and American sinologist Ge Haowen should also be credited , who was called “the only midwife of Mo Yan’s works”.Ge's translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out reflects his consistent principle: &quot;The author is writing for the Chinese, while I am translating for foreigners,translating is a process of rewriting”. Ge Haowen did a lot of rewriting and compilation based on respecting the original work, and in the translation of Life And Death Are Wearing Me Out, the domesticated translation reflects his relentless pursuit of &quot;accuracy&quot;, &quot;readability&quot; and &quot;acceptability&quot;. <br /> <br /> 例一： 常言道‘螃蟹过河随大流’，‘识时务者为俊杰’，不要顽固不化，不要充当挡路的石头，不要充硬汉子。<br /> <br /> Join the commune and stop working for yourself, end your quest for independence.Stop being headstrong,and an obstructionist.<br /> <br /> “螃蟹过河随大流” is a two-part allegorical saying in Chinese folks . It means &quot;following the majority of people to speak or act&quot;. A post-slip is a short, witty phrase that can be used as a philosophical and wisdom-boosting phrase. A man who knows the times is a hero&quot; is an idiom derived from a historical allusion, meaning &quot;only those who can recognize the trend of the times can become heroes and heroines&quot;. Ge Haowen domesticated these two slang expressions: first, because they have the same meaning as the one that follows: &quot;Don't be stubborn ...... don't be a tough guy anymore&quot;, which is used to kindly advise people who are unable to see the current affairs of the day, but are still stubbornly stubborn. The deletion of these two daily phrases does not affect the main content of the narrative and the expression of ideas in the context. Secondly, there is the concern that the translation may not produce the desired effect of depth, image, and humor as the source language. And then there is the fact that the target language readers are relatively unfamiliar with Chinese slang, so it is better to delete it directly than to translate it to increase the readers' reading burden and affect their understanding and grasp of the whole text. Ge Haowen's domesticated translation method reflects his holistic view of discourse as a unit<br /> <br /> 例二：但一个二十多岁就当了县级领导干部的人，和农村姑娘结婚的可能性几乎是零，无论她貌如西施还是色比婵娟。<br /> <br /> There was no chance that a leading country-level cadre in his twenties would ever actually marry a peasant girl , no matter how pretty or fetching she might be.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaojun ,Xishi, Diao Chan and Yang Yuhuan were the main characters with unique beauty at that time in historical illusions ,named as “Four Beauties in ancient times”.In the original work, Mo Yan chose only two historical figures, &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, to contrast and emphasize the beauty of rural girls. In the process of translation, Ge did not translate &quot;Xishi&quot; and &quot;Chanjuan&quot;, nor did he make any commentary, but took into account the target audience's alienation from the historical allusion to the Four Beauties. Therefore, he adopt a domesticated translation method to make a simplification, breaking the constraints of the original language and enhancing the readability of the translation, without deviating from the original meaning.<br /> In the above example, when dealing with unfamiliar allusions or common sayings and proverbs, Ge Haowen boldly rewrote and deleted them, translating the work from the reader's point of view, so that the target readers will be pleased with his translation.<br /> 5.2 The Application of Foreignization in English-Chinese Translation<br /> The nature of foreignization is such that it deals with elements of the original language that are culturally distinctive, and the result of the translation is to bring in new forms of expression that are different from the mother tongue and the cultural connotations attached to them. Language is an open system with a strong capacity for absorption and inclusion. With the deepening of communication among countries and peoples, various languages have been enriched to different degrees, and variant translation plays a more important role in this process. In Chinese, the terms &quot;internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot; are used to refer to the &quot;Internet&quot;, &quot;gene&quot;, &quot;blue print&quot; and &quot;blue print&quot;. &quot;Time is money&quot;, &quot;ivory tower&quot;, &quot;washroom&quot;.... (crocodile tears), &quot;black humor&quot; , and &quot;qi gong&quot; ), &quot;taijiquan&quot; , &quot;kong fu&quot; , &quot;typhon” These words did not originally exist in the Chinese and English language systems. However, translators make a large number of words with exoticism in the way of foreignization more popular and acceptable among the massive culture . Therefore, foreignization is not only beneficial to introduce local history and culture to foreign countries, but also gives local readers the opportunity to understand foreign customs and realize the purpose of cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> 例一.打破铁饭碗<br /> <br /> Break the”iron rice bowl”<br /> <br /> &quot;Iron rice bowl&quot; is a Chinese idiom, in Chinese we compare &quot;rice bowl&quot; to an occupation, while &quot;iron rice bowl&quot; refers to a stable job, no doubt, it is difficult to convert such words with obvious Chinese characteristics into the target language through the method of &quot;domestication&quot;, but foreignization not only retains the imagery of the source language, but also introduces the unique culture of China to Western readers.<br /> 例二.下海<br /> <br /> A.to jump into the sea of business<br /> <br /> B.To turn professional<br /> <br /> In the early days of reform and opening up, the word “jumping into the sea of business” was popular, mainly meaning the trend of doing business.For this new phenomenon ,translators adopt different methods. Text A used foreignization and direct translation while the later domestication. In comparison, the former was more expressive and vivid, conveying the meaning of source language in a proper way.<br /> Domestication and foreignization is more apparent in the literary translation. Here I will take the translation of Dream of the Red Chamber as an example and compare the translations of Mr. and Mrs. Yang Xianyi ,and Mr. Hawkes. The translation of Dream of the Red Chamber by Yang Xianyi and his wife is a typical representative of foreignization, which is highly praised by domestic readers, but some scholars have conducted a survey and found that it is far inferior to the British sinologist David Hawks in terms of the number of borrowed readers, citations and reprinted editions. Why the &quot;cold shoulder&quot;? Let's find out by comparing and analyzing some examples of the two translations.<br /> <br /> 例一.刘姥姥道: “这倒不然。谋事在人，成事在天。咱们谋到了，靠菩萨的保佑，有些机会，也未可知。”<br /> <br /> A.“ Don’t be so sure,” said Granny Liu. “Man proposes, Heaven disposes. Work out a plan,trust to Buddha,and something may come of it for all you know.”<br /> <br /> B.“ I wouldn’t say that.”said Grannie Liu.”Man proposes, God disposes.It is up to us to think of something. We must leave it to the good Lord to decide whether He’ll help us or not. Who knows, he might give us the opportunity we are looking for.”<br /> <br /> Dream of the Red Chamber is a literary work full of Buddhist and Taoist thoughts. Yang Xianyi and Hawks have different approaches to the phrase“谋事在人，成事在天”， which also reflects different religious thoughts. In Yang's translation, &quot;God&quot; is replaced by &quot;Heavenly Father,&quot; which is in line with the Chinese religious belief that Heavenly Father in control of everything, while retaining the religious flavor of the source culture. However, Hawks gave priority to the religious background and acceptance of the English readers, so he adopted the English proverb directly without any modification, thus transforming the Buddhism and Taoism in the East to Christianity in the West, in accordance with western religious belief and thinking ways.<br /> The two translations have their own merits. The choice of translation strategies is based on different objectives. Mainly depending on the foreignization stategy, Mr. and Mrs. Yang tried to spread Chinese literature classics and convey Chinese traditional culture originally.However, they didn't get the desired results.One of the main reasons is that Mr. and Mrs. Yang regard faithfulness as the first priority and overemphasize the foreign culture of the translated works, neglecting to consider the reception environment and the recognition of the target readers.<br /> <br /> ===6.Conclusion===<br /> With the continuous expansion of international cultural exchanges, the human cultural gap is gradually narrowing, language as an important carrier of culture has also been affected by the same, an appropriate increase in the use of &quot;foreign&quot; translation,can not only inject the new elements into domestic culture, but also promote the spread of local culture, achieve cross-cultural exchange and accelerate the process of &quot;cultural globalization&quot;. It should be pointed out foreignization is not at the expense of forgetting one's own culture, on the contrary, it is based on the familiarity with other cultures, and then carry out painstaking, creative translation work. To give more attention to &quot;alienation&quot; translation is not to deny, reject the domesticated translation method, because domestication and foreignization play an irreplaceable rol in the target language and culture.Therefore, the two translations will always co-exist and complement each other. Flexible use of foreignization and domestication is the real way of addressing the cultural conflicts.<br /> <br /> ===7.Reference===<br /> 1. 王瑛. &quot;跨文化翻译中的归化和异化.&quot; 内蒙古财经学院学报(综合版) 03(2007):83-87.<br /> <br /> 2. 周永堃. &quot;归化异化在跨文化翻译中的选择与运用——以《红楼梦》和《生死疲劳》为例.&quot; 邵阳学院学报(社会科学版) 18.01(2019):103-108.<br /> <br /> 3.王红卫. &quot;跨文化交际翻译方法:归化和异化策略.&quot; 西南民族学院学报(哲学社会科学版) 9(2002):250-253.<br /> <br /> 4.熊兵. &quot;文化交流翻译的归化与异化.&quot; 中国科技翻译 16.003(2003):5-9.<br /> <br /> 5.刘苹. &quot;中国翻译史上的归化和异化.&quot; 滨州学院学报 24.001(2008):74-75.<br />  <br /> <br /> ==The Translation Strategies of Chinese Political Discourse under the Standard of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; 高明珠 Gao Mingzhu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With the development of globalization, the political communication among countries is more and more frequent, and the translation of political terms has gradually become one of the heated topics in the translation field. Political discourse translation is challenging, because not only does it concern the relationship between countries, national status, political attitude and other important issues, but also it is developmental. Political neologisms will keep emerging, and some political terms will contain new connotations with the advancement of the times. In addition to the above characteristics, Chinese political discourse has many affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases, metaphors.In 2008, Yang Mingxing and other scholars put forward the &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; based on Eugene Nida's &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; theory for the translation of Chinese political discourse, which pointed out that the translation of political discourse should follow the three principles of &quot;political&quot;, &quot;dynamic&quot; and &quot;balanced&quot;. On the basis of some related papers, this chapter will sum up the specific strategies such as supplement, omission, keeping or converting analogical body, adding explanation and narration for translating Chinese political discourse with characteristics of having lots of affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases and metaphors following the guidance of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> political equivalence Chinese political discourse translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着全球化的发展，各国间的政治交流愈加频繁，政治话语的翻译也逐渐成为翻译界讨论热点之一。政治话语的翻译是具有挑战性的，不仅是因为它关系到国与国之间的关系、国家地位、政治态度等重要问题，而且因为政治词汇是发展性的，政治词汇中会不断有新的词汇涌进，且某些政治词汇会随着时代的发展而增加新的内涵。而中国政治话语除了具有以上特点，它还有多词缀、缩写、四字短语[1]，多用隐喻等修辞手法的特点。2008年，杨明星等学者针对中国政治话语的翻译，基于尤金·奈达的“功能对等”理论提出了“政治等效”翻译标准，该标准指出政治话语的翻译要遵循“政治性”、“动态性”、“平衡性”三大原则。本文基于相关文献，总结出在该标准下，对中国政治话语在具有多词缀、缩写、四字短语及多采用隐喻这几个特点下的翻译可采用的具体的翻译策略，如增补法、省略法[1]、喻体保留法（完全保留、部分保留）、喻体转换法、喻底补充法、喻义直叙法[2]等。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 政治等效 中国政治话语 翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction of Background===<br /> <br /> Political discourse is mainly embodied in different types of communication carriers and discourse behaviors that elaborate a country's foreign policies, governance mechanisms or political ideas, including oral expression and written expression. Oral expressions includes leaders' speeches, the contents conveyed by various government agencies' press conferences, and written expressions includes diplomatic documents, white papers, legal provisions, treaties, agreements and communiques issued by relevant state agencies. With the improvement of China's comprehensive national strength and the continuous expansion of its global influence, the study of the translation standards, principles, strategies of Chinese political discourse has become an important topic in the field of translation. A study has shown that domestic political discourse translation studies started in 2000 and entered a stage of rapid development with the convening of the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012. The current research hot spots of political discourse translation include the translation of Xi Jinping's speeches and works, the application of various translation laws and interpretive theories, the principle of political equivalence and the theory of ecological translation(Chu Xingjun 2020,36).<br /> <br /> ===2. The Significance of Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> This chapter holds that the significance of political discourse translation mainly involves two aspects----politics and linguistics. Firstly, in terms of politics, translating political discourse is to facilitate the political communication between countries, show the country's political attitude, theory and policy to the outside world. Political discourse translation plays a significant role in promoting the relationship between the countries, taking one’s stand, safeguarding one’s national interests and shaping one’s national image and so on. Secondly, in terms of linguistics, political terms are developmental. With the advance of the times and the rapid development of the world, new political terms will constantly emerge, which is also the process of language expansion. The study of the translation of new words is not only the bounden duty of translators, but also of great significance to the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Difficulties in Translating Political discourse===<br /> <br /> The difficulties are mainly reflected in three aspects. Firstly, the translator should correctly understand the political connotation of the source language and translate it as the target language faithfully. Secondly, different expression ways between two languages. There are rare equivalent words in both languages, so when translating the source language as the target language, the expression habits of the target language users should be taken as account, so as to facilitate the target language users to accurately understand the original meaning. Especially, Chinese political discourse often present metaphor rhetoric which may not be easy for foreigners to understand, thus when translating such words, methods that we can adopt not only include literal translation, transliteration plus explanation, but also sometimes it would be better to translate those words on the basis of the target language’s culture to make the translation more vivid and help readers understand the meaning accurately. In a word, be more flexible in adopting methods according to different cases; Finally, the same political term may have different meanings in different contexts, or it may require translators to adopt different translation methods in different contexts. In addition, the connotation of some political terms will develop with the advance of The times. Therefore, translators should keep up with current events and deal with them flexibly in translation.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Connotations of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal and connotation of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard<br /> <br /> In 2008, US Department of Defense mistranslated the term &quot;韬光养晦&quot; to propaganda &quot;China threat theory&quot;. Therefore, based on Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, a scholar, Yang Mingxing, proposed the translation concept of &quot;political equivalence&quot; for the first time from the perspective of international relations and diplomatic analysis (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). The connotation of this concept mainly involves three aspects: firstly, the translator needs to truthfully convey the political thought of the source language as well as the speaker; secondly, when translating, the translator should choose the target language according to the expression ways that the target language users get used to, so that the information and political thoughts brought by the target text to the target language users are equivalent to those brought by the source text to the source language users; Thirdly, in different contexts and historical backgrounds, the connotations of political discourse will be different. Translators' translation should keep pace with the times and be determined in accordance with the situation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05). In 2012, Yang Mingxing and other scholars further proposed three prominent principles or characteristics of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; translation standard: political, balanced and dynamic (Yang Mingxing, Yan Da 2012, 35). Among them, political nature, namely accurately grasping the political connotation of the source language, is the most prominent characteristic, which is determined by the strong political color of the political terms themselves. Balance means to strike a balance among source language, target language, speaker and audience without focusing on either side, and strive to make the effect produced by the translation in the foreign readers be similar or equivalent to that produced by the original text in local readers. Dynamic means that the equivalent process mentioned above is a dynamic equivalent process. Because political terms’ connotation changes with the advance of the times and varies from different contexts, translators need to keep pace with the times, follow up the connotation development of political terms, and translate flexibly according to different situations. In 2018, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed a compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + aesthetic representation&quot; on the basis of the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; (Yang Mingxing, Qi Jingjing 2018,15). This standard was put forward in the context of the appearance of ancient poetry in political discourse. Besides meeting the requirements of &quot;political equivalence&quot; mentioned above, this standard asks to take the literary beauty of ancient poetry and prose, such as rhythm, form, artistic conception, etc as account. In January 2020, Yang Mingxing and other scholars proposed another compound translation standard of &quot;political equivalence + image representation&quot; based on the frequently used the rhetoric device metaphor in political discourse(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2018,41). The purpose of realizing &quot;image reproduction&quot; and &quot;aesthetic reproduction&quot; is basically similar, both of which are to reproduce the aesthetic experience of the original text. In October 2020, Yang Mingxing and some other scholars made a review of several major diplomatic event in the Sino-British diplomatic history and put forward that the realization of the &quot;political equivalence&quot; standard should not only rely on the translator's ability, but also have some connections with the national policy of translation, translation system and equal speaking rights between two countries, among which equal speaking right is the key to realize &quot;political equivalence&quot;(Yang Mingxing 2020,05).<br /> <br /> (2)The differences between “political equivalence” and “functional equivalence” put forward by Nida<br /> <br /> Firstly, the &quot;equivalence&quot; emphasized by Nida does not pay enough attention to the political color of the original text in translation, ignoring the particularity of diplomatic or political discourse, and that whether the original text and translation are quite consistent in political standpoint and political connotation. Secondly, although functional equivalence pays attention to the information equivalence between the original text and the translated text, it does not pay enough attention to the real intention of the speaker of the original text, because the literal meaning of the original text cannot be equal with the political standpoint and ideological connotation of the speaker. Thirdly, the &quot;dynamic&quot; concept Nida proposed in “functional equivalence” theory ignores the dynamic changes in context and connotation of original text and translation, that is, for diplomatic or political discourse, the meaning of the original text is contemporary and does not remain unchanged. It changes constantly with the speaker's context, political tendency and historical background at that time. On the other hand, the target language is also dynamic, because the meaning and usage of the target language are constantly changing, the translator must keep track of the latest development of the target language and the domestic political and cultural background of the target audience (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> In a word, the translation standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot; is an important theory aiming at the translation of foreign affairs, diplomacy and political discourse, and provides theoretical guidance and normative requirements for the translation of political terms.<br /> <br /> ===5. Requirements of “Political Equivalence” for Translators ===<br /> <br /> First of all, pay attention to being close to both the source language and the target language, and grasp the relationship between the speaker or writer and the audience or reader. The translation should not only accurately convey the context meaning of the source language and the speaker's real intention, but also take the language habits and the way of thinking of the target language users into consideration, so as to achieve a mutual &quot;identity&quot; between the speaker or writer and the audience or reader. The translation of political discourse should not only correctly understand and express China's policy thoughts, but also fully consider the national emotions, language habits and identity psychology of the receiving country. If the translation only focuses on one side, it will be difficult to achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; and even cause political events (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;political equivalence&quot; must be dynamic. This kind of dynamic is not only related to the accurate understanding of the original text, but also involves the proper selection and use of the target language. It must always be in line with the context and political background of the speaker or writer as well as the audience or reader, which is the key to the realization of &quot;political equivalence&quot;. To translate political discourse or terms only by looking up the dictionary without considering the context is bound to make the translation be quite different from the original in meaning (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Thirdly, translation strategies should be flexible and diversified, and language forms should be constantly adjusted. To achieve &quot;political equivalence&quot; in political terms translation, the translation strategies cannot be single, rigid, and the translation either cannot be confined to the primitive form of the original text, the original and even the extended concepts or connotations of the words in it. Translators should make the necessary adjustment and bold choices in supplement and omission to the language form of the original text in accordance with the context and the real thoughts of the speaker or writer and the background of the political relationships between the two countries. Idioms, allusions, myths and fables are the quintessence of a nation's language with its own characteristics, and they are the difficulties and key points in political terms translation. There are great differences between English and Chinese rhetorical devices, so it is necessary to strictly distinguish their differences in cultural connotation and political orientation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Fourthly, we should be familiar with the differences between English and Chinese customs, cultures, national feelings and ideologies. In the era of globalization, translation is not only the transformation of language symbols, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication behavior. The translation of political discourse is closely related to the cultural background of language. Due to the differences between China and West in way of thinking and language environment, corresponding words in English and Chinese have different national emotion and political connotation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> Fifthly, master the background knowledge of China's foreign policy and international relations to ensure political correctness in the translation of political terms. Many countries have such sensitive issues as appellation, ethnicity, religion, sovereignty and territory. These are the &quot;minefields&quot; of political translation. When translating, one must handle it carefully and respect the language and cultural habits of the other party, otherwise it will easily lead to &quot;translation storm&quot; and affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> lastly, the grammatical phenomena and rules peculiar to English cannot be ignored. In English, there are many grammatical rules different from Chinese, such as tense, voice, subjunctive mood, singular and plural, case, article, etc. These language forms seem to have little effect, but if used improperly, they will often affect the &quot;political equivalence&quot; of translation (Yang Mingxing 2008, 05).<br /> <br /> ===6. Translation Straties under The Standard of Political Equivalence===<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of the standard of &quot;political equivalence&quot;, the following translation strategies are provided for reference on the characteristics of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> (1) Characteristics of Chinese political discourse<br /> <br /> Affixes are often seen in Chinese political discourse such as “化” in &quot;现代化&quot; and &quot;城镇化&quot;, so are abbreviations like &quot;‘十四五’规划&quot;, &quot;四个自信&quot;, etc., and four-character phrases such as &quot;和平共处&quot;, &quot;和而不同&quot;, etc. Besides, metaphor is also used frequently in Chinese political discourse such as &quot;‘老虎’、‘苍蝇’一起打&quot;, among which &quot;老虎(tiger)&quot; and &quot;苍蝇(flies)&quot; refer to officials accused of bribery and corruption. So, how do we translate these words that have Chinese language characteristics but need us to take their political implications as consideration? Pointing at these characteristics, some scholars have proposed specific translation strategies based on the &quot;political equivalence&quot;standard.<br /> <br /> (2) The strategies of supplement and omission for affixes, four-character phrases and abbreviations(Wu Jing 2014, 30)<br /> <br /> ① supplement<br /> <br /> The supplement strategy is to add words appropriately in the translation so as to convey the meaning of the original text accurately. In the foreign translation of Chinese political terms, this strategy is mainly applicable to two situations. Firstly, the abbreviation, which is a refined utterance of many political words for the convenience of memory. When the target language users don’t have relevant knowledge or language background about those abbreviations, supplementary explanation plays its role. Secondly, four-character phrases. Four-character phrases are typical examples of Chinese expressions. In order to conform to the expression habits of the target language, these condensed words should be supplemented and explained so that the audience can understand the meaning of the original text correctly.<br /> <br /> The strategy of supplement can be applied to the following situations: firstly, supplement relevant knowledge background. For example, “‘十四五’规划”is translated by China Daily as “the 14th Five-Year Plan(2021-25) for economic and social development”. In the translation, “十四”is translated as “the 14th” and“五” is translated as “Five-Year”, which adds category words to those numbers and time horizon as well as the nature of the plan to the content; Secondly, supplement detailed content to abbreviations. For example,“四个自信”is translated as “confidence in the path, theory, system and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics.”<br /> <br /> ②Omission<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belong to two kinds of language families, having great differences from vocabulary to the sentence structure, expression ways, etc. There are very little equivalent words in the two languages, so in order to make the translation smoother and be more in line with the expression ways of the target language, translator can use the strategy----omission, namely omitting those expressions without practical significance but hindering translation work, on the basis of being loyal to the original text.<br /> <br /> The strategy of omission is often used in the process of translation from Chinese to English, and the translation of Chinese political terms is no exception. For emphasizing, Chinese political leaders often use parallel sentences or repeated words, so we can omit those repeated words in the translation. For example, “治理赤字、信任赤字、发展赤字、和平赤字仍然在扩大。”can be translated as “Governance, trust, development and peace deficits continue to grow.” In addition, there are situations where multiple sentences express the same meaning, in which omission is also available. For example, “改善人民生活，增进人民福祉。”can be translated as “improve people’s livelihood”.<br /> <br /> (3) Translation strategies for metaphor<br /> <br /> Metaphor refers to the use of known figurative concepts to explain abstract concepts in diplomatic discourse. The translation standard and strategies of metaphor are determined by their inherent special attributes, which are not only the key factors to select their translation strategies, but also the important yardstick to test whether those strategies are applicable(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41). Metaphor is an objective phenomenon that has existed in political discourse for a long time. Its special attributes are reflected in political discourse, such as high political sensitivity, high cultural load and strong national characteristics. In view of the strong political sensitivity of diplomatic discourse, plain and direct words in political discourse is often empty of words, which is difficult to produce obvious communicative effect in foreign relations. In most cases, metaphorical discourse can be used to imply and disseminate a country's diplomatic ideas, attitudes and positions to achieve better communication effects (Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41).<br /> <br /> Through reading relevant papers, this chapter finds that the translation strategies proposed by scholars for metaphorical rhetoric in political discourse are mainly as follows(Long Xinyuan, Li Qiuxia 2020, 27):<br /> <br /> ① Literal translation of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> Although English and Chinese belong to different language families, and the cultural background and geographical area on which they live are also different, language is created by human beings, and human emotions always have something in common. At the same time, human beings live in the same world, especially in an increasingly integrated world like today, where the communication between human beings and the collision between cultures are inevitable. As a result, we are becoming more tolerant and understanding of different cultures and languages. When translating metaphorical words with cultural characteristics, we can render the metaphorical words in literal translation under the condition that the audience can understand them correctly, which is easier to arouse emotional resonance and cultural identity.<br /> <br /> For example, “新时代的长征路” is translated as &quot;Long March of the new era&quot;. The original text compares China's development path in the new era to the new Long March. In Chinese history, the Long March was a bloody road trodden by the communist party of China to save the country and the people. On the one hand, the literal translation of &quot;The Long March&quot; retains the historical allusions used in the original text, so that the audience can understand its meaning only by a simple association. On the other hand, it is more conducive to show the national spirit of China.<br /> <br /> ② Substitution of the metaphorical entities<br /> <br /> After all, differences are greater than similarities between different languages, so sometimes adopting literal translation in the text using metaphor does not make the audience clear, but may mislead. However, different metaphorical entities are often used to express the same abstract concept between Chinese and English. At this time, in order to make the audience better understand and accept the original metaphor, translator can replace the original metaphorical entities with those referring to same thing in the target language, which can also improve the external communication effect of Chinese political discourse.<br /> <br /> For example, foreign ministry spokesman Hua Chunying once said:”The US wants to make China a scapegoat(对于美国的花式‘甩锅’，我们不想接也不能接。).”“甩锅”is an internet buzzword in China used to vividly express the meaning of shifting the blame onto someone else. And “scapegoat” originates from an allusion in the Bible which has the same meaning with the Chinese word “甩锅”(Yang Mingxing, Zhao Yuqian 2020, 41), so translator made a conversion between the two words. In this way, English readers can better understand the political connotation of the original sentence. However, if adopting literal translation, English readers won’t understand.<br /> <br /> ③literal translation+explanation<br /> <br /> In some other cases, either literally translating those metaphorical entities or using corresponding ones to substitute them cannot eliminate the language barrier caused by cultural differences, then translator can adopt the strategy of “literal translation+explanation”, which is to literally translate the metaphor entity and then add explanation to it. In this way, the translation not only keeps the cultural characteristics of the source language while making English readers be clear with the meaning of them, but also contributes to the spread of Chinese culture to the outside world.<br /> <br /> For an instance, “不能腐的笼子越扎越牢”is translated as “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption has been strengthened”. The Chinese words “笼子”refers to the strict management institutions against corruption set up by Chinese government. Comparing the institution to the cage makes the action of fighting against corruption become more vivid. However, for English readers, it is hard to understand the original political connotation according to a simple word “cage”, so translator needs to add some explanations like “the cage of institutions that prevents corruption.” As a result, the meaning is clear and vivid.<br /> <br /> ④abandoning the figurative body and translate its connotation directly<br /> <br /> Metaphor, as a figure of speech, is highly culture-loaded, while political discourse is a kind of words with high political sensitivity. These characteristics make the translation of Chinese political discourse more difficult, and it is inevitable that translators may meet the situation where they cannot easily balance and take all these characteristics into consideration. At this time, the translator should choose to abandon the figurative body and keep the metaphorical meaning, after all, it is the first important thing to convey the correct political implication.<br /> <br /> For example, “保障‘米袋子’、‘菜篮子’安全”is translated as “ensure the security of grain supply and non-staple food supply”,among which the Chinese words “米袋子(rice bag)”and“菜篮子(vegetable basket)”refer to major grain supply and non-staple food supply respectively. Because rice is the staple food in most ares of China while vegetable is the complementary food, such a metaphor is very vivid and down to earth. However, it's hard for foreigners to understand the meaning of &quot;rice bag&quot; or &quot;vegetable basket&quot; without a similar living environment, so we have to discard the original figurative body and translate its meaning directly.<br /> <br /> ===7. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the summary of the above-mentioned translation strategies pointing at different situations in translating Chinese political discourse, we can see that every strategy follows the three principles under the standard of &quot;political equivalence” ---- political, balance and dynamic. Every translation strategy takes the correct transition of the political implications of the original text as the first rule, namely being political; and then keeps the cultural or linguistic characteristics of the original text as much as possible, namely keeping balance; additionally, adopting appropriate translation strategies according to different contexts or situations, namely being dynamic. The translation of political discourse has its particularity and is of great importance, so it is necessary to be careful when choosing translation strategies. Translators should not only have high linguistic literacy and fair political standpoint, but also keep up with current events, correctly and fully understand the political meaning of the original text, and make specific analysis according to different contexts and occasions to adopt the most appropriate translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===8. References===<br /> <br /> [1]楚行军. 中国政治话语翻译研究二十年(2000—2019)[Studies on the Translation of Chinese Political Discourse over the past 20 years(2000-2019)]——基于中国知网的分析[J]. 焦作师范高等专科学校学报,2020,36(03):24-27+40.<br /> <br /> [2]吴静. 基于“政治等效”的中国政治新词翻译策略解析[An analysis of translation strategies of Chinese new political terms on the basis of &quot;political equivalence&quot;][J]. 兰州文理学院学报(社会科学版),2014,30(01):95-98.<br /> <br /> [3]龙新元,李秋霞. “政治等效+认知趋同”：认知翻译观视阈下的政治文本翻译研究[&quot;Political Equivalence + Cognitive Convergence&quot; : A Study of political Text translation from the perspective of cognitive Translation][J]. 天津外国语大学学报,2020,27(05):104-120+161.<br /> <br /> [4]杨明星. 论外交语言翻译的“政治等效”——以邓小平外交理念“韬光养晦”的译法为例[The application of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; in diplomatic Language Translation -- Taking Deng Xiaoping's diplomatic idea &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2008,(05):90-94.<br /> <br /> [5]杨明星,闫达. “政治等效”理论框架下外交语言的翻译策略——以“不折腾”的译法为例[Translation strategies of diplomatic language under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;-- Taking the translation of &quot;韬光养晦&quot; as an example][J]. 解放军外国语学院学报,2012,35(03):73-77.<br /> <br /> [6]杨明星,齐静静. 外交修辞的复合性翻译标准:“政治等效+审美再现”——以国家领导人外交演讲古诗文为例[The composite translation standard of diplomatic rhetoric: &quot;Political equivalence + aesthetic reproduction&quot; -- taking the ancient poems and essays in diplomatic speeches of national leaders as an example][J]. 中国外语,2018,15(06):89-96+109.<br /> <br /> [7]杨明星,赵玉倩. “政治等效+”框架下中国特色外交隐喻翻译策略研究[A research on translation strategies of metaphors in diplomatic discorses with Chinese characteristics under the framework of &quot;Political Equivalence plus&quot;][J]. 中国翻译,2020,41(01):151-159+190.<br /> <br /> [8]杨明星,张琰. 中英外交翻译中“政治等效”与话语平等辩证关系分析——从马戛尔尼使华到共建“一带一路”(1792-2019)[Dialectical relationship between &quot;political equivalence&quot; and discourse equality in diplomatic translation between China and Britain -- from macartney's mission period to &quot;One Belt And One Road&quot; period(1792-2019)][J]. 上海翻译,2020,(05):24-29+94.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Appreciation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> == Study of Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden'' from the Stylistic Perspective 袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi 202020080664==<br /> &lt;center&gt;袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'' is a classic literary work of Henry David Thoreau, which has become a classic work in the Treasure house of American literature. The Chinese translator Xu Chi first translated it into China, and since then ''Walden'' has been retranslated and republished for many times. In China, the version of ''Walden'' translated by Xu Chi is the most widely spread and influential one, and has been highly regarded as a classic translation. There hve been a lot of studies on ''Walden'' both at home and abroad, such as studies on the ecology of the book, studies on birth background and living conditions of the author Henry David Thoreau, and systematic studies on Chinese translation version of ''Walden'' under different theoretical frameworks. However, there are few studies on Chinese translations of ''Walden'' from stylistic perspective. This paper will focus on the lexical, syntactic and rhetorical features of Xu Chi’s translation and analyze their stylistic effects. It is hoped that this study will be of certain value to the translation studies of ''Walden'' and the literary translation criticism from the stylistic perspective.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> ''Walden'', Chinese Translation of ''Walden'' by Xu Chi , Stylistics<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 从文体学角度看《瓦尔登湖》徐迟译本<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》是亨利·大卫·梭罗的经典文学作品，已经成为美国文学宝库中的经典之作。中国译者徐迟首先将其译入国内，此后《瓦尔登湖》多次被重译再版。在中国，徐迟翻译的《瓦尔登湖》汉译本流传最广、影响最大，而且一直被推崇为“译文经典”。对于《瓦尔登湖》的研究，在国内和国外有很多，例如对散文涉及生态的研究，对于作者亨利·戴维·梭罗出生背景和生活状况的研究，以及不同的理论框架下对于《瓦尔登湖》中文翻译版本的系统研究。但是从文体学角度研究《瓦尔登湖》中译本的不多。本文着重探讨徐迟译本在词汇、句法、修辞层面上的特征，分析其文体效果。希望本研究对《瓦尔登湖》的翻译研究及从文体学视角开展文学翻译批评具有一定的参考价值。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 《瓦尔登湖》、徐迟中译本、文体学<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau and ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Henry David Thoreau=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a collection of essays written by American writer Henry David Thoreau. Henry David Thoreau was born in 1817 and died in 1862. He was a famous writer, philosopher, representative of Transcendentalism, abolitionist of slavery and naturalist in the United States. He was deeply influenced by Emerson. He advocated returning to original mind and being close to nature. Thoreau created more than 20 first-class prose collections in his whole life. His essays are concise and powerful, simple and natural, full of thought, which hava unique style in American proses in the 19th century. In 1845, he lived in seclusion by Walden lake, two miles away from Concord. He cultivated and ate by himself and experienced a simple and close to nature life. Thoreau loved, appreciated and immersed in nature. He understood the world through nature and regarded the world as a whole for people to appreciate and enjoy. He advocated simple life, so he abandoned all material enjoyment and pursued spiritual enrichment. With a keen thinking of a philosopher and rigorous spirit of science, Thoreau put himself into the embrace of nature and explored everything around him.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a record of Thoreau’s life when he lived alone by Walden lake. ''Walden'' is composed of 18 essays, which record Thoreau's hands-on life by walden lake for two months from 1845 to 1847. This book advocates simple life, appeals readers to return to nature, and expresses Thoreau's love for nature. The simple way of life in the book reflects Thoreau’s view of nature.This book has certain philosophical significance as well as artistic and aesthetic value.<br /> ''Walden'' is a Transcendentalist classic and is recognized as the most popular non-fiction work in American literature. After more than 100 years of circulation, the book has become a classic in American literature. So far, it has been published in more than 150 editions and translated into more than 40 languages. <br /> Thoreau’s own practice in Walden lake and his works have a consistent proposition, that is, returning to nature. In his works, he constantly pointed out that most of modern people are trapped by family, work and various material needs, thus lost their spiritual pursuit and lived a materialistic life. Thoreau persisted in the pursuit of spiritual happiness and rejected material comforts. This is why Thoreau lived a simple life by Walden lake, enjoying a life of leisure while his neighbors pursued a life of wealth and material comforts, enslaved by their own desires.<br /> <br /> ====Introduction to Xu Chi and His Translation of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi=====<br /> Xu Chi is famous for his poems, essays and reportage. He was once awarded by Mao Zedong's inscription of “poetry expresses ambition”, and he was known as &quot;Contemporary Chinese Goethe&quot; and &quot;Father of Reportage&quot;.<br /> Another little-known identity of this famous Chinese writer is being as a translator. He not only wrote poems, essays, reportages, novels and reviews, but also translated and introduced a large number of foreign literary works, with a total of 10 million words in his life.<br /> <br /> =====Introduction to Xu Chi's Translation of ''Walden''=====<br /> In 1949, Xu translated Walden into Chinese called &quot;华尔腾&quot;, which failed to elicit widespread attention because at that time, people all over China were immersedin the joy of gaining cmancipation from feudalism and imperialism, so that ''Walden'',promoting tranquility and transcendentalism, was ignored.<br /> In 1982, Xu Chi retranslated it and titled it &quot;瓦尔登湖&quot;, which was so popular that it was republished for many times since then. Xu's version of ''Walden'' chosen in this study is its second edition, published in 1982, to which Xu Chi added a preface to present information about Thoreau and comments on ''Walden''. To some extent, readers are able to have a glimpse of Xu's own emotions and thoughts in his translation of ''Walden''. <br /> Xu Chi usually selected and translated works that were close to his own nature and could move him, because only in this way, he could have more resonance with the writers and their works, and reproduced the style of the original author. For Xu Chi, he expressed his own feelings and thoughts through translating these writers'works to a certain extent (Yao Junwei, 2005:146). Only when his soul was in harmony with Thoreau's, did Xu Chi love this book so much and rised to translating this book. It was in the summer of 1949 that Xu Chi began to translate Thoreau's ''Walden''. Because Xu Chi was extremely fond of this book, he spent lots of efforts in translating this famous work. In the first stage of translation, he tried to understand the meaning of the original work, hoping to be able to deeply understand the original work. He confessed that it was a very profound book which is full of translation challenges. He was very busy during the day, so he sometimes couldn't read it.Because this book was too difficult to understand, it seemed that this book was suddenly not so interseting and attractive to him, and it seemed that it was of no benefit to translate it. However, he found that his mood gradually became peaceful after dusk. When he read this book at this time, he suddenly felt the book quite interesting. What he saw was the chapters that could’t be seen in the daytime. The language was amazing, the words were shining, and his heart was touched. When the ningt became quiet, the book became not so obscure. Under the recitation, he could not help but be fascinated by it (Yao Junwei 2005, 145).<br /> His most successful translation is ''Walden'', which he translated first in 1949, then again in 1982 and in 1996. The masterpiece of David Thoreau, a famous American transcendentalist writer, still shines brightly in the vast Chinese translated literature. In recent ten years, there have been more than 20 new translations of ''Walden'', but Xu Chi's translation is still regarded as the best translation and is the first choice for many presses to publish as Chinese translations of ''Walden'' in recent years. Although there are many Chinese translations of ''Walden'', most of them take Xu Chi's translation as a reference (Wang Zhao 2009, 147), which indicates the authority of Xu Chi's translation.<br /> <br /> ====Style and Styllistics====<br /> =====Style=====<br /> Originated from the Latin or Greek word &quot;stile&quot; or &quot;stilus&quot;, &quot;style&quot; originally refers to a sharp instrument made of metal or bone, used as a writing tool, and later symbolizes a way of writing. At first, it was mainly used in writing. As time goes by, its application has been broadened into areas like music, dance, painting, fashion, behavior,literature, architecture and so on. As it has been mentioned in the introduction part, the research object ''Walden'' is a piece of literary work, consequently, this thesis will mainly study literary style.<br /> Since ancient times, style has always been the object of people's study. Aristotle, Cicero, Demetrius, and Quintilian all used style as an appropriate decoration for thought. This view prevailed throughout the Renaissance, when devices of style could be classified. An essayist or orator needs to construct his or her point of view by means of exemplary sentences and prescribed kinds of &quot;figures&quot; that conform to his or her mode of discourse.<br /> For a long time, the definition of style has remained varied, and different scholars have given different definitions of it. It is unnecessary and impractical here to list them all. Some definitions will be given below to help us understand what style is.<br /> One of the most successful attempts to define style in a comprehensive way is Leech and Short’s (1981). Although claiming that “unsuccessful attempts to attach a precise meaning” to the term “style” have often resulted in an impoverishment of the subject , they offer a list of the items forming the basis of their own concept of style, which can be summarized as follows:<br /> (a) Style is a way in which language is used; therefore it consists in choices made from the repertoire of the language; <br /> (b) A style is defined in terms of a domain of language use (e.g. what choices are made by a particular author, in a particular genre, or in a particular text);<br /> (c) Literary stylistics is typically concerned with explaining the relation between style and literary or aesthetic function;<br /> (d) Stylistic choice is limited to those aspects of linguistic choice which concern alternative ways of rendering the same subject matter.<br /> Nida Eugene (1982, 12) defines that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”So in translation of literary works, the author’s style should be represented through the translator’s style, and the translator’s style should depend on the style of the author. Many translators are good at representing different writers’styles and yet has its own unique translation style.<br /> The broad view of style includes the elements of linguistic style and non-linguistic style. Among them, the elements of language style mainly include the means of language style, such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structure and rhetorical devices, and the elements of non-language style include the author's emotion factor, the author's imagination factor and the author's intelligence factor. The narrow sense of style only involves the author's means of language style and rhetorical style (Lv Jun &amp; Hou Xiangqun 2001, 320).<br /> In conclude, translation (especially literary translation) as an across-culture process dose not only focus on the content of source text but also the style which is about how the writers write. Therefore, it is essential for a translator to know how to figure out the style of source text and reproduce it with target language.<br /> <br /> =====Styllistics=====<br /> Stylistics is a comprehensive frontier discipline that studies the characteristics, essence and laws of text forms, and is in the ascendant between linguistics, literature and art, aesthetics, psychology and other disciplines.<br /> It is difficult to determine when stylistics became a field of academic study. It can be argued, however, that it was not until the late 1950s that stylistics began to make significant and measurable progress. This is a young frontier discipline that is growing over time. Stylistics has developed into a well-targeted and technically effective interdisciplinary field of study, which is expected to provide useful insights for literary criticism and literature teaching. It has also been influencing translation criticism. Modern stylistics provides an important theoretical basis for translation studies. As far as the development of the subject of translation is concerned, stylistics has been recognized for its value and function. <br /> Modern stylistics uses the tools of formal linguistic analysis coupled with the methods of literary criticism; its goal is to try to isolate characteristic uses and functions of language and rhetoric rather than advance normative or prescriptive rules and patterns.<br /> <br /> =====Language Style and Stylistic Features of ''Walden''=====<br /> ''Walden'' is a masterpiece of prose style. It is concise, eloquent and profound in thought. Just as he pursues the simplest life, his language style of ''Walden'' can be summarized into four points: concise writing, accurate description, incisive argument, and pithy argumentation and causal narration. <br /> ''Walden'' is also a book aimed directly at the reader. Anyone who read this book feels that they are listening to and sharing Thoreau's ideals. This book is not easy for readers to understand, especially those who read it for the first time. Correspondingly, the prominent stylistic characteristics of ''Walden'' are manifested in four aspects: exquisite scenic description, complex syntax, various rhetorical devices and rich quotations．<br /> So it is helpful for the translator to understand the original text and reproduce the stylistic equivalence in the translation. Therefore, the translator should fully understand his stylistic characteristics, which is the premise of reproducing his style in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===Stylistic Features of ''Walden''===<br /> ====Lexical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Degree of Formality=====<br /> There are a lot of obsolete and old words in ''Walden''and the use of these words makes the book more flavor, solemn and elegant. However, the use of these words will also bring great trouble to the translation at the same time. It is difficult for the translators to grasp these words, so they can not use literal translation but use creative way to make readers feel what the author wants to express in this book.<br /> In ''Walden'', Thoreau uses concise words to demonstrate his own ideas, natural scenery and cultural customs of Walden Lake. Unlike official documents, regulations, or academic creations, general style of ''Walden'' suggests that Thoreau’s choice of words is less formal. This section aims to analyze the degree of formality of nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the Xu Chi’s translation. In terms of nouns, Xu Chi tends to choose words with literary charm and formal style, which are not suitable for the informal style of the original text.<br /> Example 1：<br /> …；where the washing is not put out, nor the fire, nor the mistress, and perhaps you are sometimes requested to move from off the trap—door; when the cook would descend into the cellar, and learn whether the ground is solid or hollow beneath you without stamping．(Thoreau 2012, 277—278)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：在那罩，洗瀣物不比晒在外面，炉火不熄，女主人也不会生气，也许有时要你移动一下，让厨子从地板门里走下地窖去，而你不用蹬脚就可以知道你的脚下是虚是实。 (徐迟 2009, 270)<br /> The passage describes part of Thoreau’s dream of a bigger house for more people. The original text provides a natural and causal description of the scenes and activities in Thoreau's dream house. There are five commas and a period in this 47-word sentence with employment of concrete nouns，the structure of the original is loose and casual. As can be seen from the above, &quot;washing&quot; in Xu's translation is loosely understood as “洗涤物” which means the process of eliminating unnecessary ingredients through detergent, which is formal in Chinese. Xu Chi reproduced the content of‘'the washing’’but he ignored the degree of formality in choosing word, thus falling to deliver the casualness reflected by the original text．<br /> Because ''Walden'' is full of depictions of landscape, adjectives are indispensable in Thoreau's creation of various images and pictures, as well as his insightful comments. Let us look at a example of it.<br /> Example 2：<br /> Often the poor man is not so cold and hungry as he is dirty and ragged and gross．(Thoreau 2012, 85)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：往往是那个穷人，邋遢、褴褛又粗野，但并没有途堡查选。(徐迟 2009, 83)<br /> The first adjective “poor” is used as an antecedent modifier and the other five adjectives are used as predicates. With the six adjectives being short and plain, the original text is generally of informal style. Xu transfered “cold and hungry” into a four-character noun phrase“冻馁之忧”which means “sufferings from cold and hunger.” However, this phrase is somewhat old-fashioned and is too formal to keep in line with the original style．Besides，it appears uncoordinated with three adjectives“邋遢、褴褛又粗野”being placed before the noun phrase“冻馁之忧”. So, it is not appropriate to reflect the original style.<br /> Verbs are also frequently employed in ''Walden'' to depict the fighting between animals or other activities. The degree of formality marked by verbs is the target of the study here. <br /> Example 3：<br /> I took up the chip on which the three I have particularly described were struggling, carried it into my house，and placed it under a tumbler on my window-sill，in order to see the issue．(Thoreau 2012, 262-263)<br /> Xu Chi's Translation：<br /> 我特别描写的三个战士在同一张木片上搏斗，我把这张木片拿进我的家里，放在我的窗槛上。罩在一个大杯子下面，以便考察结局。(徐迟 2009, 256)<br /> As we can see from the examples, these verbs are short and common in our everyday speech. They come mainly from Anglo-Saxon English and have informal stylistic characteristics. Therefore, the style of the original text is informal and should be preserved in Chinese translation. In this sentence, Thoreau prepared to wait and see with interest how the battle between the ants would go on after a series of arrangements. Xu Chi translated the word “see” into “考察”which sounds serious and formal, because “考察”means carefully checking certain items or situations, and is often used in formal situations, such as “考察人” or “考察情况”. So, Xu's version deviates from the original natural and informal flavor.<br /> <br /> =====Expressive Meaning=====<br /> Roman Jakobson, building on Karl Bühler (1934), coined the term expressive or emotive for one of the functions of language. He describes it as the function focused on the ADDRESSER [speaker], aims a direct expression of the speaker's attitude toward what he is speaking about (Jakobson 1960, 354) and gives interjections as the prime example of this function.<br /> It is worthy of our attention that differences between words in terms of expressive meaning are not simply equal to a matter of whether an expression of a certain attitude or evaluation is reproduced or not. The same attitude or evaluation may be expressed to widely varying degrees of forcefulness.<br /> Example 4：It is said that a flood-tide, with a westerly wind，and ice in the Neva, would sweep St. Petersburg from the face of the earth. (Thoreau 2012, 22)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation：据说，涅瓦河要是涨了水，刮了西风，流来的冰块可以把圣彼得堡一下子大地的表面上冲掉的。 (徐迟 2009, 21)<br /> According to the Oxford Advanced English-Chinese Dictionary, &quot;sweeping&quot; is the act of sudden movement (of weather, fire, etc.), forcing a movement in an area or in a particular direction. In the original context, the combination of “flood tides, westerly winds, and ice” was destructive and therefore clearly detrimental to St.Petersburg. So the word &quot;sweep&quot; here reflects the speaker's negative attitude toward the possible outcome. Obviously, the word “冲掉” in Xu Chi’s translation is a neutral term and does not reflect the speaker’s attitude or feelings towards the potential disaster caused by flood tide, westerly winds and snow. Xu ignored the author’s emotional attitude, thus ignoring the influence that these forces may cause, and did not produce systematic equivalence.<br /> <br /> ====Syntactic Features of ''Walden''====<br /> Raffel (1994) points out that &quot;the syntax of prose shows the style of the author, and the reproduction of the original style is the key to prose translation which stresses not only what message says, but also how the message is said.&quot; So, the syntactic features of ''Walden'' should never be ignored.<br /> In the original text, short sentences in English have neat structure and harmonious rhythm. Xu Chi did not change the original structure in translation, but adopted literal translation. The so-called literal translation is to retain the content and language expression habits of the original text as well as the form and style of the original text under the condition that the target language allows. Since Both Chinese and English are discourse systems and they have something in common, literal translation is a good way to deal with them.<br /> Example 5:<br /> It is no dream of mine， To ornament a line; I cannot come nearer to God and Heaven, than I live to Walden even． I am its stony shore, and the breeze that passes o’er; In the hollow of my hand Are its water and its sand, and its deepest resort Lies high in my thought. (Thoreau 2012, 137) <br /> Xu Chi’s Translation:<br /> 这不是我的梦，用于装饰一行诗;我不能更接近上帝和天堂甚于我之生活在瓦尔登。我是它的圆石岸，飘拂而过的风;在我掌握的一握，是它的水，它的沙，而它的最深邃僻隐处,高高躺在我的思想中。 (Xu Chi 2012, 151)<br /> The translation of this paragraph has a neat structure, neat antithesis, and pays attention to the regularity and rhythm of the literal. The original is composed of ten verses and the translation retains the original format, which can increase the depth and appeal of the translation, thus producing artistic effect and aesthetic value.<br /> <br /> ====Rhetorical Features of ''Walden''====<br /> =====Metaphor=====<br /> Metaphor means to &quot;shift a word from its original meaning to another word that is generally not interchangeable but similar, and to emphasize its identity, that is, the two are similar but not a simile&quot;.<br /> Example 6: <br /> Public opinion is a weak tyrant compared with our own private opinion. (Thoreau, 7)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation: 和我们的自知之明相比较，公众舆论这暴戾的君主也显得微弱无力。(徐迟，6）<br /> The ontology and metaphor in this sentence are &quot;public opinion&quot; and &quot;weak tyrant.&quot; There must be something similar between them. The following statement gives the reason: &quot;Compared to our own private opinions&quot;, which is quite clear. People are used to focusing on themselves in front of others, so public opinion is only slightly weak. The subtle use of metaphor shows Thoreau's wisdom and thorough understanding of human nature. Xu Chi dealt with this metaphor perfectly.<br /> =====Pun=====<br /> Puns are deliberately declared polysemous words or homonyms created with double meaning in a certain language environment, with implicit, humorous and profound effects. Newmark (2001, 217) points out that &quot;pun translation is unimportant but fascinating&quot;. The use of puns in Walden is remarkable.<br /> The basic function of pun in ''Walden'' is to express logical relations. Because puns can express two levels of meaning in a word, phrase, or sentence, they are often used as a link between the text before and after it. A key problem that haunts the reader when reading ''Walden'' is the lack of connection between the two passages. A clear logical relationship is a prerequisite for expressing other special effects, such as rhetorical and aesthetic effects. Therefore, the improper translation of puns will seriously affect logical coherence and other rhetorical devices.<br /> Example 7：<br /> If the name was not derived from that of some English locality - Saffron Walden, for instance, one might suppose that it was called originally Walled-in Pond. (Thoreau 2012, 209)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation: 如果这个湖名不是由当地一个叫萨福隆•瓦尔登的英国人的名字化出来的话，——那么，我想瓦尔登湖原来的名字可能是围而得湖。(徐迟 2009, 172)<br /> This classic example of puns has been discussed many times. Thoreau suggested that &quot;Walden&quot; might come from “Walled-in”. &quot;Walled-in Pond&quot;, as ahomophonic pun, serves as the logic link of the whole paragraph. Xu wisely translates it as “围而得”, retaining not only the similar pronunciation but also the importance of meaning. “围而得” maintains the logical relation of the whole paragraph.It is eye-catching and stimulates readers to think more about Thoreau's intentions to use this word.<br /> <br /> =====Personification=====<br /> Personification refers to &quot;the practice of representing a person, quality, or characteristic as a human being in art and literature.&quot; People subconsciously tend to reflect non-human things with their lives in order to express their feelings and thoughts. In view of the characteristics of human behavior, literary works can vividly express the feelings of the author, and make readers feel that the description of the object is more vivid and appropriate, which makes the article more vivid.<br /> Example 8：<br /> This further experience also I gained：I said to myself,1 will not plant beans and corn with so much industry another summer，but such seeds, if the seed is not lost, as sincerity, truth, simplicity, faith, innocence, and the like, and see if they will not grow in this soil，even with less toil and manurance，and sustain me, for surely it has not been exhausted for these crops. (Thoreau 2012, 186-187)<br /> Xu Chi’s Translation:<br /> 我还获得了下面的更丰富的经验：我对我自己说，下一个夏天，我不要花那么大的劳力来种豆子和玉米了，我将种这样<br /> 这样一些种子像诚实、真理、纯朴、信心、天真等等，如果这些种子并没有失落，看看它们能否在这片土地上生长，能否以较少劳力和肥料；来维持我的生活，因为，地力一定还没消耗到不能种这些东西。 (徐迟 2009, 182)<br /> Thoreau here is sharing his experience in growing beans and his plans next summer with readers. As we know, words like “sincerity,truth，simplicity, faith and innocence” usually refer to qualities of human. But here, these words are adopted to describe the characteristics of seeds and humanize these seeds，constructing a vivid personification. Xu Chi reproduce the rhetorical feature of the original.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The language of ''Walden'' is rich in vocabulary, complex and diverse sentence structure, the author's writing is flexible and fluent, and the use of various rhetoric makes the translation work more difficult. <br /> To sum up, Xu Chi’s translation appears more formal than the original text and some words of his translation can not reflect the expressive meaning of the original one. It is found that Xu Chi tended to use words with typical features of his time which seem out of date at present. But due to the time he lived in, we believe that Xu Chi’s version satisfied the need or linguistic expectation of the target readers of his time which has its significance. We also find that sentences in Xu's translation follow the syntax of English language. Xu Chi kept the structure beauty of the original work properly, respected the original work and kept the structure orderly, directly conveying Thoreau's thoughts and feelings. And Xu Chi indeed do well in reflecting rhetorical features of the original text, which is refered by many translators later. In general, Xu Chi's translation is close to the original text in style and language characteristics and is a classic translation of ''Walden''.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ==A Comparison Beteewn the Translation Systems Proposed by Tan Zai and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation. 王美玲 Wang Meiling==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;王美玲 Wang Meiling&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> The Renaissance is the fourth peak in the history of Western translation and a great development in the history of Western literature. During the 16th century and the period following the Renaissance in Europe, translation reached an unprecedented climax in the fields of thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion. At that time, the German translation of the Bible by the Martin Luther is the most well-known one in the whole translation circle, and its influence is unique and long-standing in Germany as well as in the whole Europe continent. Since the Reform and Opening-up, China has gradually stepped into the center of the world arena, and its literary works bearing the quintessence of Chinese culture has become a crucial bridge connecting the rest of the world with China. Despite the rise of machine translation, it can never replace the overwhelming role of human translation in the literary translation. Luther’s translation thoughts have exerted an important influence on the development of Western translation theories, so what sparks can be drawn between his translation principles and Chinese modern culture and literary works? This paper makes a brief comment on the main translation activities of renaissance, then compares the translation thoughts of Luther and Lu Xun, and applies Luther’s detailed translation rules to the actual translation practice,finally analyzes the influence of Luther’s translation thoughts and principles on modern translation practice and their significance for reference.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Renaissance; Luther; literary works; translation principles; influence;<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴运动是西方翻译史的第四次高潮，也是西方文学史上的一次大发展。文艺复兴在欧洲普遍开展的16世纪以及随后一个时期，翻译活动达到了前所未有的高峰，深入思想、政治、哲学、文学宗教等各个领域。在整个翻译界，德国马丁·路德的《圣经》德译本是该时期最负盛名的译本，其影响不论是在德国乃至整个欧洲都是独一无二且源远流长的。改革开放以来，中国日益走进世界舞台中央，承载着中华文化精髓的文学作品成为了重要桥梁。纵然机器翻译兴起，但绝不能替代人工翻译在文学翻译领域的绝对性地位。路德的翻译思想对西方翻译理论的发展产生了重要影响，那么其翻译思想和理论原则与中国当代文化及文学作品又能擦出什么样的火花呢？本文将通过对文艺复兴时期的主要翻译活动进行简评，再对比路德与鲁迅的翻译思想，接着将路德的翻译细则运用到实际的翻译实践中，分析路德的翻译思想及理论原则对于当代翻译实践的影响以及借鉴意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴；路德；文学作品；翻译原则；影响；<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> The Protestant Reformation Movement in Germany in the 16th century ushered in a new era of translation and dissemination of Bible.Under the protection of Protestantism, Martin Luther devoted himself to the German translation of the Bible. By the time of 1544 Luther’s death, 430 versions of his Bible translation had been published. In order to make common people more directly understand the meaning of the Bible, Martin Luther translated it in national language. He insisted on his translation thought and fought against the church power and his opponents. He made unremitting efforts in the great project of the Bible translation, which promoted the unification of German language and created a graceful literary language.His translation thoughts are still of great significance to the current translation theory and practice.&quot;First of all, from a historical point of view, translation has two main functions in promoting the birth and development of national culture and the transformation of national culture into world culture: one is to promote cultural exchange; the other is to disseminate ideas.&quot;<br /> <br /> Since the beginning of reform and opening-up, China has gradually stepped onto the world arena. China persists in its cultural development geared to the needs of the world and actively promotes cultural development to the world. Literary works bear the essence of Chinese culture, whose export is an crucial way to spread Chinese culture to the world. Over the years, despite the rise of machine translation, which has a certain practical role, it can not replace the overwhelming role of manual translation in literary translation. So what significance does Luther’s translation thought and theory born in the reform era have in guiding modern translation theory and practice, especially in the field of literary translation?<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Brief comments on translation thoughts in the period of Renaissance===<br /> <br /> '''1.1 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.2 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.3 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.4 '''<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Comparison of translation thoughts between Luther and Lu Xun===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 ===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 ===<br /> <br /> ==Study on Interpreter's Memory and Translation Memory in Interpreting 康浩宇 Kang Haoyu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br /> <br /> '''1.1 Background'''<br /> <br /> Memory plays an important role in interpreting and it is a kind of interpreting competence. The information processing in interpreting is complicated. When the information is input, interpreter first recognize and keep the information, which will then be analyzed, encoded, stored and retrieved. And the interpreter finally decode the information into target language(Wang Jianhua, 2019).Because of the fast input of information and limited time for pausing, great memory is required for interpreters. Whether a good or poor memory has a direct effect on the quality of interpreting. <br /> With the development of science and technology, machine translation and computer aided translation, which is also called CAT, was invented as two effective and efficient ways for translation. In CAT, there is a concept called translation memory. Different from human beings’ memory, translation memory is more likely a database. Nowadays, translation memory of CAT has been put into wide use in translation. And in recent years, translation memory has also been applied as a tool in interpreting. As the technology is not yet mature, there are still some limitation and weakness.<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Significance of the Study'''<br /> <br /> There are some studies on the memory of interpreters. But most of them focus on its practical aspects such as how to improve interpreters’ memory or how to make the best of memory in interpreting, instead of substantial facts. The nature of memory and mechanism of memory is also worthy to be studied, so readers can have better understanding and cognition of what is memory and how it works. Therefore, readers can better address our problems in memory of interpreting. The study will fully analyze memory from the aspect of psychology and science. And then it will study on memory of interpreting in details including systems, mechanism, coding and theories. <br /> Translation memory is quite a novel topic as it belongs to a sort of science and technology. As the world stepped into information era, digital era and even Artificial Intelligence era, translation memory has been used more widely than ever before. It really facilitates the translators as it both saves a lot of time and greatly improved the translation efficiency. However, there are few studies on the translation memory application in interpreting field. Actually, in many situations, interpreters also uses this kind of technology to help their interpreting. They study will research on the fact of translation memory in interpreting.<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Structure of the Study'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be developed in five chapters. <br /> Chapter 1, the introduction part, is initiated by introducing the background, research problems, and significance of the study.<br /> Chapter 2 is functioned to define and categorize the memory.<br /> Chapter 3 will present the memory mechanism and related theories in interpreting.<br /> Chapter 4 will mainly focus on the translation memory technology at present and its application in interpreting.<br /> The concluding chapter generalizes the content of the study and put forward the limitations.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Study on Memory===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 The definition of the Memory'''<br /> <br /> Memory has different definitions in different fields. Generally speaking, human memory is a reflection of what the brain has experienced. From the perspective of psychology, memory is the recognition, maintenance, reappearance of experienced things by the human brain, and it is the basis of advanced psychological activities such as thinking and imagination. It is the retention and extraction of past experience by human brain. It is a psychological process in which individual experience is accumulated and preserved in the mind. All things that have been perceived can be kept in people's minds, and can be reproduced when necessary. This refers to the process in which the human brain encodes, stores and extracts meaningful information input from the outside world(Peng Danlin，1991). From the perspective of neurology, human memory is closely related to the changes of chemical composition in hippocampus and brain. All memory that exists in the brain depends on various nerve cells of the brain, which are called neurons. According to information processing theory, memory process is the process of encoding, storing and extracting input information. Only coded information can be remembered. Coding is the process of processing and transforming the input information, and coding is the key stage of the whole memory process.<br /> <br /> '''2.2. Memory Systems'''<br /> <br /> Based on the structure, memory can be categorized into three systems. There are sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. The later two systems are also often referred as STM and LTM. The three memory systems are different from each other but closely related.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1 Sensory Memory'''<br /> <br /> As the shortest memory system, sensory memory is the first channel for human brain to get the information. It has some capacity. According the research in Cognitive Psychology(Wang Su, Wang Ansheng, 1992), People’s visual sensory capacity is more than 9 chunk while their auditory sensory memory capacity has less capacity, which is about chunk. chunk here are memory units, and the size of chunk varies with people's knowledge and experience. A chunk can be a word, a number, a phrase, a sentence, a word list, etc. Sensory memory works as temporary storage for sensory information. It depends on the physical nature of external stimulus to code the information and it is the real copy and transcription of the external stimulus. Most sensory memory can stay for one to two seconds and then disappear. Only with more attention and focus can the sensory memory be processed and then become short term memory(Bao Gang, 2005). People’s visual sensory memory can just keep for less than one second while their auditory sensory memory can keep for 4 seconds. It is inevitable that information will lose with the disappearance of sensory memory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2 Short Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Short term memory is the second memory system. Short term memory is based on the neuron network in hippocampus. It keeps the information that has been selected in the hippocampus of human brain. In some cases, part of information will move from the short memory in hippocampus to long term memory in cerebral cortex. In psychology, short term memory can keep for about one minute with the capacity of about 7 chunks. That means that people can memorize seven unrelated numbers or phonemes for about one minute with their short term memory. However, the capacity of short term memory is not decided by the amount of stimulus but by the modes of chunk and coding. Chunks can effectively expand the capacity of short-term memory. When processing information, people can use the knowledge and experience stored in long-term memory to combine several single stimuli into larger information units, which can effectively expand and increase short-term memory span and improve memory efficiency. Moreover, the coding of short-term memory is mainly auditory coding, and there are also visual coding and semantic coding. Instead of chunk and information unit, people can also use retelling to transfer short term memory to long term memory. Retelling refers to the psychological operation process of repeating the materials just memorized by language to consolidate memory. In the case of retelling, the learning materials kept in short-term memory will transfer to long-term memory. The content of short-term memory can be transformed into long-term memory by retelling. <br /> <br /> There is a special type of short term memory, working memory. The concept working memory was first proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. It is used to describe the process of a person temporarily memorizing the fact and thoughts when addressing problems or working(Baddeley, 2006). In spite of limited resources and storage time, working memory is still different from short term memory in temporary storage of information(Hitch, 2012). Compared with short term memory which store information passively, the working memory process is more dynamic. Generally speaking, there are three differences. First, working memory emphasizes storing and processing information at the same time, while short-term memory only focuses on information storage. Secondly, working memory is a multi-factor system, while short-term memory is a single system. Third, working memory is more important than short-term memory for many advanced brain functions and even almost all human cognitive work(Wang Jianhua, 2019). The disappear of short term memory is often due to the interruption.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3 Long Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Different from short term memory, long term memory is stored in human’s cerebral cortex where there is more room for storage. Long term memory is very important in keeping information for long time. It can keep information for more than one minute and even for a whole life. Its capacity is unlimited. All the information kept by long term memory has been selected and filtered.According to Tulving, long term memory is stored mainly as two types(Tulving, 1974). They are episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory is about one’s experience of some specific situations. Semantic memory refers to knowledge such as words, concepts, rules and other abstract things.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Memory Mechanism'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, the process of memory includes three key steps. They are memorizing, keeping and recalling. In interpreting, memorizing is related to interpreters’ listening and understanding to what the speaker says, keeping is related to the storage of original information and recalling refers to the output of interpreting.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 Memorizing'''<br /> <br /> Memorizing refers to the process of distinguishing and recognizing the characteristics of things and leaving a certain impression in the mind. Some things can be remembered after one perception, while most of the contents need to be perceived repeatedly, so that the new information can be connected with the existing knowledge structure. As the first step in the memory process, memorization has a very important influence on the memory effect. Therefore, understanding and mastering the rules of memorization will help improve memory(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997).<br /> <br /> According to whether memorization has a purpose or not, memorization can be divided into unconscious memorization and conscious memorization(Ma Zhengyu, 2013).<br /> Unconscious memorization refers to memorization that happens naturally without a predetermined purpose and without a certain effort of will. When they are perceived, there is no intention to memorize them, but these contents can reappear in people’s mind in the future naturally. And this is unconscious memorization. The content of unconscious memorization is an important part of experience, and it has great effect on people’s psychological activities and behaviors. Inadvertent experience can do as much help as existing experiences when people consciously face certain situations and deal with certain problems. In daily life, the environment, contact and work will influence people unconsciously in psychology and behavior. Generally speaking, there are two characteristics of unconscious memorization. First, the stimulation acts on people's sensory organs which is of great significance and attracts people's attention. For example, people will never forget new and different things; Second, it is in people's needs, interests and content so that it can produce deeper emotional experience. Unconsciousness plays a positive role in people's acquisition of knowledge and experience.<br /> <br /> Conscious memorization refers to memorizing with a predetermined purpose, which requires a certain amount of will and effort in the process of memorizing. The process of conscious memorization is controlled by the purpose of memorization. The purpose of memorization determines that memorizing process is an active coding process for memorizing content. This coding includes &quot;what to remember&quot; and &quot;how to remember&quot;. &quot;What to memorize&quot; determines the direction and content of memorization, and &quot;how to memorize&quot; is the method to better memorize the content. All people's knowledge and experience are acquired through conscious memorization and unconscious memorization. However, in terms of memorizing effect, conscious memorizing is better than unconscious memorizing(Zhao Zhongyuan, 2004).<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 Keeping'''<br /> <br /> Keeping refers to the process of remaining and consolidating the memorized materials in brain. It is the process of information storage. Keeping is the middle step which is between memorizing and recalling and it is closely related the quality and effect of recalling.<br /> <br /> The effect of keeping is related to whether the materials to be memorized are vivid or not. When brains memorize verbal materials, if the materials are vivid, they can leave a deep impression on people, while the materials with empty contents are easy to be forgotten quickly. Many psychological experiments have also proved the important role of the &quot;image&quot; in the memory of human brain. The memory effect of image materials is generally better than that of words materials, and similarly, the effect of visual memory is generally better than that of auditory memory. This suggests that if interpreters make full use of the image carrier of the source language in interpreting memory, it is possible to improve their information storage of the source language(Bao Gang, 2005).<br /> <br /> Keeping is a dynamic process during which the amount and nature of the stored information could be changed. In the aspect of amount change, the amount of stored information will decrease with time. In other words, this is forgetting. Forgetting is a very natural phenomenon that experienced by every person. Although forgetting is a complex psychological phenomenon, its occurrence and development have certain rules. Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, was the first to do this research. He used meaningless syllables as experimental materials and himself as experimental object. After memorizing the materials, he relearned them at regular intervals, and drew the forgetting curve with the time and times saved by heavy school as the index. Forgetting curve reflects the relationship between forgetting variables and time variables. This curve shows the rule of forgetting: the process of forgetting is unbalanced, and the amount of forgetting is relatively large in the initial period after memorization, and then gradually decreases. That is, the speed of forgetting is fast at first and then slow. After Ebbinghaus, many people have studied the forgetting process and confirmed that Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve is basically correct(Liu Yin, Su Qiaolin, 1997). <br /> <br /> Keeping is the process of consolidating what have been memorized in people's minds, and it is also the process of storing information. It is not a static and solidified process, but a process of reconstruction.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 Recalling'''<br /> <br /> The final step of memory is recalling. It is the process of retrieving the information that has been stored in people’s brain. <br /> Recalling is the reappearance process of past experiences in the mind under the action of certain inducement. Memories can be divided into two categories: intentional memories and unintentional memories. Intentional recalling is the recalling of past experience under the action of intended purpose. Unintentional memories are memories that happen naturally without a predetermined purpose. Memories can be divided into direct recalling and indirect recalling according to whether there are intermediary factors involved in the recalling process. Direct recalling is the recollection of old experiences directly aroused by current things. Indirect recalling is a kind of recalling with the help of intermediary factors. In terms of difficulty, indirect recalling is more difficult than direct recalling.<br /> <br /> '''2.4 Primacy Effect and Recency effect'''<br /> <br /> Primacy effect and recency effect are two famous phenomena related to people’s memory. And both of them play a very important role in interpreting.<br /> <br /> '''2.4.1 Primacy Effect'''<br /> <br /> The concept “primacy effect” was first proposed by A. S. Lochins, an American psychologist. It refers to the fact that the first impression has a huge effect. Although the first impression may not always be right, but it is most vivid and solid. In primacy effect, information input plays a key role. Experimental psychology research shows that the order of external information input is important in determining the cognitive effect. The first input information plays the most important role, and the last input information also plays a great role. This feature of brain processing information is the internal cause of the primacy effect. When different information is combined, people always tend to attach importance to the former information. Even if people pay attention to the following information, they will think that the following information is non-essential and accidental. More importantly, even if the following information is inconsistent with the former information, people will succumb to the former information.<br /> <br /> '''2.4.2 Recency Effect'''<br /> <br /> Recency effect, also put forward by American psychologist Lochins, refers to the phenomenon that when people memorize a series of things, the memory effect of the last part is better than that of the middle part. The reason is that the previous information is gradually blurred in memory, while the recent information clearer in short-term memory. Recency effect is contrary to the primacy effect, and recency effect emphasizes that the last received information has the greatest effect. In people's perception, when the information obtained before and after is different, if there is irrelevant work in the middle to separate them, then the latter information plays a greater role in forming the total impression.<br /> <br /> Obviously, the primacy effect and recency effect are different, or even opposite. The primacy effect emphasizes the information received initially, while recency effect pays more attention to the information that comes into contact later. However, the primary effect and recency effect exist in our society and play their respective functions. Through a large number of experiments, it is found that the primacy effect and recency effect depend on people themselves. Generally speaking, people with relatively simple cognitive structure are prone to produce the primacy effect, while those with complex cognitive structure are prone to produce recency effect.<br /> <br /> Although the primacy effect and recency effect are different form each other, both of the effects are extremely beneficial to the memory of interpreters, and they can be used in different interpreting situations(Wang Jianhua, 2019).<br /> <br /> == The Subtile Translation of Movie from the Perspective of Multimodal Discourse Analysis 王轩 Wang Xuan==<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> Mankind has entered the era of multimedia, so the language as a mono-modal form has been unable to fully express the meaning of communication. Thus we need some other modals to enhance, in order to fully express the meaning and reach the aim of communication, such as sound, visual image, color and so on. Thus the term Multimodality aroused linguist’s interest and attention. <br /> <br /> They conducted a lot of research and exploration in Multimodal Discourse Analysis. Multimodal Discourse Analysis is based on Halliday’s systemic functional linguistics as the foundation, Professor Zhang Delu points out that the Multimodal Discourse is a phenomenon which means use auditory, visual, tactile and other sensory and communicate through language, image, sound, movement and other symbolic resources. <br /> <br /> Martin points out that Multimodal Discourse Analysis is composed of five levels, they are: (1) cultural level (2) context level (3) significance level (4) form level (5) media level. By discussing the combination between the subtitle translation of “Benjamin Button” and Multimodal, the thesis is to analyze that how does the Multimodal Discourse Analysis affect the subtitle translation of movies. <br /> <br /> The thesis is based on the Multimodal Discourse Analysis theory as the foundation, aims to analyze the following three areas under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis: 1. The embodiment of Multimodality in the film “Benjamin Button”, then aims to analyze how does the subtitle and Multimodality combining to constructed the whole meaning under the theoretical framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis.2. The second goal is to discuss the relationship between the movie’s subtitles and other modals, and the relationship between different modals. 3. By discussing the analysis of the movie subtitle expression function in the process of overall significance, this thesis attempts to put forward some suggestions on the movie subtitle translation. <br /> Keywords: Multimodal Discourse Analysis；Audio-visual Product；Subtitle Translation<br /> <br /> === Chapter One Multimodal Discourse Analysis Theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 1.1 The Emergence And Development Of Multimodality '''<br /> <br /> At present, experts and scholars have entered the stage of multimodal discourse analysis. This is not an accidental phenomenon, but inevitable, because they think that discourse or discourse is a unit of meaning, but the expression of meaning is not only through a single language, on the contrary, it can be constructed by many other symbol systems besides language. <br /> <br /> Therefore, it is not comprehensive and specific to analyze discourse or discourse from the linguistic level, so multimodal discourse analysis comes into being. Multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in foreign countries, and has been widely studied and explored. However, it is still in its infancy in China, and has attracted much attention in recent years. <br /> <br /> In the early 1950s, American linguist Harris put forward the theory of discourse analysis for the first time. Since then, discourse analysts all over the world have been working hard to analyze and study, and have put forward many theories and methods of discourse analysis, and analyzed them through a large number of examples. <br /> <br /> However, almost all the theories and methods of discourse analysis focus on language and ignore other forms of meaning expression, such as image, music, color and so on. Therefore, the research on discourse analysis at that time was not comprehensive and had great limitations. In the 1990s, multimodal discourse analysis was first proposed in western countries, which overcomes the limitations of discourse analysis to a certain extent. Therefore, once multimodal discourse analysis was proposed, it immediately attracted the attention of linguists and once became a hot topic. Especially in recent years, linguists at home and abroad have carried out extensive research and Exploration on multimodal discourse analysis. <br /> <br /> In foreign countries, R. Barthes is the first French scholar to systematically analyze multimodality. As a famous semiotician, R. Barthes adopts the semiotic perspective to study multimodality. Therefore, multimodal discourse has been analyzed with semiotics from the very beginning. Multimodal discourse analysis breaks through the shackles of traditional single language information, and integrates more research in other fields, such as psychology, cognitive science and sociology. R. Barthes discussed the interaction and relationship between image and language in the expression of meaning. Based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed a relatively perfect grammatical framework for the analysis of visual images, thus providing theoretical basis and analytical methods for multimodal discourse analysis. They believe that multimodality is a major feature of various discourses in modern society. In the digital age, these different modes play the same role in meaning reproduction. In addition, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen constructed an image analysis framework based on three pure functions in image reading, namely reproduction, interaction and composition.. In a word, Kress &amp;amp; Van Leeuwen's multimodal communication theory mainly focuses on the symbolic resources and their use. <br /> <br /> In China, there are also in-depth and extensive research on multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Li Zhanzi analyzes multimodal discourse from the perspective of social semiotics, while Hu Zhuanglin, a professor of Peking University, studies multimodal semiotics in theory and practice, and proposes multimodal language teaching and research in social semiotics. Zhu Yongsheng has made an in-depth study on multimodality and summarized the theoretical basis and research methods of multimodal discourse analysis. Zhang Delu made a preliminary exploration on the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. Professor Zhang Delu pointed out that multimodal discourse refers to the use of hearing, vision, touch and other senses, through language, images, sounds, movements and other means and symbol resources for communication. This phenomenon is very common, which is mainly reflected in the following aspects. For example, in order to better understand poetry, people find that it can be attached with pictures, that is, it is attractive People's interest has reached the purpose of helping people understand. In addition, people can often add some auxiliary gestures or actions, and use different tone and tone when speaking, which is also a form of multimodality. However, multimodal discourse analysis has not been paid enough attention. Only in the study of modern linguistics, some linguists have paid attention to multimodality and started to study it from the perspective of non-verbal features and linguistic features. However, it is only studied as an auxiliary expression system of language, but not as a mode of meaning expression. Although multimedia discourse analysis came into being, it was not until recent years that scholars gradually realized the importance of multimedia discourse analysis. It can be seen that multimodality has attracted a large number of linguists in China and achieved fruitful results.<br /> <br /> ''' 1.2 The Theoretical Framework of Multimodal Discourse Analysis '''<br /> <br /> Linguists have found that systemic functional linguistics can be used as the basic theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. The five levels are: (1) cultural level, including ideology as the main form of culture and genre as the potential choice of discourse mode. (2) The context level includes the context configuration composed of discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. (3) The meaning level includes discourse meaning and conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning. (4) At the formal level, there are different formal systems to realize meaning, including lexical grammar system of language, visual ideographic form and visual grammar system, auditory ideographic form and auditory grammar system, tactile ideographic form and tactile grammar system, etc., as well as the relationship between the grammar of various modes. (5) Media level is the material form of discourse in the material world, including linguistic and non-verbal. Systemic functional linguistics provides a relatively ready-made theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis. On this basis, Professor Zhang Delu proposed a comprehensive theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis: (1) cultural level, (2) context level, (3) content level, (4) expression level<br /> <br /> ''' 1.3 The Forms and Relations of Multimodal Discourse '''<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse forms include: language, picture sense, sound sense and feeling. The typical multimodal discourse mode is a kind of modal discourse, which can not fully express its meaning, or can not express its full meaning. It needs to be supplemented by another one. The relationship between these modes is called &quot;complementary relationship&quot;, while the other is called non complementary relationship. <br /> <br /> Complementary relationship can be divided into strengthening relationship and non strengthening relationship. Reinforcement relationship means that one mode is the main form of communication, while another or more forms strengthen it. For example, when expressing meaning, if language is the main form of communication, then other body movements such as gestures will strengthen the language. On the contrary, language may also be a reinforcement to other ways of communication. Strengthening relationship includes three kinds of relations: prominent, primary and secondary, and expanding. Non reinforcement refers to the relationship between two modes which are indispensable and complementary to each other. For example, in the process of watching a movie, the visual and auditory modes are combined with each other. There are also three forms of non strengthening relations: coordination, union and intersection. In the coordination relationship, different modes construct the whole meaning together, and the lack of any mode will be incomplete. Play the video at the same time, for example. The two modes of image and sound are both necessary and difficult to understand without one communication. In this case, the relationship between image and sound is harmonious. The joint relationship refers to the combination of different types of media in the same mode to express the meaning. For example, in the typical multimodal discourse form of film, the sound matched with the scene animation and the voice of interpretation are combined to reflect the meaning of auditory construction. The last one is the phenomenon of cross embodiment of meaning. For example, teachers do experiments while they are in the experimental class. At this time, the text is still unimodal. However, if you are talking with your friends about whether the weather is snowing, the size and shape of snow, and so on, the scene of snow, including the process and mode of snow, will directly participate in the overall meaning you want to express. At this time, your discourse has a strong situational dependence. A large part of the meaning of your speech is reflected by the situation, although the scene does not actively participate in it In your verbal communication. Therefore, context dependent discourse communication is multimodal.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Two Film subtitle translation theory ===<br /> <br /> ''' 2.1 Film Works and Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> With the advent of the multimedia digital era, foreign film and television works continue to flow into China, so subtitle translation is becoming more and more important. More and more people use subtitles to obtain foreign related information, understand foreign cultures and even learn foreign languages. Subtitling affects people's cognition of things, and subtitle translation has become a professional auxiliary form to facilitate the audience to understand multimedia works. Gottlieb defines subtitle translation as &quot;a kind of written, additional and synchronous translation type for instantaneous and multi symbolic texts&quot;. (Gottlieb, 1997:309) in China, film and television translation started relatively late, and large-scale film and television translation began after the 1980s. <br /> <br /> Although the number of mass media translation has greatly increased, subtitle translation has not attracted enough attention of the academic community, and the research results on subtitle translation are few. In recent years, subtitle translation, as a field of translation, has attracted more and more attention from experts and scholars all over the world. Subtitles have two major functions: first, to deepen the audience's impression of some film content; second, to assist the lack of listening. There are two kinds of subtitles: the first is intralingual subtitle, the second is interlingual subtitle. Intralingual subtitle translation does not need to translate one language into another, but only converts the discourse into text. &quot;Interlingual subtitle refers to the translation of the source language into the target language and superimposed on the bottom of the screen while retaining the original sound of the film and television, which is commonly referred to as subtitle translation.&quot; (Li Yunxing, 2001:38)<br /> <br /> ''' 2.2 The Characteristics Of Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> Film subtitles are an important part of the film, and together with the visual image to construct the meaning, film subtitles can help the audience to understand the characteristics of the characters in the film, to master the character's character and to be familiar with the plot of the film. Film subtitle translation has the following characteristics: <br /> <br /> Firstly, colloquialism. Subtitle translation in movies is mainly the translation of dialogues between the characters in the film. Therefore, subtitle translation should be as colloquial as possible and conform to the expression characteristics of the characters. On the premise of ensuring the coherence and smoothness of the context, the subtitle translation should be as close to life as possible so as to achieve natural and realistic effect. <br /> <br /> Secondly, the characters in the film have their own unique personalities, which are often reflected by different language styles. Therefore, the second feature of film subtitle translation is to conform to the characters' personalities. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, emotional, emotional help the audience better understand the plot, so the film subtitle translation should reflect the true feelings, the translation should be able to put oneself in the position and into the role, to achieve the artistic effect of sincere.<br /> <br /> Fourthly, oral form is a typical feature of film subtitle translation, which is also the most obvious difference between film subtitle translation and literature translation. The basic task of translation is to provide a blueprint for dubbing. Therefore, the translation of subtitles should be consistent with the mouth shape of the characters as much as possible, and the accuracy and vividness of the translation should be guaranteed. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, popularization means popularization. Popularization means that the translation can be understood by the audience on the premise of smoothness, so as to achieve the purpose of clear understanding and appreciation of both refined and popular tastes. The ultimate goal of popularization is to serve the audience and make the translation a bridge for effective communication between different cultures.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3 Strategies Of Film Subtitle Translation '''<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.1 Pay Attention To The Artistry Of Language '''<br /> <br /> It is said that film is the seventh art after literature, music, dance, drama, painting and sculpture. As a young art, the only one who knows his birthday, film appeared as a popular art from the very beginning. Film is an art form with unique means of expression, and the artistry of its language is the basic element of film. Although Goethe once said: art should never be the same as reality, and it is impossible to embody art. But it turns out that film is not only a popular art, and it is the most popular art, which is called a kind of popular culture. From the point of view of the film itself, most of the films are for people to watch, and the audience of the film comes from different social strata, so their education level is also different. Therefore, the language in the subtitle of film translation must be in line with the audience's acceptance ability and actual level, so as to make the translation understood by the audience, more clearly, and achieve both refined and popular tastes. However, the vulgarization and popularization of the target language does not mean the vulgarization and generalization of the language. The language of film is rich in expressive force, and the language of subtitle translation must be accurate, natural and vivid. Therefore, in the film subtitle translation, we should not only retain the language characteristics of the source language and absorb the characteristics of foreign language expression, but also abide by the language tradition of our own culture, and use words with cultural color of the target language to translate the original text, so as to truly achieve the purpose of translation.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.2 Literal Translation And Free Translation Should Be Audience-Centered '''<br /> <br /> The characteristics of film subtitle translation, i.e. instantaneity and popularity, determine its translation strategies. Subtitle translation must refer to the picture and sound of the film and television. Usually, the subtitle appears in front of the audience together with the original picture, so that the audience can not only enjoy the picture, but also have time to read the subtitle. This is the duality of subtitle translation. When the audience accepts the sound, picture and subtitle information of the original text, they are integrated, complementary and contradictory. Therefore, subtitle translation must consider that subtitle is not an independent mode, it includes the creation process and the reception process. In a word, both literal translation and free translation should focus on the audience. Literal translation can absorb new foreign factors and information, and can reflect foreign culture and sentiment. Free translation is easier to be accepted by the target language audience. Film subtitle translation must take into account the audience's language level and education, and take the audience of the target language as the center and adopt correct translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ''' 2.3.3 Processing Of Cultural Information '''<br /> <br /> As an intermediary of cultural exchange, the translator's main purpose is to promote the exchange of different cultures and reduce the cultural gap. Because the film subtitle in the process of translation is subject to many restrictions, for example, there are a large number of words with strong cultural color and some special language forms, and there are many gaps in the culture of different languages and nations and can not be replaced, so it increases the difficulty of film translation. For example, when translating puns, word games and proverbs, translators usually have to give up, which is actually a treason to the original film. <br /> <br /> There are three strategies to deal with cultural information in Subtitle Translation: first, the principle of cultural compensation. The principle of cultural compensation aims to preserve and introduce the cultural characteristics of foreign countries, so that the audience can understand the films of different languages and cultures. Second, adopt the principle of cultural transplantation. This principle can make subtitles more vivid, authentic and vivid. Translators need to discard the cultural characteristics of the source language and abide by the native language, so that subtitles can be easily understood and accepted by the target language audience. When neither of the two strategies is desirable, we can only use the third strategy, namely the principle of cultural coordination, which inevitably leads to the loss of cultural information in the source language and the target language. When dealing with the cultural information in subtitle translation, translators should pay attention to the combination of these three strategies with the film picture, and give full play to the illustrative and explanatory nature of the pictures, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural exchange.<br /> <br /> === Chapter Three Subtitle Translation Of &quot;Rejuvenation&quot; From The Perspective Of Multimodal Discourse Analysis ===<br /> <br /> ''' 3.1 A Brief Introduction of 'Benjamind Button' '''<br /> <br /> 'Benjamin Button', directed by the famous director David Finch is adapted from Fitzgerald's novel of the same name; the film tells the story of a strange Benjamin Barton who violates the laws of nature and is born in the image of an ancient and rare old man. As time goes by, he even lives more and more young. It is a story about the reversal of life.<br /> <br /> The following part will analyze the characteristics of subtitles and the translation strategies that should be adopted in the expression of the film from the cultural level, context level, content level and expression level of the multimodal theoretical framework.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2 Multimodal Translation in Movie Subtiles '''<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.1 On Cultural Level '''<br /> <br /> Under the influence of thinking patterns and habits, people have gradually formed a specific form of expression in which language can understand each other in communication. Therefore, it is particularly important whether the cultural factors in films are properly translated. Zhang Delu believes that &quot;the cultural level is the key level to make communication possible&quot;. In some cases, the source language and the target language can not be translated literally. Therefore, in the process of translating movie subtitles, we should not only keep the original features, that is, faithfulness, but also take into account the habitual language awareness of the target audience, that is, free translation strategies should be adopted to make the translation smooth and consistent Cultural characteristics of the target language.<br /> <br /> The English title of the film is ‘The Curious Case of Benjamin Button’, and a version is ‘本杰明·巴顿奇事’, but the translation of ‘返老还童’ has a larger audience. First of all, there is an English name in the title of Benjamin Button, which makes people feel the obscurity of the literal translation of foreign words. In Chinese, four character idioms or five or seven character quatrains or metrical poems are more catchy and easy to be accepted; Secondly, the title of &quot;rejuvenate&quot; is very suitable for the protagonist's inverted and retrograde life trajectory. In a word, it is very brilliant; Finally, the idiom ‘返老还童’ comes from ancient legends, which expresses people's desire for immortality and rejuvenation. Although it is a legend, modern people also want to be young and energetic, so the title of ‘返老还童’ can attract more audiences.<br /> In this film, there are many translation notes added to the translation, which will explain the cross-cultural ambiguity clearly. Although there are many translations, it is the best way to make the audience accept accurate information.<br /> <br /> When Daisy, the heroine, is old, she lies on the hospital bed and introduces the name of the Watchmaker: “they had the best clock maker in all of the south to build that glorious clock. His name was Mr. gateau Mr. Cake.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “还请来整个南方最好的钟表匠建了那座雄伟的大钟。那人叫盖图先生……蛋糕先生” (盖图/Gateau 在法语中是蛋糕之意)<br /> <br /> There is such a narration at the foundation laying ceremony of clocks and clocks: “Papa said there were people everywhere. Even Teddy · Roosevelt came.”<br /> <br /> The translation is: “爸爸说，那天人山人海。连泰迪·罗斯福也来了( 西奥多·罗斯福，昵称泰迪美国第26 任总统)”<br /> <br /> In the above two examples, the comments added to the translation itself are in brackets. In the former example, &quot;Mr. cake&quot; suddenly appears. In the latter example, how President Roosevelt called &quot;Teddy Roosevelt&quot; will make the target language audience very puzzled. Although the use of annotations makes translation numerous, it is the best way for the audience to quickly obtain accurate information. The audience knows that gateau means &quot;cake&quot; in French, and Roosevelt has a nickname of &quot;Teddy&quot;.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.2 On Context Level '''<br /> <br /> In a specific context, communication is constrained by contextual factors (Zhang Delu, 2009). The context level elaborated by Zhang Delu includes discourse scope, discourse tone and discourse mode. In order to express meaning or transmit information, subtitle and context jointly promote the development of film plot. Subtitle translation should be subject to context. In order to make subtitle translation not appear fault phenomenon, the film plot will advance naturally, and subtitle translation should also play a role of connecting the preceding and the following. In this way, in the process of translation, the translator should consider the contextual factors and pay attention to the smoothness and coherence of the translation within the sentence itself and between the sentences in the text.<br /> <br /> When describing Queenie's fertility problem, Queenie sees Benjamin's heart full of love. Her husband, Mr. Weathers, said: I know you ain't got all the parts it takes to make one of your own, but this ain't your to keep. At first it was certainly hard to understand the meaning of this sentence, but as the plot developed, Queenie prayed to the pastor for a son. After her pregnancy, she announced happily: “I had a miracle happen. The Lord saw fit to answer my prayer.” <br /> <br /> Little Daisy explained here: “ ‘I had a miracle happen’ means pregnancy.” （她有孩子了） In this way, the words said by Mr. Weathers was interpreted as: “我知道你没法有自己的孩子，可你也不能抚养这个。” Using free translation strategy, it is clear and faithful to the meaning of the source language, which makes the target language audience quickly know that Queenie likes children's characteristics and cares for Benjamin, an ugly ‘monster’.<br /> <br /> When Benjamin and Daisy are reunited in New York, Benjamin said: “I thought I'd come here and sweet you off your feet or something.” The phrase &quot;sweep you off your feet&quot; means &quot;to make you fall suddenly and deeply in love with you&quot;（让你倾倒）. Benjamin and Daisy were separated from each other for many years at that time. Daisy, who was living in the dance circle, was popular and desirable there. Benjamin went to New York to find daisy after burying his father. He was in a mixed mood. In fact, he wanted to find a friend to express his melancholy. Therefore, Benjamin did not go to find Daisy to &quot;fall in love&quot; with her but &quot;I thought I'd give you a big surprise when I came suddenly&quot;(我本以为我突然过来找你会给你一个大惊喜), which is very brilliant. This sentence is more suitable for the protagonist's situation by using free translation strategy.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.3 On Content Level '''<br /> <br /> The content level of Zhang Delu's expression includes discourse meaning level and form level. Discourse meaning is the conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning conveyed in language expression. In the film, subtitle is the narrator's narration and dialogue content. Film discourse requires the translator to accurately express the subtitle meaning to the audience. In the process of subtitle translation, some gas words, names and address terms can be omitted, which still does not affect the expression of discourse meaning.<br /> <br /> “Well, I know I don't have much to show for myself.”（我知道自己没有什么才能。） The omission of &quot;well&quot; does not affect the translation, but is more concise and can be understood more quickly.<br /> <br /> “You know, you may've got a few more years out of it, but you choose to do something so special and unique that there were only a short window of time you could do it.” Daisy was in the dance business, but she had an accident later. Some expressions here such as “a few more years out of it” ( 跳几年舞), “something so special and unique”( 事业太与众不同), “a short window of time” （几年黄金时间) have been dealt more concrete, so the whole sentence is translated as: “也许，你能多跳几年舞，可你的事业太与众不同了，只有几年的黄金时间可以发展。” <br /> <br /> As for its form, the formal features of different modes are interrelated and reflect the discourse meaning together (Zhang Fulu, 2009). The film system includes animation, pictures, music, language and other auditory and visual modes. Therefore, subtitles, together with listening and visual modes, work together to promote the expression of film meaning.<br /> <br /> For example, Benjamin and Daisy finally met and got together. They whispered in the yellow-glowed room:<br /> Daisy: “Will you still love me when my skin grows old and saggy?” ( 我要是成了黄脸婆你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> Benjamin: “Will you still love me when I have acne? When I wet the bed? When I'm afraid of what's under the stairs?” ( 等我老到脸上长满青春痘，老到尿床，老到连楼梯下有什么都怕，你还会爱我吗?)<br /> <br /> The pictures, music and language all revealed the happy and loving life of the two people. In general, the film is based on the narration of a diary. In the film, the dialogue between the present and the narration in the diary is carried out alternately. In addition, the old pictures, the statement of time and the voice change of the narrator are used to make the past and the present change clearly and naturally, and they are applied in the formal level.<br /> <br /> ''' 3.2.4 On Expression Level '''<br /> <br /> Zhang Fulu believes that the expression level can be divided into language media and non-verbal media. In the language media level, he thinks that the main forms of meaning communication are sound symbols and writing symbols. For films, subtitles and subtitle translation belong to writing symbols. In the process of translating subtitles, translators should fully consider the media characteristics such as voice size, intonation strength, tone, font size and layout, which play a very important role in the expression of films. The subtitles of the film are at the bottom of the screen. Except for the notes, the translation takes up a little bit more space, and most of the subtitles in the source language and the target language occupy one line, which ensures that the audience has enough time to read the information. Non verbal media include communicators' body and nonverbal means (mainly tools and environment). Nowadays, with the progress of science and technology, movies can be played in cinemas, networks and various electronic media, and the media for appreciation is rich.<br /> <br /> Throughout the film, the dying old Daisy's tone is slow and strenuous on the bed. With the development of the story, light or heavy, a TV beside the bed broadcast the change of Hurricane weather activity, and the weather change also reflects Daisy's condition at that time.<br /> Finally, Daisy hugged Benjamin, a baby in her arms, and watched him invert the end of her life. The dying Daisy dictated in a low voice and intermittent tone: &quot;he looked at me and Iknow that he knew who I was.&quot;. (他看着我，那一刻，我知道他认出来了) The sound of the hurricane alarm suddenly sounded, sharp and obvious, and the picture of the staff of the hospital of traditional Chinese medicine was flustered, symbolizing that Benjamin's reversal clock was also washed away, and Daisy finally passed away. The sound, picture and words of the whole film are closely linked. It tells the story of eternal love, though limited in time, which is extremely shocking and thought-provoking.<br /> <br /> The translator of the film tries his best to translate various modes such as discourse, picture, sound and music. The translation strategy is mainly free translation, and the subtitle processing is simple and appropriate, so that the audience can have a good understanding of the limited time in the film, only the eternal knowledge of love. Taking the film subtitle of &quot;rejuvenation&quot; as an example, this paper analyzes the characteristics of subtitle translation from the aspects of culture, context, content and expression, hoping to better understand multimodal discourse analysis and free translation strategies in film subtitle translation.<br /> <br /> ='''Machine Translation'''=<br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory - A Case Study of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈永相 Chen Yongxiang&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine (hereinafter referred to as TCM), the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, boasts the favorable curative effect and a good reputation across the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative” and national economy, TCM has been playing an increasingly significant role in international trade, attracting more attention of foreign medical experts and consumers. As the essential attachment of a medicine, medicine instructions belong to the genre of practical writing, characterized by the unique language structure and stylistic features, guiding doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicines, such as usage and dosage, actions and indications, contraindication, etc. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. Due to the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, however, plenty of problems appear on the C-E translation of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> According to Adaptation Theory proposed by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. Translation is a cross-cultural communication activity, which involves language usage and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so on between source language and target language, and to adapt with different contexts, mentalities, cultures, etc. so as to achieve the ideal goal, from which the Adaptation Theory can be applied exactly into the study of translation. This paper will apply Adaptation Theory, therefore, as the theoretical framework, to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. Employing the core concepts and investigating aspects of Adaptation Theory, the author tries to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine instruction translation, Adaptation Theory, Yulin Pharmaceutical Company <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 中药是我国医药文化的瑰宝，有着良好的疗效和口碑。随着“一带一路倡议”的稳步推进和中国经济的平稳发展，中药药品在国际贸易中所占比重日益增加，得到了国外许多医疗专家和消费者的关注。药品说明书作为药品的重要附件，是一种实用文体，有其自身的语言结构和文体特点，能够指导医生与患者了解和熟悉药品作用、用法用量、适应症和禁忌等。而中医药品说明书英译作为中医英译的一个重要组成部分，其英译质量决定了药品能否被医生和患者正确理解和使用，以及中医药产品的国际贸易繁荣。然而，由于英语和汉语之间存在着不可避免的语言和文化差异，中医药品说明书英译依然存在着较大问题。<br /> <br /> 比利时语用学家维索尔伦提出的语言顺应论认为，语言的使用是一个不断作出选择和顺应的动态过程。翻译作为一项跨文化交际活动，需要在源语与目的语之间，就用词、翻译策略等方面进行选择，对不同语境、心理、文化等层面作出顺应。可见顺应论适用于翻译研究。因此本文以顺应论作为理论依据，通过对广西玉林制药公司中医药品说明书英译进行分析研究，运用顺应论的核心概念和研究视角，进一步探讨如何更好地翻译中医药品说明书。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 中医药品说明书翻译，顺应论，玉林制药公司<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''1.Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''1.1 Research Background of the Study'''====<br /> <br /> As the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, TCM has been through a profound history in China. Since “The Belt and Road Initiative” proposed for the first time, as an indispensable part in medical industry, TCM has tapped the potential of development opportunity to boost its reform so as to better make inroads into the international market. Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a renowned TCM pharmacy enterprise mainly engaged in R&amp;D, production and sales of Chinese medicines, one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties. In 2015, Consun Pharmaceutical Group Lt. has successfully brought partial share of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, which, in return, brought opportunities for the IPO and industrialization of the company. As the essential attachment of TCM medicine, the instructions guide doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicine correctly, which closely relates to consumer safety and are of great significance. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. The high quality translation versions of TCM instructions will accelerate TCM to enter into the international market, to occupy more competitive market share, and to better popularize the excellent TCM culture. <br /> <br /> ===='''1.2 Significance and Purpose of the Study'''==== <br /> <br /> It is noticed that studies and researches on TCM at home and abroad have boomed since the ancient Silk Road period. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from experts. Because of the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, a lot of problems appear on the translation of TCM instructions. And against such a backdrop, there are still no settled rules or translation standards to be applied and favored in the translation of TCM instructions, hence it’s quite essential to touch upon the area of C-E translation of TCM instructions in a more comprehensive and systematic way so as to find out more effective methods and strategies for the instruction translation. Adaptation Theory is proposed by Jef Verschueren, he thinks that language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation is a type of language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so forth between source language and target language. A good translation version of TCM instructions can appropriately guide both doctors and patients to understand the pharmacological functions, usage and dosage, actions and indications and contraindications of medicines. Therefore, the quality of instruction translation has a direct impact on whether TCM can be favored and obtained a good reputation among overseas medical industry and consumers. This paper studies the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, trying to take the Company as a case study to further discuss how to translate TCM instructions in a better way. <br /> <br /> ==='''2.Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 Features of TCM Instructions'''====<br /> <br /> Being the essential attachment of a medicine, the instruction contains important information that explains what the medicine is, how to take it and the effects after taking it, guiding doctors and patients to understand and use medicines properly. It closely relates to consumers’ safety. Thus, TCM instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. However, the information covered in most TCM instructions is drug name, ingredients, actions and indications, usage and dosage, while adverse effects, precautions, pharmacological effects, drug interaction, contraindications etc. are quite simple, even without any description of these items, failing to meet the requirement of international standards. <br /> <br /> Besides, due to the profound history of TCM developed in China, most of the unique TCM languages derived from the abstract philosophical concepts of ancient times remain being used until now, say, classical style and semi-classical style, which are accepted and favored by the TCM community, causing difficulties in translating them into English. And hence four-character structure, vagueness and ambiguity of the language, and no equivalence between Chinese and English are the main features of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> The four-character structure is concise but comprehensive in meaning, implying the extensive and abstract medical concepts of TCM. The tradition of using it to describe the symptoms and ways of treatment in TCM hasn’t been changed over time but continued to be applied and advocated in modern society. The TCM instructions are difficult to understand and translate, for the peculiar traits of TCM language, as well as the technical terms coming, directly or indirectly, from the abstract medical concepts of TCM, characterized by the unique treatment method as a whole in human body, and seeking to find answers and balance principles in nature to explain the causes and treatments of diseases, which is usually not the literal one but beyond cognition. In addition, there are gaps and non-equivalence between TCM and Western Medicine. Most TCM instruction translations apply technical terms from Latin in terms of ingredients, but adopt simple words and phrases for describing actions and indications, since the TCM language with Chinese characteristics finds no match in English. Ordinary people, as well as translators, who do not have the professional knowledge may have great difficulty in understanding and translating them. <br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Studies of TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine wasn’t legal once in the United States until 1975, as many scholars and experts were skeptical about its medical theory and way of treatment. Since the establishment of China, the government has been devoting great efforts to the recognition and popularization of TCM across the world. And from then on, a lot of studies and researches based on the translation of TCM have been published at home and abroad. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from the experts. In view of the special wording and the abstract theory of TCM, the translation of TCM instructions is of great difficulty and complexity. <br /> <br /> Currently, the translation of TCM instructions on the market, to a large extent, lacks readability and translation standards. Against such a backdrop, some scholars have striven to make some breakthroughs yet. Nigel Wiseman (2000) systematically elaborates the concept of “oriented by the source” in his dissertation, Translation of Chinese Medicine Terms: A Source Oriented Approach, in terms of the translation of TCM language, believing that the translation of TCM, as well as the instructions, should respect the original style and keep it in the target text as much as possible. In 2002, Translation of TCM Directions (《中医药说明书的英译》) written by Ouyang Lifeng (2002) put forward some practical methods for the translation of TCM instructions. He advocates “naturalization” and “readjustment”, namely, adaptation strategy, should be applied in translation, and if necessary, some additions and deletions are acceptable on the basis of faithfulness to the original text. Guided by Professor Ouyang, his student, Xiaoqiong, applies Peter Newmark’s Communicative Approach in her master’s thesis, On the Translation of TCM Booklets of Direction-The Communicative Approach (2008) to study the features of TCM instructions, suggesting that different approaches should be adopted regarding to different parts of the instructions. On translation Strategies of Chinese Medicine Instruction from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches written by Luo Haiyan (2009) conducts a relatively profound research under the guidance of Functionalist Approach in terms of each part of TCM instructions. She finds out the translation of TCM instructions is not very identical and comprehensible. Cao Qing’s thesis, A Study on Translation of Chinese Pharmaceutical Instruction (2011) states the common problems of translation instructions and advises three translation methods, namely literal translation, conversion and free translation under the Skopos Theory. There are still other scholars aiming at one aspect or another to further study the translation of TCM instructions, all of which exert a significant impact for references in translating TCM instructions. From the perspectives of Zhang Mengjing (1995), Ning Zhishou and Liu Cuiwei (1997), and Fu Wei (2006), the current TCM instruction translation lacks faithfulness, readability and incompatibility with conventional norms, suggesting that more attention should be paid in this field. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn from the above literature that studies on TCM instruction translation can be conducted from a wide scope. For the great distinction between western and Chinese culture, and the abstract medical principles of TCM, much has to be done to make the translation of TCM instructions more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> ==='''3.Adaptation Theory Applied in Traditional Chinese Medicine Instruction Translation of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company'''===<br /> <br /> From what has been mentioned above, as the important attachment of TCM, the instructions provide the correct and detailed medical information to doctors and consumers, guiding them to take medicine scientifically and properly, and hence the medicine instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. As one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a famous brand in the whole country, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties, and the buyout also boosts the process of IPO and reform. Through observation of the C-E translation instructions of TCM for foreigners and export, hence there are some certain instructive significance for the translation of TCM instructions. Because of the special characteristics of TCM instructions and the limited information included in the instructions of the company, this part tries to analyze the C-E translation instructions from the perspective of Adaptation Theory, mainly employing the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Contextual Correlates of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> As introduced earlier, according to Verschueren, the ingredients of contextual correlates of adaptability largely include the physical world, social world, and mental world. However, the author will mainly concentrates on the adaptation to the mental world and social world due to the limited materials collected. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.1 Adaptation to the Mental World'''=====<br /> <br /> Regarding the mental world, it involves the personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations, intentions and so on of both sides of language users. In the translation process, translators should take target readers’ mind into account, not just concentrating on personal mental world or literally translating the original text from one language to another language without any adaptation. <br /> <br /> Basically, consumers of drugs tend to rely on more renowned brands when facing a bunch of medicines displayed on the shelves. The key to attract their attention not only counts on the high quality of TCM, but also on the instructions with rigorous standards, concise specification and overall comprehensibility, delivering a sense of authority and credibility. <br /> <br /> To begin with, the name of drugs is the most direct information delivered to the consumers. Thus, a good name of the TCM can catch the eyes of buyers in the very beginning. “正骨水” is the most famous and important product of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, however, the translation of its name in the instruction simply applies transliteration and Chinese Pinyin, namely, “Zheng Gu Shui” , which fails to adapt with the mental world of target readers. Apparently, Pinyin isn’t the way of expression that they are familiar with. Translators should consider their mental expectation and make adaptation with their familiar ways of expression. In that point, “Bone-setting Liquor” would be a better name for the medicine. “Bone-setting” means the medicine is effective for the symptoms of bone problems, and “liquor” implies the ingredients involved alcohol and other irritating ingredients so that consumers can be aware of the precautions and avoid using it on fragile mucous membranes and anabrotic wounds. Also, the same type of medicine can apply the same way of translation, such as, “金装正骨水” can be translated to “Golden Bone-setting Liquor”, and “极品正骨水” is rendered as “Superb Bone-setting Liquor”. Such a name conveys the correct medical information to consumers and better adapt to their thinking patterns. <br /> <br /> Another example is “睡安胶囊”, the translation version is “Shui’an Jiaonang” . Obviously, it will confuse foreigners since they don’t recognize Chinese Pinyin in their cognitive levels. Translators should at least use “capsule” to indicate the medicine is some type of capsules effective for the sleeping problems. A well-recognized name will arouse attention and interest among consumers, attracting them to purchase the medicine. In order to adapt with their mental expectation and intention, as Ouyang (2002) advocates, naturalization or domesticating translation can be applied in translation. “Sleep Mate” or “Insomnia Killer” can better attract their attention and adapt with their beliefs and cognitive levels. In English, “mate” is a common word, which will be more acceptable and natural in such combination, and “killer” combined with “insomnia” implies the meaning of solving the insomnia problems, which is also more suitable and adaptable with their emotions and motivations. <br /> <br /> A good name of the medicine can not only imply the function of the medicine, conveying the essential information to customers, but also can draw their attention and arouse their desires to purchase the medicine. Meeting the demand and preference with the mental world of target people is also one of the requirements of medicine instructions. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, if transliteration or simply adopting Chinese Pinyin to translate the names of medicines will confuse customers and cause misunderstanding, adaptation is required, and not just words, but also translation strategies should be taken consideration when making adaptation. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.2 Adaptation to the Social World'''=====<br /> <br /> Verschueren (2000:91) states that there is no principled limit to the range of social factors that linguistic choices are inter-adaptable with. Basically, social settings and culture play a significant role in the process of translation. What distinguishes TCM from Western Medicine mainly lies on the cultural differences. Language is the carrier of culture, and the cultural differences can be embodied in different languages, and then shown and reflected in society. Instruction translation, as the cross-cultural communication activity, is influenced largely by cultural differences in different social worlds. Followings are the very typical translation examples to illustrate the point:<br /> <br /> Example 1(感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> Source Text (ST): 用于感冒或流感发热，头痛鼻塞, 伤风咳嗽，咽痛，肢痛<br /> <br /> Target Text (TT): Used for the treatment of cold, flu and fever, headache and nasal congestion, wind damage cough, angina and melalgia<br /> <br /> Revised Text (RT): Used for cold, flu, fever, headache, snuffle, cough, sore throat and pain in muscles<br /> <br /> Traditionally, “伤风” in Chinese means getting cold because of the invasion of “风” into the human body. “风” is actually one of the six exogenous pathogenic factors according to the medical theory of TCM, which cannot be explained from the perspective of Western Medicine. In western society, people have no concept that the natural phenomenon, say, “风” or “火”, will cause diseases in the human body. So the revised text deletes this term with TCM characteristics to avoid ambiguity and makes it more natural and understandable in English. In addition, most common patients who seek to buy medicines in pharmacies might not have the specific knowledge of medical field due to different social settings and backgrounds, thus, “angina” and “melalgia” might be beyond recognition and acceptance. Western world highlights the importance of brevity and conciseness in their society, and they place emphasis on simplification and efficiency, seldom using the very technical terms in their lives. Such social settings and cultural differences must be considered so as to make adaptation when translating. Besides, “nasal congestion” is the word-for-word translation and may cause misunderstanding among foreigners. So the revised text adopts “snuffle” and “sore throat” to indicate the meaning of “鼻塞” and “咽痛”, applying these simple words to make adaptation with cultural differences in different social worlds, and renders “melalgia” into “pain in muscles” to better deliver the meaning of “肢痛”. <br /> <br /> Example 2 (治咳枇杷露)<br /> <br /> ST: 治疗儿童伤风呃逆，咳嗽痰盛<br /> <br /> TT: Used for children’s wind-damage hiccup, cough and exuberant phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Used for cold, hiccup, cough and sputum in children<br /> <br /> Similarly, example 2 also translates “ 伤风” into “ wind damage”, which is not appropriate in such description. As mentioned above, additions and deletions, if necessary, can be applied to make adaptation in translation. So the revised text deletes “wind damage” and “exuberant phlegm”, adopting noun coordination and making it more readable and adaptable to the social world of target readers. <br /> <br /> Literal translation of instructions is not always the first option in the C-E translation of instructions. For translators, the first thing they should consider is to be faithful to the original meaning of the text, not the text itself. They need to make adaptation to the target readers’ social world, for instance, social status, social settings, social background, cultural differences, etc., striving to make the translation concise and easy to understand in their society. Amid such different social worlds, translators must bear in mind to render localization of different cultures to make adaptation without causing ambiguity and misunderstanding while successfully keeping and delivering the implied meanings as much as possible.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:26, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 Structural Objects of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translationn'''====<br /> <br /> According to Verschueren, linguistic choice-making takes place at all levels of structure that shows variability of any kind (2000:15). As indicated in Part two, for the reason of limited information covered in the TCM instructions, the materials collected from the company would be more meaningful if concentrating on the lexical level of the actions and indications of the instructions, which exactly features the typical four-character structure and language traits of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.1 Adaptation to the Lexical Level'''=====<br /> <br /> Differences in lexical level between TCM and Western Medicine largely reflect on terminologies and descriptions of diseases. The four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning. Currently, most translation versions of instructions are literally word-for-word translation and transliteration, failing to deliver the correct meanings implied in those TCM terminologies and words and lacking readability and authenticity. Here are some typical translation examples of the actions and indications of the medicines in Yulin Pharmaceutical Company:<br /> <br /> Example 3(蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 小便频数<br /> <br /> TT: Frequent urination<br /> <br /> Example 4 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 祛风除湿 <br /> <br /> TT: Dispel wind and eliminated dampness<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve rheumatic pain<br /> <br /> Example 5 (珍黄丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 消肿止痛<br /> <br /> TT: Ease a swelling and relieve pain<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve swelling pain<br /> <br /> Chinese four-character structure in TCM language is concise in form but comprehensive in meaning, and most of them are the causal relationship. &quot;祛风除湿&quot; is a typical example. “风湿” is a disease caused by the invasion of “风” into the human body, if &quot;风邪&quot; cannot be removed from the body soon, &quot;湿&quot; will appear and gather together near the joints, causing diseases and pains in joints according to the medical theory of TCM. So, &quot;祛风&quot; is actually the result of &quot;除湿&quot;, and vice versa. And the example of “消肿止痛”, it is usually can be explained that pain is caused by swelling as the result of illness or injury. Once the swelling disappears, so does the pain. According to the example 3, &quot;小便频数&quot; is translated into “Frequent urination”, using the structure of &quot;adjective+noun&quot; in English, which is concise in form and easy to understand. So the revised text of example 4 and 5 can also adopt such structure and translate into &quot;Relieve rheumatic pain&quot; and &quot;Relieve swelling pain&quot;, not only implying the causal relationship between the lines, concise and simple, but also avoiding translating repetitive meaning. <br /> <br /> Example 6 (感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> ST: 止咳化痰<br /> <br /> TT: Suppress cough and transform phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve cough and sputum<br /> <br /> Example 7 (乌军治胆片)<br /> <br /> ST: 疏肝解郁 <br /> <br /> TT: To course the liver and resolve depression<br /> <br /> RT: Relieve Qi stagnation in liver<br /> <br /> From the above two examples, &quot;止咳化痰&quot; is translated into &quot;Suppress cough and transform phlegm&quot;, and &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is “To course the liver and resolve depression”. It is noticed that simply employing the literal meaning of words to translate TCM instructions doesn’t work, especially in such medical context. Translators cannot ignore the relationship between the words and the context then make translation of words in isolation. &quot;化痰' means the symptom of sputum would be relieved and cured soon after taking the medicine, and hence here, the key words are &quot;咳&quot; and &quot;痰&quot;, not the verbs. So the translation of &quot;Relieve cough and sputum&quot; would be more comprehensible and readable. And the example of &quot;疏肝解郁&quot; is actually another one that can be evidenced the casual relationship in TCM language. &quot;疏&quot; and &quot;解&quot; deliver the same meaning in such context, and &quot;肝郁&quot; is not the meaning of &quot;depression of liver&quot; but the irregular circulation and stagnation of the abstract &quot;Qi&quot; in liver from the perspective of TCM. So translating into &quot;Relieve Qi stagnation in liver&quot; retains the original meaning of Chinese and makes it more acceptable. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.2 Summary'''=====<br /> <br /> Despite of the characteristics of four-character structure in TCM language, the phenomenon of repetitive meaning implied between the lines is quite common. For translators, they should fully understand what meanings indicated between those words and phrases prior to translating them into another language. According to Adaptation Theory, language has the properties of variability, negotiability and adaptability. Facing abundant choices of words in English, translators should choose the most appropriate words and expressions after negotiation to make adaptation to the lexical level, the structure, the context, etc. preferred in English.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, translators should make linguistic choices not just at the lexical level, but also the syntactic level, textual level, rhetorical level etc. literally all levels of linguistic structures. Due to the limited information contained in TCM instructions of the company, this part mainly develops from the adaptation of lexical level, finding out that most translations apply literal translation with abusive usage of words, failing to deliver the correct meaning implied in TCM language and lacking readability and authenticity.<br /> <br /> With the great progresses of TCM over years, Yin(阴) and Yang(阳), Wuxing(五行) and Qi(气), these basic concepts in TCM have been accepted and recognized among foreigners. It can be adopted directly when translating the TCM instructions. With regard to the verbs in TCM language, literal translation sometimes might arouse skepticism and confusion of target readers and fail to deliver the correct meaning and the effectiveness of medicines. Translators should adapt the wording preference in target language and try to naturalize the translation but avoid abusive usage of words. Thus translators in this field should be equipped with excellent bilingual ability, sufficient background knowledge of TCM and Western Medicine, and the understanding of linguistics.<br /> <br /> ===='''3.3 Dynamics of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> As stated above, translation is a process of dynamic adaptation and involves the process of structural reconstruction and meaning regeneration. According to Verschueren (2000:157) “...strategies are always involved in any type of communication.” It means not just linguistic choices, but also translation strategies are dynamic because of different time, context and structure of both sides of language usage and each of them varies in line with relative factors when language users make choices. <br /> <br /> The dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation can be embodied from different words, phrases and translation strategies, even different languages applied in the medicine instructions. As for the part of ingredients, the instructions of the company employ Latin to indicate each TCM, for instance: Radix Notoginseng (三七), Herba Artemisiae Scopariae (茵陈), Fructus Lycii (枸杞), Poria (茯苓), Radix Codonopsis (党参), Rhizoma Dioscoreae (山药). It is usually the part where doctors and experts who have the specific knowledge of this field would be interested in, and using Latin to translate the TCM is the international standard of naming medicines, hence it is a way of adaptation. While next to the part of actions and indications, it resorts to different words and phrases in English to describe the indications of each medicine. English is apparently a better option for its universality and compatibility that common people can easily understand what the medicine is, and how to take it. Such adaptation to each part of the instruction in language shows the dynamics of adaptability in TCM instruction translation. Following are some examples to show the dynamics of adaptability in translation: <br /> <br /> Example 8 (正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To remove obstruction from collateralls and channels and relieve muscular contracture<br /> <br /> Example 9 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 舒筋活络<br /> <br /> TT: To relax and activate tendons<br /> <br /> As for the translation of “舒筋活络”, example 8 and example 9 employ different words to deliver the meaning. The former is detailed and elaborated, delivering the original meaning implied in the lines while the latter is relatively simple, only using “tendons” to express the meaning of “筋络”. Besides the different specifications of “正骨水” and “金装正骨水”, the ingredients of these two medicines also show a wide difference, contributing to the different words and methods adopted in the same description of indications. From the above examples, it can be noticed, to some extent, that translators go through negotiation and then make dynamic adaptation with regard to different medicines. <br /> <br /> Example 10 (金装正骨水)<br /> <br /> ST: 旺盛局部血液循环, 增强细胞活力<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen partial blood circulation and improve vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 11 (筋骨王)<br /> <br /> ST: 改善局部血液循环，增强细胞活力。<br /> <br /> TT: To accelerate local blood circulation, increase vitality of cells<br /> <br /> Example 10 and example 11 are actually delivering the same meaning, but they change the words and phrases to adapt with two different medicines. With the variability and adaptability of language, the meaning of “增强” can be expressed by “improve” and “increase”, and translators employs “partial” and “local” to express the meaning of “局部”. As for the similar actions and indications, the translations of which vary in different medicines, demonstrating that translation is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. <br /> <br /> Example 12 (睡安胶囊)<br /> <br /> ST: 清心除烦<br /> <br /> TT: To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation<br /> <br /> Example 13 (蛤蚧补肾丸)<br /> <br /> ST: 壮阳益肾<br /> <br /> TT: To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney<br /> <br /> Example 12 and example 13 apply free translation to deliver the meaning of actions and indications of these two medicines. “清心除烦” is rendered into “To put your mind in a complete state of relaxation”, and “To strengthen male sexual potency and boost the kidney” is more like the paraphrase of “壮阳益肾”. Both the translations are much easier to understand and adapt to consumers’ mind in a better way. Unlike the others, the above translations avoid literal translation, which will be too demanding and abstract for both sides of translators and target people, and they resort to free translation to convey the correct pharmacological actions, simplifying the instructions and making adaptation with the translation strategies to better resolve the cultural differences. <br /> <br /> Translating a TCM instruction can never be a mechanical activity of making translation from one language to another; rather, it entails dynamic adaptation to the differences between source language and target language. According to the Adaptation Theory, language use is a dynamic process of linguistic choice-making, which should adapt to contextual correlates and structural objects of language. As a type of more complex language use related to different languages, C-E translation of TCM instructions is a dynamic process of adaptation to different contexts and linguistic structures. However, the dynamic linguistic choices require language users to go through negotiation with themselves when facing abundant choices to eventually choose the most appropriate forms and strategies in accordance with different contexts and linguistic structures so as to fulfill the communicative intention. In other words, translators should avoid abusive usage of variability and adaptability of language, being faithful to the original meaning of texts to meet the standard of translation as much as possible.<br /> <br /> ==='''4.Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Being a significant carrier of TCM information, the instruction is a bridge that links the excellent TCM theories and effectiveness to the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative”, TCM will be learned and used across the world at a much larger scale. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, this paper employs the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, mainly concentrating on the adaptation to the mental world, social world, and the adaptation to the lexical level to study the C-E translation of the TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn that the C-E translation of TCM instructions of the Company is not that satisfactory after research. It doesn’t deal with the cultural differences between TCM and Western Medicine properly. Literal translation and abusive usage of words frequently appear in the C-E translation of instructions, failing to deliver the correct meaning and lacking readability and credibility, having a bad impact on the brand image. While at same time, there are some places worthy to be praised from the perspective of Adaptation Theory. It shows the dynamics of adaptability in the C-E translation of TCM instructions, which can be demonstrated through the various words, phrases, strategies applied in the process of translation. Still, much work has to be done to improve the quality of translation and make it more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of Adaptation Theory, as a way of language use, translation involves the continuous making of linguistic choices. Not only words, language forms and structures, but also strategies should be taken into consideration when translating. Translators should adapt with the differences between English and Chinese, and meanwhile, pay attention to the features of TCM instructions, avoiding some obvious mistakes to achieve the ultimate goal of keeping the original meaning of TCM while delivering the accurate and rigorous medical information to foreigners. So the author advocates that adaptation is required during the process of translation, combined with transliteration and literal translation for some simple and basic concepts in TCM that have been well-recognized by foreigners, free translation and domesticating translation should be adopted with regard to the cultural differences in translation, if necessary, additions and deletions are also appreciated on the basis of being faithful to the original meaning of texts. <br /> <br /> Unfortunately, due to the limited materials collected and the incompetence of the author, the analysis of this paper only applies the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability of Adaptation Theory, failing to study in a more comprehensive way. In addition, this paper only conducts the research in studying the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, failing to reach at a larger scale. Last but not least, there are still some drawbacks and imperfections in Adaptation Theory, which the author fails to touch upon for lacking of knowledge and experience. Still, the author is willing to take all comment and advice.<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> [1] As Homby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [Z]. The Commercial Press, Oxford University, extended eighth edition, 2014. <br /> <br /> [2] Bhatia, V. K. Analyzing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings [M]. London: Longman, 1993. <br /> <br /> [3] Carl James. Error in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [4] Fischbach, Henry. Translation and Medicine [M]. American Translators Association Scholarly Monograph Series, 1998. <br /> <br /> [5] Nigel Wiseman. Translation of Chinese medicine terms: A source oriented approach [D].University of Exeter, 2000. <br /> <br /> [6] Verschueren J. Pragmatic as a Theory of Linguistic Adaptation [R]. International Pragmatic Association, 1987. <br /> <br /> [7] Verschueren, J. Understanding Pragmatics [M]. London: Edward Arnold Ltd., 1999;Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000. <br /> <br /> [8] 曹情. 中文药品说明书的翻译[D]. 湖南：南华大学, 2011. <br /> <br /> [9] 傅微. 语篇视点理论在中药说明书翻译中的运用[D]. 广西：广西大学外国语学院,2006. <br /> <br /> [10] 罗海燕. 功能主义翻译理论关照下的中药说明书的翻译[D]. 江苏：南京中医药大学, 2009. <br /> <br /> [11] 李照国. 中医基本名词术语英译国际标准化研究[M]. 上海科学技术出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> [12] 马邦新. 英文药品说明书的翻译[J]. 中国科技翻译, 1998(3): 16-18. <br /> <br /> [13] 宁之寿, 刘翠微. 也谈药品说明书的翻译[J]. 上海科技翻译, 1997(2): 31-33. <br /> <br /> [14] 欧阳利锋. 中医药说明书的英译[J]. 中国科技翻译, 2002, 15(2): 17-20. <br /> <br /> [15] 宋志平. 翻译:选择与顺应——语用顺应论视角下的翻译研究[J]. 中国翻译,2004(2): 21-25. <br /> <br /> [16] 肖琼. 中医药说明书的翻译[D]. 广东：广东外语外贸大学, 2008.<br /> <br /> [17] 袁斌业. 语言顺应论对翻译的启示[J]. 四川外国语学院院报, 2009(9), 111-113. <br /> <br /> [18] 张梦井. 药品说明书的英译问题[J]. 中国科技翻译, 1995(2): 6-9. <br /> <br /> [19] 周书梅. 顺应论视角下的翻译研究[J]. 山东省农业管理干部学院学报, 2013, 30(5): 138-140. <br /> <br /> --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling 202070080602==<br /> <br /> ===Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? ===<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Science and technology constitute a primary productive force. In the contemporary era, with the continuous development of science and technology, artificial intelligence has shown more and more mighty strength, and machine translation has also been derived in the field of translation. In this regard, many people are beginning to worry that machine translation will one day replace human translation. When it comes to me, science and technology is people-oriented, and the continuous development of it aims at servimg mankind in a better standard. Therefore, it is not realistic to separate science and technology from humanities. The appropriate way to solve this dilemma is to integrate the two to achieve the perfectly qualitative change of &quot;1 + 1 &gt; 2&quot;. This paper will first analyze the cons and pros of human translation and machine translation, and then explore the development of computer-aided translation based on the combination of the two types above and the progress should be made in different sectors among our society.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Human Translation, Machine Translation, CAT, Compatibility<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 科技是第一生产力。在当代，随着科学技术的不断发展，人工智能展现出越来越强大的实力，在翻译领域也相应地衍生出了机器翻译。对此许多人都开始担心机器翻译终有一天会取代人工翻译。在笔者看来，科技以人为本，科学技术的不断发展是为了更好的为人类服务。因而将科技与人文割裂开来的观点是并不现实的，最好的解决办法应是将二者结合起来，实现1+1＞2的完美质变。本文将分析人工翻译与机器翻译各自的优势和劣势，进而探讨二者相结合的后的计算机辅助翻译的发展和社会各个层面应该做出的改进。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 人工翻译，机器翻译，计算机辅助翻译，融合<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> In these years, artificial intelligence has experienced a skipping development and more and more advanced technologies have been applied in our daily life. For example, many factories have introduced some robots to replace the repetitive works done by ordinary workers before. In addition, some restaurants have adopted robots to send the dishes to guests, etc. More and more cases in our life demonstrate the gigantic strength of science and technology. Panicked by this reality, a constantly growing number of people are worrying that they will lose their job one day when the artificial intelligence are more practical than them. This anxiety is also quite common in translation industry. In this field , human translation and machine translation are the main two kinds of translation method. The former merely rely on the single person to do tranlation, while the latter is based on the vast corpus and developed technique. Since this enormous contrast, some people put forward a question that “Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation?” The answer is absolutely “no”. Actually, these two approaches are not incompatible. Instead, they both have their own advantages and disadvantages and through analysis,we can find that they can remedy their shortbacks by learning the valuable aspects from the other so as to form a “perfect pitch”. In other words,they are complementary to each other. <br /> <br /> Based on these viewpoints, first of all , the pros and cons of human translation and machine translation will be displayed one by one and then the new type of translation---computer-aided translation will be analyzed in detail. At last,confronted with the constantly changing world there are somes personal suggestions for those who work in the translation industry or those who are preparing to march into this field as well as government, colleges and universities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Pros and Cons of Human Translation and Machine Translation===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Human Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1 The Advantages =====<br /> <br /> As the traditional main force of translation, mankind own some irreplaceable edges. <br /> <br /> Firstly, they master a sordid foundation about the translation work, including extensive vocabularies, complex grammars, the construction of sentences and so on and so forth. Therefore, it’s hardly for them to make such mistakes.<br /> <br /> Secondly, due to the advanced education they have received, a great number of them has an encyclopedic knowledge about many fileds. Furthmore, during the years of learning foreign languages, they have acquired not only the language knowledge but also the histories and cultures of these countries so that they are able to handle with the problems of cultural differences in translation very well.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, people have an capacity of rich emotion and thoughtful mind. When facing with some obscure translation materials, at the beginning they will make a transformation about it and then translate it with their understanding yet maintaining the main idea of the original texts. <br /> <br /> What is more, people are able to summarize the experiences and lessons in the process of translation and then form their own theory. Until now, there have existed a bunch of translation theories to guide the subsequent translators. Such as “faithfulness”(translation should convey the content of the original faithfully and accurately), “expressiveness”(smooth and fluent translation) and “elegance”(the translation should be exquisite) by Yanfu, &quot;functional equivalence&quot; by Eugene Nida, skopos theory by Hans Vermeer, etc.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Disadvantages=====<br /> <br /> However, the volume of brain is limited and it is impossible for mankind to memorize all the things in the world. Sometimes, they may forget what they have translated and in result cause a repetition of the same work they have done before.<br /> <br /> It is showed from some data that the output of human translation is 2000 words per person in eight hours(Chen, 30). Actually that speed is a little bit slow especially when there are strenuous tasks waiting for them. Besides, editors have to check and revise their translations which is quite time-wasting.<br /> Generally speaking, most translators work for governments, institutions, companies or some rich indivuduals. And right now in the translation market ,the standard price are several hundred Yuan per thousand characters. And the wage of intepreting is even more expensive. As a result, ordinary people won’t bother to hire a private translator. Under some circumstances, human translation can’t give a hand to the needed immediately. For instance, when Chinese people are travelling in the foreign countries, they can’t understand the words of those foreigners. At that time, an opportune and cheap translation tool is more desirable.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Machine Translation====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Superiorities=====<br /> <br /> In the condition mentioned above, machine translation can meet tourists' needs perfectly. There are many translation applications in the app store, just like Baidu Translation, Google Translation, Youdao Translation, Hujiang Translation and so on. All of them are free to use and able to translate the language you input in just 1 second. And these applications have covered dozens of foreign languages so as to be the optimizing choice for many people. <br /> <br /> Besides the adoptation in daily life, machine translation has also been utilized in some important conferences. &quot;Translation headset&quot; is one of the most popular translation tools. It is usually combined with a smartphone application to translate the foreign language it heard to users. &quot;After decades of research, we have created an algorithmic framework to recognize language patterns in the same way as the human brain (neural network),&quot; said Andrew Ochoa, CEO of Waverly labs. By combining it with speech recognition technology, we have greatly improved the accuracy of translation. &quot; Therefore, Wearable translation machines made by companies like Waverly labs are really popular at conferences(Huan, 17).<br /> <br /> With the development of science and technology as well as the artificial intelligence, the system of machine translation has been polished step by step. Nowadays, it has built a huge corpus which contains tens of millions of storations, and translation with high accuracy can be available in some non-literary texts. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 The Inferiorities=====<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, a lot of noticeable defects still remain in machine translation. When it comes to the literary genres just like proses, poems and ancient essays, machine translation is not familiar with the language habits of these genres so as to incline to a failure in comprehending the latent meaning of the words thus nor it can work out an outstanding translation. In most cases it will adopt the method of literal translation, which is a confusing version, which can not express the idea of source language and the images in it can be missed. Take the following poem for example:<br /> <br /> 江雪<br /> <br /> 唐 柳宗元<br /> <br /> 千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br /> <br /> 孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。<br /> <br /> '''Version of Baidu Translation'''<br /> <br /> River Snow<br /> <br /> Birds flying away,<br /> <br /> The trail of thousands of people;<br /> <br /> A lone boat with a straw hat,<br /> <br /> Fishing alone in cold river snow.<br /> <br /> '''Version of Xu Yuanchong'''<br /> <br /> Fishing in snow<br /> <br /> From hill to hill no bird in flight,<br /> <br /> From path to path no man in sight;<br /> <br /> A lonely fisherman afloat<br /> <br /> Is fishing snow in lonely boat.<br /> <br /> Between these two versions, we can easily identify which one is better. In Xu’s translation, he translates “鸟飞绝” &amp;“人踪灭”into “no bird in flight” and “no man in sight”, which get rid of the form of the original text, not only expressing the deep meaning, but also conforming to the English expression habit. In addition, due to the repetition of two sentences in the same pattern, readers can feel a strong sense of monotony. And The most splendid point is the rhyme of first two sentences and last two sentences, which makes the whole poem cathy and add the musical beauty of the translation (Dong&amp;Xue, 56). On the contrast, the first version by machine is inferior in that it fails to express the artistic conception of the poem. People can’t feel the beauty descriped in the poem. What’s worse, some readers may puzzle about its imcomplete images and incoherent sentences!<br /> <br /> Nor is this all, machines can’t grasp the rich emotions of mankind. Thus they incline to misundersand of tone and deep meaning of the words(Liang, 18). Nay, China has a broad and profound civilization and there are numerous of polysemous words in Chinese.Just like “意思”and “方便”.<br /> <br /> Example:<br /> <br /> When Zhang San send money to his leader, an interesting dialogue occurs between them. Please explain the different meanings of “意思”in the following sentences.<br /> <br /> 领导(leader)：“你这是什么意思？”(Why do you send me money?)<br /> <br /> 张三(Zhang San)：“没什么意思，意思意思。”(No special purpose, just a small gift.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这就不够意思了。” (Why don’t you tell me your true purpose?)<br /> <br /> 张三：“小意思，小意思。”(Not a big deal.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“你这人真有意思。” (It’s so interesting of you.)<br /> <br /> 张三：“其实也没有别的意思。”(I don’t have other special intentions on you.)<br /> <br /> 领导：“那我就不好意思了。”(Well, since that, I will accept your money.)<br /> <br /> Apparently, it may even be difficult for some people to get the deep meaning behind this dialogue let alone the senseless machine. Machine translation derived from science and technology are always under the control of human beings, they are always working under the manipulation of humanbeings. Mankind possess an intelligible brain and they can cteate new things according to their needs and imaginations. While machine can not achieve the rich creativity as human brain.<br /> <br /> From all the analysis above, it can be easily seen that human translation and machine translation are strongly complementary. Thus, the best way is to combine them together to learn from the other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies.<br /> <br /> ====3. Computer-Aided Translation====<br /> <br /> To meet the constantly-increasing demand of the market, a new type of translation method named Computer-aided translation (CAT) emerges at the right moment. It is the combination of the two translation methods mentioned above and can help translators complete the translation work with high quality, efficiency and ease. Different from the previous machine translation software, it does not rely on the automatic translation of the computer, but accomplishes the whole translation process with the participation of human beings. Besides, its translation speed can be twice of the human translation, with the quality being the same standard or better. CAT makes a change from the arduous human translation to an automatic process, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Preponderance of This Method====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Translation Memory=====<br /> <br /> Translation memory system, the main tool of computer-aided translation, is a &quot;language database storing the original text and its translation&quot;. During the time when people are working out a translation, CAT are also constructing a translation memory corpus in the backstage. The corpus can automatically store all the translated content. What contributes to our great convenience is that the translation memory system will automatically search the contents in the translation memory database in the later translation. The system will automatically output the translation results if the contents are the same as the sentences and language fragments in the memory corpus; and if the structures or vocabularies of the materials are similar to the sentences in the translation memory database, it will also show corresponding translation references and suggestions. In a word, translation memory system can benifit translators to utilize the contents of previous translation effectively and avoid repeated work, thus greatly improving the speed and quality of translation and saving translation time. According to the statistics, the application of translation memory system can increase the average productivity by 30%, and reduce the translation cost by 15-30%(Chen, 31).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Terminology Database=====<br /> <br /> When stepping into the translation industry and becoming a professional translator. It is inevitable that people will be confronted with materials from various fields, just like iatrology, law and science. All of these industries have a great number of terminologies. While human’s brain are limited that they can’t remember all the terms. Under this condition, a ready-made terminology database can be extremely helpful.<br /> <br /> Terminology management system provides a shortcut for translators to automatically search for terms appearing in the translation materials by displaying terms in the interface window of translation memory database or using hotkeys to search the entries in terminology database. Some programs have other hotkey combinations that enable translators to add new terms to the terminology database at the same time during translation. Some more advanced systems allow translators to check interactively or in batch if the correct source / target word combination is used within and between translation memory fragments of a given project. There is also an independent term management system, which can provide workflow functions, visual taxonomy, and be used as a term Checker (similar to a spelling checker to mark terms that are not used correctly), and can also support other types of multilingual term categories, such as pictures, videos or sounds(Quanqiubaike).<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Revise and Automatic Alignment=====<br /> <br /> After translators finish their task on CAT system, it will scan the translation and figure out the numbers of mistakes including spelling, punctuation and so on. This proofeading can make one’s translation more accurate. In addition, the aligner can divide the source text and the target text into multiple fragments and make sure the right match of them so as to build a translation memory database or other reference resources. Many aligners also enable translators to manually realign mismatched fragments (Quanqiubaike).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Current Situation====<br /> <br /> Right now, due to the tremendous market demand, CAT steps into the golden era of development. There are several popular CAT softwares such as Trados、Déjà V、TransStar、IBM Translation Manager、WordFisher、Wordfast，OmegaT, among which the most famous is the first one. Theses softwares have experienced a long period of development and are relatively mature. They make the translation progress much more convenient than before. However, CAT is not yet a consummate system right now. It has a few drawbacks to be solved. To begin with, CAT is insufficient in the construction of the corpus. Right now, most domestic CAT softwares only restore hundreds of thousands of entries in the database, which is far from enough to meet the needs of translators. In a result, many people gradually emerge the idea that CAT is not workable. People still have to rely on themselves to search the complicated documents and their work are not able to decrease as they want. Nor is this all, sometimes it can be hard for people to extract the terms they need becauese of the failure of identification and although some easy mistakes can be found out, it may be difficult for the system to check out the sophisticated errors, thus people have to spend more time to tackle with the problems in person. <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Prospect====<br /> <br /> Despite of the insufficiency of CAT right now, the defects can’t obscure the virtues. CAT has greatly emancipated the productivity of translation industry. Not only that, it has played an important role in reducing translation time, cutting down labor costs, standardizing translation documents, maintaining terminology consistency and ensuring translation quality, etc. In the near future, it is bound to become the main trend of translation development with its wide application all over the world and the functional improvement of various translation software(Chen, 32). And the problems mentioned above can be effectively polished with the advancement of science and technology.<br /> <br /> ===4. Suggestions===<br /> <br /> Facing with the unstoppable trend of artificial intelligence and CAT, should mankind repulse it or accept it? Apparently, the second attitude is more reasonable. For one thing, we can’t hinder the inexorable trend. For another thing, this is a good opportunity for people to utilize the tool to improve themselves.<br /> <br /> So, first and foremost, people should set up an open attitude, accepting CAT with an embracing mentality. It is no need to be afraid that machine will surpass human. Instead mankind is always the master of science and technology. Putting oneself on a pedestal is not a good way to make progress. And holding fast to one’s established ideas will eventually be sifted out by the era. In Qing Dynasty(1636-1912), the emperor and even the whole country praised the nation as the great kingdom. Since ancient time, China was abundant in natural resources and they were self-sufficient and self-contained. Thus the government constantly puesued a policy of “cutting off the country from the outside world”. At that time, the Western countries were going on an unprececedentedly industrial revolution. Through the renovation, the westerners immensely improved their productive forces and their countries got a rapid development. When the trend were heard by the Chinese emperor, they disdained to learn from the technology and regarded it as a diabolic trick. In this way, the gap between the East and the West was larger and larger. It was not until the breaking of the Opium War that Chinese people realized they have lagged behind a lot. Once a country was backward, it would be insulted by anyone else. After that, the Qing government was constantly forced to sign treaties of humiliating the country and forfeiting its sovereignty. The citizens were plunged into dire suffering. Under this circumstance, social conflicts intensified. Finally, the revolution of 1911 broke out and overthrew the Qing Dynasty. A feudal dynasty of more than 200 years fell down. Since the principle that lagging behind leaves one vulnerable to attacks is even applicable to a country, let alone the ordinary people. There is an old saying that “He who goes with the tide prospers, and he who goes against it dies”. The power of science and technology should never be looked down upon. The original purpose of this is to benifit the mankind rather than overthrow us. It is a powerful tool to help us scale new heights. If tranlators refuse to acquire the new skill, they will one day be weeded out by the industry.<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of market, the quality of translation talents should be improved accordingly. The span for talent training of translation majors in China is relatively short that it has only been 10 years since the establishment of Bachelor of Translation and Interpreting(BTI) and Master of Translation and Interpreting(MTI) in Colleges and universities across the country. The current situation of translation technology education in the cultivation of translation professionals is not optimistic either. First of all, compared with foreign universities and domestic universities in Hongkong, Macao and Taiwan, there is still a long way to open translation technology courses in domestic universities. According to the research by Lv Lisong and Mu Lei(37), universities in Hong Kong and Taiwan of China work closely with translation companies to provide translation technology teaching for students. However, Manchester, London University, Ottawa University of Canada and other foreign universities have established a developed system in terms of machine translation, terminology management, translation technology training curriculum, personnel training mode and translation testing, and formed an effective model. On the contrary, many domestic colleges and universities still do not pay enough attention to translation technology education, which leads to the failure of translation technology education courses in some colleges and universities. A survey of 12 universities in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Chongqing, Liaoning, Jilin, Henan, Hebei, Hubei, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Sichuan and other provinces and universities found that 11 of the 43 universities (a large part of which are &quot;985&quot; universities and &quot;211&quot; universities) with MTI have not yet opened translation technology courses, accounting for 25%. If the scope of the survey is extended to the secondary and tertiary institutions, the situation may be even worse(Zhu, 106).<br /> <br /> In this regard, the education of Chinese mainland is a little bit backward. There are several reasons for this phenomenon. To begin with, the perception of the educators and education system are rather outdated. The existing education system pay much attention to the translation and interpreting ability of students. This is a common pattern in many middle schools, high schools and even colleges and universities. As an English major student, the writer has the personal experience. During the university period. The most courses still focus on the cultivation of the basic skills of students. Although there are translation and interpreting classes every week, the normal model is that at first teachers will teach some translation theories or techniques, and then there will be some exercises for students to practice. Students are almost inaccessible to computing courses. This may resulted from the short of appropriate funds for education. China is a nation with a great number of population, and its population growth rate is also fast. As a result, the pressure on education has been relatively high. The commonly used index to measure whether a country's financial education funds are sufficient or not is the proportion of financial education funds in Gross Domestic Product(GDP). In China, this proportion has been at a low level for a long time. Although the education funds have been increasing with the continuous development of China's economy after the Reform and Opening up, yet the fact is that “There are too many monks and too little gruel.”---the funds allocated to each school are still far from enough. Take Hunan province as an example. In the year of 2000, China's financial education funds accounted for 2.87% of GDP, which failed to reach the target of 4% of GDP in 2000 as proposed in the outline of China's education reform and development. In 2003, the GDP of Hunan Province was 463.4 billion yuan, and the national financial expenditure on education was 11.179 billion yuan, accounting for 2.44% of GDP, an increase of 0.01 percentage points over the previous year. However, in 2004, the proportion of national financial education expenditure in GDP decreased to 2.34%, which is still far from the target of 4%.(Wu, 14-15).<br /> <br /> Besides the deficiency of educational funds, the allocation of it is also a cause. Usually, colleges and universities tend to use the fund to ameliorate the living condition and the construction of infrastructures, and then stuents’ scholarship and subsideies are indispensible. What is more, the salaries of teachers and all the staffs are also a big expenditure. Besides these, many colleges and universities attaches great importance to the scientific research items so that more money will be involved in these projects. Opposely, the development of the liberal arts may be less highlighted. In response to this problem, the writer deems that government and universities should both make some changes. As for government, they should carry out a policy that encourage the cultivation of computer skills; when it comes to the colleges and universities, they are supposed to enlarge the investment in the multimedia intelligent classrooms, and more techers who are sufficient in the operation of CAT should be enrolled. So far, Peking University has open a major named CAT, which is aimed to cultivate the professional talents to meet the needs of market.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Will machine translation replace human translation or not? Toward this question, the answer is an absolute “No”. As far as I am concerned, both the human tranlation and machine translation have their pros and cons. Human are able to comprehend the complex emotions in the texts and handle it with flexible expressions. In this aspect, machine can’t reach the human standard just like examples of “《江雪》”and “意思”mentioned above. Besides, mankind are familiar with the differences between various of countries so as to minimize the rate of committing a blunder, while the machine doesn’t have a brain like human’s. Their work is to translate the materials according to the superficial meanings. However, machine owns a huge volume (much more larger than human brain)which can store numerous materials and its working speed is hundreds of times of human’s(Pang, 165). In the contemporary era, translators should first of all polish their translation skills and improve their ability to flexibly use various translation strategies and skills(Yao, 201-202). The old saying goes that “It takes a good blacksmith to make steel.” By the time, people are still the main force in the translation industry and machine translation stays in an auxiliary position. Human should not rely on machine to do all the works. The translators should improve their competitiveness through sordid multi-lingual knowledge, translation practice as well as stronger learning capacity and so on and so forth. At the same time, translators are also supposed to adopt an embracing attitude to acquire the comouter-aided translation skills. After all, with the further advancement of science and technology, the trend is inevitable. Actually, human translation and machine translation are highly compatible, which can greatly improve the translation efficiency and reduce people’s workload. Thus, the combination of the two methods is highly appreciated and the new type of CAT is bound to become the tide of the future.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> [1]陈谊, 范姣莲. 计算机辅助翻译——新世纪翻译的趋势[J]. 中国现代教育装备, 2018(12).<br /> <br /> [2] 董务刚, 薛家宝. 评许渊冲诗《江雪》[J]. 盐城师专学报, 1996(4).<br /> <br /> [3] 计算机翻译会取代人工翻译吗？[N]. 环球采风, 2020.<br /> <br /> [4] 梁洁. 人工智能对翻译行业的影响[J]. 家庭科技, 2020(10).<br /> <br /> [5] 吕立松, 穆雷.计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[J]. 外语界, 2007, 120(3).<br /> <br /> [6] 庞盈羽. 谈机器翻译与人工翻译的关系—从机器翻译与计算机辅助翻译的发展角度[J]. 科学大众·科学教育, 2019(11).<br /> <br /> [7] 全球百科, https://vibaike.com/<br /> <br /> [8] 吴晟. 湖南省省属普通高校财政拨款体制研究[D]. 湖南师范大学, 2016(3).<br /> <br /> [9] 姚莉. 机器翻译时代，译者应该坚持技能与技术的融合[J]. 科技经济与管理科学, 2020, 28(29).<br /> <br /> [10] 祝朝伟. 机器翻译要取代作为人的译者了吗？—兼谈翻译人才培养中科技与人文的关系[J]. 外国语文(双月刊), 2018(5).<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation 袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi==<br /> <br /> '''浅析汉语公示语的英译'''<br /> <br /> 英语笔译 袁天翼<br /> <br /> 摘 要：在这个经济全球化、政治多极化、文化全球化、科技现代化、信息共享化的时代，全球经济纵深发展，人类命运共同体日趋形成，人与人、国家与国家间的联系日益密切，这时，汉语公示语的英译问题便被提上了议程。尽管中国汉语公示语的英译翻译员越来越多，但是汉语公示语的英译问题层出不穷。本文简析了汉语公示语定义，例举了生活中常见的一些汉语公示语的英译典型问题，并针对此给出了一些翻译方法与策略，并进行了未来展望。<br /> <br /> 关键词：汉英翻译；公示语；翻译策略<br /> <br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> Yuan Tianyi <br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': In this economic globalization, political polarization, cultural globalization, technological modernization and informative sharing age, the global economy is deeply developing, and the human community with a shared future is coming into shape day by day. The relations among people and among countries are increasing day by day. At this time, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation become the topic of us. Though the number of Chinese-English public sign translators in China grows daily, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation emerge endlessly. This passage offers a brief analysis of the definition of Chinese-English public sign, points out some typical problems in Chinese-English public sign translation we see in daily life, analyzes some methods and strategies of Chinese-English public sign translation, and gives some outlooks on the future of Chinese-English public sign translation. <br /> <br /> '''Key Words''': Chinese-English translation; public sign; translation strategies<br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> '''I. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> The public sign is a specially applied literary form that was formed in modern times, which has a long history. It is used in public places and seen by the masses thus realizing unique communicative purposes. The public sign has become a crucial link in the communication between China and other countries in the international community. In the meantime, there are increasingly more experts and scholars paying attention to the translation of Chinese public signs into English. (Reiss, 2004). <br /> <br /> As an important tool for international communication, Chinese-English public sign translation plays an extremely important role in foreign friends’ understanding of Chinese culture（Wang Huili, 2019）. Its applied range is so wide that nearly covers every aspect of our daily life, including: Introductions of tourism trips, propaganda languages, warning languages, road signs, shop signs and advertising boards. It is mostly used on public infrastructure: Subway, airport, taxi, pier, tourist spot, park, street, community, shop, supermarket, restaurant, bank, hotel, cinema, hospital and etc. It uses simple words or sentences, or pictures only, or combines words and pictures to pass useful information to the masses, which not only serves Chinese people, but also is shown to the foreigners, which can help foreigners in China study, work and live. <br /> <br /> '''II. The Current Situation of Chinese-English Public Sign'''<br /> <br /> Public signs are an art of convincing others through effective verbal means, which are also components of language activities. They, in essence, belong to a special kind of communication. However, it is not a kind of face-to-face communication that takes place in a specific period of time, and none of the participants will appear as individuals. The object is for all the people with social behaviors in the place, regardless of gender, age, class or education level. Public signs belong to “one-way communication”, and its binding force or influence will not be as big as direct communication, but it is also used to act with words and deeds, and affects the behavior of the audience with a clear purpose. <br /> <br /> Public signs are everywhere, so what are their functions? Zhou Shuxia (Zhou Shuxia, 2017) thinks that, their functions can be divided into showing, warning, profiting, encouraging and eulogizing such five functions. <br /> <br /> Firstly, the public sign that has showing function offers all-round information about service, order, or informing service. Such as “Car Rental” and “Children and Senior Citizens Free”.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the public sign that has warning function comes up with restrictive or obligatory demands to typical people, which is often used through order, ban, information or persuasion tones. Such as: “Stand in Line” , and “Thieves Beware”. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the public sign that has profiting function promotes consumption, thus realizing enterprises’ economic profits. Such as: “Daily Special”, “Daily Service”. <br /> <br /> Fourthly, the public sign that has encouraging function calls for or encourages people to take actions for certain goals or tasks. Such as: “One Family, One Child”, and “Working together, we can make a world of difference”. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, the public sign that has eulogizing function gives wishes and chants to certain events or people to reach the goals of propaganda or education. Such as: “One World, One Dream”. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (Eugene Nida , 2004) said, Chinese-English translation of public signs embraces the conversion of two different languages and two different cultures, which is not only to achieve the language equivalence, cultural equivalence, but also to enhance the possibility of understanding and the reading of Chinese-English translation of public signs.<br /> <br /> Public signs are the translation with strong humanistic color (Wu Haoxi , 2019). <br /> <br /> However, there are many problems in Chinese-English public sign translation.<br /> <br /> In 2003, Clive W. J. Granger, a Nobel Economics Prize Winner talked of the settings and problems of public signs in Beijing when he was interviewed by a program of Beijing TV Station. He said: “Foreigners will feel a little bit nervous when they come to China, because they can not understand public signs in China. ” Clive’s comment extremely shows current problems in Chinese-English public sign translation (Lv Hefa, 2005). <br /> <br /> On June 20th, 2017, a national standard conference of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service was held in Beijing. The Vice Minister of the Education Ministry and Director of the National Language Commission stressed in the meeting: “The language and character industry of China is expanding from ‘striving to promote and normally use the national common language, scientifically protecting every nation’s language and character’ to ‘managing social foreign language use and improving foreign language service quality’. ” The national standard of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service is the standard of English translation and writing quality in public service fields, which stipulates the English translation principles, methods and requirements of transportation, tourism, culture, entertainment, physical exercise, education, medical health, postal service, telecommunication, catering, accommodation, commerce and finance these thirteen service fields. <br /> <br /> To sum up, there are still many major problems in China’s public sign translation, common and ubiquitous, which make foreign experts comment like that and the government use national force to normalize translation standards. Whether the translation of public signs in scenic spots into English is harmonious and unified has a great influence on cross-cultural communication (Pinkham John, 2000). <br /> <br /> '''III. The Causes of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> '''3. 1 The Basic Linguistic Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> To be a proficient Chinese-English public sign translator, one must, fundamentally, grasp basic linguistic rules of English and Chinese, otherwise he or she must make stupid mistakes, and some even primary learners will not make. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.1<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3684466622,1422277554&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.1 is a public sign put on a glass wall in a mall, the Chinese reads“全年无休(QUAN NIAN WU XIU)”, and it tries to use English to express that “This business runs the whole year”, so the precise translation should be “NO REST DAY ALL YEAR”. But there, we can see it was translated as“365DAY SA TEAR”, which does not belong to the grammatical law of English. So this is a big mistake. Only one who understands Chinese can understand. But for ordinary foreigners, they can not. So, when translating Chinese-English public sign, the translator must be clear about the target language, and know the basic grammatical venation, then begin to translate, instead of randomly putting some letters together and finishing. Otherwise, the translator will make a big mistake like this picture.<br /> <br /> A public sign in Haichang Ocean Park of Chengdu City, Sichuan Province reads &quot;Jellyfish Museum, the 2th floor&quot;. More specifically, it is a floor direction sign. Here, the correct English for the second floor should be “2nd”, not “2th”. Apparently that the translator has poor knowledge of English vocabulary, which led he or she to make such a ridiculous mistake. Actually, in English language, if there is a number contains “11”, “12”or “13”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “11th”, “12th” or “13th” respectively; And if there is a number contains“1”, “2”or “3”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “1st”, “2nd” or “3rd” respectively. For example, “101st”, “111th”, “201st”, “211th” and etc. <br /> <br /> No.3 is a warning sign of a tourist spot, reads &quot;The rockery danger, pleases no climb&quot;, whose Chinese meaning is “There stands a rockery, it is dangerous to climb, every one is forbidden from climbing it. ” The Chinese meaning is alright. But, when it was translated into English, a big mistake occurred: “The rockery danger Pleases no climb.”<br /> <br /> First, there should be “climbing” after “no”, not “climb”, this is just English grammar knowledge that can be learned in primary school; And the “Please” is followed by a “s”, why does the translator use third person singular at the top of a imperative sentence? Second, if the translator wants to tell the tourists that the rockery is dangerous and mustn’t be climbed, he or she should write: “The rockery is dangerous. Please don’t climb” or “Dangerous rockery. No climbing” or just “No climbing”. Unless the foreigners who see this sign have supreme understanding ability, they will not easily make sense of it. <br /> <br /> 3. 2 The Tendency Towards Chinglish and Mechanical Translation<br /> <br /> Knowing a little about English, then begin to translate public sign. This is ridiculous, which is definitely going to cause obvious mistakes. Especially when translating, there is a high probability that the translator will make Chinglish errors, or tend to seek for mechanical translation, which are the most common public sign translation problems in mainland China. With regard to the tendency towards Chinglish, it only proves that the translator’s basic skills of English are not so proficient, and he or she does not fit for translation work. For the tendency towards mechanical translation, on the one hand, it demonstrates that the translator is lazy, who is not willing to think about how to translate. On the other hand, it reveals his or her lack of basic English language knowledge. In fact, these two both can be easily avoided, only if the translator pays a little more attention to it or is earnest and dedicated to their work. All those mistakes should not have been made. <br /> <br /> No.4, this is a sign that is hung in an Internet celebrity milk tea shop: Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province. It reads &quot;out of the cup area&quot;. It originally means that the customers should queue here to get their milk tea after finishing paying. The translator should have easily translated “出杯区（CHU BEI QU）”into “FETCH AREA”, but it was translated as “OUT OF THE CUP AREA”, what a joke! Purely it was translated word-for-word. The translator did not understand its true meaning. Probably it was translated by a machine. As an Internet celebrity milk tea shop runner, when dealing with such kind of cultural issues, he or she should be extremely careful, earnest and cautious, instead of casually simply copying the contents given by a machine or hiring a third-rate translator and asking him or her to randomly translate. Large scale milk tea shops must shoulder their required obligations, and undertake necessary responsibilities and duties on public sign translation. Imagine that a foreigner, who can not understand it, stand there and think: What? Standing here is standing outside the cup? Maybe something interesting would happen. Let me try!<br /> All those will bring big and standing jokes. <br /> <br /> No.5 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province. It reads&quot; tourists get off area&quot;. Its Chinese meaning is: This is the place that tourists get off from a bus. But, it was translated as “Tourists get off area”, which fully shows the ignorance and lack of English language knowledge of the translators. People may can not help doubting whether it is copied from the translation given by a machine. Famous tourist spots like this, especially this kind of 5A tourist spot, can not even shoulder the cultural obligations, let alone developing in the long run. They should make big mistakes in such a little public sign translation! Do they only want to serve Chinese well while ignoring foreigners?<br /> <br /> Similarly, No.6 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province, and it reads &quot;up the mountain&quot;. The Chinese meaning is “This is the passage that leads tourists to climb the mountain”. The translation should have been a very easy and fun job, but when the sign is showed to tourists, a big big joke was born: “Up the mountain”. We can say “uphill way” or “uphill passage”, but, the translator obviously did not realize it. What’s more, when “up” is used as a verb, it is completely another meaning. It is also the symbol of such irresponsible spot management. <br /> <br /> No.7, it is a napkin given by an Internet celebrity milk tea shop (Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province ) for free after buying its milk tea. It reads &quot;more China, more fashion&quot;. At first glance, everything seems okay. But more carefully, we can find the mistake. The Chinese meaning is “If there are more elements with Chinese characteristics, it will be more fashionable.” But when translating, maybe with the aid of machine, or lack of a solid English knowledge foundation, it becomes “More China, more fashion”. If the customer is a Chinese, it does not matter, for he or she can understand it, and just shows a smile. But if foreigners see, they will be pretty shocked by the sight: What the hell is this? They will think that this shop lacks money to hire a good translator, and the managers are stupid. Furthermore, the Chinese national image will be badly affected. In fact, this sentence can be translated as “The more sinicization there is, the more fashion there will be” or “With greater Chinese characteristics come more fashion”. Easier? It can be “More sinicization breeds more fashion”. Translated like these, won’t it be much more correct and intelligible?<br /> <br /> '''3. 3 The Misunderstanding of the Public Sign Translators'''<br /> <br /> It is the little knowledge of English of the translators that makes them can not even spell a basic word correctly; Or due to carelessness, they make mistakes on public sign translation, thus causing mistakes on the meaning of the sign. All these are significant reasons why there are so many mistakes in Chinese-English public signs. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.8.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.8<br /> [https://www.sinaimg.cn/edu/cr/2015/0316/3124267229.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.8. The Chinese meaning of it is “The door or passage that leads you to the outside”, in short, “EXIT”. But the public sign was translated as“EXPORT”, so, what is “EXPORT”? In a word, it means trade among different countries. The commercial goods pass through the customs, being transported from one country to another country. Distinctly, the maker was careless, who has mixed the meaning of “出口（Chu Kou）”in Chinese, thus resulting in an obvious translation error. As for public sign translation, translators must weigh every word, and think over and over and over again, not just search online, and grab all the words you “discover”, which is a highly irresponsible behavior, an extremely irresponsible behavior to the society and the country . <br /> <br /> [[File:No.9.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.9<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4069547043,45136776&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.9 is from a hospital department. Its Chinese meaning is: Here is neurology emergency department. It uses a special logogram in Chinese. But, the maker was misled, so, he or she translated it as “God Medical”. If a person has a little common sense, he or she will be made to laugh wildly. It is completely the “Understanding of a sentence simply by a word”! That should be translated as “ Department of Emergency Neurology”. Such a casual translation will make Christians think that they can see God for real. Whether can he see death here or a way to heaven with a passionate God serving you? To some extent, this is disrespect for Christians, which can even cause disputes. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.10.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.10<br /> [https://ss0.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4055489075,1169617432&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.10 is photographed in a company building. Here, the Chinese means: this is the place where you can get boiled water. However, the translator of this public <br /> sign made a huge mistake, because he or she disintegrated the three Chinese words one by one, and thus translating them one by one, which can not be understood as a whole, let alone enable foreigners to understand the meaning of this public sign, and as a result, foreigners may not receive the service that they deserve. What’s worse, many people, including intelligent Chinese, when seeing this disqualified translation, will definitely be amused, and feel funny: What is this guy’s literate level?<br /> <br /> As a matter of fact, this public sign can be translated as “Boiled Water Room”. “开水”means “boiled water” in English. Certainly, the translator treated the “开”as a verb “open”, which is absolutely wrong. <br /> <br /> Further, this is a single room, not two or more, so we must use “room”, which is the plural form, instead of the singular form “rooms”. <br /> <br /> 3. 4 The Falsification and Loss of Information<br /> <br /> Originally, the managers want to use signs to warn people, but due to mistranslation, the information is tampered and missed, resulting in an opposite consequence, and producing big jokes. <br /> <br /> No.11 is a public warning sign in Liuxiang Barbecue Restaurant. It reads &quot; carefully hot&quot;. Is it a true warning? In the foreigners’ opinion, it is not. People who speak Chinese can realize that this sign was designed to warn customers not to be burned by the hot oven. However, the English translation is far from what it originally means. The correct translation can be “Careful! Hot!” or “Be Careful of the Hot Oven!” But according to the translation on the sign, it means “Carefully burn yourself”. Luckily, this is a small scale restaurant, if it were a large one, its reputation would be badly affected. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.12.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.12<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3765137851,1011242048&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.12 is a public sign in a large shopping center. As we all know, modern shopping centers now always use smooth and shiny tile floor as the ground, which makes the shopping centers look beautiful and attractive. However, smooth though it is, one big safety problem then comes into shape: The ground is too smooth to make shoppers slide and fall. Later, the managers made public signs like No.12 to warn people not to fall. The Chinese warning is okay, Chinese shoppers can understand, but when foreigners see this, he or she will burst out laughing: What? You order me to slide on the floor with care? What on earth do you mean? I have even seen an Internet celebrity girl posting an video clip that tells us a story that satirizes this mistranslation: The girl and her father slide joyfully on the ground in a shopping center while murmuring “Carefully slide! Carefully slide!” As a matter of fact, The correct Chinese-English translation should be “Caution! Slippery!” or “Beware of Wet Floor” or “Caution! Wet Floor”. Each one of the three is okay. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.13.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.13<br /> [https://ss2.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=461657809,3986868053&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.13 is a public sign that is put on the ceiling of a restaurant’s stair. Here, the translator wanted to pass such information by Chinese and English: Watch <br /> your head, do not hit the low ceiling of the stair. Be careful. Though the Chinese information is okay, the English, however, can not by understood by others, especially foreigners. <br /> <br /> Here, the makers wanted to warn the danger of the low ceiling, not to ask people to purposely hit the ceiling. So we can correct it as: “Watch Your Head”, or “Be Careful”. Both are okay. <br /> <br /> Here, the translator made a mistranslation, which reversed the original meaning when translating, thus producing a huge laughingstock. First, “碰”is not “meet”, but “hit”, according to this specific environment. It does not mean “meet someone”. Second, “小心碰头” means not to hit the ceiling, not to “meet carefully”. <br /> <br /> Throughout so many examples, every one can see that the mistakes of public sign translation are ubiquitous and common in daily life, which you can even randomly pick up one from any store you meet. Pervasive errors like these in public signs will negatively affect China’s reform and opening-up and the integration into international community, which will not only make foreigners misunderstand the meaning, but also seriously damage China’s national image. Therefore, the study of the public sign translation is extremely urgent and imperative. At present, translators must start from basic demand of Chinese-English public sign translation, endeavor to learn English well, cultivate a good sense of utilizing English and a great mindset of English utilization, proactively take part in English translation practice, and be highly alert and form a sense of “Using English language in a proper, correct, suitable and decent way”. Only then will the situation of Chinese-English public sign translation turn better. <br /> <br /> IV. Public Sign Translation Methods<br /> <br /> There is a saying goes: “Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards. ” So is the Chinese-English public sign translation. Zhang Yan (Zhang Yan, 2015) maintains in her paper that, the public sign translation methods can be summarized as four kinds. <br /> <br /> '''4. 1 Amplification'''<br /> <br /> Many new words that are with Chinese characteristics, especially combined with numbers, need using amplification to introduce to foreign readers. For example, in the past, “五讲四美三热爱(Wu Jiang Si Mei San Re Ai）”was translated as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves”. Many foreigners said that they could not understand it. Later, it was revised as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves” with the notation “ stress on decorum, manners, hygiene, discipline and morals; beauty of the mind, language, behavior and the environment; love of the motherland, socialism and the Communist Party”. Hence, foreigners can easily understand its connotation. <br /> <br /> '''4. 2 Ellipsis'''<br /> <br /> To make sure that the translation is concise and intelligible, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators must properly delete unnecessary words according to English expressing habits to achieve overall generalization. Such as: “Food Paradise”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 3 Re-translation'''<br /> <br /> Due to cultural differences, many folk adages with Chinese characteristics will not be understood by readers once simply read literally. So translators can moderately reorganize those sentences that can not be translated or understood. Such as: “Drinking and Driving Costs Your Life”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 4 Backward Translation'''<br /> <br /> There are two cases: Translating the cultural expressions that are borrowed from translation back into their original forms in the target language; Translating the expressions with obvious cultural characteristics into the idiomatic expressions in the target language. Such as: “Venus Florist”. <br /> The English public sign has its own cultural and pragmatic meanings. When doing the Chinese-English public sign translation, translators should consider about the cultural differences and avoid any form of ambiguity, misunderstanding or mistranslation, and offer high quality information service, thus making public sign translation advance with the times. <br /> <br /> '''V. Public Sign Translation Strategies'''<br /> <br /> He Xueyun (He Xueyun, 2006) holds in her thesis that, theoretically, semantic translation and communicative translation differ much. Semantic translation strives to keep the language specialty and unique express method of the original work, in order to express the original work’s thinking process; However, communicative translation’s key point lies in spreading information and enabling people to think, feel and act, giving play to the function of information that language conveys and the consequences it causes. Public sign translation must focus on results, and put readers first, only by this can we improve the current situation of public sign translation, thus achieving the purposes of public sign translation. <br /> <br /> Before beginning to do anything, we all need a world view and methodology to guide us to behave well. Likewise, when doing Chinese-English public sign translation, we also need guiding ideology to direct us. Here, I will show you four Chinese-English public sign translation strategies, which act as guiding ideology, which are definitely going to be a powerful weapon for you. Just remember them and practice them, you will gain a lot. <br /> <br /> '''5.1 No Grammatical, Semantic and Logical Error'''<br /> <br /> The most basic prerequisite of public sign translation is that there is no language error: No grammatical error, no vocabulary spelling error, no language context error, no Chinglish or machine-aided translation error. <br /> <br /> “This is office area, tourists mustn’t enter” can be translated as “Staff Only”, not “OFFICE AREA PLEASE DON’T COMING”, or you will make a grammatical and redundant error. “Be careful, don’t slip into water” can be translated as “Caution! Deep Water!” instead of “TAKE CARE! FALL INTO WATER CAREFULLY!” Otherwise, people will can not help laughing. <br /> <br /> One translator was not able to translate “The grass is so beautiful, are you sure you wan to walk on it?” into English public sign, so here comes <br /> “Fangcaoqiqi riding the Heren”. What a laughingstock! This is a combination between Chinese and English, without any grammar structure. Not to translate it will be a much better choice. We can concisely translate it as “Don’t Walk on the Beautiful Grass!”<br /> <br /> '''5. 2 Concise and Intelligible Translation'''<br /> <br /> One prominent character of public sign is conciseness. It asks people to ensure the translation is crystal clear and precise, without any compound or obscure sentence. Only by achieving this can the signs become popularized, instead of making people think over and over and over again to discover their cryptic meaning. <br /> <br /> The public sign translation must be concise and intelligible, which means that you not only need to precisely convey what the maker means to people, but also must be concise. People can understand it immediately without comprehension deviation or ambiguity. <br /> <br /> '''5. 3 Understanding of Cultural Background Differences'''<br /> <br /> When translating, every translator must thoroughly understand the culture of the targeted language. Translators must comprehensively understand each specific use of the targeted language under different cultural backgrounds. If not doing so, it may cause severe disputes, and even cause irresistible outcomes. Here are several examples. <br /> <br /> “Dragon” is a legendary animal in traditional Chinese culture. Chinese people often view themselves as “dragon”, and even say that they are “Descendants of the Dragon”. Thus, “Dragon” means holy and sacred thing in Chinese culture. But in English speaking countries, the meaning of “dragon” is not so. In these countries, “dragon” means something evil like Satan, sometimes it is even used to describe thugs, scoundrels or other bad behaviorists. Therefore, invariably coping the icon of “dragon” and using it in other cultures is a definite mistake. In a word, a public sign language translator must totally comprehend the cultural background differences. <br /> <br /> '''5. 4 Obedience to Certain Norms and Standards'''<br /> <br /> As long as someone is translating, he or she must obey certain rules, norms and standards. He mustn’t translate according to his will. This is a truth. <br /> For example, according to China’s first set of standards on how to regulate the use of foreign languages in China, which was jointly issued by the State Standards Commission and the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine on November 20, 2017 and officially implemented on December 1, 2017, some of the standards have been specified in detail. <br /> <br /> Names of tourist spots: Names of mountains, rivers and lakes should be written in Chinese pinyin. Translations of names of temples should vary according to different situations, so are the towers’ names. In line with external service needs, English explanations can be added. <br /> <br /> '''VI. The Future of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> China is a major powerful country, and is the country with the second highest Gross Domestic Product in the world, which is why China should keep close economic and cultural relationships with other countries. In order to integrate China with international community in a better way, there must be high quality public sign translation. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation must improve the China’s influence power in international community. High quality public sign translation represents that China is rich in translators and intellects, and shows that China can fulfill obligations and shoulder responsibilities as a major country. Achieving this means China not only takes responsibilities for Chinese people, but also for all human beings. Good quality public sign translation is definitely going to significantly synergize the course of reform and opening-up. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation is obliged to facilitate foreigners to travel in China, boost domestic consumption demand, form a new growth point for economy, promote the rise of Gross Domestic Product, and accelerate the comprehensive, coordinated and sustainable development. High quality public sign translation is also an integral part of the New Development Philosophy: Innovation, coordination, green, open and share. High quality public sign translation corresponds to the New Normal of Chinese economy. At present, the economy of China has been changing from developing at a high speed to develop at high quality, and is at the stage of changing economic development mode, transforming driving forces of economic development and optimizing the economic structure, so high quality public sign translation is badly needed. Thus, considering the big change of Chinese economy, achieving high quality public sign translation is an urgent affair. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation has the duty to embody a city’s humanism spirit, cultural speciality and charm, which is the inevitable requirement of core socialist values and system. It also promotes the spreading of Chinese culture, and improves the influence power of Chinese culture. High quality public sign translation also levels up Chinese people and overseas Chinese’s sense of identity and belonging. What’s more, it can narrow the gap between Chinese and foreigners, and acquire more recognition from them towards China. Domestically, high quality public sign translation can strengthen national cohesion; Externally, it will strengthen China’s soft power, and increase China’s international speaking right while creating national radiation power. <br /> It is an important measure to improve China’s public service and governance capability by establishing an evaluation mechanism and promoting the standardization of English translation. It is of great benefit to further improve China’s service level of opening to the outside world, demonstrate its cultural soft power and enhance its international image (Guo Jinghong, 2019). <br /> <br /> In short, looking forward to the future of Chinese-English public sign translation from a strategic perspective, translators must remain true to their original aspiration and keep their mission firmly in mind, which is: To be devoted to the future of socialism with Chinese characteristics, to be dedicated to the landscape of translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and to be committed to the sustainable development of Chinese-English public sign translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics. <br /> <br /> We must treat Chinese-English public sign translation with the point that advances with the times (Tian Guomin, 2019). The English translation of public signs of tourist attractions belongs to the category of cross-cultural communication, and the translator should have certain cross-cultural knowledge and awareness, so that the English translation can be more understood and accepted by the audience and truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication (Yang Hongyu, 2019). The communicative translation theory aims for the target readers (Gutt, 1991). Translation of public signs is a very important task in China with the increasing connection to the outside world (Newmark, 2001). Since reform and opening-up, China has been integrating into the international community day by day. To fully achieve this, as regards of Chinese-English public sign translation, we still have a long way to go. There is no time for us to delay the work of strengthening, proceeding, and improving public sign translation. The rising level of quality of Chinese-English public sign translation will improve both city image and urbanization level. He Xueyun contends in her article that, many people take it for granted that if one knows a foreign language, he then can translate. As a matter of fact, basic skills of public sign translation not only includes foreign language level, but also the knowledge of foreign cultures. <br /> <br /> '''VII. Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> So, how to facilitate the overall development of Chinese-English public sign translation？Firstly, we need to keep pace with the times. Language is constantly changing, so are many words and idioms, and so are public signs. In order to accurately convey information to the audience, it is essential to integrate the latest, most reliable and most accepted language into public signs. Secondly, it is necessary to fully understand the idiomatic usage of public signs, because public signs are mainly aimed at English speakers, so it is necessary to strengthen the accumulation of words, phrases and idioms, which is also the basis of translation. Thirdly, the translators of Chinese-English public signs should use accurate words and phrases in combination with specific environment and objects, and should not fail to convey the meaning or deviate from the original meaning, which otherwise will result in misunderstanding. Of course, only achieving the above is not enough. In order to do a good job in the translation of Chinese-English public signs, we need to keep improving our translation attitude and spirit of study, and constantly improve and summarize and innovate on the basis of the original, so as to make the translation of Chinese-English public signs more perfect and recognized by the international audience. It is very important for the academic community and people from all walks of life to analyze the problems in the application of public signs and put forward corresponding improvement countermeasures (Liu Xiaoping, 2019). <br /> <br /> A Chinese-English public sign translator must fully realize and shoulder the responsibilities that translators must carry, form a sense of community of a shared future, fully acknowledge the current situation of Chinese-English public sign translation, completely learn lessons from the predecessors who have made mistakes in Chinese-English public sign translation, totally implement the four public sign translation strategies I mentioned before, to make Chinese-English public sign translation serve the construction of a moderately prosperous society in all respect, the construction of modern powerful socialist country, the construction of building China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and the realization of the great Chinese dream, that is: the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> [1]Eugene Nida &amp; Charles Taber.（2004） [The Theory and Practice of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [2]Gutt &amp; Ernst, Agust. （1991）[Translation and Relevance: Cognition and Context] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> [3]Newmark, Peter. （2001）[Textbook of Translation] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [4]Pinkham, John.（2000） [The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br /> <br /> [5]Reiss. （2004）[Translation Criticism: the Potentials and Limitations] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br /> <br /> [6]国家标准委.（2017） 公共服务领域英文译写规范<br /> <br /> [7]郭京红.（2019）公示语英译中的错误观点与评价方式 海外英语(23)154-155. <br /> <br /> [8]贺学耘. （2006）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略外语与外语教学,(03)57-59. <br /> <br /> [9]刘小平. （2019）公示语翻译中存在的问题及对策. 凯里学院学报, (04)72-74.<br /> <br /> [10]吕和发. （2005）公示语汉英翻译研究——以2012年奥运会主办城市伦敦为例 北京:中国翻译,(06)38. <br /> <br /> [11]田国民. （2019）谈汉语公示语的英译英语教师(22)110-113. <br /> <br /> [12]王回力. （2019）汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略 延边教育学院学报(05)31-33. <br /> <br /> [13]吴浩熙, 李海红.（2019） 功能对等理论下的公示语翻译及策略 海外英语(20)59-61. <br /> <br /> [14]杨洪玉等.（2019） 旅游景点公共标识语的英文翻译 北京工业职业技术学院学报(04)122-126. <br /> <br /> [15]张焱. （2015）汉英翻译过程中的难译现象处理 北京:中国社会科学出版社(16)44-46<br /> <br /> [16]周树霞. （2017）浅析公示语的汉英翻译 校园英语(42)239-239.<br /> <br /> == A Study of Translation of Movie Titles in the Light of Venuti's Theory 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan==</div>

Mo Ling https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201207_cult&diff=109296 2020-12-09T13:12:41Z

<p>Mo Ling: /* Hu Jin 胡瑾 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Alsied, Saffana==<br /> <br /> ==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> <br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> <br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> <br /> ==Dashkin, Gennadii==<br /> <br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> <br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> <br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> <br /> ==Grosheva, Anna==<br /> <br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> <br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> <br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> <br /> ==Guirou, Barthelemy==<br /> <br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> <br /> 1.禅宗主张因材施教。它除了要对信徒给予面对面的传教说法之外，还要通过一些动作以及手势来教导信徒。这些特点都让禅宗能够避免走进教条主义以及形式主义等不好的方向，也因此能够长久地在民间得到发展和深入。<br /> <br /> Zen Buddhism prefers teaching people according to his or her ability. In addition to giving face-to-face instruction to its adherents, it also teaches through gestures. All these characteristics have enabled Zen to avoid going in the wrong direction of dogmatism and formalism, so as to develop and deepen its popularity in the long run.<br /> <br /> Zen Buddhism advocates teaching according to the ability of the student. In addition to giving face-to-face instruction, it also teaches through gestures and gestures to its followers. These characteristics allow Zen to avoid going in the bad direction of dogmatism and formalism, and thus to develop and deepen its popularity in the long run.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.道教理论的最普遍图形表示就是阴和阳循环的圆形图像。它代表了宇宙中相反事物的平衡关系。当它们都平等地呈现出来，所有一切都会平静。当其中一个超过另一个的时候，就会出现混淆和混乱。阴和阳是信徒追随的原型，有助于让个人去凝视他或她的生命状态。<br /> <br /> The most common graphic representation of Taoist theology is the circular Yin Yang figure. It represents the balance of opposites in the universe. When they are equally present, all is calm. When one is outweighed by the other, there is confusion and disarray. The Yin and Yang are a model that the faithful follow, an aid that allows each person to contemplate the state of his or her lives.<br /> <br /> The most universal graphic representation of Taoist theory is the circular image of the yin and yang cycles. It represents the balance of opposite things in the universe. When they are all equally represented, all is calm. When one outweighs the other, there is confusion and chaos. The yin and the yang are archetypes followed by the devotee, helping the individual to gaze at his or her life state.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.伊斯兰教是世界三大宗教之一，伊斯兰教世界的国家遍布亚、非两个大洲，总体算来也有大约五十个。此外，在各大洲很多国家里都有信仰伊斯兰教的人民（穆斯林）。这些国家包括一些西方国家诸如英、美、俄、法、德等国家。<br /> <br /> Islam is one of the three major religions in the world, it covers Asia and Africa with about fifty Islamic countries. In addition, there are many countries in the world that have people who believe in Islam (Muslim). These countries include some western countries, such as the UK, the US, Russia, France and Germany.<br /> <br /> Islam is one of the three major religions of the world, and the countries of the Islamic world are spread over two continents, Asia and Africa, and there are about fifty countries in total. In addition, Islam is practiced by people (Muslims) in many countries on all continents. These countries include some Western countries such as the United Kingdom, the United States, Russia, France, and Germany.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.基督教对西方文明产生了非常大的影响。自由、平等、博爱为中心的人文主义传统，使得“生而平等”观点深入人心，成为《独立宣言》《人权宣言》 中的核心，成为后来西方民主政治的- -种长远的精神推动力。<br /> <br /> Christianity had a profound impact on Western civilization. Its humanist tradition, which focused on freedom，equality and fraternity, made the idea of &quot;born equal&quot; popular in the world. It not only became the core of &quot;Declaration of Independence&quot; and &quot;Declaration of Human Rights&quot;，but also a long-term spiritual driving force of the Western democracy.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:47, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Christianity has had a great influence on Western civilization. The humanist tradition centered on freedom, equality, and fraternity made the idea of &quot;all men are created equal&quot; deeply rooted in people's hearts, and became the core of the Declaration of Independence and the Declaration of Human Rights, as well as the long-term spiritual impetus for Western democratic politics.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==<br /> <br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> <br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> <br /> 1. 道教理论的最普遍图形表示就是阴和阳循环的圆形图像。它代表了宇宙中相反事物的平衡关系。当它们都平等地呈现出来。所有一切都会平静。当其中一个超过另一个的时候，就会出现混淆和混乱。阴和阳是信徒追随的原型，有助于让一个人去凝视他或她的生命状态。<br /> <br /> 1. The most common graphic representation of Taoist theology is the circular Yin Yang figure. It represents the balance of opposites in the universe. When they are equally present, all is calm. When one is outweighed by the other, there is confusion and disarray. The Yin and Yang are a model that the faithfull follow, an aid that allows each person to contemplate the state of his or her lives.<br /> <br /> 2. 佛教与基督教、伊斯兰教并称的世界三大宗教之一。公元前6世纪至前5世纪，释迦牟尼创建于古印度。以后广泛传播于亚洲及世界各地，对许多国家的社会政治和文化生活产生过重大影响。<br /> <br /> 2. Buddhism, together with Christianity and Islam, is one of the three major religions in the world. Sakyamuni founded it in ancient India from the 6th century BC to the 5th century BC. After that, it was widely spread in Asia and all over the world, and had a great influence on the social, political and cultural life of many countries.<br /> <br /> 2. 佛教是与基督教、伊斯兰教并称的世界三大宗教之一。在公元前6世纪至前5世纪由释迦牟尼创建于古印度，之后广泛传播于亚洲及世界各地，对许多国家的社会、政治和文化生活产生过重大影响。<br /> <br /> Buddhism, enjoying equal popularity with Christianity and Islam, is one of the three major religions in the world. Sakyamuni founded it in ancient India from the 6th century BC to the 5th century BC. After that, it was widely spread in Asia and all over the world, making a great impact on the social, political and cultural life of many countries.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 13:12, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> <br /> 3. 伊斯兰教的名字来源于阿拉伯语的音译。它的本义是服从，它的信徒叫穆斯林。伊斯兰教成立于7世纪初，是世界三大宗教之一。<br /> <br /> 3. The name of Islam derives from the transliteration in Arabic. Its original meaning is obedience, and its believers are called muslem. Islamism was established at the beginning of the 7th century and ranked one of three major religions in the world. <br /> <br /> 4. 基督教是亚伯拉罕的一神论宗教，以耶稣基督的生活和教义为基础，如新约中所述。基督教是世界上最大的宗教，有超过24亿信徒，被称为基督徒。基督徒相信耶稣是上帝的儿子，是人类的救世主，他作为基督或弥赛亚的到来在旧约中被预言。<br /> <br /> 4. Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ as presented in the New Testament. Christianity is the world's largest religion, with over 2.4 billion adherents, known as Christians. Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as Christ or the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 09:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> <br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> <br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> <br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> <br /> 1.佛教传播到每一个地区以后，由于受到当地社会、政治、文化的影响，形式和内容都有相应的变化，形成许多宗派。<br /> <br /> Due to local social, political, and cultural influences, the form and content of Buddhism will change accordingly when spread to every region, resulting in the formation of many sects.<br /> <br /> 2.新中国成立后，通过宗教制度民主改革，中国道教获得了新生，逐渐走上了与社会主义社会相适应的道路。改革开放以来，在党和政府宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象，为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。<br /> <br /> After the founding of People’s Republic of China, Chinese Taoism was reborn through democratic reforms of religious system, and gradually embarked on a path compatible with the socialist society. Since the reform and opening up, Chinese Taoism has taken on an unprecedented new look thanks to religious policies carried out by Chinese Communist Party and the government, which has made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, national reunification and world peace.<br /> <br /> 3.伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br /> <br /> Islam has developed from a single -ethnic religion in Arab region to a multi-ethnic one in the world,which is a result of the wide spread of Islam of Islamic states in Arab in many ways, such as continuous expansion, trade and cultural exchange and the dispatch of missionaries all over the world.<br /> <br /> 4.历史上的教会以信经、信条等多种形式对基督教的基本教义作出了很多精要的概括,也被今天研究教义学的学者视为教义的渊源。此外，神学家们企图结合其时代的观念阐释和辨明基督教的信仰要理。<br /> <br /> The churches in history have provided many concise summaries of the basic doctrine of Christianity in the form of creed, tenet, etc., which are considered the origin of doctrine by today's scholars of dogmatics.What’s more, theologians have attempted to elucidate and discern the essentials of the belief in Christianity combing with the concepts of their time.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:34, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> 1、创始人释迦牟尼生于今尼泊尔境内的蓝毗尼，是释迦族的一个王子。关于他的生卒年，在南、北传佛教中，至今仍有种种不同的说法，一般认为生于公元前6至前5世纪间。他在青少年时即感到人世变幻无常，深思解脱人生苦难之道。29岁出家修行。得道成佛。<br /> <br /> The founder, Sakyamuni, was born in Lumbini in present-day Nepal and was a prince of the Sakya tribe. There are still different theories about his birth and death dates in Northern and Southern Buddhism, but it is generally believed that he was born between the 6th and 5th centuries BC. At the age of 29, he became a monk and practiced Buddhism. He became a monk and became a Buddha.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:16, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2、解放前的道教中充满着浓厚的封建气息，对广大道教徒进行爱国主义教育，改革宫观封建经济，废除道教中的封建残余，与反动会道门划清界限，成为道教在新中国面临的重大任务。<br /> 新中国成立后，广大道教徒拥护社会主义制度，拥护共产党的领导。<br /> <br /> Before the liberation of the People's Republic of China (PRC), Taoism was full of feudalism. It was a major task for Taoists in the new PRC to educate themselves about patriotism, reform the feudal economy of the palaces, abolish the feudal remnants of Taoism, and clear the boundaries with the reactionary Taoists.<br /> Since the founding of New China, the majority of Taoists have embraced the socialist system and the leadership of the Communist Party.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:16, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3、伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br /> <br /> The development of Islam from a mono-ethnic religion in the Arab region to a multi-ethnic religion in the world is the result of the spread of Islam in Arab countries through expansion, trade, cultural exchange, and sending missionaries to all parts of the world.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:16, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Developing from a single ethnic religion in the Arab region, Islam finally became a multi-ethnic religion in the world, which was the result of the extensive spread of Arab Islamic countries through foreign expansion, business contacts, cultural exchanges, and the dispatch of missionaries to all over the world.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:43, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4、基督教一般认为，其基本教义都是出自于《圣经》。历史上的教会以信经、信条、认信文等多种形式对基督教的基本教义作出了很多精要的概括,也被今天研究教义学的学者视为教义的渊源。此外，历代神学家企图结合其时代的观念阐释和辨明基督教的信仰要理。<br /> <br /> Christianity is generally believed to derive its basic doctrines from the Bible. The historical church has provided many concise summaries of the basic doctrines of Christianity in the form of creeds, epistles, confessions, and other forms, which are also regarded as sources of doctrine by scholars of doctrine today. In addition, theologians throughout the ages have attempted to explain and discern the essentials of the Christian faith in light of the concepts of their time.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:16, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> <br /> ==Lo, Minh Thao==<br /> <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> <br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> <br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> <br /> 1.佛事仪式原是释迦时代所行的宗教活动，传到中国后演变为满足信众需求的经忏、佛事活动。主要有各种忏法、水陆法会、盂兰盆会、焰口等。<br /> <br /> The Buddhist ceremony was originally a religious activity in the Sakyamuni era. After it was introduced to China, it evolved into a Buddhist activity to meet the needs of believers. The main activities include repentance rituals, water and land assembly, Yulan ceremony, Yankou, etc.<br /> <br /> 2.后经魏晋南北朝数百年的改造发展，道教的经典教义、修持方术、科戒仪范渐趋完备，新兴道派滋生繁衍，并得到统治者的承认，演变为成熟的正统宗教。<br /> <br /> After hundreds of years of transformation and development in the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties, the classic doctrines, practicing methods, discipline and etiquette of Taoism became more and more complete, and the new Taoism school emerged and prospered, which was recognized by the rulers, and evolved into a mature orthodox religion.<br /> <br /> 3.伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br /> <br /> The development of Islam from the religion of a single nation in the Arab region to a religion of multi-ethnic beliefs in the world is the result of the extensive spread of the Arab Islamic countries through various channels, such as continuous expansion, business exchanges, cultural exchanges, and the dispatch of missionaries to all over the world.<br /> <br /> 4.基督教作为一神论的特色是基督教的神是“三位一体”的神，同一个上帝具有三个位格：圣父、圣子和圣灵。<br /> <br /> The characteristic of Christianity as monotheism is that the God of Christianity is &quot;Trinity&quot; God, and a single God has three personalities: the Father,the Son and the Holy Ghost.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 13:04, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br /> <br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> <br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> <br /> ==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br /> 1-一种源自Siddhārtha Gotama教义的东亚和中亚宗教，苦难是生活中固有的，可以通过培养智慧，美德和专注力来摆脱苦难。<br /> <br /> A religion of eastern and central Asia growing out of the teaching of Siddhārtha Gautama that suffering is inherent in life and that one can be liberated from it by cultivating wisdom, virtue, and concentration.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 12:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> 2-道教或道教是中国血统的哲学传统，强调与道家和谐相处。道是大多数中国哲学流派的基本思想。然而，在道教中，它表示的原则是存在的一切的来源，模式和实质。<br /> <br /> Taoism, or Daoism, is a philosophical tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao. The Tao is a fundamental idea in most Chinese philosophical schools; in Taoism, however, it denotes the principle that is the source, pattern and substance of everything that exists.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 12:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> 3-伊斯兰教是一种亚伯拉罕式的一神教，教导人们穆罕默德是上帝的最终和最终的使者。它是世界上第二大宗教，有18亿追随者，占世界人口的24.1％，被称为穆斯林。穆斯林占49个国家人口的绝大多数。<br /> <br /> Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion teaching that Muhammad is the final and ultimate messenger of God. It is the world's second-largest religion with 1.8 billion followers or 24.1% of the world's population, known as Muslims. Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries. --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 12:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> Islam, as an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, teaches people that Muhammad is the ultimate messenger of God. As the world's second-largest religion, it has 1.8 billion followers, accounting for 24.1% of the world's population, known as Muslims. Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:51, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4-基督教是一种拿撒勒人耶稣的生活和教导为基础的亚伯拉罕一神教。它的信徒被称为基督徒，他们相信耶稣是基督，弥赛亚的到来是在希伯来圣经中被预言的，该圣经在基督教中被称为旧约，并在新约中被记载。<br /> <br /> Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. Its adherents, known as Christians, believe that Jesus is the Christ, whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Hebrew Bible, called the Old Testament in Christianity, and chronicled in the New Testament.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 12:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br /> <br /> ==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br /> <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> <br /> ==Rajabov, Anushervon==<br /> <br /> ==Seydou, Sagara==<br /> <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> <br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> <br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> <br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> 1.佛教的宇宙观是缘起论，即它认为--切事物都是因缘合和而起的。就认识问题而言，佛教认为，认识的成立必须具备三个因素:认识的器官或机能(根)、客观的对象(境)和主观的认识。<br /> <br /> Buddhism's world outlook is the theory of origin, that is, it believes that everything is the cause and effect.In terms of cognition, Buddhism believes that there must be three factors for the establishment of cognition: the organ or function of cognition (root), objective object (context) and subjective cognition.<br /> <br /> 2.伊斯兰国家：是指在全国总人口中大部分人都信奉伊斯兰教的国家。据有关资料介绍，在全世界180多个国家中，有69个伊斯兰国家，占全世界国家总数三分之一以上。<br /> <br /> A country in which the majority of the population of the country believes in Islam.According to relevant information, there are 69 Islamic countries out of more than 180 countries in the world, accounting for more than one third of the total number of countries in the world.<br /> <br /> 3.基督教信仰的对象为上帝，上帝(天主)是基督教的最高神。基督教宣称上帝是天地的主宰，是天地万物的唯一创造者。上帝虽然只有一个，但包括圣父、圣子、圣灵三个位格，三位一体，同受拜敬。<br /> <br /> The object of a Christian belief is God, the supreme God of Christianity.Christianity claims that God is the master of heaven and earth and the sole creator of all things.Although God has only one, it includes the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.<br /> <br /> 4.道教是中国土生土长的宗教，它的理论广泛容纳了中国古代社会的宗教意识和学术思想，是古代宗教、民间巫术、神仙方术、阴阳五行及道家思想等汇聚、融合的产物，带着鲜明的中国特色。<br /> <br /> Taoism is a religion born and bred in China . Its theory widely contains the religious consciousness and academic thought of ancient Chinese society . It is the product of the convergence and fusion of ancient religion, folk witchcraft, celestial magic, yin and yang, five elements and Taoist thought.--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 11:53, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> <br /> 佛教传播到每一个地区以后，由于受到当地社会、政治、文化的影响，形式和内容都有相应的变化，形成许多宗派。<br /> <br /> After the spread of Buddhism to every part of the world, due to the locally social, political and cultural influence, its form and content have changed accordingly, thus giving birth to many sects.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 明清两代，随着中国封建社会进入晚期，道教发展陷入停滞僵化。近代中国道教承明清余绪，除个别时期，一直处于低谷。<br /> <br /> In the Ming and Qing dynasties, with the entering of the late period of feudal society in China, the development of Taoism stagnated and ossified. Taoism in modern China, inheriting fruit in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, except for a few periods, has been at a low ebb.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br /> <br /> Developing from a single ethnic religion in the Arab region, Islam finally became a multi-ethnic religion in the world, which was the result of the extensive spread of Arab Islamic countries through foreign expansion, business contacts, cultural exchanges, and the dispatch of missionaries to all over the world.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 基督教一般认为，其基本教义都是出自于《圣经》。历史上的教会以信经、认信文等多种形式对基督教的基本教义作出了很多精要的概括,也被今天研究教义学的学者视为教义的渊源。<br /> <br /> It is generally believed in Christianity that its basic teachings derived from the Bible. The church in history has made many essential summaries of the basic doctrines of Christianity in various forms, such as creed and epistles, which are also regarded as the source of the doctrines by scholars studying the doctrines today.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is generally believed in Christianity that its basic teachings derived from the ''Bible''. The churches in history have made many summaries of the basic doctrines of Christianity in various forms, such as creed and epistles, which are also regarded as the source of the doctrines studyed today.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:50, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> <br /> 1.佛教传播到每一个地区以后，由于受到当地社会、政治、文化的影响，形式和内容都有相应的变化，形成许多宗派。<br /> <br /> After Buddhism spread to each region, due to local social, political, and cultural influences, there were corresponding changes in form and content, resulting in the formation of many sects.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:54, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After Buddhism spread to every region, due to the influence of local society, politics, and culture, the form and content have changed accordingly, forming many sects.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.改革开放以来，在党和政府新时期宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象，为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。<br /> <br /> Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the party and government’s religious policies in the new era, Taoism in China has shown an unprecedented new atmosphere, and has made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, the reunification of the motherland and world peace.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:54, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the Party and government's new religious policy, Chinese Taoism has taken on an unprecedented new look, making positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, the unification of the motherland, and world peace.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br /> <br /> Islam has developed from a regional single-ethnic religion in the Arab region to a religion of multi-ethnic beliefs in the world. It is widely spread by Arab Islamic countries through continuous expansion, business exchanges, cultural exchanges, and missions to the world. the result of.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:54, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The development of Islam from a mono-ethnic religion in the Arab region to a multi-ethnic religion in the world is the result of the spread of Islam in Arab countries through expansion, trade, cultural exchange, and sending missionaries to all parts of the world.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.虽然耶稣基督所建立的是一个合一的基督教会,但基督教在历史进程中却分化为许多派别，2013年全世界范围当中有超过一万个基督教派，主流的派别主要有天主教、基督新教、东正教三大传统教派，以及一些在信仰人数上虽不如传统教派多，但也有了相当的规模的非传统教派，如:摩门教。<br /> <br /> Although Jesus Christ established a united Christian church, Christianity has divided into many sects in the course of history. In 2013, there were more than 10,000 Christian sects worldwide. The mainstream sects are mainly Catholicism, Protestantism, The three traditional sects of Eastern Orthodox Church, and some non-traditional sects that are not as large as traditional sects in the number of believers, such as Mormonism.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:54, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Although Jesus Christ established a unified Christian Church, Christianity has been divided into many denominations over the course of history; in 2013 there were more than 10,000 Christian denominations worldwide, with the dominant denominations being the three traditional denominations of Catholicism, Protestantism, and Orthodoxy, as well as some non-traditional denominations that are not as numerous as the traditional denominations, but have grown in size, such as Mormonism. --[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> 1.佛教中国本土化在隋唐时期已初步完成，而儒、释、道三教的合流则在两宋时期。<br /> <br /> The localization of Buddhism in China has preliminarily finished in the Sui and Tang Dynasties, while the confluence of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism was in the Song Dynasty.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> 2.改革开放以来，在党和政府新时期宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象，为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of religious policy published by party and government in the new era, China’s Daoism has emerged an unprecedented new look since the reform and opening-up. It made positive contribution to promoting economic development, harmonious society, national unity and world peace.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.伊斯兰教是科学的宗教，它鼓励人们通过真科学对宇宙、世界进行认识和思考，从而使信仰更加坚固。<br /> <br /> Islam, as a scientific religion, encourages people to understand and reflect on the universe and the world through authentic science, making the belief more stable.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.在基督教早期阶段，教会曾实行财产共有，外界视其为一种秘密性的宗教组织。<br /> In the early stage of Christianity, the church ever implemented the policy of common ownership. However, the outside world regarded it as a secret religious organization.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> <br /> 1.佛教于公元前6世纪至前5世纪，释迦牟尼创建于古印度，以后广泛传播于亚洲及世界各地，对许多国家的社会政治和文化生活产生过重大影响。<br /> <br /> Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama in ancient India between the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. It spread widely throughout Asia and the rest of the world, and had a significant impact on the socio-political and cultural life of many countries.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Buddhism was founded in ancient India from the 6th century BC to the 5th century BC by Siddhartha Gautama. After that, it spread widely in Asia and all over the world, and had a significant impact on the social, political and cultural life of many countries.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:12, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.道教是一种多神教，沿袭了中国古代对于日月、星辰、河海山岳以及祖先亡灵都奉祖的信仰习惯，形成了一个包括天神、地祗和人鬼的复杂的神灵系统。<br /> <br /> Taoism is a polytheistic religion, inheriting the ancient Chinese belief in the sun, moon, stars, rivers, oceans and mountains, as well as the spirits of ancestors and the dead, and has formed a complex system of gods and spirits, including the gods of heaven, earth, humans and ghosts.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.伊斯兰教由阿拉伯地区性单一民族的宗教发展成世界性的多民族信仰的宗教，是阿拉伯伊斯兰国家通过不断对外扩张、经商交往、文化交流、向世界各地派出传教士等多种途径而得到广泛传播的结果。<br /> <br /> The development of Islam from a mono-ethnic religion in the Arab region to a multi-ethnic religion in the world is the result of the spread of Islam in Arab countries through expansion, trade, cultural exchange, and sending missionaries to all parts of the world.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Islam has developed from a regional single-ethnic religion in the Arab region to a religion of multi-ethnic beliefs in the world. It is widely spread by Arab Islamic countries through continuous expansion, business exchanges, cultural exchanges, and missions to the world. the result of.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:12, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4.基督教文化是一种以基督教为其存在基础和凝聚精神的文化形态，包括其崇拜上帝和耶稣基督的宗教信仰体系，以及相关的精神价值和道德伦理观念。<br /> <br /> Christian culture is a cultural form that has Christianity as its foundation and unifying spirit, including its religious belief system of worshipping God and Jesus Christ, as well as the related spiritual values and moral and ethical concepts.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Christian culture is a cultural form that takes Christianity as its basis of existence and a cohesive spirit, including its religious belief system of worshiping God and Jesus Christ, as well as related spiritual values and moral and ethical concepts.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:12, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> ==Zubareva, Ekaterina==</div>

Mo Ling